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why can i imagine people saying things i've never heard them say? | for the same reason that you can come up with novel sentences. your mind has the ability to generate new sentences and words from the words and morphemes (pieces of words that bear meaning themselves) that you already know. you also have the memory of people you've met and have stored their voice patterns in your memory. [robert port has written on just how much we store](_url_0_). so between the creative abilities of your mind and the details of your memory, you can imagine the production of novel sentences by people other than yourself. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cs.indiana.edu/~port/HDphonol/HDphonology.html"
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|
what is the margin of error in across the billiards shot list for anything from an easy to difficult shot? | as the title says i want to know the amount of room for human error there is in various shots you would make in a game of pool/billiards. | speaking as a pool player: for professional players, the margin for most common shots is < .5%. i'm basing this on their ability to run drills, as well as the high run numbers in straight pool (400-500 shots in a row, including difficult break shots), where a good number of those shots are difficult and require good positioning. now, of course in any game, there are going to be situations where the shot is more difficult, and those can range anywhere from 1% - 99%. a big part of the game is the player picking shots he is comfortable with, so called "high percentage shots". a good player is balancing shooting a 60% shot that leaves the player in a better position than another available 80% shot.... many factors go into this. sometimes, without options, a player takes a 10% shot. in terms of the amount of human error, that can easily be 100%. a slight twitch in any muscle can easily cause any shot to fail. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we see white dots in the overlapping of black lines? | i looked at my 5x5x5 rubik's cube today and noticed a weird illusion of white dots where the black lines "overlap." [here's what i saw](_url_0_) (the image is pretty big, zooming out might help you see it). i don't understand why our brain does this or what is really happening, it must be for a reason, right? | that's an example of the [hermann grid illusion](_url_0_). you'll notice that you don't see a white dot at the intersection you're directly looking at, but do see white dots at the intersections in the periphery. the simplest explanation [(though some argue not the correct one)](_url_2_) is that the receptive fields of the ganglion cells in the fovea of the retina are small enough to fit in the intersection and not have their output reduced by lateral inhibition from the grid lines. however, in the periphery the receptive fields are larger and the grid lines fall in the suppressive region of the cells receptive field just off the intersection more than cells with receptive fields at the intersection. therefore, the cells with receptive fields at the intersections respond with a greater firing rate and we perceive a brighter region of space. [here's](_url_3_) a nice visual to explain this. note that many variations of this illusion have been explored and the simple story may not hold water, but the experiments and their interpretations are a bit deeper into the hole that someone else might like to tackle. edit: found an awesome compilation of alternative experiments and interpretations: [peter schiller's lab](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/jen7rdE.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_illusion#Hermann_grid_illusion",
"http://web.mit.edu/bcs/schillerlab/research/A-Vision/A15-2.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16355743",
"http://www.yorku.ca/eye/hermann1.htm"
] | [
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how are fonts stored and implemented? | two part question: **stored:** how are fonts stored? i was looking through windows font file and saw the fonts are stored in .ttf and .fon files (maybe others), i would like to know (just a general concept) of how each character is stored (e.g. is it an image?). **implemented:** how are the individual characters displayed? i would like to know how each character is displayed (an example of characters in question are these). e.g. as i am typing this sentence, on a lower level, is the computer adding quads with textures to for the sentence? thank you for your time. | stored: fonts are very similar to vector graphics. this means that instead of an image, which has fixed proportions, a font is a description of how to draw an image. this allows you to scale fonts without pixelation. an instruction to create a font is a lot like "draw a straight line x units high and y units wide, then draw a circle next to it x units in diameter." it is not an image. implementation: a font file is simply a look-up table with instructions on how to create the character. your processor (word processor, application, whatever) simply interprets the input and looks up how to draw that particular character to the screen in the specified font. the computer is not adding textures to an image and re-rendering the image with each letter change. some graphics implementations, like game engines, require everything to be a texture, we'll create font maps, which translate the instructions into a fixed image. this is why lettering inside games often looks pixelated, but the lettering in your word processor is always sharp. hope that helps. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the proper medical term for generalized neurotransmitter insufficiency disorder? | [removed] | that sounds like it would be the proper medical term. neurotransmittor disorders are usually called precisely that, neurotransmittor disorder. do you mean ”generalized” as in a disorder affecting every neurotransmittor or that you’re asking for the general name of such disorders? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about the pillars of creation.? | i would guess that there is a more fitting sub to put this in but it is still science. i was looking on the scale of the universe website and then i saw the pillars of creation _url_0_ and it said that it is 7000 light years away but evidence shows that it was destroyed about 6000 light years away so 1000 more years until we see it. my question is how can there be evidence of when it was destroyed if light has not reached us thus no information has? | i take pictures of a row of dominoes every 5 minutes and show them to you. on 1 picture you notice that a domino was pushed and is falling down towards the others. now, can you make a fairly reasonable prediction of the state of the dominoes? yes. you know that the next picture will show them all fallen. it's the same principle with the pillars of creation. astronomers have noticed indications (the falling domino) of a supernova ~~stars which have formed~~. they have calculated how much time it would take the pillars to be destroyed after these events and they know how long ago the events occurred. | 15 | [] | [
"http://puu.sh/hNps4/26dda02959.jpg"
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have scientists or engineers figured out how to control light/photons in any way? | have we learned enough about the properties to actually control its movements after a certain distance? | we have enormous control over photons. we can create them (light bulb), redirect them (mirror), absorb them (black objects), turn them into different kinds of photons (fluorescence), use them to generate electric current (photovoltaics). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2001/01.24/01-stoplight.html"
] | [
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questions from a science teacher about a topic | a good video showing precession and nutation in s a simple system is here: _url_2_ you can construct a similar demo with a bicycle wheel -- see, for example, _url_1_ starting at about 0:25. (though friction kicks in by the end of the video) or the video at _url_0_ nutation does not cause precession. as you'll see in these videos, precession is what occurs when the axis of rotation moves around, so the tip of some axis, say, traces out a circle. nutation is when this axis of rotation oscillates around the simple precessional path, i.e., so that the tip of that axis oscillates around the would-be circular path of pure precession. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LrTw7EdyW9A",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8H98BgRzpOM",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hVKz9G3YXiwA"
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|
plasma balls? | hi...i am 12 years old, a seventh grader, i really like science, and am using my dad's account. i have a science question and he said you people would be able to answer it. thank you for helping! so, here goes: if you have a plasma ball and you put your hand directly on top of the ball, a string of plasma connects to your hand. this string of plasma is consistent on your hand (it doesn't move around or break apart very much) if you put your hand on the side of the plasma ball, a string of plasma connects to your hand, like before. the difference is that this string of plasma is not consistent. it moves all around your hand and continuously snaps back to your palm before moving around again. i was wondering why this happens. thank you! | hey there! great question. while this is not my area of expertise, and since no one else has given you an answer yet, i'll give you a few possibilities. so it seems that there is something special about the top of the ball. the question is what makes the "top" so special? when we say "top" there are at least two different things i can think of that we may be describing that are important to separate. "top" can mean: - the point furthest away from the ground. opposite the direction that gravity pulls. or - the point furthest away from the base of the machine. so what you need to do, if you can, is try to turn the plasma ball on its side and test these two cases and see if either give you this special behavior. let me know how it goes and we can maybe figure out what is going on. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible to contract creutzfeldt-jakob disease ( cjd ) from formalin fixed brain tissue? | this is a very specific questions but i'm trying to clear up some gaps i've found while researching cjd exposure and the possible means of infection. i have researched the guidelines issued by the [cdc](_url_1_) and [who]( _url_0_) regarding how to collect, deactivate, and process possible cjd positive tissue. what i'm unsure of is what are the possible methods of contracting cjd if these processes were not followed and what are the likelihoods of infection. i'm specifically asking about formalin-fixed brain tissue as well as wax blocks or slides of brain sections. i would really appreciate any insight into this topic or any recommended research on the subject. | _url_0_ basically, it says that "prions are generally quite resistant to proteases, heat, radiation, and formalin treatments, although their infectivity can be reduced by such treatments." i think that, unless you plan to *eat* the brain tissue, you will be fine. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs180/en/",
"http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/cjd/qa_cjd_infection_control.htm"
] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306452206005100"
] | [
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how does marijuana/thc effect sleep architecture? | how does marijuana/thc effect sleep architecture? | this is less well understood than with alcohol, primarily because alcohol is alcohol is alcohol, whereas all marijuana is not the same (it also hasn't been as well researched). there are dozens of cannabinoids, each of which are in different concentrations in different strains and preparation of cannabis, and each of which impact the brain/body differently. however, in general, cannabis has been associated with a reduction in rem duration, as well as showing changes in the brain wave patterns exhibited during rem. | 172 | [] | [] | [] | [
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time dilation from the perspective of a muon? | hello everyone. i've been trying to wrap my head around this fully for the past couple of days, but i haven't found a clear answer on this specifically. in regards to time dilation,we know that on earth, we observe a much longer lifetime for the muon than they do, with their proper time being around 2.2 us. from the muon perspective, though, shouldn't it also see us as being slower as well? mathmatically, would it observe a time dilation of t/gamma^2, where t is the original measured time by a a stationary observer on the earth? if not, what am i missing, as i am still struggling with this. | it is not about perception, but about the spacetime intervals between events. take two events, a) the muon is created in the upper atmosphere at point **r_a** at time t_a and b) the muon is detected at the surface at point **r_b** at time t_b. the phrase "we observe a longer lifetime" simply means that the elapsed time in the muon frame of reference is shorter because of time dilation. you could also argue that for the muon the atmosphere is lorentz contracted to be much thinner, so it can traverse it before decaying. either way, you find that the two events a and b will happen, the rest is "interpretation". if we had evolved in world where relativistic effects have a bearing on our everyday lives (when throwing rocks or jumping off trees etc.), we'd never think to confuse the spacetime distance between events a and b with either the time or the spatial distance alone. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/MUsAtRa.png"
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is there a general function to find the shortest distance from a point to some arbitrary function, f(x)? | i am assuming cartesian coordinate system, although any other semi-standard system like polar, spherical, or cylindrical would also work. you can make the assumption of 2 dimensions if you would like, but i want to somehow get it to be in arbitrary dimension. but basically i am asking, if i have some point (x,y), what is the shortest distance from that point to the function y=f(x). thanks! | the euclidian distance between point (x,y) and (x',f(x')) is sqrt( (x'-x)^2 + (f(x') - y)^2 ). take the derivative of this function with respect to x' and look for zeroes to find a minimum. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_multiplier"
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[medicine] the norovirus strikes cruise ships again. what is the root cause/source of the contamination? is it something that grows in spoiled food? | i spent some time today reading various articles about the norovirus and they all do a good job of explaining the symptoms, the lack of treatment options, the important of hydration and how hard to kill the buggers are. they also talk about how the infection can easily spread from a person infected to others. also if an infected person handles food after its cooked . from my simplistic way of thinking there has to be a original infection vector. somehow patient zero needs to pick it up. otherwise i guess the theory is that in a population of lets say 2500 (i dont know how many they put on cruise ships these days) there will always be a small percentage who are infected and thus have the potential to spread it. apparently at least 700 people fell ill to it on one ship alone. but it become a chicken and egg thing. it has to originate some place. * so is it random occurrence? * seepage of sewer into the drinking water? * something that happens to food if its not cooked right? * something that grows in ventilation ducts? | good question. i think the kernel of the question is *where are viruses when they aren't making people sick?* norovirus is spread for person to person usually via faecal oral route. in practice that means people don't wash their hands and touch stuff, and then you touch the same stuff and then stick your fingers in your mouth. for that reason the spread can be controlled by hand washing. however the virus can survive for weeks outside the body. now it affect a few hundred million people a year, so there is plenty of virus out there in the human population, so it's not that unlikely that on a cruise ship that one person already had the virus, and was just getting better, or had a mild case, or boarded without telling anyone, or whatever. also the virus survives outside the body, so that person may have touched the doorknob on the toilet door and contaminated it. then if no one has cleaned that doorknob with bleach then everyone touching it will pick up norovirus. then of all those people someone doesn't wash his hands, or worse still, goes to work in the galley preparing food without washing hands, and *voila*, instant epidemic! in summary, humans are dirty filthy animals. if you wash your hands then you are in the minority. diseases that spread faecal-oral route are so prevalent around the world because we just can't avoid getting shit in our mouth. it may only be a microscopy piece of shit, but next time you get a viral gastro, just think, that is some other persons shit that you ate that made you sick. feel better? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there a big gap in salamander range between southern china and manchuria? | according to [wikipedia's salamander range map](_url_1_), there is a discontinuity in salamander range. they don't inhabit a large core area of north china, but they inhabit areas to its north (manchuria) and south. the article says their old world habitat is holarctic, and [wikipedia's holarctic map](_url_0_) fully covers north china. | as a taxonomic group, salamanders include many species, and over time the worldwide distribution of all salamanders would change as the ranges of individual species change. the big gap seen today between china and manchuria did not exist in the past, and to understand why you would need to study the species native to that area. here is one paper that shows how the ranges of one group of salamanders (family salamandridae) may have changed over time in this part of the world: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holarctic#/media/File:Holartico.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamander#/media/File:Cypron-Range_Caudata.svg"
] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/106/Supplement_2/19715"
] | [
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how do stimulants keep you awake? | someone who was smoking crystal meth recently asked me how the drug kept them awake. we did some googling but could only find that it did keep you awake. what goes on in the brain to cause that? are all stimulants different or do they all have the same base cause? | sleep is pretty complicated, and is regulated by a lot of different neurotransmitters/neuropeptides. most people are familiar with caffeine, which blocks your ability to feel increasing levels of adenosine, which accumulate over time to make you tired. most classical stimulants (i.e. the amphetamines) work by interfering with certain transporter proteins that normally bring the neurotransmitters back into the neuron after they are released. therefore you have highly increased levels of dopamine (more pleasure-centric) and also norepinephrine. think of norepinephrine as the flight-or-fight neurotransmitter, and it activates numerous circuits that are focused on being alert. one of the main things it does is inhibit the [vlpo neurons](_url_0_), which are sleep-promoting. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventrolateral_preoptic_nucleus"
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] |
what makes people emotionally "strong"/emotionally "weak"? | i've always been curious - assuming that emotionally strong is something along the lines of having the courage to do things such as confronting "bad situations" as opposed to letting them eat away at one's life, what exactly makes some people better at confronting their troubles and making tangible actions to solve/get over their issues? is there something to be said about experiences or is it to do with personalities? | it's not clear that you're going to a definitive answer to this since it's hard to pose this sort of question in an empirically testable way. there's been a lot of research into [posttraumatic stress disorder](_url_3_), though, and it might be one way of getting at your question. we've known for quite some time that people with ptsd have smaller volumes in the [hippocampus](_url_2_) (which is a brain structure responsible for episodic memory, and part of the [limbic system](_url_1_). the limbic system is critically involved in emotion regulation.) what we didn't know was whether that smaller hippocampus was a *result* of the ptsd or the cause of it. you can imagine it going either way -- ptsd is really stressful (obviously), and maybe all that stress damages the hippocampus and it shrinks. in 2002, people did something really clever and looked at twins, one of whom had exposure to combat trauma and the other of whom did not. they found that the hippocampi of the *non-traumatized* twins were also smaller and thus concluded that having a small hippocampus was a risk factor for developing ptsd. they published this in nature neuroscience. the open-access version is here: [smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma](_url_0_) so, one answer to your question is that there's something organic (pre-existing size of certain brain structures) that influences whether or not you'll be emotionally "strong", but i'm not sure that's going to cover the entirety of the question you're asking. hope that helps, though! | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2819093/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness"
] | [
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how do lifeforms without some kind of cognition perform what appears to be goal-oriented behavior? | i'm not quite sure how to put this into words, so i'll give an example. [this video](_url_0_) has been on reddit plenty of times before, showing a white blood cell "chasing" a bacterium. how does it know where to go? does the bacterium leave some kind of chemical marker that the white blood cell picks up, and the white blood cell is just chemically "programmed" to move towards the marker? also, for bacteria and other single cells, how do they perform their basic functions? i'm sure bacteria need to find some kind of sustenance and reproduce. how do they "decide" to do these things and when? i've learned about things like the processes of mitosis and fission for cell reproduction and the various stages of each, but what prompts the processes to begin? is there some kind of dividing line where cognition becomes distinguishable from processes approximating/simulating it? this may be too broad a question for a reasonable answer or flat out asked incorrectly. my apologies for any misunderstandings in this post (i'm a computer engineer, not a biologist). | you're hinting around two of my favorite topics when you talk about bacterial decision making and have forced me to open my dissertation =p. i can't help you with the white blood cell thing, if i hazard a guess i'd say its a chemoattractant gradient but that's a total guess. but! i can help you with the bacterial questions! there are some behaviors that are not advantageous (or downright harmful) for a bacteria to do by itself or when very few of them are around but are very desirable when many of the them are around. one example of this is causing an infection. this is why we have things called a **minimum infectious dose**, you need x number of bacteria in order to cause an infection (this number is different for each organism). that's because the bacteria do indeed communicate with each other through a process called **quorum sensing**. essentially, the bacteria need to reach a certain concentration (cells/space), or *quorum* to change their behavior. most changes in behavior on a bacterial level boil down to what genes the bacteria is expressing. the same way congress has to meet quorum to vote, bacteria need to meet quorum to change what genes they express. the bacteria communicate with each other by producing a chemical signal, called an **auto-inducer**, i'll call it an ai from here on. this is usually a peptide (small protein) or a sugar molecule, depending on which bacteria we're talking about. this ai is freely diffusible, so it crosses the bacteria's membrane without any assistance. each bacteria also produces a specific protein that can bind the ai called a **response regulator** (rr). the chances of the ai encountering the rr are purely probabilistic, hence the more ai you have the better the chance of an ai encountering an rr. how do you get more ai? you have more bacteria in the space. as the bacterial population increases and the amount of ai increases more rr will be interacting with ai, eventually this reaches a level where the rr/ai complex is able to change gene expression, this is when the cells have reached quorum. rr/ai will turn some genes off and others on, or it may make genes that were already turned on be even *more* active. by doing this the behavior of the bacteria will change. for example, the bacteria *yersinia enterocolitica* uses quorum sensing to control its motility, *pseudomonas aeruginosa* (and many others) use quorum sensing to turn on genes allowing biofilm formation and virulence and *salmonella enterica* eaves drops on other bacteria's quorum sensing communication by intercepting their ai and using it to active its own rr to turn on genes that let it take up free dna in the environment. as far as bacteria finding food, a lot of the bacteria use motility and **chemotaxis** for this. chemotaxis is pretty complicated but here's the process, basically. a bacteria will move in a random direction, in classical chemotaxis the movement is mediated by flagella in a form of motility we call swimming. the flagella is like a propeller, if it turns in a counterclockwise (ccw) direction the bacteria moves forward, we call this running. if the flagella turns in a clockwise (cw) direction the bacteria spins around, we call this tumbling. after a tumble the bacteria will start running in a new, random direction. whether a flagella rotates ccw or cw is based the the modification of a protein on the inside of the cell that is responsible for turning the flagella. over time, this protein accrues the modification (which is mediated by two other proteins) that lead to tumbling, these modifications will be accrued more slowly if the bacteria are moving up a chemical gradient toward food and will accrue more quickly if the bacteria is moving either towards something toxic or down the food gradient. even if the bacteria is moving up the food gradient eventually the cell will tumble. this is because, as more modifications build up on the protein that turns the flagella, it becomes less able to sense small changes in the chemical gradient. eventually the protein is forced to turn the other direction, causing the tumble, in order to reset its modification levels and be able to sense again. the chemotaxis article on wikipedia is actually really good, but may be more than you want/need to know: _url_0_ as far as the day to day maintenance, like cell division, these are time cycles usually. there's a series of steps, like you mentioned with mitosis, and each step has check points that are mediated at the molecular level. the cell won't (shouldn't, actually, things can go wrong) divide if the chromosomes aren't at separate poles, it detects this with a protein that sends a signal that allows the process to go to the next step. its a lot like a computer program actually, its certainly not intelligent, but it functions within a set of parameters and if you put it in a different parameter you don't really know what it'll do. a cellular biologist should be able to give you a better explanation of what starts and stops cell division than i can. | 17 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnlULOjUhSQ"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis"
] | [
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in space is there ever a feeling of upside down or right side up? | thought of this after seeing space odyssey for the first time. the scene where the female that brings around the food walks upside down seamlessly. is there anyway our brain can feel the difference in zero g? | in true zero g, many people experience [vertigo](_url_0_) (or a sensation very similar, i'm not sure if it's called that in space). people get a 'sense of up' from a number of factors our body uses: gravity (using the inner ear), and vision (using our eyes). in microgravity, our inner ear (twice now i've types innear instead of inner ear - three times) is useless. people can still get a sense of up or down from their surroundings, but in space things aren't built with floors and ceilings - they're built... like microgravity habitats, so that sense is skewed as well. i can't speak to *other* senses that might indicate up and down, but those two (inner ear - went innear again...) don't work normally, and as a result can give you unexpected results. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertigo"
] | [
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[chemistry] can someone explain something about concentrations to me? | i've been trying to research endogenous concentrations of a particular hormone. i finally got the values, but the units are in pg/mg. how does one interpret this? if i were to make a solution that mimics the endogenous concentration how would that be done? thanks | usually if two weights are given then it usually means grams of solute divided by grams of solution/solvent. for instance if we say there is 1 gram of salt dissolved in 1 kg of water it would be 1/1 g/kg by solvent or 1/(1.001) g/kg by solution. so in order to interpret those units you need to know what the weights represent. i've seen in biology they may list things like milligrams of vitamin c per gram of orange pulp. so you might look to see if you can find another article/paper/school website/etc. on a similar topic that lists what the pg and mg are measuring. i am not familiar with hormone units. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is it called when this.. weird bulge thing happens to a tree? (and what causes it to happen?) | i was riding down a trail yesterday and i saw something unlike anything i'd ever seen before, so i took a couple of pictures with my phone: _url_0_ what exactly is going on here? (geographical region is west michigan, if that's somehow relevant) | this is called a burl : _url_0_ from the article: "a burl (american english) or bur or burr (used in all non-us english speaking countries) is a tree growth in which the grain has grown in a deformed manner. it is commonly found in the form of a rounded outgrowth on a tree trunk or branch that is filled with small knots from dormant buds." and: "a burl results from a tree undergoing some form of stress. it may be caused by an injury, virus or fungus. most burls grow beneath the ground, attached to the roots as a type of malignancy that is generally not discovered until the tree dies or falls over. such burls sometimes appear as groups of bulbous protrusions connected by a system of rope-like roots. almost all burl wood is covered by bark, even if it is underground. insect infestation and certain types of mold infestation are the most common causes of this condition." | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/RFUCb#0"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burl"
] | [
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are there any gross evolutionary pressures still acting on the human species? | according to [this](_url_0_) video, there aren't. i'm a little sceptical on this one.. | yes i agree and would say that the video is misleading. these should thoroughly answer your question: _url_2_ _url_3_ _url_0_ also, something easier to read: _url_1_ | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UkuCtIko798&feature=related"
] | [
"http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/jvt002/BrainMind/Readings/Laland2010.pdf",
"http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1931757,00.html",
"http://www2.yale.edu/eeb/stearns/pdf/PNAS-2009-ByarsEtAl.pdf",
"http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/accel.pnas.smallpdf.pdf",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/100/1/171.short",
"http://genomebiology.com/2004/6/1/spotlight-20050118-01",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707629966",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/312/5780/1614.short"
] | [
