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mitchondrial membrane question: why do the h+ ions stay in the intermembrane space instead of leaking out the outer membrane? | so, i'm learning oxidative phosphorylation right now. here's what i know: the respiratory chain in a mitochondria uses energy derived from nadh/fadh2 to drive a proton gradient in the intermembrane space. the inner membrane is relatively impermeable to h+ ions, so that is the electrochemical force that drives atp-synthase but the outer mitochondrial membrane is leaky and practically equal to cytoplasm.... ... so why don't the h+ ions leak out the outer membrane and destroy the gradient? the nearest i can figure out is due to the christae in the middle: the increased surface area assures that more h+ can be channeled back to the matrix before it has a chance to diffuse out the relatively smaller surface area of the outer membrane. in short, the difference is due to surface area across which the ions could move. am i even close to being on the right track here? | afaik, neither of the membrane are particularly 'leaky'. there's atp synthase as an obvious channel for protons back through the inner membrane, but there are no proton channels in the outer one. (note that aquaporins allow water to pass through but not h^+ , something that's rather remarkable) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are solvation and effective concentration determined solely by the number of particles and not their relative sizes? | we recently learned about solvation and effective concentration in my physiological chemistry class and i didn't understand this point. our professor said that a 1m solution of glucose in water would yield the same effective concentration as a 1m solution of na+ in water, because all that matters is the number of particles making hydration shells. what i don't understand about that is why a molecule of glucose and an na+ ion take the same number of h2o molecules to dissolve them. it seems to me that a molecule of glucose would take proportionately many more molecule of h2o to cover it effectively than an na+ ion due to their relative sizes (i don't really know how different it would be, but i would guess glucose has at least 5 times the surface area to cover). this makes me think intuitively that 1m of glucose and 1m of na+ would yield different effective concentrations, because when forming hydration shells glucose would isolate 5(?) times as many molecules of h2o. clearly that isn't the case however, so i'm confused. i asked my professor and she said that she didn't know, so i thought i'd ask here. the only thing i can think of is that maybe the water molecules form a shell relatively far away from the dissolved molecule, like how electrons are extremely far away from the protons and neutrons in an atom, and so the different sizes would become insignificant, but i don't see why that would be the case here when so many other chemical interactions based on the unique properties of water happen in relatively close molecular proximity (hydrogen bonding, etc). thanks in advance for any help! | my impression on this is that you are mostly correct to think that colligative properties do appear to our intuition to depend on the particular properties of the solute. the behavior of solute-solvent systems only reduce to the known colligative laws (boiling point elevation - molality relation for example) when the solution is assumed ideal. an ideal solution is that which mimics the properties of a mixture of ideal gases. an ideal gas has no molecular size and contains no intermolecular interactions so you can kind of guess why the laws are what they are. the question becomes why do real solutions ever behave like ideal solutions? that would be only when the solute-solvent interactions are analog to the solvent-solvent interactions, in which case the *activity coefficients* of each species approaches unity. for ionic solutions, this is a quite rare case. that is why is the solution model must almost always be corrected by a factor called the *ionic strength*. in the limit of zero ionic strength, the solution is again ideal. the colligative laws also hold true in the limit of infinite dilution of the solute. tl;dr: na+ ion is not the same as glucose molecules, they do produce different *effective concentrations* even with equal *analytical concentrations*, although your professor will be right if you have a very dilute solution. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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interesting article about science and innovation; plus a question on new methods of space travel and the work of specific physicists. | first, sorry for the cryptic title. i wasn't really sure how to phrase it. this is from an article i was just reading: > imagine a factory mass-producing small vehicles, about as big and complicated as refrigerators, which roll off the end of an assembly line, are loaded with space-bound cargo, and topped off with non-polluting liquid hydrogen fuel, then exposed to intense concentrated heat from an array of ground-based lasers or microwave antennas. heated to temperatures beyond what can be achieved through a chemical reaction, the hydrogen erupts from a nozzle on the base of the device and sends it rocketing into the air. tracked through its flight by the lasers or microwaves, the vehicle soars into orbit, carrying a larger payload for its size than a chemical rocket could ever manage, but the complexity, expense, and jobs remain grounded. for decades, this has been the vision of such researchers as physicists jordin kare and kevin parkin. a similar idea, using a pulsed ground-based laser to blast propellant from the backside of a space vehicle, was being talked about by arthur kantrowitz, freeman dyson, and other eminent physicists in the early 1960s. i'm not familiar with kare and parkin nor with kantrowitz and dyson. are these viable ideas? is there a reason why we're not pursuing them? is the scenario above possible with today's technology or at least in the near (5 to 10 year) future? here's a link to the article: _url_0_ i think you guys will find it interesting. it discusses the inability of the baby boomer generation to "do big things" and to innovate in science. the gist of the article is that we aren't willing to take risks anymore. what do you guys think of either of these things? | the idea is that instead of utilizing a chemical reaction of combustion to release energy which accelerates the products of combustion from a nozzle, instead the energy is delevered from a ground based laser to heat a propellant. in this case, hydroigen is proposed as it is the lowest density gas/liquid available. as far as the theoretical approach, yes this idea would be far more effective in a perfect situation than combustion based rockets. however, there are major problems with energy delivery at distance using lasers or focused microwave radiation. there is also a safety concern, as you are ejecting large amounts of highly energetic hydrogen gas into an oxygenated environment. the actual application of such a technology would be very difficult. too much energy directed into a liquified or gaseous hyrdrogen would result in over-pressure int he storage tank and a resulting catastrophic failure. too little energy, and the combustion of the ejected hydrgoen gas would consume the launched vessel. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/fall2011/innovation-starvation"
] | [] | [
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is there a most efficient way to travel around a blackhole? | if time slows down the closer you get to a black hole, is there a most efficient distance to go around a black hole to get to a location directly on the other side of the black hole at the earliest time? is there a way to represent that? see diagram [here](_url_0_). | ok, a few things i need to clear up before i answer this. i'm assuming you watched interstellar recently. one, your speed relative to yourself is always zero. two, your speed would increase as you approach the black hole and decrease as you go away from it. because gravity. three, time only slows down for you because of a theory of relativity called [time dilation](_url_0_), more specifically, [gravitational time dilation.](_url_1_) a quick summary of that is that time for you goes slower than time for people at point a because: 1. you are at a state of higher gravity 2. you are at a higher relative velocity someone that has had more sleep than me recently can crunch those numbers to see if there's an optimal point as far as fuel consumption and practicality, but i'd say if you're going for the most time dilation, you'd go as close to the black hole as your spaceship could maintain structural integrity and have enough velocity to not get sucked into a descending orbit. both of these depend on the size of the black hole and your spaceship. but as far as practicality is concerned, physicists would be more concerned with the most efficient path in terms of fuel, not time, which would be much farther away from the black hole. time is a pretty plentiful resource relative to fuel in space travel. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/23Re1la.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation#Gravitational_time_dilation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation"