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why is the brain almost always located in the head of living things? | seeing as the brain is the most important organ in any living organism. why is it exclusively located in the head amongst living things? i have a feeling there are some things that exist where the brain is not located in the head that i am unaware of. but i'd still ask why has evolution lead to most superior species having a brain in the head, what advantage does this provide over say a brain located in the chest/abdominal region? | evolution. first to evolve were simple light sensors in simple organisms (such as flat worms). because these organisms move along a surface, and light sensors are useful for finding food and avoiding competition, the sensors evolved on the front side of the organism. this stayed this way throughout development of fish and amphibians. early brains also developed on the same end because that's where primitive eyes already were. when animals moved to land and started standing up, they gained more utility from their eyes by standing up with eyes high, so bipedalism developed to keep eyes high. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a scientific consensus about the various strengths of the efficient market hypothesis? | at my undergrad business school (notre dame), our finance department to my knowledge basically teaches that the semi-strong version of market efficiency is true; here's a good definition from investopedia: > only information that is not publicly available can benefit investors seeking to earn abnormal returns on investments. all other information is accounted for in the stocks price and, regardless of the amount of fundamental and technical analysis one performs, above normal returns will not be had. do economists study this problem? i know this part of the question isn't really very scientific, so maybe you should ignore it: wouldn't that imply that the massive financial analysis industry is an inefficient allocation of capital? or are these competing agents necessary to find inefficiencies and keep the rest of the market efficient? | essentially you have a prisoner's dilemma when it comes to te decision to allocate capital to financial analysis. all public information is being taken and used to analyse financial markets, with the idea being that this means it has been accounted for in the stock price, so abnormal returns cannot be had from simply analysing the public information. as public information analysed approaches 100%, stock accuracy approaches 100%, however, the financial analysis in the real world will never approach 100% accurate, as information is taken subjectively, so those with the most accurate analysis can seek abnormal returns. for example, the ceo of a company is seen behaving erratically, this is public information, and after analysis the market is spooked, and the stock price falls 5%. now, there will not be 100% consensus on the seriousness of the behaviour, if there was the price may have slipped further. if you have correctly judged that the market overreacted, you could seek abnormal returns by purchasing shares. what i'm trying to say is that the inefficiencies and subjectiveness in financial analysis will leave room for abnormal returns. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do fish fight for their territory too ? | since many animals developped territorial defense behaviours, i was wondering if fish have fights among individuals of the same species. thanks ! | oh yeah, this is quite common among some species of fish. for example, each dusky farmerfish guards a small patch of algae, chasing away all intruders. male bluegill defend a small territory around their nest and eggs during the breeding season. there are a species of cichlid (many of which are territorial) which will actually line their territorial boundaries with rocks. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamese_fighting_fish"
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] |
what is the maximum number of moves possible in jenga? | provided it is optimally stacked, how many moves could a game of jenga last. | jenga begins with 18 rows of 3 blocks each. the last possible configuration would be a stack of alternating perpendicular blocks 54 blocks high. the first step would be to convert all 18 rows into 18 single middle blocks, which would take 36 moves, though you are now left with 12 full rows of 3 blocks on top of the original 18. this takes another 24 moves, which produces 8 new rows to clear. clear 3 of these with 6 moves (down to 5 full rows) produces 2 new rows (up to 7 full rows). from this it can be seen that every 6 moves will remove only one row. this is the same pattern as above which is reassuring. this pattern will continue until you are left with 1 full row at the top, after (17 rows)*(6 moves to reduce the number of rows by 1)=102 total moves. you can pull two blocks from this top row, creating a row of only 2 blocks above. pull one of these to finish the stack, at 105 total moves i am assuming that you must place a block on the top row unless it is full, in which case you start a new row. also you may not pull a block from an unfilled row unless there are no other moves available; this will not matter until the very end. edit: tl;dr 105 moves from beginning to end | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how accurately do statistics such as death rates for different activities predict future results? if there is 1 death for every 2000 base jumps historically, is that the same as saying you have a 1 in 2000 chance of dying on any given jump? | if, when it comes to your risk factors, you are an average base jumper, then your risk for any given jump is going to be the same as average risk for base jumping. but for more people, the actual risk will be modified by their personal risk factors, and might be substantially higher or lower. in other words, it is more true that if 2000 random base jumpers each jump once, one of them will die, than it is that if any particular base jumper jumps 2000 times they will, uh, die once. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://philrsss.anu.edu.au/people-defaults/alanh/papers/rcp_your_problem_too.pdf"
] | [
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|
what chemicals are associated with fear? | also, what area of the brain is associated with fear? are there any studies that talk about these ideas? finally, why does alcohol seem to lower the amount of fear a person has? | there is a lot of evidence that points to the [amygdala](_url_1_) as particularly important in the processing of fear. the limbic system, which includes the amygala, is generally thought to be involved in emotional processing. as far as i know, the neurotransmitters used in the amygdala are not different from the neurotransmitters used in other regions. however, activation of the amygdala due to high stress/fearful situations may lead to increased release of epinephrine. there are lots of studies in this area. [here's a place to start](_url_0_) it appears that alcohol may affect this circuit, causing changes in fear responses. [source](_url_2_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/15/9/5879.full.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21122818"
] | [
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is there a preference between gwas and qtl for gene mapping and if so why? | this is a pretty specific question so apologies for not being very 'exciting' or interesting for discussion like a lot of the posts here are. & #x200b; & #x200b; & #x200b; | gwas vs qtl preference depends on what sort of population you're studying, in particular the level of genetic diversity and genomic resources available. gwas (genome wide association study) are used when you don't have a family tree, or pedigree, for your study population or when you don't have very extensive genetic resources. very broadly in a gwa study you most often have a group of cases (individual with the trait you're interested in) and controls (individuals without the trait you're interested in). you then try to fit a regression model to predict whether you are a case individual given your genotype. gwas often needs very large sample sizes. qtl mapping does not require a large of sample sizes a gwas, but you generally need much better genomic resources. in a qtl study researchers attempt to map a trait with a genetic marker - often they will cross two populations (with and without the trait of interest) multiple times and try to associate the trait with known genetic markers - e.g. in these flys we know white eyes are caused by gene x, all white eyed flies also have our trait of interest, therefore the gene for our focal trait is linked\* with gene x. \*linked can mean a gene is physically linked (i.e. close on the same chromosome) or for another reason 2 genes are always inherited together. i haven't done either mapping method yet but the way i think about them, big picture, is qtl is used when you have a population without a lot of genetic diversity (often artifically low levels, like lab raised flies) but with good genetic resources while gwas can be used when you have high genetic diversity and can just add more individual to your study. most studies on human height are gwas. i hope this helps. i started this account to try and explain science to a more broad audience but i don't have a lot of practice. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between a good and an outstanding music instrument? | for example, can we say that a superb violin produces a different spectrum than an ordinary one? | as a french horn player, i can try to explain this as it is for brass instruments. it is predominantly down to a few things: the quality of the metal it is made from, the valves, the connections between the pipes and the flare. firstly, the metal is made from. if you took a lump of doorhandle, melted it down and made a gong out of it, it would sound rather dull. this is because doorhandle metal is not able to resonate. however, nickel silver, which is what most horns are made from, is able to resonate much more easily. this means the sound made is much clearer. secondly, the valves. most horns made nowadays are called double horns (which means they are able to alternate between two different pitches by pushing down a lever). they also incorporate rotary valves, which turn to allow air through different pipes, which changes the pitch. the valve which changes the pitch of the instrument (the fourth valve) can allow air to travel two ways- for simplicity, forwards and backwards. most poor quality horns have the air travelling in one direction for one pitch, and another direction for the other, as it is much cheaper and easier to make. professional horns incorporate the merriwether system, which makes air travel the same direction around the fourth valve. this minimises interruption from the rotor inside the valve as it turns, giving a nicer quality of sound, since the air does not have to change direction through the valve. thirdly, the connections between the pipes. the air in an instrument travels from mouthpiece (where you stick your face) to the flare (where the sound comes out). between these are various slides which can be pulled out and pushed in to slightly adjust the pitch is the air is flowing through the slide. to make the valves stay in, one tube is slightly smaller than the other on the inside, so it fits in snugly. however, if the air hits this ridge, less air is travelling in the right direction, and this interrupts the player. most professional instruments have the air going 'down' from the ridge, as opposed to hitting it. this makes a clearer sound. finally, the flare. when the air leaves the flare, it is bouncing all over the place as it leaves. this is what gives horns such a resonant sound- its ability to resonate. as said before, if it is made with a crappy metal, then this will not resonate as well. most poor quality horns have a flare which was just a piece of metal which was cut and attached. most professional horns have flares which can take up to two weeks to hammer into shape by hand. they are made each time using various maths based stuff to resonate perfectly. however, the key thing in all of this is a player. a professional horn player could probably take a crappy horn and play a beautiful concerto and most would think their horn was also exquisitely made. however, you couldn't give an inexperienced player a professional horn and expect them to be at the same quality. a lot of time, it is the instrumentalist who is outstanding, and not the instrument. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is going on when the eye can selectively focus on either of two superimposed images with no true depth of field? example in text. | [this](_url_0_) is a picture i took years ago. when i look at it, i can choose to focus on either the reflection of the person, or on the one of jimi and see a clear image of either. what is my eye doing when this happens, since there is no depth of field? | by 'depth of field' you mean no perception of depth, which is not true in this figure. there are many [moncular, depth cues which do not require two eyes](_url_0_). here, the sharpness of focus is a strong indicator, as the real face is blurry compared to hendrix, indicating a depth difference as well as occlusion, where the hendrix is clearly blocking the face, indicating the hendrix is in front. what you are perceiving is a rivalry between two percepts. this has been well studied in binocular cases [(a different image to each eye)](_url_1_) but other forms of perceptual rivalry abound, such as the [face/vase](_url_2_) illusion and the [young-old woman](_url_3_). the reason for the switch in your case is that your brain must decide which part is "ground" or the background, and which part is the 'figure' or the foreground. in order to perceive the real face, you must "ignore" the hendrix, and you view it as glass/haze in front of the face. in order to perceive the hendrix, you must ignore the real face, and perceive that as background. your brain does this automatically, and since this picture is ambiguous as to which interpretation is correct, it alternates between the two, especially dependaing on which features you pay attention to (hendrix's hair or real person's eyes/nose). | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/7qccwYn.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues",
"http://visionlab.harvard.edu/Members/Olivia/tutorialsDemos/Binocular%20Rivalry%20Tutorial.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubin_vase",
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/YoungGirl-OldWomanIllusion.html"
] | [
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] |
why are security features in government documents and currency made to fluoresce in ultraviolet light as opposed to infrared light? | a group of my friends who were canadian were travelling abroad and i remembered seeing an image of the national passport on the site, imgur and how the pages 'glowed' in comparison to other passports so i decided to buy an uv flashlight online and sure enough we were amazed. but it brought me thinking about how more expensive ultraviolet lighting is and why would the government not cut costs by using features that fluoresced in infrared instead. is it because of a practical issue involving science or a security issue? | if you want to convert uv into visible light, then you can do that by exciting a system that takes one of your photons and re-emits its energy in several portions. then each of the re-emitted photons are of lower energy than the initial photon as all energy portions need to add up to the energy of the incoming photon. that means that the resulting photons can have longer wavelengths than the initial photon, but not a shorter wavelength because then the photon would have more energy than the photons from which they were created. so with such a process you can convert uv to visible, but you cannot convert infrared to visible, as this would mean going from a longer to a short wavelength. you can go from longer to shorter wavelength if you add the energy of several photons up to emit one of your high energy photons. but this is a more complex process than the previous one, so it is harder to produce and more importantly comes with much lower efficiencies than going from short to long wavelength. processes like [fluorescence](_url_0_) that go from short to long wavelength photons are usually linear in the input field, while processes that go from long to short wavelength are [non-linear](_url_1_) and as such usually very inefficient at low intensities of the input field. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"
] | [
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can digital music be theoretically "vectored" the same way images can? | so i was thinking about how analogue music, from say a vinyl for example, is a wave, while digital music, like from a cd, is the closest approximation of the wave, so the wave is more like lots of stairs. then i was thinking about vectored images, where the lines are smooth, and the image can be expanded infinitely and still be smooth, as opposed to regular images that turn into a mess of pixels after being expanded. so now i'm thinking, could the digital sound waves be "vectored" so the waves are as smooth as analogue? would it be practical? how large would the files be? could portable devises play them? maybe sometime in the future? | a close analog to what you describe would be music resynthesized from midi files. they describe notes, instruments, duration, and so forth rather than a complete copy of the resulting waveform. just like with vector graphics, the output is then as "sharp" as you want it to be, depending on the resolution of the output equipment or software. it's not precisely the same thing, but it has a lot of similarity. where vector graphics say "draw a yellow circle of radius r at position x,y", midi says "play a middle c on a flute for two seconds at intensity x." how good your yellow circle looks depends on the resolution and color accuracy of your raster display. how good your middle c sounds depends on the quality of the synthesizer or instrument producing the audio output. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.audioholics.com/education/audio-formats-technology/exploring-digital-audio-myths-and-reality-part-1"