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would it be possible to build a predictive model of chemistry? | we have models of physics that can, with a fair degree of accuracy, predict how certain physical forces will interact and what outcomes those interactions will yield but could we do the same with chemistry? if we created a program and defined all the parameters of every particle, element, molecule, ion, compound, chemical process, etc. that we know of, could that program potentially be used to predict new materials? mendeleev was able to predict then unknown elements and even their properties based on what was known of chemistry at that time. so i can't help but wonder if, with the power of modern computing on our side, we couldn't potentially predict new materials in a similar fashion. | density functional theory (dft) does this quite well by solving the quantum mechanical calculations for molecules or materials. often it is predictive, but not perfect in most cases. _url_0_ has a huge database of material compautations, and works towards predicting performance in batteries, thermoelectrics, and photovoltaics. there are several other examples of these materials genome project type computational databases. in fact, there is a whole field on computational chemistry working to do exactly what you are asking. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://materialsproject.org"
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would switch contacts work better when lubed? | 1. the instruments in question are the older type of hammond organs that mostly use vacuum tube amplification and specifically electro-mechanical switching on the playing keys. 2. the design is of a switching matrix comprised of (typically 9) busbars connected to drawbars, carrying harmonic sounds for each note, engaging with (9) touch contacts with note tones. 3. the contact area of the busbars have a fine palladium wire running the full length, and the note contacts have palladium deposits on the engagement face to ensure good electrical conductivity without the danger of oxidation buildup. 4. organs of this basic design were produced between 1935 and 1975. restoring these instruments to their original performance is quite popular among some players and technicians. 5. when restoring/cleaning the busbars with their fine palladium wire contact face, some techs lube them with a thin grease, claiming that it improves the sound, as opposed to leaving them dry once cleaned. 6. definition of this "improved sound" has been difficult to get, as it is a somewhat subjective phenomenon. 7. those who use the lube claims it "wets" the contact faces, ensuring better contact, and eliminates "scratchy and clicky" sounds. the question is this: is there evidence to suggest that the lubed bars would in fact perform as claimed? the most popular lube is lubriplate 130-aa _url_0_ | i can't speak for organs and musical instruments, but older (70-90) cars and some other electronics use greased switches, as do many older forklift electronic parts. a lot of (older) car light bulbs also have grease in the backing for conductivity and revent vibration, etc. i can't speak for sound, but it would definitely help contact points and ensure a good connection, prevent/quiet clicks and shorts, makes them last longer. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.lubriplate.com/PDFs/PDS/3_14-130-Series.aspx"
] | [] | [
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portuguese man o' wars are a collection of organisms that function as one entity. how do they come together to begin with? | these guys are really cool! they are part of the class hydrozoa which is part of the phylum cnidaria which includes jellyfish and corals etc. all of these types of animals have some sort of life cycle that cycles between two forms. the medusae which are what your traditional jellyfish is and a polyp which is a sessile non mobile form. then there are inbetween forms. note that some such as coral only have polyp forms. now to the man o war! the man o war starts out in a larva stage called a planula. a planula is a small oval shaped organism that will eventually develop into a polyp form. this polyp will eventually reproduce asexually meaning all of the offspring will be genetic clones of that one polyp. but what's interesting in colonial hydrozoa like the man o war is that these offspring will only have certain genes turned on making them specialized. each offspring of that original planula is now specialized to a certain task to help the colony. these specialized individuals are called zooids. there are really a few main types of zooids. you have the gastrozooids which are specialized for feeding. gonozooids which are specialized for reproduction and all future offspring will come solely from these individuals. finally some colonial hydrozoa such as the man o war also have dactylozooids which are special individuals which have cnidae cells with nematocysts. these guys are cells that can sting which is what is characteristic of the cnidaria phylum. so to summarize: the basic larva form, the planula, does its normal thing and grows into many polyp like forms which differentiate and specialize to certain tasks. we call these specialized individuals zooids. so they don't really "come together" like you might think but rather arise from one organism. you might ask but how do they get that bell-like structure? how is that one organism? and that bell is just one super specialized zooid. the portuguese man o war is part of what we call siphonophora which also includes other colonial organisms like praya which is the longest predator in the world. it is even longer than a blue whale! fell free to ask more questions and i'll do my best to answer them! | 57 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is evolution done incrementally or can it be by leaps and bounds? | for example, our gi tract. did we just evolve the whole thing or did we evolve pieces of it as time went on? | a whole organ couldn't just pop into existence from one generation to the next. however, catastrophic events could accelerate evolution. for example, an ice age would kill off any animals within a species that cannot survive cold temperatures, and the survivors would have genetics that are predisposed to thicker furs and better insulation. so the answer is gradually, but we see time periods of accelerated evolution. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://evolution.about.com/od/macroevolution/a/Gradualism-Vs-Punctuated-Equilibrium.htm"
] | [
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why are most all of the equations in our english science textbooks from european scientists? | title is self-explanatory. i only very rarely hear about indian mathematicians and scientists, god forbid any chinese scientists. | modern experimental science is largely a formalism that is under 400 years old, and grew out of the enlightenment period of europe. the idea of doing science that way hasn't had an incredibly long time to spread, but is now global. unfortunately, most of the equations, like newton's laws or the ideal gas laws, are mathematical statements that were first written in language, not math, by european scientists of the period. their students and contemporaries could build off their work, and thus much of the foundational work of modern science was named for it's european discoverer, because historically, that's what most english textbook authors knew, and that's where this type of work was being done. modern physics gets a little better. satyendra nath bose, of bose-einstein condensates and bosons, was indian, and subrahmanyan chandrasekhar of the chandrasekhar limit was indian american. lhc and tevatron papers likely have a number of non-western researchers if you look up the giant author lists. i assume there is a similar sort of trend to engineering, life sciences, and chemistry. hooray the impact of imperialism! as time goes on, hopefully new discoveries will be more diverse, and maybe one day there will be wider spread acknowledgments of minority contributions to history, be they indian, chinese, female, gay, or whatever. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitang_Zhang"
] | [