] | [
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i have a red eared slider. how does his skin cope with being underwater for so much of the day? | as the title states, i have a red eared slider (turtle/terrapin). these are reptiles. he has a lot of space outside of water, as i know they are only semi-aquatic. he is very healthy, and he has a great aquarium. still, he will spend most of the day in water, which is normal, but i'm wonder how their skin works to accommodate this. does he secrete a special oil? does he have non-porous skin? it feels like standard reptile skin. how do they not get waterlogged skin? | reptiles have really thick skin so it's not a *huge* problem for the turtles. but they basically regulate the net influx of water by varying their urine. they also have a feature that allows them to resorb some of the salts lost through the urinary regulation of water, so that isn't a huge problem either. what salt is lost they get back from foods mostly. [(source)](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://people.biology.ufl.edu/devans/ELSpaper.pdf"
] | [
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re: botulism and herbal salves | as an amateur canner/preserver, i am well aware of the risk of the botulism toxin forming in low-acid, anaerobic environments, and preserve accordingly. however, i am just starting to explore other ways of preserving, including making therapeutic plant-based oils and salves. many of the recipes i find include chopping fresh herbs (like lavender, comfrey, etc) and steeping in in oil (often olive oil, almond oil or coconut oil). once the herb has steeped in the oil for a number of weeks, the herb is drained out and the resultant oil is thickened with beeswax (in the case of a salve), or kept as is for an oil. isn't this a perfect recipe for botulism? even though the oil isn't eaten, is there any risk to using these externally? [here](_url_0_) is an example of a recipe for a simple herbal salve from a website i came up with on a search. | the botulinum neurotoxin (the substance that gets you sick or kills you) is produced mainly by the bacterium clostridium botulinum. c. botulinum bacteria grow, as you mentioned, in environments containing no oxygen (ie, they are obligate anaerobes). oils, when exposed to air, do contain significant amounts of dissolved oxygen, just like water does. so, the bacteria will not necessarily grow in that environment. however, if the oil did have low oxygen levels, it would still need to be "contaminated" with c. botulinum spores - no spores means no bacterial growth and hence no toxin. however, assume low oxygen and that the spores were present, then yes, the bacteria could potentially grow and produce toxin. however, if you only use it topically and not internally, there is essentially no risk - the botulinum neurotoxin must be injected or ingested in order to get to the neuromuscular junctions where it has its effect. | 3 | [] | [
"http://littlecityfarm.blogspot.com/2012/07/plantain-first-aid-salve.html"
] | [] | [
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] |
what are the current boundaries in physics and what would the implications of breaking those boundaries be? | i'm currently an undergraduate in engineering and was really curious to what the present state of physics is like. by that, i mean what are the main questions physicists are trying to answer now and what is holding them back from answering those questions. also as a bonus i was hoping to find out what the implications of breaking those boundaries would have on a normal person's everyday life (thinking technologies that are converted to support pop life such as home appliances) in the near or far future (lets ambiguously say far is max 20 years down the road). | this is a pretty big question, that i'm not sure any one person can answer. contrary to popular belief, most physicists are *not* trying to find a theory of everything. that's a small subsection. to get a sense of what is being worked on, have a look through the tables of contents of [physical review letters](_url_0_). you can also see which areas are the most active, by looking at a [breakdown by subject](_url_1_). the biggest questions that are being worked on are, in my opinion: * can all physical interactions be described by a single theory? * what is dark matter made of? * what is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe? * to what extent do the formalisms we use to describe quantum mechanics correspond to what is actually happening? of course, as you can see from my pie graph, the question most physicists are working on, including myself, can be described as: * how does this particular interesting physical system behave? but with regards to the big four that i posted, the first three could all be related, for example, by a theory of quantum gravity that predicts a value for the cosmological constant as well as the masses of supersymmetric particles that explain dark matter. the fourth one will lead the way to new quantum technologies like quantum cryptography and quantum computing. most technological advances are a few years or decades down the road from somebody answering the fifth question i posted. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://prl.aps.org/toc/PRL/v108/i12",
"http://a7.sphotos.ak.fbcdn.net/hphotos-ak-snc7/384788_10100102553774021_81001397_46679817_604231884_n.jpg"
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augmented reality 7d holograms - how does it make it look like the light stops mid-air? | after discovering this video: [_url_4_](_url_2_) i immediately wondered how did they manage to do it? how can the light carrying information about the reference object just stop mid-air? i know it can´t but that´s how it looks like (no pollen, no small particles, no visible gas etc.) and no method of projecting light to create a 3rd object in space seems to apply. any explanation? i have found out that riot (company behind the ceremony from the video) got this marvel from this company [_url_3_](_url_3_) i have tried to google this question and came up with little to nothing - this question [_url_0_](_url_1_) seems related, but i couldn´t find a satisfying explanation. thank you for your responds! & #x200b; & #x200b; | the "hologram" doesn't actually exist in real life i.e. if you were sitting in that stadium you wouldn't see it. the technology described takes a prerendered animation and tracks it on a live feed in real time (if the information is to be believed). so only people watching the feed would see that. edit: one big giveaway that it's through some video magic is that the "hologram" casts a shadow. | 20 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/8fjbl9/how\\_exactly\\_do\\_holograms\\_work\\_how\\_does\\_the\\_light/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/8fjbl9/how_exactly_do_holograms_work_how_does_the_light/",
"https://youtu.be/rD1_C_RAJeE?t=177",
"https://www.zerodensity.tv/products/reality/",
"https://youtu.be/rD1\\_C\\_RAJeE?t=177"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9oDlvOV3qs"
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how would a tyrannosaurus rex have laid down to rest, and then get back up? it seems with such small arms, lying down and righting-oneself up would be a disadvantage. | edit: wow! thanks for all of the responses. this is great! | birds do not sleep on their sides, they bend their legs (and usually tuck their head under their wings) there is speculation that this is how a dinosaur such as a t-rex would rest. although obviously without the wing. mei, a dinosaur related to t-rex but much smaller has been found fossilised in this position. _url_0_ | 129 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mei_%28dinosaur%29"
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lifting all day makes your arms/back tired. running all day would make your legs tired. why doesn't your heart get tired of beating? | (except for after, like, 2.5 billion beats on avg.) | hearts have a very high mitochondrial density and are the only muscle cells (voluntary or not) that are self-firing. this means that your heart will be the last muscle to fail from fatigue or low oxygen/sugar levels in the blood, and it will continue to beat even if your spine is totally severed. this is why paralysis causes death by suffocation generally as opposed to a spontaneously stopped heart. your voluntary muscles give out well before your even your autonomous breathing response is at any risk, so your vitals can reestablish normal sugar level and respiratory behavior. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you explain to me how hcr will realistically affect emergency services healthcare? (economics/medicine/politics) | they're likely bitching about the fact that medicare payouts will be dropping. but this is being driven by the increasing use of electronic code filing vs doing it by paper. software now allows hospitals and doctors to bill for every single tiny step, which raises medicare costs. medicare is pushing back by paying less per incident. this is putting the worst squeeze on docs still using paper. docs and electronic codiging software say the new electronic system helps them capture all the things they do and get paid for it. medicare and the govt is saying that many docs are abusing the system, and using this to overbill for every minor thing they do, basically engagin in fraud. ie, they are playing fast and loose with many codes. did they really spend 30 minutes with a patient? did they do everything a given medicare code says they did, in the short amount of time they spent with the patient? the truth is likely somewhere in between. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the risks of introducing backdoors into a cryptographic function? can you secure said backdoor with another unique function? | politics aside, i am curious why even put backdoors into a standard function if it allows an adversarial system to have an attack vector. rather than attacking the function, why not just attack the backdoor? i could see securing the backdoor cryptographically, but would that allow the adversary to see any unique about the given hash? meaning, will they see that there is a part of the function that is unique to the rest of the hashed string? what risk does a state posses when they introduce a backdoor into their encryption standards/functions? | as you point out, the backdoors could be used by adversaries. if the adversary knows what the state knows, then it is trivial. sometimes, a state (or a specific branch thereof) could be the adversary. yes, this is the idea. however, whatever measures you use to secure it, the state must be able to open it; therefore any adversary with the same (or more) knowledge as the state can also open it. take disk encryption. the key that is used to encrypt the disk must itself now be encrypted in such a way that the state can obtain your key (e.g. using asymmetric encryption, where the state provides a (hopefully unique) public key to you). now, it suffices for the adversary to either solve the original problem (cracking your disk) or to solve a new problem (cracking the state's key). [why hopefully unique? because if the state has a small set of key-pairs, then an adversary that cracks one pair has a rich tool to open massive amounts of people's encrypted data.] hopefully, it would be harder to attack. but even if a minuscule chance that it's not would weaken the security. not sure why you're talking about hashing specifically now. but if the backdoor is implemented correctly, the actual hashing is no weaker than it was. i'm not sure i understand these questions. can you elaborate? | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does being infected with toxoplasma make us like cats? | toxoplasma sp. complete part of their life cycle in cats. to jump to cats from say, a rat, it screws with the neurocircuitry of the rat to make it like cat urine etc... as nearly a fourth of the united states is infected with toxoplasma gondii, could this infection partially explain the inordinate amount of fondness for cats? | the possibility of asymptomatic toxo actually having subtle effects on the brain has been a lingering question for a long time. at least one researcher has even argued it may predispose to schizophrenia. on the other hand, countries with high consumption of raw beef (france, ethiopia) have very high levels of population exposure to toxo, yet rates of schizophrenia are comparable, and cat ownership is lower than in the united states. [full disclosure--i have eaten steak tartare and currently live with a cat. my skepticism towards latent toxo as a cause of human symptoms may be a result of mind control from latent toxo.] | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does vlf radio "push out" the van allen belts? | i just read _url_0_ but i don't understand exactly what's going on. are the vlf waves actually "pushing on" particles in the radiation belt? is there some sort of "magnetic bubble" or something going on? | so i've read the papers directly related to this research ([here](_url_0_) and [here](_url_1_) - they're probably paywalled, sorry), and to answer your question, no, the vlf waves are not actually "pushing" on the particles. as i understand it, what is happening is that the "bubble" of vlf waves form a region in which ultra-relativistic electrons (i.e. several mev) are very easily scattered into the earth's ionosphere, where they lose all their energy and are "lost" from the radiation belts. these particles only travel inwards slowly, so the scattering ensures that they are never around long enough to build up any significant population. i will note that this is all still very recent research, so bear in mind our understanding may change as we learn more and more about the radiation belts. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/nasas-van-allen-probes-spot-man-made-barrier-shrouding-earth"
] | [
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-017-0357-5",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v515/n7528/full/nature13956.html"
] | [
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what's exactly is going on when i log into my online banking with this little code-generating keypad thing they gave me? | this one is called a 'digipass', but i've seen these types of hardware security code generators before, but how do they work in a technical sense? the code it generates seems to change every few minutes. what exactly is going on behind the scenes when it generates its code? how does that relate/sync to my banks website so that it knows it's a valid code (and thus, lets me in)? | it's likely similar to the [rsa securid token](_url_0_). the token has a small chip in it that is nothing more than a random number generator and a counter. the token generates a new random number on a regular schedule. when you log into your bank, their server looks up your token id and computes the same random number (the random numbers are generated with a seed value, so the keys will match). by verifying that key you entered matches what the server expects it to be, the system is able to determine that you are you, by virtue of having your token. this concept is easy to demonstrate with a program. java has a random class that takes an integer as a seed. regardless of when/where it's run, it will generate the same output. import java.util.random; public class randomtest { public static void main(string[] args) { random random = new random(1); for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++){ system.out.println(i + ": " + random.nextint(10)); } } } will generate: 0: 5 1: 8 2: 7 3: 3 4: 4 5: 4 6: 4 7: 6 8: 8 9: 8 | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SecurID",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_token"
] | [
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how are we able to judge distances so well physically (being able to throw a baseball the perfect distance) but not so well mentally? | i have nothing to offer in an answer, but i'll try to restate the question as i understand it, in case this helps: if someone says "throw this ball 20 feet", i might throw it 15 or 25, because i don't know how far away 20 feet is. but if someone says "throw this ball into this basket, which i have placed 20 feet away", i'll sink it most of the time. so, existence of a physical object is a good input to the system, but numbers aren't. why? | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are there examples of harmonies at work in nature/space? | other than making duets sound better, i was wondering if certain frequency pairs appear elsewhere and what they accomplish. | i can think of a couple of examples in the animal kingdom. some mosquitoes will buzz a [duet in a perfect fifth](_url_1_) as part of a mating ritual. when they're in tune they'll even create overtones. alligators engaging in their mating ritual release a subaudible bellow that has a frequency that matches the distance between the keels in the osteoderms on their backs. this creates the "water dance" on their back - which are actually [faraday waves](_url_0_), a type of standing wave. not quite a harmony, but i don't know of any other animals that generate faraday waves! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/05/alligator-mating-physics/",