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what is the difference between time-dependent density functional theory and molecular dynamics? what are some limitations of each? | what is the difference between time-dependent density functional theory (tddft) and molecular dynamics (md)? what are some limitations of each? i know that tddft can be used to calculate excitation energies. i have heard that md can be used to see how the atoms in a molecule move. i guess i'm just confused on the word "time" since md depends on time as well but maybe in a different sense? | isn't molecular dynamics classical? it's just newtonian particles interacting through some ad hoc classical potential that may or may not be quantum-inspired. conversely, dft solves the many-body schrödinger equation under the assumption of some approximated form for the quantum correlation/exchange physics. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it counterproductive to, for example, use only a sensitive skin laundry detergent for our newborn instead of just using what we've always used? | i have a 6 month old baby at home, and i work in a business that develops detergent formulations (i just had a 2 hour meeting this morning talking about new laundry detergents actually.) anyhow, you should use the dreft or other -free detergents. the reasoning is because babies do not have fully-formed and functional immune systems, they are much more susceptible to sensitization than adults or older children. chemical exposures aren't like biological exposure, you actually often get more reactive to chemicals the more you are exposed to them. this isn't such a big deal with adults because our immune systems simply behave differently. take an extreme example: poison ivy. the inflammation with poison ivy is an immune system response to an oil binding to your skin which is interpreted by the body as a foreign agent. the more you get exposed to it, the more you'll react, eventually, small exposures to poison ivy will land you in the hospital. more exposure doesn't make you more resistant, it makes you more reactive. no one is saying that you baby is going to have a poison-ivy like response, in fact that certainly isn't going to happen, but the benefit you get from buying a scented detergent vs a non-scented (which are the same exact price) does not justify the potential risk of a baby developing an allergy to common chemicals. with young babies, it's always best to be on the safe side. | 50 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i've always heard two seemingly contradictory statements that i can't resolve in my mind. 1) an electron has mass, and 2) an electron has no volume. help me out here. if true, my head just exploded. again. | this may be a stupid question. this may be bad or misunderstood information. but assuming that both of these statements are true, how can that be possible? i can't wrap my head around this. but i haven't wrapped my head around the possibility of relativity either, so... i'm a mathematician, but physics still eludes me. | we can't measure the volume of an electron directly, but rather the field it generates. we treat it as a point charge mathematically, and millikan's oil drop experiment allowed the first calculations of its mass, but to measure its volume we would have to know more about it than we actually can. when scientists use equipment to "see" electrons, they really just see the orbitals of the electrons -- the fields produced by their constant oscillation between positions. say you want to measure the volume of a beach ball. then you measure its radius. to do that, you need to find the center of the ball and measure outward. now, suppose you have to measure it while your friends throw it back and forth, and you're not allowed to stop it. well, then it becomes a game. you try to move along with it to measure. to do that, you need to know both the position of the center of the beach ball and which way and how fast it is moving; it's position and velocity. with electrons, we can't know both position and velocity. in fact, the more certain we are of one, the less certain we are of the other. on top of all this, an electron moves very, very fast. just imagine trying to measure the radius of that beach ball while it moves several orders of magnitude faster than sound and you can know where it is or where it's going and how fast, but not both. so, we treat electrons as point entities with mass and charge because we don't know their volume. as an aside, it's surprising you didn't get introduced to gauss during your studies of flux calculus. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mcb8g/how_is_it_that_we_know_an_electrons_mass_but_not/"
] | [
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#psych how accuarate is the enneagram of personality? in my personal opinion is pseudoscience. | there are three main problems with the enneagram, as well as other measures such as the meyers-briggs type indicator and the 16pf. well, the last one is really one originally designed to assess mental illness, actually. the much more accurate measure i advocate for is the big five personality trait taxonomy. it's not perfect, but has much higher utility and scientific credibility. 1. dimensionality. if the goal of personality psychology is to measure "what people are" and "how people differ", we first need to be sure that our measure of personality is content valid--specifically, that it is not deficient--that is, does our measure capture all the variation in how to describe people? the enneagram definitely does not accomplish this. things like "holy ideas" and "basic desires" are all pseudoscience nonsense. the best way to do this (based on the lexical hypothesis) is to come up with every adjective to describe people (gordon allport looked at over 17,000!) and whittle it down via a factor analysis to assess the "commonality" among measures. over time researchers boiled all these adjectives to a solid big five traits that captures a lot of the variation in these adjectives: agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience. no trait is good or bad, they just describe what people are, and importantly, do it comprehensively. 2. dichotomization. a problem with trait typologies like the enneagram and mbti is that they categorize people into strict personality types, which necessarily reduces meaningful variance in our second goal: how do people differ. if i score a 49% on the mbti-extraversion scale, i'm classified in the same introvert boat as someone who was in the 3% range. this is problematic. the enneagram is similar, but even worse in that there are even fewer types than the 16 the mbti would classify one as. the big five avoids this by allowing a continuous scale. 3. predictive validity/utility. the enneagram and mbti are simply not predictive of important outcomes like life satisfaction or job performance compared to big five traits. this has implications for using personality in employee selection contexts, as well as for understanding interpersonal dynamics. feel free to ask more questions if i can expound upon any particular issue for you. i research personality at a major university. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what happens (in our brain) when we get "turned on"? how come only certain things turn us on and how do these things to change? | the questions above. | [i found this paper provided an adequate treatment of the subject.](_url_0_) importantly, they parse out sexual arousal into both "subjective (e.g. feeling sexually excited) and physiological terms (e.g. genital vasoconstriction)". the focus is on the individual effect of known hormones and neurotransmitter, but there's also a dissection of response by anatomical region at the end. short answer: it's complicated, because, as in most things having to do with the brain, sexual arousal is a "state change" involving a myriad of alterations in the firing of circuits and the levels of many small molecules/peptides. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.usfca.edu/fac_staff/dever/neurobiologyofsex2.pdf"
] | [
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] |
how to visualise unpolarised light? | i initially thought that unpolarised light was just a single pair of electric and magnetic field waves changing rotations really quickly, giving it the effect of having "random" rotations. secondly, i thought of quantum effects being present, where the wave position and rotation would be in superposition until it was observed. but this doesn't make sense, as this would mean you could polarise light just by looking at it. (or the wave function collapses into a point photon, which has no polarisability) i've read on several websites that unpolarised light is basically both the electric and magnetic fields of light, oscillating in random directions and at different phase differences. so does it seem that the unpolarised light following the direction of the wave could be visualised as a cylinder? the radius of it being the amplitude of the waves, to be clear. in addition, the "volume" of this cylinder consists of fluctuations in both the electric and magnetic field. | one thing i would want to make clear, is the amplitude of light is the strength of the *electric field* rather than some *spatial* displacement. so whilst we like to show electromagnetic waves like waves on a string, they're different phenomena. when i visualise the polarisations of light, i imagine i'm looking at the light as it approaches me and i can see an arrow pointing away from the centre. this represents the vector of the electric field. for unpolarised light, the position the vector points to is randomly moving, bounded by a circle where the radius is the amplitude. i guess it's quite similar to your visualisation and it's difficult to criticse someone's mental picture. but i think the important thing is to remember that it's the *fields* that are oscillating, they are not physically *moving* back and forth. edit: i only talk about the electric field as in most cases (including free space), the magnetic field *must* be perpendicular to it as can be seen in maxwell's equations. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEELoMU7c7Y"