"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=99133147",
"http://videos.howstuffworks.com/discovery/40529-is-it-possible-lyrebird-video.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_resonance"
] | [
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] |
why is the brain crosswired to the body? | we know that the nerves from each eye are crosswired to oposite side of the brain part that is responsible for sight, right to left and left to right. and the same goes for the rest of the body. my question is how come? i know evolution doesn't have a purpose, but why did this, should i say "blueprint" win over a more simple way of putting parts together. and i do understand that "simple" and "complex" are just two arbitrary words without meaning when we talk about nature, but still, why crosswired brain and body? did mother nature flip coins here? (my first post on reddit, but i have been lurking for more than 6 years here) | one of the problems with this is that it assumes there is some disadvantage to crosswiring. evolution more cares about "why not". random things happen, and they're only selected against if there is a significant problem with doing it one way versus another. heck, we have plenty of weird 'designs' in us for exactly this reason - it wasn't a major factor in surviving and producing viable offspring. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Reaching%20beyond%20the%20midline%3A%20why%20are%20human%20brains%20cross%20wired%3F"
] | [
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say a person were to eat nothing but corn for a week, or so, would that person have stool that consists of nothing but corn in that time period? | same goes for any food that doesn't completely digest. i'm sorry if this isn't exactly what askscience isn't about but i'm very close to trying it myself. | a another thing to remember is that about a third of the mass of your stool by weight is bacteria (alive and dead). another pretty significant component of your stool is dead red blood cells, dead gut epithelial cells, etc. undigested food is only a portion of your stool | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the square of the wave equation describe the probability of finding an electron (or something else) in a given location? | i'm studying semiconductors and this area of quantum mechanics always seems to be glossed over. what about the square of the wave equation describes the probability? | you don't square the wave equation, you square the modulus of the wavefunction ψ(x); and that gives you the probability density, which is the probability per unit volume. if you want the probability of finding your particle in a volume v, you have to integrate over that volume: p(v) = ∫d³x |ψ(x)|² that's assuming you have a single-particle wavefunction (which often you don't), and assuming it's non-relativistic (based on the schrödinger equation, not the dirac equation). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do you kill any microorganisms by slapping a surface? | like when you clap your hands or slap a table, do you actually kill any bacteria or viruses this way? | think about this in a microscopic level, since macroscopically some details are lost. look at your hand, you can see some major creases (in joints), minor creases (like the fingerprint), if you have a lens, you can see that there are even smaller creases (and so on until you reach cellular or molecular level). at very fine-detail level, your hand skin looks [like this](_url_2_) (and that is only a very little tiny bit of skin!). in other surfaces, like a piece of paper, that appear to be smooth, aren't. if you magnify up to cellular level, you can notice the un-smoothness. take a look [at this](_url_3_), it is a fine microscopic magnification of a sheet of paper. the line underneath is used for scale; a μm is the millionth of a meter (100 μm = 0.0001 m, a meter is roughly 1.09 yards). the typical length of a bacteria is [0.5 to 5.0 μm](_url_1_)!! although some bacteria, like *[thiomargarita namibiensis](_url_0_)* can reach 100-300 μm, but this is an extraordinary case, most bacteria are pretty small. if you slapped a sheet of paper, you would miss totally any bacteria, some of them would be intermingled in the fibers of the sheet of paper and the dead skin cells can't press them at all. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomargarita_namibiensis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#Morphology",
"http://www.visualphotos.com/photo/1x8708697/epidermis_and_derm_human_skin_section_sem_scanning_electron_microscope_001024.jpg",
"http://citpsite.s3-website-us-east-1.amazonaws.com/oldsite-htdocs/fingerprinting/paper_images/paper_microscope.png"
] | [
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dinosaur evolution... something i've never understood... | there's probably a simple answer to this, but i'm not sure if i know it. traditionally, dinosaurs are classified as either saurischians (lizard-hipped) or ornithischians (bird-hipped). yet birds evolved from raptors, which belong to the saurischians. can anyone help me understand why this happened? | because the bird-hipped thing is just a superficial similarity. the [wikipedia article](_url_0_) does actually talk about it, and states that the actual avian hip structure evolved independently from a subgroup of the saurischia. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saurischia"
] | [
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dinosaur evolution question. | troll question? dinosaurs had a huge diversity, specialising in almost every lifeform. they conquered the land, part of the sea and even the sky. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does my christmas tree really drink from its stump or am i just kidding myself when i water it? | and if it does drink, how is it able to do so without its roots? can the trunk just absorb water at any level of the tree? | you have to remember that plants rely on the physical properties of water to move it around. trees and other plants have no "beating hearts" to artificially move fluid around, so they rely on osmosis. as water evaporates from leaves (or in your christmas tree's case, needles) it sets up an osmotic imbalance in the tree, where the concentration of water at the "stump" (which is soaked in water) is greater than at the tips of the brances, where water is evaporating more rapidly due to the higher surface area and much higher permiability of the leaves/needles (higher compared to the trunk, that is). the xylem and phloem of the tree are still intact inside the trunk, so the water naturally moves from the area of high concentration to the area of low concentration, along the same channels a full rooted tree would use. incidentally, this is why coniferous trees with waxy needles are more drought resistant than deciduous, leafed trees. they lose water less rapidly from waxy needles than deciduous trees do from delicate leaves. the main thing roots do is create areas of higher surface area in the soil, allowing the tree to absorb more water in dry conditions. roots are just the absorbing conterparts to the respirating leaves. roots also do a few cool things like exude acids into the soil to facilitate the absorption of important chemicals like phosphorous, nitrogen and magnesium, but at their simplest, they're just parts of the tree designed to put the most surface area possible in contact with the relativly wet (compared to the air) soil. but basically, if the truck is litterally sitting in a pool of water, they're not really that necessary to just move water up the tree. now, the tree couldn't survive forever like that, unless you were adding the right fertalizer mix to the water to make sure the tree was getting all the nutrients it needed, but for a few weeks in december, the tree is just fine "drinking" from the stump. tl:dr: yes, your tree drinks through the stump! | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a wild bird is captured and put into a cage and kept as a pet, how does that change affect the mentality of the bird? | a bird who is use to being free is captured and put into a cage. how does that affect the birds mental state over time? does it develop any sort of disorders, depression, etc? i own a pet bird that doesn't know anything other than the cage (got it as a baby) and i've noticed overtime, he has gotten...crazier. constantly jumps around, does crazy stuff....and yes the cage is big enough. just wondering if that is just his personality or if it's something he has developed due to lack of freedom and maybe boredom of being in a cage. | [unfortunately, there is still a huge business in wild birds being sold as pets.](_url_1_) part of the reason is that many exotic birds are very difficult/ costly to breed. it is far easier and more profitable to just capture many of them wild. since many of these birds are highly social animals, removing them from their flocks can easily lead to depression: listlessness lack of appetite, poor self-grooming or over-grooming, and irritability. depending on the species of bird, these symptoms can often be fatal. in addition, you are correct in thinking that it is challenging to provide enough stimulus and social interaction to make up for the loss of their birth environment and flock. many parrots especially are prone to depression due to their high intelligence. in some cases, [prozac is prescribed for depressed animals.](_url_0_) while i would not recommend going that route unless you have exhausted every other possibility, i would say that your bird most likely is bored and needs more toys, attention, and play time. if this behavior persists, do consult your vet. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.naturalnews.com/024721_Prozac_dog_drug.html",
"http://www.bornfreeusa.org/mbw/a2a_overview.php"
] | [
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] |
why do black widows have such a strong venom? | caveat: rarely can we say with much certainty *why* anything evolved the way it did. usually, all we can do is take known facts and put them together to try to reconstruct what happened in the past. 1) lots of animals have venoms/toxins that can kill large animals that they would never eat. if a venom evolved such that it helped the animal kill its prey, while also being powerful enough for larger animals, so much the better (so long as the 'overpowered' venom doesn't require more resources to produce or have other adverse effects). 2) defense is important too. if a bite can incapacitate or otherwise deter a predator due to [pain](_url_0_), that can be an evolutionarily selected for advantage. 3) [the mechanism through which black widow venom \(alpha-latrotoxin\) acts is a very commonly attacked one.](_url_1_) snakes and lizards also have toxins that work on similar pathways. so it may just be due to the fact that this pathway is particularly susceptible to venoms, which led to three divergent evolutionary lines developing venoms that target it. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_hasseltii#Toxicology",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2924186/?tool=pubmed"
] | [
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|
how do our brains know how fast to make our hearts pump? | this is a pretty complex topic with lots of moving parts, but one of the big mechanisms is by the regulation of blood pressure. your body wants to make sure that it maintains a high enough blood pressure to send blood to your organs, especially the brain. blood pressure is equal to the total resistance of the blood vessels times the heart rate, so if blood pressure drops, the body can correct this through a rise in heart rate. the body has two main baroreceptors where it can sense the pressure that the heart is putting out. one is in the aortic arch (just after leaving the heart), and the other is in the carotid arteries (two big arteries that supply blood to the head). the way i think about it is that these two locations allow the brain to monitor (1) the pressure of the blood that it is putting out in general, and (2) the pressure that is going to the most important organ. in both of these locations, decreased pressure causes the nerves supplying the baroreceptors to fire less, which a special part of the brainstem (the nucleus tractus solitarius of the medulla) interprets as the need for a higher heart rate, among other things. so, a signal is sent to increase sympathetic activity (fight or flight) and inhibit parasympathetic activity (rest and digest). the net response is a faster heart rate. & #x200b; the heart also has special receptors that bind norepinephrine (from the sympathetic nerves referenced above) and epinephrine (from the blood, released from the adrenal glands). binding to these receptors also increases heart rate, though it is not entirely independent of the above process. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the brain decide when to do a heart pump? | is the brain just running an infinite loop in the background that sends a signal to the heart for each pump? | within your heart you have a set of cells known as pacemaker cells (or more technically the sinoatrial node), these set the pace for your heart and are mostly non-dependent on brain input. factors and hormonal responses (fight or flight) are able to release norepinephrine or ephinephrine (adrenaline and its 'relaxing counterpart') which will alter the the rate at which the heart beats. & #x200b; because your heart functioning correctly is a vital aspect of living, you have a few backup systems - if your sinatrial node doesn't function correctly, maybe due to a heart attack (myocardial infarction) and can damage cells within the sinoatrial node. this will result in the 'bundle of his', or the purkinje fibres (or both) to compensate and attempt to set the pace for the heart - however this is not ideal and can lead to further complications. in short to answer your question;the brain doesn't necessarily cause the 'infinite loop' the pacemaker cells or sa node initiate the heart beat on its own, however feedback loops or adrenal responses can influence the pace of the heart. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what pressure would be needed to force water at room temp to form a solid crystalline structure? | i just saw a special about extrasolar planets that are mostly water. the water near the bottom of that global ocean would apparently behave like a solid. what kind of pressure is needed to achieve this and can we create these conditions on earth in a lab? | [here's a phase diagram](_url_1_) for water. follow the line for room temperature (~290k) straight up and you'll reach the zone for ice-v around 1 gpa of pressure. that's an extremely high pressure, but it's achievable in the lab using [diamond anvil cells](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_anvil_cell",
"http://ergodic.ugr.es/termo/lecciones/phase.gif"
] | [
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does salting fields even do anything? | it has been a military tactic for millennia, but does it have any effect? | it's just a symbolic phrase/gesture; salt was valuable in the ancient world and it would have required unfeasibly large quantities of it to have any significant effect on the agricultural productivity of the farmland servicing an entire city. militaries would burn the city, maybe burn the fields if the climate and crops allowed for it (not much chance of doing that in a damp northern climate), and any salting would be a ritualistic affair like splashing a little holy water on a house to consecrate it, but in the case of salt it's a ritualistic cursing rather than blessing. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there no such thing as a face-centred monoclinic bravais lattice? [crystallography] | i can't seem to find any real explaination of this. i understand that any gaps in the set of bravais lattices is due to there being a more primitive version of the same crystal, but i can't seem to find one for the fcc monoclinic. i can see maybe how a fcc monoclinic could be viewed as a bcc monoclinic, but this doesn't exist either, and there's no literature on the more primative bravais lattice version of it. any help would be greatly appreciated. thanks as! | _url_0_ bcc monoclinic can be reduced to b-face monoclinic. (fig 37) to be more general, a-face = b-face = bcc by convention we just use primitive and b-face, but it would also be valid to say primitive and a-face or bcc. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scribd.com/doc/39588027/16/The-Monoclinic-System"
] | [
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] |