] | [
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all these pictures of olympians got me thinking, is there any evolutionary/scientific reason that raising our arms above our head is a universal sign of triumph? | i know i do it, you know you do it. why does it feel so right to do? if this isn't the subreddit to ask it, let me know and i can go somewhere else, just thought you guys might know! | i think this [paper](_url_0_) might be a good starting to point to answer the question. edit: here is a news article which talks about it: [link](_url_1_) this work is based on comparing blind and sighted athletes' reactions to success and failure. the reactions are the same, and is evidence that these reactions are biologically innate. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0802686105",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/02/health/02prid.html"
] | [
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how do rock layers work? | i'm tutoring a student in geology and we are studying rock layers. they asked where the layers, and i told them about mountains eroding and volcanos depositing igneous layers and they asked if that means that the crust is getting thicker. so i wanted to pass the question to real geologists. do the oldest layers sink into the mantle? | oceanic crust is recycled back into the mantle at [subduction zones](_url_0_). this often includes sedimentary layers that have built up on the ocean floor as the oceanic crust has made its journey from spreading ridge to subduction zone (which could be many millions of years). due to the way oceanic crust recycles like this, most is not older than ~200 million years, though there are bits that may be ~340 million years old in the mediterranean sea, the last remnants of the [tethys ocean](_url_2_). this is still a relatively modest chunk of geologic time however. terrestrial sediments are all located on continental crust of course, which doesn't really subduct. sediments here may be eroded away completely over time, or they may persist for extremely long periods if they are particularly resistant and the climates they experience are not too conducive for weathering. this is not to say that anything is completely impervious to weathering, if it's exposed at the earth's surface then it will erode at some rate. eroded sediment is largely transported in water and may find its way to the sea or more likely will become an alluvial fan deposit at the river mouth or be redeposited elsewhere en route. so whilst new land is constantly being formed, it is not always being stacked up higher and higher past sea-level. even in more isolated sedimentary basins in continental interiors, sediment can only be piled as high as the accomodation space allows. the deepest strata will be formed in basins experiencing tectonic subsidence where more accomodation space is constantly being generated to be infilled. in general, well cemented strata in temperate to desert climates, with minimal vegetation and minimal hydrological activity will fare the best against the ravages of time. i'm thinking more of the kind of polar desert regions than sub-tropical ones, as the latter come with their own varieties of weathering including sand-blasting and effects of large temperature fluctuations between day and night. the torridonian sandstones of the scottish highlands are some of (if not the) oldest sedimentary strata in the uk, at around 1-1.6 billion years old. in places they sit directly atop the much older lewisian gneiss complex, which is up to 3 billion years old. the [jack hills](_url_1_) area of australia has sediments from fluvial deposits older than this even, and some zircons which were presumably eroded from the underlying crystalline basement hold the record for the oldest dated minerals on earth, at ~4.3 billion years old, which i always find shockingly close to the age of the earth itself for sedimentary things to be forming at all. i don't think there are any sed rocks that old still there, i think the zircons were found unconsolidated as part of weathered material. most sedimentary layers are much more transient than this though, and come and go as a sort of surficial and (viewed over the full geologic timescale), mobile covering of the crystalline basement rocks of the continental crust. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Hills",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean"
] | [
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what would the ramifications of a lack of causality be? | people say you can have two of three: causality, relativity, and ftl communication. the convention is to discard ftl communication. but what are the consequences of an acausal universe? | unpredictability. the equations of motion lose existence and uniqueness. given a certain initial condition at time t, there might not exist a solution to later time, or there might be infinite equally valid. essentially the universe doesn't know what to do with itself, and even if it does, there is no way of predicting anything even having knowledge of the equations of motion and initial condition. physics is dead. that loss of existence and uniqueness actually occurs has been studied for various cases, including the motion of a rigid ball in a spacetime with a wormhole allowing timetravel (see e.g. the works of novikov & thorne), or classical field theories in the presence of ctcs. the exceptions are free theories, but these are boring, no actual physics can happen in them. as soon as you add interactions of any kind it's over. another sort of consideration comes from thermodynamics. we have a second law because our universe has two temporal extremities with different entropies. so entropy increases when moving from one to the other; we call the low-entropy one the big bang and the direction of increasing entropy gives the arrow of time, and interesting stuff happens following the universe in this direction. if you have a region with ctcs where, say, you can think of time as a circle, there is no way of course for entropy to always increase in one direction. the most probable situation is to always have constant maximum entropy, that is thermal equilibrium. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about rest mass, atomic kinetic energy and thermal energy relationship. | all bodies above 0 k emit thermal radiation. these bodies also absorb thermal radiation from their surroundings. now this thermal energy stored in a body exists essentially as kinetic energy of the molecules that make up the body. something at a constant temperature is just absorbing and releasing energy at the same rate. the kinetic energy in the atoms of my body will eventually pass through your body and be released again. my question is, does the kinetic energy of an atom get "mixed" with the rest mast energy of the atom? i mean, does the kinetic energy get added to a "pool" of energy? this would imply that when energy is radiated out, the energy leaving is composed of part of the rest mass, as well as part of the kinetic energy. do we actually know what happens to this energy when a molecule absorbs it? i know through processes such as radioactive decay and nuclear fission that the rest mass can be converted to photons and atomic kinetic energy. taking it one step further, i am speculating that it might all go to the same place. either way, i would like to understand this process better and possibly have an intelligent discussion about the subject. edit: i realize i may have not phrased my question completely, here is my second attempt at it. does energy get transmitted between the kinetic energy and the rest mass energy within a particle, in other words, do these exist in some sort of energetic equilibrium? imagine you discretize the energy that constitues the rest mass of a particle down to the smallest possible increment into n parts, and call them a(1), a(2), ... ,a(n) and do the same for the energy that constitutes the kinetic energy of the particle into m parts, calling them b(1), b(2), ... , b(m). pretending you could track all of these, do we know if it is possible to emit any part of a, such as a(i) as heat, implying that once absorbed, all energy is combined into a single "pool" and there is no preference for which pieces of energy remain as rest mass, just as long as the number of energy units is resolved? | there's two ways of thinking about this, one using special relativity, the other using general relativity. under the descriptions of special relativity, energy has mass. so, as something gains energy (gets hotter) it gains mass. of course, visa versa is also true. so with this description, mass is not converted into energy in a nuclear explosion, but the mass is carried away by the energy. or when one object is hotter and heats up another, then the mass is flowing from the hot object to the cooler one. this is the most intuitive way of thinking about it because it acts how you'd think. blow up a nuclear bomb in a mirrored box, the measured mass is the same before and after- it won't be til you open up the box that it will begin to weigh less, as the heat and light carry away mass. heat up a box, it will weigh more. the general relativity way of thinking of this is that gravity is not caused by mass, but by the stress-energy tensor, whose value is determined by the mass and energy of a system. then, when a box becomes hot, the energy component of the system increases, thus the stress-energy tensor will increase. regardless of the method you use to think about it, the results are the same. anytime a system loses energy, it will have less gravitational pull. nuclear reactions are not special in that regard, it is just nuclear reactions were the first reactions we found in which this was a measurable amount. however, chemical burning also leads to this effect. the weight of the smoke and ashes of a log weigh less than the unburnt log, as the heat and light the burning created led to a loss of energy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do we know about how the brain makes choices? | looking less for psychological models and more for neurobiology and chemistry. all i know there is some correlation between willpower and blood glucose levels or something like that, but i don't understand it well. | well, i won't speak for the blood glucose findings, but you may find this interesting... some researchers have challenged our very notion of free will itself based on their findings: soon, chun siong, et al. "unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain." nature neuroscience 11.5 (2008): 543-545. basically, this study found that volitional choices could be predicted roughly 10 seconds before conscious awareness of the choice. the theory posed by the researcher is we don't have free will. instead, we act according to subconscious neural processing and retrospectively interpret these results as stemming from our conscious thought. in this way, the illusion of free will is created. this argument can be extended to explain certain characteristics of "psychopathologies" wherein people with schizophrenia may attribute their actions to an external source, and still others may display behaviors that they do not feel are not under their own control. for further information on the illusion of conscious will: wegner, d. m. (2004). precis of the illusion of conscious will. behavioral and brain sciences, 27(5), 649-659. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the protein/molecule that makes a heart beat? if not singular, what is the mode of action or do we even fully understand it? | i was doing a mental exercise and trying to envision the inside of a heart cell during a beat and realized that i'm not really aware of the means the dna uses (in a very loose sense) to cause a heart to beat, at a steady, continuous rate. i'm sure there are ion channels involved, but surely there's something more specific? | muscle cells and nerve cells have a thing called *[action potential](_url_0_)*, which basically means that if ion balance across at one point on the membrane is sufficiently disturbed, then that disturbance propagates down the length of the cell. nerves use this to propagate inputs — from receptors or from other nerves — down the length of the nerve, to another nerve or a muscle cell; muscle cells use this to cause nerve inputs to result in muscle contraction. i am glossing over a huge amount of really fascinating stuff here, but the point is that the way that action potential works is that once the ionic imbalance reaches a threshold, an electrical signal travels down the length of the cell. normal muscle cells and nerve cells, at rest, have a steady balance of ions on the inside and the outside; when this balance of ions is disrupted by an external cause, they spring into action and transmit signals. within the heart, on the other hand, there is a group of cells that is always pumping a small amount of calcium across their membranes, which means that every so often these cells reach an ionic imbalance, which then causes a signal to fire off to the rest of the heart, causing it to contract. when that one signal dies off, they get back to pumping calcium across the membrane, which soon leads to another signal to fire off, etc. these cells form the *[sinoatrial node](_url_2_)* (named thus because it rests between the sinus of the heart — where large blood vessels enter it, and the atrium of the heart — where blood first flows as it enters the heart). the technical name for the ionic imbalance that is constantly being generated and the signal that it leads to is *[pacemaker potential](_url_1_)*, and just the ongoing calcium imbalance is called *pre-potential*. there are other bundles of cells in the heart that do the similar thing, but as long as the sinoatrial node is functioning correctly, it's the primary source of heartbeat rhythm. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacemaker_potential",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinoatrial_node"
] | [
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is there such a thing as a mathematical discontinuity in nature? | i know that due to the existence of vacuums or near vacuums, material discontinuities can exist, but can a mathematical discontinuity exist as an observable, physical manifestation? one potential example i can imagine would be the singularity of a black hole, which is a 4-dimensional asymptote as gravitational pull approaches infinity, but this is purely speculative since current methods have no way of proving the theory. | one example where discontinuities pop up in nature is phase transitions. depending on the specific phase transition you're studying, you might find that things like the entropy, density, heat capacity, etc. are discontinuous across the transition. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i wrapped wire around a screwdriver to create an electromagnet. after i disconnected the battery it was still magnetic. why? | [removed] | the fact that there is electricity (current) running in a loop is what makes an electromagnet. once the electromagnet is on, then the screwdriver (which probably has iron in it) is in the middle of a magnetic field. this makes the small magnetic pieces of iron inside the screwdriver align, which boosts the power of the electromagnet (because the screwdriver is now also a magnet). sometimes, there are few enough magnetic pieces that they just randomize again (ie. too much thermal energy), but in this case there was enough to remain aligned after the eternal field turned off. the "magnetic pieces" are unpaired electrons with spin at the atomic level, which group together in collections of atoms. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a "solid state" radon detector? | as opposed to a geiger–müller tube. | it's a radon detector that uses a specially designed diode (solid state semiconductor device) to detect the alpha particle radiation being emitted instead of a gas-filled glass tube that has a high voltage being applied to it (a g-m tube). solid state refers to electronics where semiconductor devices are used instead of vacuum tubes and gas discharge tubes. at the time it was introduced it was a revolution because of how much less reliable tube based electronics were. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Elec_p064.shtml"
] | [