how is time synced? | we sync clocks to a central clock, but how is that clock kept accurate? | it's not one central clock, it's a large number of highly accurate atomic clocks around the world. these clocks are synced against each other periodically by averaging the tiny differences between them. this global average is called utc or coordinated universal time. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_ball",
"http://www.home.agilent.com/en/pd-1000001297%3Aepsg%3Apro-pn-3458A/digital-multimeter-8-digit",
"http://imgur.com/a/7njEk",
"http://us.flukecal.com/products/electrical-calibration/bench-multimeters/8508a-85-digit-reference-multimeter-0",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time"
] | [
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is today the second longest day of the year? | as you know, june 20th was the summer solstice, and is the longest day of the year. does this mean that june 21st is the second longest day of the year? if so, is the 22nd the third longest, and so on? | as you can see [here](_url_0_), the day length is pretty symmetrical about the summer solstice (which this year was actually at around midnight between 20th/21st, so those days are nearly identical in length). so the third longest days are 22nd and 19th, etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/usa/washington-dc"
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why does differentiation work in solving a max min problem? | i just came across the solution to these set of problems, the max min problems. apparently the solution is to write it down in an equation, differentiate the equation and solve it for 0. why does differentiation work? its not intuitive to me. for e.g. you have a wire of length 500ft. if your task is to build a fence out of that wire, what are the dimensions of the fence to maximize the area. | the derivative represents the slope of a curve. when a curve is at maximum or minimum, it flattens out and the slope (and thus the derivative) is 0 there. if this curve happens to represent area, as in your example, then that point will be a maximum or minimum in the area. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can the ability to see color atrophy? | if i didn't see any hot pink whatsoever for 10 years, could i recognize it if it came up one day? what if i was in some kind of environment where there was nothing in the entire red spectrum for 10 years? | there are quite a few scientific studies based on colors and the effects of not seeing colors for quite some time. one artist claude monet began to develop cataracts in 1911. cataracts limit the amount of violets and blue colors reaching vision area of the eye. after 12 years he received cataract surgery on one of his eyes. the paintings after his cataract surgery is vastly different then his previous painting when he started to develop cataracts. his paintings where more blue than his past paintings which would indicate a sensitivity to blue light. as weeks passed by, the color sensitivity to blue and violets plateaued to near normal levels. so after having the inability to see blue/violets for more than 5 years(but less than 10), he still had the ability to see blue after surgery. what is interesting however is what happens to some subjects who have not had vision for most of their life. one such example is from oliver sacks and a man named virgil. virgil had cataracts in his eyes since he was 6 years old and was considered blind. at the age of 50, the cataracts were removed and replaced.removing the bandages after resting, he was able to see but could not process the meaning of what he was seeing. an example i can give to what i mean by this is to imagine(or look) at a table. you can see the lines of the edge of the table, the legs, and know that your seeing a table. now imagine that the only thing you are able to interpret of the table is a single edge. you see it as a straight line or a curve. then you see another line at a different angle but could not put them together to form the complex image of a table. his perception of the world had changed and because his vision was limited at a young age, the development of the visual centers of his brain were not complete in a sense. _url_1_ virgil(interesting read) _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.willamette.edu/~mstewart/whatdoesitmean2see.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2646426/"
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seems like some joint injuries are the hardest to come back healthy from, like knees and ankles. is it the complexity of the body part or the fact that it’s used the most in the body system? | joint injuries being the hardest to come back from is subjective, as is rating it as one of the most complex or used parts of the body. one could argue that brain or heart injuries are the hardest to come back from, and also suggest that it has something to do with their complexity or amount of use. instead, how much can be repaired (and how well) could actually be said to determine how easy an injury is to come back from. now, lets talk about joints. joints are basically the ends of bones that move against each other, but friction and wearing down is prevented by them being covered by cartilage and lubricated by fluid. without the cartilage and fluid, the bones of the joints would simply grind against each other in a very noisy and painful way. when a joint is injured, any cartilage that is damaged cannot be repaired. the body simply doesn't make new cartilage. instead, bone is commonly created instead, resulting in bone being where cartilage used to be. in addition, the amount of fluid there used to be is permanently affected. on top of all of this, scar tissue can be made that just grows to cover anything that was injured, kind of like making a spiderweb out of duct tape to stick everything together. all these factors can result in a joint that doesn't move as much as it used to, is much more painful to use, or is weaker than it was before the injury. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are humans unique in their ability to consciously act against their best interests? | in other words, i've never seen an animal knowingly commit suicide or eat something poisonous, or engage in hazardous acts with the intent to harm themselves. sure animals get themselves trapped or hit by cars, but is there any case of an animal intentionally harming itself for the sake of harming itself? edit: the question whether animals are aware of the out come and not just acting irrationally. example: a man walks across the street blindfolded and gets hit by a truck. he may have been acting recklessly, which lead to his death, but his intent wasn't necessarily suicide. | no, we're not, and understanding the evolutionary significance and implications of this type of behaviour ([altruism](_url_1_)) is a major field of current research in evolutionary theory. the classic example are prairie dogs, when the group is out of the warren if an individual spots a predator it will make noises to warn the others, lowering the chances of it's own survival but increasing the survival odds for the rest of the group. in this sense it is definitely acting against it's own best interest. if you are interested in reading further, you could look at the wikipedia pages on [altruism in animals](_url_1__in_animals) and [kin selection](_url_0_) **tl:dr** no, other animals do this too. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism_in_animals"
] | [
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how does superluminal (ftl) transmission of information or matter violate causality? | i keep reading in threads that hypothetical ftl propositions (wormholes, warp drives, ect) violate causality, but i haven't found an explanation as to why this is so. | the exact time difference between two events depends on your frame of reference. two events that happen far apart in time in one frame can happen very close to each other in another frame. all this is governed by lorentz transformations. now if an object travels faster than light in one frame, than the lorentz transformation shows that the object is traveling backwards in time in other reference frames. if an object (or information) can travel backwards in time, that means that a cause in the future can lead to an effect in the past. cause and effect are therefore backwards and causality has been broken. breaking causality leads to all sorts of non-physical paradoxes, and therefore is understood to be impossible. therefore, traveling at faster the speed of light is impossible. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/rSaYIPI"
] | [
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what physical evidence is there that the tricarboxylic acid/krebs/citric acid cycle actually exists? | i had a realisation today that despite being taught about the cycle at university, i've never known how it was discovered/proved. thanks reddit! | the experiments of hans adolf krebs might be of interest to you. he won the nobel prize in medicine in 1953 for his discovery of the series of reactions of the krebs cycle. fritz albert lipmann also contributed with his discovery of aceytl-coa and shared the 1593 nobel with krebs. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimetric_analysis",
"https://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/redox/definitions.html",
"http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_2502",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1266984/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6998725",
"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/addisons-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20350293",
"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1953/summary/"
] | [
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is there a limit to voltage? would a wire just disintegrate if it had too high of a voltage? | voltage deals with the concentration of electrons in a metal. if a piece of metal (like a plate on a capacitor) had too high of a voltage, would it be so negatively charged that its molecules would repel eachother? would its physical properties change like they do when molecules become ionic? also, if a voltage is too low, is it possible that all of the electrons are stripped from the molecules? thanks in advanced for your answers! | to clarify first, voltage is the difference between electrical potential in two points in space. note that it does not only affect metals. now to answer your question, if a wire was powered such that there is a very large potential difference between the two ends, a proportionally large current would flow through it. with this current flow and the resistance present in the wire, thermal energy would also be generated. with a very large current, a very large amounts of heat would be generated as well, possibly resulting in the melting or, with large enough thermal energy, incineration of the wire. **tl:dr: yes, with sufficiently high voltages.** | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is in the space between organs and bones and blood vessels in the body? is it just flesh, or something else? | it's mostly flesh, but there's a thin layer of [peritoneal fluid](_url_0_) between your organs to help them shift around as necessary. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneal_fluid"
] | [
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] |
|
what is the most corrosive substance known to man and how is it stored/contained? | thanks! | fluorine technically has the highest oxidation potential of any substance known to man, so that is your answer. it is so corrosive, it will spontaneously ignite wood, water, and metal filings. [it must be contained in nickel tanks, at no more than 45 psi.](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/1950/3445603604981.pdf"
] | [
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askscience ama series: we are earth scientists with the iris consortium (_url_0_) and we study earthquakes and seismology. ask us anything! | hi reddit! we are danielle sumy (seismologist) and wendy bohon (geologist). from dr. sumy: i wanted to study earthquakes since i was 10 years old. i started off working in marine geology and geophysics, particularly studying fluid movement and small earthquake along mid-ocean ridges. i now study induced earthquakes and work on the global seismographic network (gsn), and the central and eastern united states seismic network (ceusn). i am currently a project associate with iris. from dr. bohon: my research has focused on examining how the earth changes as the result of multiple earthquakes. i date dirt to find out when ancient earthquakes occurred (geochronology) and rocks to examine how mountains have changed through time (thermochronology). i have worked on fault related problems in the himalayas (ladakh), the andes (bolivia and argentina) and in ca. i am an informal education specialist with iris. iris is a consortium of over 100 us universities dedicated to the operation of science facilities for the acquisition, management, and distribution of seismological data. iris programs contribute to scholarly research, education, earthquake hazard mitigation, and verification of the comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty. iris operates the global seismographic network (in collaboration with the usgs) as well as the ocean bottom seismograph instrument pool and the earthscope transportable array (which was named the most epic project by popular science!). iris also provides instrumentation for other geophysical experiments around the world, including in the polar regions, the andes, asia and the us. you can find us on facebook at _url_0_. we'll be available to start answering questions around 12 pm et (16 utc). ask us anything! | i've seen conflicting studies on the theory that fracking can cause earthquakes. what are your thoughts on this? if you do believe that fracking can cause earthquakes, do you believe that using something similar to preemptively cause smaller, more frequent earthquakes along major fault lines might be used to keep larger more devastating earthquakes from happening near large population centers? | 60 | [
"www.iris.edu"
] | [
"https://www.facebook.com/IRIS-Education-and-Public-Outreach"
] | [
"http://www.desmogblog.com/sites/beta.desmogblog.com/files/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20and%20Seismicity%20in%20the%20Western%20Canada%20Sedimentary%20Basin.pdf",
"http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/07/20/the-really-big-one"
] | [
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the science behind haarp? | i'm stuck in a debate with a fellow coworker that believes haarp is some sort of weather control apparatus. i've debunked all i can but i don't know atmospheric science enough to go further. i'm hoping for an in depth of what is actually being researched, and how? i understand bouncing frequencies but that’s as far as i know. science is an interest of mine regardless, so i'd love to learn anyway (debunking just happens to be a nice bonus). she went into numerous other conspiracy theories (which i ignored altogether), but i'm genuinely interested in haarp. thank you in advance. | [searched](_url_4_) relevant [discussion](_url_6_) original question by [permanentmarker](_url_0_) relevant comment courtesy [mobilehypo](_url_7_) relevant [follow-up](_url_3_) courtesy [sannish](_url_9_) > flooding and other things being caused by haarp is just nonsensical. it puts out less power then lightning and there worldwide transmitters operating at ~200-500 kw that don't appear to have any effects. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/user/permanentmarker",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/he53z/atmosphere_above_japan_heated_rapidly_before_m9/c1upc2q",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program#Conspiracy_theories",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/he9of/regarding_a_comment_in_rscience_about_haarp/c1urqx6",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=haarp&restrict_sr=on",
"http://www.technologyreview.com/blog/arxiv/26773/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/he9of/regarding_a_comment_in_rscience_about_haarp/",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/mobilehypo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/Sannish"
] | [
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] |
what is haarp and what does it do? | i stumbled across some conspiracy video on youtube claiming haarp can cause natural disasters and whatnot, but none of these claims seemed to have any scientific backing. this is really the first time i've heard about haarp and i figured i'd ask some people who actually know their stuff and aren't wearing a tinfoil hat in their basement. so, askscience, can you explain to me what haarp is and is it capable of causing natural disasters? | read the [wiki](_url_0_) article about it, it sums it up really well. it doesn't do much of anything from a laymens perspective - it excites an atmospheric layer and watches what happens, basically. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program"