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if you fill a torus completely with water and begin rotating the torus, does the water inside begin rotating as fast as its container, or is there always some amout of friction between the interior of the torus and the water it contains? | i'm wondering whether a salt water filled graphene torus could be rotated to generate electricity. as a follow up: if you nest a static torus inside the rotating torus, anchoring it with magnets, would that allow for energy to be generated? | the water would eventually spin as fast as the toroid because the walls of the toroid would "pull" on the water with friction. the water would never be able to go faster than the toroid if the toroid is accelerating or keeping it's rate of spin. this could be used for energy storage as a flywheel but would be extraordinarily inefficient. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the power of star < - > triangle transfiguration of resistors? | i've learned the star < - > triangle transfiguration to solve circuits where it's impossible to simply use the formula for the resistance of two resistors in parallel/in series. however i've been wondering: is the transfiguration the ultimate tool or are there some circuits impossible to solve using it? thanks for answers. obviously it all applies to circuits with capacitors and inductors if we just replace resistance with (complex) impedance. edit: link to the procedure i'm talking about _url_0_ | i don't know if one can definitely say that start triangle transfigurations allows for every possible network to be solved but what you state in your question is a bit different than how you might state it. the parallel and series laws are derived from kirchoff's current and voltage laws. and with them, one can solve every circuit possible already. so if you simply use the 2 rules mentioned by you as instructions a computer could use, then you couldn't solve every circuit but with the most basic of laws (kirchoff's laws), every circuit can already be solved. the star-triangle transfiguration and those substitutions are derived mathematical tools to make solving some circuits more easily without having to go through pages and pages of rigorous analytical boring calculations. | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y-%CE%94_transform"
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] |
how does the fletching on an arrow (the feathers in the back) help it fly better? | they cause the arrow to spin and put more drag on the rear than the front. first we'll talk about what this does in still air. by spinning the arrow, you ensure that any differences in drag along different sides of the arrow end up acting equally in each direction when you average over time, helping the arrow to go straight. the fact that there's more drag at the rear than the front produces force pushing the tail of the arrow behind the end, which helps the arrow fly straighter, ensuring that the full weight of the arrow is impacting behind the head and reducing drag. in a crosswind, however, a few weird thing can happen. first and most significantly, the wind puts more drag on the tail than the head, causing the arrow to turn into the wind a bit. second and far less significant is the [magnus effect](_url_0_), which can result in the arrow drifting a bit up or down compared to its path when fired in still air. the arrow's low rate of spin causes the magnus effect to be far less important in arrows compared to bullets. at the range over which arrows are typically fired, both of these effects are likely to be unimportant. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_effect"
] | [
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|
how do penguins convert saltwater to freshwater in their bodies, and can we mimic the process in desalination plants? | it's not conversion, it's simply extra excretion of salt. many sea animals possess a salt gland that essentially acts as an extra kidney, but it specifically filters out just salt. this takes place using a sodium-specific transporter protein inside the gland, and the desalination isn't 100%, so the chances of this becoming a method of water purification is slim to none. source: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_gland"
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|
what's the reason behind unpronounced letters? | started to wonder when thinking about the word 'beaucoup' (french for 'much'). there's languages where words are very long for how much is actually being pronounced. is it just speakers being too "lazy" over a long time? but why hasn't the written word followed along? | pronunciation is historically much more variable than writing. this is because writing a word down creates an easily consulted "record" of how that word is to be spelled (even if not everyone agrees with you), whereas -- before broadcast media and sound recording came along -- there was no way to "remind" a group of speakers how a word is to be pronounced. seeing a word spelled out can indicate how it is to be pronounced, but in areas of low education and literacy, and especially before the era of printing, this is not particularly effective. because of this, it tends to be easy for pronunciations to drift over time and between regions, so much so that spellings began to look nonsensical compared to spoken language. some languages have simplified their spelling to correct this, while others have not. another contributing factor is the borrowing of words from other languages, sometimes with those other languages' spelling rules, which are illogical in the context of the new "host" language. french has a lot of silent letters, but in many ways is more logical in its pronunciation than english is. read this list of words, all of which are identical except for the first letter, aloud to yourself: bough, cough, dough, rough. you can imagine the processes that led to these words being pronounced differently. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about hardy-weinberg equilibrium and chi-squared tests: why can't you compare frequencies? | so, i've noticed something strange about hardy-weinberg equilibrium that i'm hoping someone can explain. i know that it is pretty specific, so i'm just crossing my fingers for an evolutionary biologist (or statistician). when you perform a chi-squared test, it is: sum( (observed # - expected #)^2 /expected #) the observed and expected values, when talking about population distribution, compare the *number* of individuals. however, it is also conceivable that you could compare the observed and expected *percentages* for the allele distribution. for example, say that i have 12 aa, 5aa, and 16aa. total (n) = 33. from this you can calculate allele frequencies, and genotype frequencies. **p** (frequency of allele a) = (aa + 0.5(aa))/n **q** (frequency of allele a) = (aa + 0.5(aa))/n it then follows that frequency of aa genotype = p^2 aa = q^2 aa = 2pq but from here you can go one of two ways. the right way: multiply each of those frequencies by the total number of individuals in the population in order to come up with the expected values for the chi-squared test. compare *numbers*. the wrong way: do not convert the expected genotype frequencies to expected numbers. generate observed frequencies from the data. use those values for the chi-squared test. compare *frequencies*. in my understanding, both ways should be equal. however, this is not the case. why? if you need any more background on the equations or whatnot, i'm happy to provide. i work in a lab, and this just occurred to me the other day. i'm scared the answer is too obvious to ask my pi! | basically, the larger your numbers are, the more confidence you have in your chi2 statistic. when you use frequencies, instead of counts, it "looks like" you have very few observations. importantly, in your description of the chi2 statistic, you left out the degrees of freedom, which would show this. for example, do the chi2 statistic for 12 aa, 5aa, and 16aa. then double each of those numbers (24aa, 10aa, and 32aa) -- you should get a more significant result. if you used frequencies you're "telling" the chi2 statistic that you have only 1 total observation. so it's very unlikely you could have significance. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the flow of water in a river influence the movement of air in the immediate area? | i live near a river in a fairly unpopulated area and i notice that the wind seems to predominantly flow downstream. crossing a bridge by bicycle for my daily commute gives me a very regular sampling of this. it seems like the only time i noticeably encounter up-river wind is when storm conditions exist. i'm aware the the wind will naturally flow in a river valley because of the relatively unrestricted path, but the apparent predominance of down-river air movement has me wondering about this. | well, your normal stream pattern is down hill, and unless you are in a storm condition, wind will follow the same down slop. you are correct in saying that the wind follows steams because it has a low level of restrictions for movement. but as far as creating wind, it can in a sense. not to the degree that you are thinking of. if the stream is cold, and the air temp is warm, you will get some air movement because of this. but not really enough for it to effect your bicycle riding. but the flow of the wind has more to do with the openness, no obstetrical area of the river, and the down slope of the area, than anything the river itself is doing to the wind. cool? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to the cochlear fluid of the astronauts? | thought about this last night, couldn't find an answer online. so what happens to cochlear fluid in low-g environments? how do astronauts not get violently sick all the time? | actually astronauts do often get sick when they first get in orbit. it is called space adaptation syndrome or "space sickness", and it can last even a few days, during which they get used to the much different signals that are coming from their balance sensoring organs. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are some of our organs so oddly shaped? | the eye seems pretty reasonably shaped for its purpose. the ear is weird, but it makes at least sense after you consider the need for sound waves to enter it a certain way. but why is the stomach so oddly shaped? why are kidneys kidney-shaped? it seems like there could be a more efficient configuration for the many organs that fill our torso. | evolution doesn't necessarily lead to the most efficient solution. [one of the nerves for our throat](_url_0_) travels from the brain and around the chest area before connecting to the mouth. that's a similarly inefficient situation, and the reason they both came to be is essentially that it was the first solution that worked. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrent_laryngeal_nerve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney#Structure"
] | [
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how unlikely (or not) is this random string of digits without any numbers repeating sequentially? | (sorry for the vagueness of the title, i probably don't have the right vocabulary for asking this question). i was working with a list of 1562 isbn numbers. as i worked my way down the list i noticed that the last (check) digit (which can be any number 0 through 9 and x to represent 10) never repeated as i went line to line on the whole list. in other words, no two consecutive isbns ended with the same number. i thought that was kind of odd so i checked the other digits for the same thing and it didnt hold there. obviously because of the nature of isbns there were many sequential repeating digits in the first 6 or 7 slots. in the 8th and 9th slots repetition occurred at least 8 times in the list. in the last slot, there were no repeating numbers. (should be noted these were all isbn-10s not isbn-13s). my question is how often given a set of numbers like that would you expect to find repeating digits and if the nature of isbn construction could play any roll. cheers. | the isbn-10 check digit is computed in such a way that a single change in one of the non-check digits or a swap of any two non-check digits will always change the check digit. i'm guessing your list of isbns has a lot of sequential numbers (e.g. xxxxx5201-6, xxxxx5202-4, xxxxx5203-2) and since all of these differ from each other in only one non-check digit, they must all have distinct check digits, but what you said about repeats in the eighth and ninth digits seems to contradict my hypothesis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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thermodynamics to prove the most efficient water heating metal??? | what type of metal can most efficiently bring water to a boil through a flame to metal to water type of heat transfer. | well, for starters, you'd probably want a material that has a very high thermal conducitivity. copper is up there. silver too. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the unifying theories and the methodologies of evolution, geology, and astronomy? | in evolution it's partially about the fossil record, but that's become less important now that we have genetic analysis, which can get very complex. one of the strongest bits of support for evolution is that the fossil record, which had been accumulating for centuries, wound up agreeing quite well with the genetics once we knew how to look at it. the problem is that he's using id as a scientific theory; it's not. it's a philosophical reconciliation of certain religious beliefs with evolution. it can't be science because it's not predictive and therefore not testable. ask him what predictions id makes. if it makes none, or none that can be tested, then it is categorically not science. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do cross-eyed people see the world in double and learn to operate that way? or does their brain learn to process the image correctly? | i assume it's the latter because i doubt anyone's eyes are 100% straight/aligned, but in that case - when a baby is born cross-eyed, do they already know how to correctly interpret images, or do their neurons have to learn? | the first several years of a childs life is when the neurons are learning how to work properly. if it is severe enough, the child will essentially block out the image from one eye. they will see single, but it will be monocular. if it isn't fixed early enough in development, the eye that is ignored will never be able to see as clearly as the other eye. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain what a "memresistor" does in a circuit? | i came across them today and in my 2 years of electrical engineering study i have never heard of them. can someone explain their purpose, or what they even do? | assuming you are asking about a *memristor*, this started out as a theoretical concept: if resistors impose a relationship between voltage and current, capacitors impose a relationship between voltage and charge (charge being the integral of current), and inductors impose a relationship between current and flux linkage (flux linkage being the integral of voltage), shouldn't there be a a fourth possibility & mdash; a component that imposes a relatioship between flux linkage and charge? this fourth type of electrical element was [proposed in 1971 by chua](_url_1_). - mathematically, by differentiating the memristor equation, one can show that the behavior of the hypothesized memristor element is like that of a linear resistor, in which the value of the resistance depends on the time-integral of the current that has passed through the element. therefore, this resistance has memory, in the sense that its properties depend on the past history of the electrical current. hence, the name memristor is a combination of "memory" and "resistor". - in 2008, scientists at hp laboratories [demonstrated the first physical realization of memristor circuit elements](_url_0_). - several applications of memristor elements have been proposed in a [review by marani et al.](_url_2_), including non-volatile memory, image processing circuits, and reconfigurable rf antennas, all of which take advantage of the memristor's ability to store digital and analog information in a simple and power efficient manner. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v453/n7191/full/nature06932.html",
"http://www.cpmt.org/scv/meetings/chua.pdf",
"https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1506/1506.06899.pdf"
] | [
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what procedures do crohn's disease sufferers undergo to figure out what they can and cannot eat? | it seems what crohn's sufferers can and cannot eat varies drastically from person to person, and the process of finding out what one sufferer is reactive to can be a long and grueling process. is there a battery test, much like a many-needled allergy test of some kind? | there isn't any standard diet or testing done. in terms of disease management diet really hasn't demonstrated to play a significant role. food intolerances are sporadic and variable and likely related to some aspect of malabsorption secondary to mucosal changes. depending on the segments of intestines of involved there can be variable degrees of macronutrient malabsorption contributing to diarrhoea/intolerance. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
rosetta's alarm clock. how was it powered for 10 years at such cold temperatures? | the hybernation mode it was put into was especially designed by eads. all instruments were powered down except for the radio receivers and, to answer your question, heaters that have the job of keeping the onboard systems at a working temperature. this was necessary because of the very limited amount of solar power the pv panels could pick up at that distance from the sun. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how 'elastic' is the need for sleep? | can people adjust the amount of sleep they function well on, or is everyone born with a certain 'range' of sleep they need to function well? | it's a good question, but a tricky question to answer, because we don't have a single gold standard for assessing how much sleep a person or an animal "needs". one way of measuring sleep need is by seeing how people perform on cognitive tests. some tests are particularly sensitive to the effects of sleep loss, such as reaction time tests (specifically, the [psychomotor vigilance task](_url_0_)). using these, it has been repeatedly shown that individuals function well when getting sufficient sleep (more than about 8 h), and become progressively worse the longer they are getting less sleep than this per night -- there is no evidence for individuals being able to adapt their baseline sleep need through their sleep habits. different individuals are differentially sensitive to the effects of sleep loss, some being much more resilient than others. individual responses to sleep loss also seem to be trait-like, meaning that when the same individuals are studied many months apart, they respond very similarly to sleep loss. in other words, it doesn't seem like a vulnerable individual can change into a resilient individual, or vice versa, at least on relatively short timeframes. whether a resilient child is more likely to become a resilient adult is unknown. it is also unknown what occurs if people are chronically restricted of sleep for very long time periods (greater than a month), as lab studies cannot reasonably go longer than that. there are changes in sleep duration with age and slight changes with season. however, it is not known whether these changes reflect a change in the *need* to sleep or simply a change in the ability or capacity to sleep. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychomotor_vigilance_task"