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] |
how was gravity originally calculated and how accurate was this? | depends on what object's gravity you're talking about, but the most significant piece of the general equation for the gravitational force between two objects, the gravitational constant (g) was measured in an [experiment](_url_0_) by henry cavendish | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendulum#Gravity_measurement"
] | [
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|
[mathematics] the four colour theorem states that any 2 dimensional map divided into closed regions can have regions coloured in at most four colours with no region sharing an edge with another same-coloured region. how computationally hard is it to find such a colouring? | statement of the four colour theorem: _url_0_ _________________________ given an arbitrary map (for example, the map of a city divided up into all of its suburbs), how much computational power is needed to decide upon a colouring? and how much does this grow as the number of suburbs increases? | this is a graph problem called a graph's chromatic number, it belongs to a class of problems know as np hard, what this means is that there is no known way to do this with 100% accuracy fast, we study this a lot in computer science and it shouldn't be hard to find it online, when i'm on pc i'll find you a better explanation | 8 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_color_theorem"
] | [] | [
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what happens to the fighter aircraft when it crosses it's service ceiling? | can it perform just like before above service ceiling? any difference or changes in performance of aircraft? strains on engine, decrease in maneuverability? | probably nothing noticeable at first. service ceiling is a rating, and likely one with some "padding" put in. just like when your car's gas gauge is on empty, you have some wiggle room. & #x200b; an aircraft is designed to function best within a certain envelope. when service ceiling is exceeded, this means there are efficiency consequences to the engines and the air may become too thin to sustain the amount of lift or stability to operate the aircraft safely. in short, narrowly exceeding service ceiling may not even have a noticeable effect on the flight characteristics of the aircraft. more egregious violations may result in loss of control of the aircraft, engine failure, or poor handling. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes cell signal to seemingly go in and out, when both i and the tower are stationary? | as i typed the title alone, i went from service, to no service, and back. what factors contribute to this behavior? to help narrow it down, i am indoors, in a public space. | the dominant signal path between you and the cell tower is unlikely to be a direct line-of-sight one; there'll be multiple refractions around and reflections off of intervening objects. that path might be momentarily obstructed, for example by passing people in that public space (6' bags of salty water are great radio blockers), nice slab-sided vehicles out in the road, branches swaying in the wind, squalls on a rainy day - any number of factors. if your signal is marginal to start with any of these seemingly minor obstructions or changes to the environment could be the last straw. i install building radio systems: i've seen comms disrupted significantly by installing a marine fish tank in the reception of a tower with a big atrium. also, the big flappy doors in hospital corridors that are made of plastic with a core of chicken mesh make great mirrors for wi-fi signal and can cause ghost images of coverage to appear fleetingly across the building while the door is out of the closed position... | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the excessive comsuption of violent media has any effect on us? | i will answer your question in regards to the field i'm familiar with, which is child development. hopefully someone else can answer your question in regards to violent media affect on adulthood. short answer: yes, consumption of violent media in early childhood generally leads to increased aggression as the child develops long answer: for a period of time, it was highly debated whether violent media caused our children to become more aggressive. however, the overwhelming majority of current research has clearly shown time and again that there is some correlation between the two factors that cannot be ignored. research generally agrees that violent movies and violent video games were greatest contributors to aggression in children. what is less clear is the effects of violent literature. there are some research out there that claims violent literature can potentially increase aggression (stockdale, coyne, nelson, & padilla-walker, 2013), but this finding is a lot less conclusive than research on violent movies and video games. furthermore, exposure to violent media does not only increase aggression in the short-term but in the long-term as well. in fact, many longitudinal studies on children regularly exposed to violent media found that they were more likely to be aggressive in adulthood and commit psychical violence (i.e. physical assault, spouse abuse). in regards to to the short-term effects, researchers theorize that violent media increases aggression by touching upon already existing aggressive cognitions and scripts, which then increase physiological arousal and trigger some sort of automatic urge to copy the observed violent media. long-term effects are a result of repeated exposure to violent media changing or even replacing the learning processes of the child (i.e. schemata, internal belief and values) that constituent how a child should act in a certain situation. lastly, i must talk a little about something that is very important to consider when talking about this topic. as with everything else within the field of psychology, it is hard to isolate the factors and clearly demonstrate that x leads to y. although many of the studies on this topic did control for ses, family make-up, diagnosed disorders, one cant help but think about the context in which the child grows up in. if a child grows up in an environment where all they watch are violent movies and play violent video games, how can we be sure that this media causes the increased aggression or whether it was the environment that the child has grown up in. we cannot isolate the child from the environment in which he/she grows up in and we must always take that into consideration whenever we discusses x leads to y type of discussions. here are some resources if you're interested. > stockdale, l.a., coyne, s.m., nelson, d.a., & padilla-walker, l.m. (2013). read anything mean lately? associations between reading aggression in books and aggressive behavior in adolescents. *aggressive behavior* 39(6), 493-502. doi: 10.1002/ab.21492 | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_violence_research",
"http://www.npr.org/2015/12/23/460851046/despite-grim-media-reports-crime-rates-are-actually-down-in-the-u-s"
] | [
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|
askscience: why am i able to cleanly break an apple in half with my hands? | i'd just like to know if it has something to do with the molecular structure of the fruit or something along those lines. why am i able to break an apple in half with my bare hands? it seems to only work with certain types too: mcintosh, idared, fuji; apples with a bright red/green mix to their skin. [youtube of what i'm talking about](_url_0_) any possible explanations? | a guess would be that the flesh of the apple is made up of cells that are less tightly associated than other parts of the plant. generally speaking though, when you tear through it, you are rippling along a microscopic line of cell to cell contacts. it is very likely that there are less cells to make contact in the fleshy part of the fruit because of an increase in water and sugar vacuoles making each cell much larger on average. plants are not my strong suit, but hopefully i'm not 180 degrees backwards. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V-f_SWEie8o&NR=1&feature=fvwp"
] | [] | [
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how do we know how fast our bodies are moving? | the body has a number of systems meant to monitor the body's status. the sense of one's own body is called proprioception, and specifically the sense of its movement is called kinesthesia. there are many different sensory receptors throughout the body, those that contribute directly to proprioception are called proprioceptors. these receptors are generally located in the inner ear (for balance) and in the muscles, which sense the relative position and tension of joints and muscles. these receptors send signals to the brain, which are processed and integrated along with other sensory signals to give the brain an estimate of where and how the body is moving. specifically pertaining to the question of the body's speed, the brain uses proprioceptive signals, as described above, in addition to visual signals which the brain can use to calculate speed by equations relating change in perceived object size to motion (in other words, the eye sees an object growing in size and is able to relate that to the speed the body is moving). in summary, the brain processes and integrates numerous sources of information it takes in from sensory receptors and is able to derive the body's speed. for more info: [proprioception](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesthesia"
] | [
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] |
|
is there anything that doesn't conduct electricity at all? | i know most things like wood, and plastic are not good conductors, but it's *possible* for it to conduct electricity, if it's really really strong. but is there anything that is immune to electricity? or something that has such a high resistance, that electricity just can't go through it? | yes. they are known as [superinsulators](_url_0_), the opposite of superconductors. basically, the electrons are bound tightly together in pairs, and the pairs completely avoid each other, so no electron transfer happens. more practically, there are some more common materials, like teflon, with such tightly bound electrons they have close to zero conductivity. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superinsulator",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_discharge_in_gases",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwinger_limit"
] | [
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how did henry cavendish know that his experiment was being moved by gravity? | i recently learned of the [first measurements of the gravity constant (big g) by henry cavendish in 1797](_url_0_). i was wondering how it was determined that the movement of the apparatuses was caused by gravity and not by something like temperate / pressure differentials, the earths rotation, some sort of electrical or magnetic force, etc. please understand that i am not doubting the measurement of the gravitational constant, but would like to know how the experiment was setup in such a way as to measure gravity. thanks | if you read through cavendish's report, he talks about a lot of these concerns in pretty plain language: _url_0_ ""it must be observed that his compass box was of metal, which transmits heat faster than wood, and also was many inches deep; both which causes served to increase the current of air. to diminish the effect of this current, it is by all means advisable to make the bax, in which the needle plays, not much deeper than is necessary to prevent the needle from striking against the top and bottom" | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experiment"
] | [
"http://www.phys.ufl.edu/courses/phy3221/spring10/1798Cavendish.pdf"
] | [
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bayes theorem in your field. | i've noticed a significant trend in psychological science to adopt baysian approach to test hypothesis. for example, [john kruschke](/_url_2_), [david howell](_url_1_), [gerd gigerenzer](/_url_0_) have all made compelling arguments to adopting this approach over typical analysis of variance tests. so i'm curious which disciplines use this approach in addition to standard regression or analysis of variance techniques. *edit-- this subreddit isn't my own way to demonstrate i know a couple things about bayesian cognition. i'm much more interested in how other disciplines use this method. also bayes theorem is: p(a|b) = (p(b|a)*p(a))/p(b) | phylogenetic systematists (the people who make evolutionary trees) are using bayesian methods more and more. as far as i can tell its because the previous approaches used parsimony primarily. and we know a lot more about how evolution works than to assume nothing. for example they partition genes and functional units and take into account some transitions between bases are more likely than others. my understanding is that bayesian approaches allows you to specify these priors (information we already have) and thats what makes them more realistic and adaptable than previous methods. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.psychologicalscience.org/journals/pspi/pspi_8_2_article.pdf",
"http://www.uvm.edu/~dhowell/StatPages/StatHomePage.html",
"http://www.indiana.edu/~kruschke/"
] | [] | [
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what is the normal force? can it be measured? | i only know it as that thing i drew in my high school physics free body diagrams to balance force from gravity. | that's kind of the right idea. newton's second law of motion says that the sum of the forces on an object equals the mass times the acceleration, where the forces are all vectors and the acceleration is also a vector, so these have directions. when you're standing on the ground, you're not accelerating, so some force must be counteracting the force of gravity. that's the normal force. it's not strictly one-to-one though because it's actually perpendicular to the contact surface (see [here](_url_0_)). a bathroom scale measures the normal force. put the scale in an elevator. when the elevator starts to move up or down, you will feel heavier or lighter suddenly, because you've begun to accelerate. the scale will measure this. therefore, the scale doesn't measure just the gravitational force, but the sum of both the acceleration from gravity and the acceleration from the elevator, which will be equal to the normal force. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Friction_relative_to_normal_force_%28diagram%29.png"
] | [
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] |
does the magnus effect still work underwater? | the magnus effect is due to the fluid dynamics around a rotating sphere, so it should theoretically work in any fluid. the problem with water is that the density and viscosity of water would cause the ball to lose momentum very quickly, both linear and angular, i.e. it would slow down and stop spinning. you would need a very dense (lots of momentum) and preferably small (to reduce drag) ball to actually observe the effect. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how does a frequency converter work? | i work with a frequency converter that takes 60hz 120/208 and turns it into 400hz 120/208. i work with mobile generators so i know all the basic terms, but i have no clue how this thing works. | it used to be done mechanically. use your input frequency to drive a motor which had a shaft connected to a generator, possibly using gearing in-between. this hasn't been done much for a long time. it is now done in most cases by converting the ac to dc, then using the dc to make ac via an oscillator & power amplifier. for low power rf stuff, it is also possible to use a mixer to add frequencies to get new ones. i guess that could be done for other applications, but it doesn't seem to be. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does my phone know how many steps i've taken, and how accurate is it? | i just got the samsung galaxy s6, and noticed that. | it has a motion detector in it (called an accelerometer). when you take a stride, you jostle the phone in a certain way, and so the motion detector is able to register that as a step. i'm not sure about accuracy, and that probably depends from device to device and os to os. when i was a kid, we had pokemon pikachu toys--a virtual toy with a step counter, so you get points by walking around with it. you could cheat the toy by just shaking it, each shake counting as a step. modern applications are more complicated. they'll do things like only start tracking after you've made a few steps because it's easier to detect certain patterns (at which point the previous steps are added all at once). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would someone treated with an aed feel the shock? | would someone in a cardiac emergency who was treated with an aed feel the shock during or after treatment? as a lifeguard in training, myself and some friends are curious about the pain, or lack thereof, associated with being shocked by an aed. | some aeds can be used to cardiovert, cardioversion is a carefully timed shock to convert the heart from a dangerous rhythm during which a patient may be concious, to a more correct one. patients can and do feel this pain, though whether or not they do is inherently specific to the situation. there can be burns to the skin beneath the pads, strong muscle cramps/spasms and in some cases, arcing which can light chest hair on fire. (yes, i've seen this happen) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the largest uniform body that we know of? | i was reading this article about this newly discovered black hole that's 660 million times massive as our sun. but then i started wondering what is the largest object, not by mass, but by physical size, that we know of. i assume it's a star, but which one in that case and how big is it? also is there a limit to how big a star can grow before it collapses and forms a black hole, or are there specific circumstances (like proper density) that can let a star become larger than most of the other stars before their collapse? | black holes have a schwarzschild radius of approximately 2,95 km per solar mass, so many supermassive black holes will outperform even the largest stars. according to [this list](_url_1_) the black hole of s5 0014+81 has a mass of 40 billion solar masses, which equals a radius of 118 billion km or over 26 times the average distance from the sun to neptune. [here is another list](_url_0_), which shows the largest known stars. as you can see, not a single one exceeds neptune's orbit in size even slightly, not to talk about being many times larger than that. however, there are some limitations to what we can tell about the size of stars. point 1 is, that we don't have exact measurements of the distance and luminosity of many stars, so there is a large uncertainty about how large they really are. the second point is, that huge evolved stars don't have a spherical shape anymore, so measuring the size depends on where you set the "surface". regarding black holes, we don't know to which degree general relativity holds true, so the above would only be correct, if you assume that black holes actually are singularities with surrounding event horizon. the size of a star is determined by its inward gravitational pull and its outward radiation pressure. evolved stars are highly instable, because all the non-hydrogen types of stellar fusion are highly sensitive to temperature and even the slightest pertubations have dramatic effects on the energy outpout. that's why so many large stars are also variable ones. for a star to become very large, you have to have a high radiation pressure, which requires a high core reaction rate, to counteract the pull of gravity, however, since you need the gravitational pressure to run the reaction in the first place, the star can't grow arbitrarily. i therefore guess the list above gives a realistic idea how large stars can actually become. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_stars",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_black_holes#List"
] | [
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is transfer of conciousness possible? | as of right now, this question is to a large extent philosophical rather than scientific. we don't have a good enough understanding of what "conciousness" is. and that's only the tip of the iceberg of issues. what does one mean by "continue" for example? the quick answer is that if one thinks that the brain uses purely classical information on a large scale (which at this point seems likely) then in principle all that consciousness is is arguably just an ongoing series of algorithms. so copying would be continuity. note that speculating that there's more involved here doesn't take much also. scott aaronson for example, has pointed out that only minimal amounts of quantum effects mattering (nothig like penrose type issues) might combine with the [no-cloning theorem](_url_1_) so that making multiple copies would be impossible. this is discussed for example in aaronson's recent book "quantum computing since democritus" which i highly recommend. his paper [here](_url_0_) and more recently [this essay](_url_2_) also have relevant discussion. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1108.1791",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_cloning_theorem",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1306.0159"
] | [
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|
how do you recognise a scientific journal? | for college i've been asked to write a critical review of a scientific journal. the topic is type 2 diabetes. so i've been searching through pubmed but i have no idea if what i'm looking at is a proper journal article. here's the two article's that i've found _url_0_ _url_1_ are they legitimate? | first off, pubmed is a database, not a journal. it collects journal articles from online and paper journals and makes them readily available. the two papers you have linked to are both "proper journal articles." you can tell this by reading the abstract. however, you should do some digging about the sources before citing them. the journals they come from are *primary care companion for cns disorders* and *patient reference and adherence,* respectively. i'd check out the journals' homepages and see what requirements there are for submitting a paper. some require peer review, some do not. obviously, peer reviewed papers are considered more "legitimate." finally, do a quick google search of the authors listed on the articles. in research, it is commonplace to list the principle investigator *last* on the author list. the first author is generally the post-doc or researcher who designed the experiments therein; all authors in the middle are usually listed in order of contribution to the project. so checking out the first and last author on google could give you some information on the source. are they well published, etc. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3357575/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3393120/"
] | [] | [
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what's the point of using fischer projections instead of just using 3-d molecular diagrams? | in a university introductory organic chemistry course and we sometimes use fischer projection to portray the stereochemical properties of a compound. but why do we use this "simplified" version? i honestly am not sure since i'm much more used to using wedged and dashed bonds in my diagrams (i find it harder to use fischer tbh) if anyone can point to a good explanation that would be great. i would def get some more incentive to actually care about this for my test next week. | convenience. they're easy to draw, and you can rapidly and clearly distinguish stereoisomers at a glance. i know they seem like a step backward from the dash-wedge convention that you're used to, and for your ochem class, they probably are. however, if you end up taking a biochem class, or any other course with extensive carbohydrate chemistry, they're wonderfully handy. (in fact, carbohydrate chemistry is what they were designed for, and iupac actually discourages their use outside of it for the very reason that they can be confusing.) [take this library of hexoses for example.](_url_0_) in an exam scenario, you would not want to have to interpret all those as dash-wedge, or draw them for that matter. with fischer projections, you can clearly and quickly distinguish between them. it also makes them easier to memorize, should you need to. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/en/7/71/8HexoseMolecules.jpg"
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[cryptology] how does the maximum distance separable matrix work? | to any cryptologists and other computer scientists out there, could you please tell me how the mds matrix works? i honestly can't understand it. for context, i haven't really studied anything past confusion, diffusion, feistel networks, lai-massey, and sp-networks, and bitwise operations. | ok, interest of full disclosure, i have never head of mds codes being used in cryptography before this question. after having looked into them, they basically are for [diffusion](_url_4_), in that they guarantee a small change to a key can create a largely different cypher text. in more depth, mds, or maximum distance separable codes are codes which meet the [singleton bound (paywall)](_url_3_) (and the link to [wiki](_url_0_)). in short, mds codes have the maximal hamming distance possible between any two codewords. some examples of these codes include [hamming codes](_url_2_) and [reed-solomon codes](_url_1_). it should be clear that this is a very desirable property to have for error correction because it allows for the largest amount of errors. for instance, an example of an mds code for 2 codewords over 3 bits would simply be codeword 0 = 000, and codeword 1 = 111. if codeword zero is sent, and there is one error, the possible outcomes are 001, 010, and 100, while if codeword 1 is sent and there is one error, the possible outcomes are 110, 101, and 011. thus the set of possible outputs given a single error do not overlap, and thus can be distinguished at the receiver. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singleton_bound",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_error_correction",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_code",
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1053661/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion_and_diffusion"
] | [
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out of my depth. my nephew is trying to figure out how a cell phone speaker works, what powers it, how does it connect so tiny? he's 14, how do i explain this? | he's interested in taking things apart. right now he has an older phone i think it's an iphone 6? he found the speaker assembly, and used ifixit to identify the other parts. but he wants to know how to make it work apart from the cell phone. how can he hook the speaker up so it plays from a bluetooth source? i have a soldering iron, but that's as useful as i can be. thanks for your help in advance! | the basic principle of a speaker is pretty simple: you have a coil of wire wrapped around a magnet and as electricity runs through the coil, it creates a magnetic field that will either attract or repel the magnet inside of it. the coil is attached to a flexible cone and when it moves forward, it creates a pulse of pressure. when it moves backward, it creates a pulse of vacuum. if you keep it moving forward and backward, it creates a pressure wave that you hear as sound. there are other types of speakers such as piezoelectric speakers (which i suspect may be the type of speaker used in cell phones due to their low power requirements and small size), but they all operate on the basic principle of converting electrical energy into mechanical motion. in principle, if you were to connect the wall power directly to a speaker, you would hear a 50 or 60 hz hum, which is the frequency of ac power depending on where you live. in practice, don't do this because you will likely destroy the speaker and possibly cause a fire or shock yourself. speakers are more complicated than just their principle of operation. speakers have a property called "impedance" which more or less relates to how much electricity is required to move the magnet (usually 8 or 16 ohms). when connecting the speaker to an amplifier, you need to make sure the impedance on both components matches or else you risk damaging the amp, the speaker, or both. to connect it to a bluetooth source, you would need a bluetooth module. you can google around and find modules specifically for bluetooth speakers. next, you will likely need an amplifier of some kind. devices that output audio signals tend to generate very small amounts of power (which can be on the level of microwatts) and need to be boosted in order to drive a speaker, which can withstand tens or hundreds of watts. an amplifier takes a low power input and high power dc signal (which is ideally flat), and more or less "copies" the input signal to the high power side. this will convert your low power bluetooth signal into something higher power that the phone speaker can use (though since it is a phone speaker, you can try connecting the module directly to the speaker and seeing how loud it is). if you want to build an amplifier, there are thousands of tutorials, and there are even bluetooth modules that have an amplifier built in. [here's a simple diy](_url_0_) bluetooth speaker you can make for about $15. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.instructables.com/id/DIY-Bluetooth-Speaker-PartyBar/",
"https://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-mosfetamp.html",
"https://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-amp-noninvert.html",
"https://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-ceamp.html"
] | [
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if you split a crystal and pushed the two pieces together would the lattice snap back into place? | i'm sure it would require some energy and the particular symmetry would have an effect. assuming no contamination . | whenever you split a crystal in the real world, the surface atoms will have dangling bonds, which is a *very* high energy state. it will immediately find some way to lower that energy state, by either forming extra bonds with neighboring atoms, which creates an irregular crystal structure in the outer couple atoms, or by bonding with something else (eg. oxygen from the air). so because the structure is always modified in some way after the cleave, being able to put it back the way it was is unfathomably unlikely. cold welding can happen (generally only in a vacuum), but it doesn't mean that the crystal has returned to the way it was before like nothing happened. it just means that enough bonds have formed between the two halves to make a solid connection. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_reconstruction"
] | [
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does earth leave a trail in space? | i'm thinking we probably do. | no, not like you're thinking. earth does lose atmosphere due to atmospheric escape, so there would be a slight trail, which would always point away from the sun like a comet's tail, but the rate of escape is relatively low, so this trail would not be visible to the naked eye, and would be difficult to detect. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/ssc/tutorial/solwind_interact_magsphere_tutorial.pdf"
] | [
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could this android app truly act as a rudimentary geiger counter? | i am currently working on research using a dismantled webcam to detect alpha radiation. the lens has to be removed, otherwise it would block the alphas, but it works using a 210po source. it works by the mechanism of the alphas depositing a charge on the cmos. fortunately, webcams are cheap as radiation destroys the cmos. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what did newton miss? | if i understand correctly, newton came up with a theory of gravity wich seemed to work. however, einstein disproved it by making a more correct theory. what did newton miss, that einstein saw? | the big thing that people point to is the precession of the perihelion of mercury. with newton's law of universal gravitation you expect orbits to repeat year after year, but the observation was that mercury's perihelion (the point in its orbit where it's closest to the sun) is not at the same location each orbit. newton knew that this was the case and and it plagued him that his law did not explain the phenomenon, but it was still much better than anything else at the time. newton's law also gives no explanation of how gravity will affect the passage of time nor the traveling of light, both of which are explained by einstein's formulation of gravity. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there an upper limit on size for gecko wall-climbing? | my roommate was wondering if there is an upper limit on size/weight for gecko's footpads' ability to climb walls. i figured this was as good a place as any to ask. | the amount of weight they are able to hold up is directly correlated to the amount of septulae (tiny bristles) on their feet. given large enough feet (pedantry: its actually the amount of septulae but bigger gecko feet would generally have more septulae) any weight can be supported. however the surface they are attempting to attach to also plays a role in their ability to stick as they are only keeping themselves attached via van der waal's interactions created between the molecules on the surface and the septulae on the gecko's feet. based on the surface the gecko is trying to stick to these interactions will vary in strength and, thus, have great effect on how well the gecko "sticks". | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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