] | [
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is it possible to absorb the energy of a falling raindrop? | does that even make sense? i am just wondering if it would be possible to create some sort of technology which one could use in rainy environments to harvest and reuse energy. would it even be effective or is too small of a scale? what about for hail or something heavier? thanks in advance and forgive me if this is a stupid question. also, i posted this about 20 minutes ago but it looks like it was removed. am i breaking some etiquette by asking this? | theoretically yes, practically: no. the main problem you would encounter is that the energy would be spread out over far too large an area. my first thought was that you could perhaps use some time of windmill generator modified to capture rain. however, this would have to be extremely sensitive and efficient. in comparison to the harvestable energy from wind, it would be pointless. in fact, wind would most probably hamper your efforts to harvest any kinetic energy from rain drops. the most practical solution to harvesting raindrop energy (that i can come up with) is [this](_url_0_). using "funnels" you could partially eliminate the problem of raindrop energy being spread over large areas. in reality you would still need very large funnels, many of them and lots of rain. i just drew that for a bit of fun really. tl;dr - it's possible but grossly impractical, there is more renewable energy in wind, wave, hydroelectric etc. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/ryvtm"
] | [
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how do the gulf stream and the jet stream and other large scale streaming effects stay together? | been wondering this for a while. why don't the gulf stream in the atlantic, the jet stream in the atmosphere, and other similar things dissipate? what exactly is going on here? | it's a bit unclear from your question. do you mean a) why don't these features slowly die away? or b) why do they exist as narrow jets rather than broader flow? i'll try to tackle to ocean case. the gulf stream exists because of the large-scale winds blowing across the atlantic. the pattern of the large-scale wind fields pushes the water at the latitude of the gulf stream towards the south. for steady-state continuity, this broad southward flow of water across the atlantic basin must return north somewhere. the ocean works this out by creating a counter-flowing boundary current along the western edge of the ocean basin: the gulf stream in the north atlantic, kuroshio current in the north pacific, the brazil current in the south atlantic. the entire system of southward flow across most of the basin with a narrow northward jet results in lop-sided gyre. a map for the north atlantic subtropical gyre is [here](_url_0_). being a component of the wind-driven subtropical gyre, the gulf stream ultimately exists and doesn't dissipate because of the continual input of energy from the winds. as to the narrowness of the jet, that is really a testament to the slipperiness of water (and air) at geophysical scales. boundary layers are the places in fluid flow where the normal balance of forces breaks down and higher order physics are needed in the momentum balance. the fluid flow works to make these regions as small (narrow) as possible. the gulf stream jet is only about 100 km wide. there is a limit to how narrow the flow can be, in this case it scales with the [rossby radius of deformation,](_url_2_) which depends on the effects of rotation and stratification. a narrower jet couldn't transport the required amount of water while also maintaining [geostrophic balance.](_url_1_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/science+society/lectures/illustrations/lecture26/gyre.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostrophic_current",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossby_radius_of_deformation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect"
] | [
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how efficiently do humans turn food into power? comparing it with say, a vehicle turning gas into power or something. | it's hard to compare since most of our food is used to heat ourselves. turning a fuel into heat is always 100% efficient, generating movement isn't. we can't solely generate non-heating work, but the heat isn't a waste (while in most engines, it is). if i recall correctly, humans can use about 20% of their calorie intake to generate movement. (less efficient than a modern clean car, better than an old suv) you might also be interested in the harris-benedict equation, which shows us that you need about 1.2 times a constant calorie intake just to stay alive, but 1.9 times this same constant for heavy exercising, which shows how much energy we need just to stay alive! _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris–Benedict_equation"
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|
i understand that protein-protein interactions can be determined by fret (fluorescence resonance energy transfer), but how do researchers determine if that interaction is important? | if two proteins were discovered to interact with each other, how can we disrupt the pathway to determine if the interaction is important? | make mutations. knockdown one protein and express the wild-type or the mutant plasmid and compare if the two cell populations (knockdown covered with mutant or wild-type plasmids) have the same phenotype. if the interaction domains are known, there may be specific point mutations (individual amino acids) that will disrupt the interaction you can make. if the interaction points are unknown you can map them. you could use crystallography to determine the structure of the proteins in complex and see which amino acids are important. you can use nmr to determine which residues are important for the interaction. you can randomly mutate amino acids and test the resulting proteins for a weakening of the interaction. you can make mutations in a directed fashion, maybe target charged residues, or hydrophobic residues, or a specific domain or type of secondary structure. then test the resulting mutants for a reduced interaction. once you've found your interaction interface and the mutations that disrupt it, you're ready to test the mutant in a cell for a phenotype! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do factories that make seasonal goods stay in business all year? | like a halloween mask factory, christmas tree farms, etc. | your question implicated the [economics of shutdown](_url_0_). i think the answer is really going to depend on at least two things about the product: - the ideal scale on which to produce it - the other uses that are possible for the tools and people that produce it i'll use three examples to illustrate general concepts, although i want to state up front that i am not familiar with these particular industries, so they are just stand ins for more abstract ideas: halloween mask factory, christmas tree farm, and tax preparation service. i'll start with the first bullet. businesses tend to produce items until marginal cost equals marginal revenue. as you start to scale up production, you can take advantage of economies of scale, so you can sell each unit cheaper, and this means you can reach more customers, because there are always some customers that would buy your widget if it were just a bit cheaper. as you get really big, however, your efficiency gains drop off and might even reverse: there is only so much cost that you can shave off by scaling up and up, and you can end up spending more than that amount on having to manage all the extra bulk of your operation. meanwhile, the extra number of customers you can reach isn't budging that much, so you reach an equilibrium point where you should stop trying to make any more. so let's say that you're a halloween mask factory. halloween masks are durable and compact, so it doesn't cost much at all to store them. if you're lucky, the number of masks demanded at halloween at price x, which is price that is as low as you can go when operating at peak efficiency, is roughly equal to the number of masks that you can produce by running your factory all year at that peak efficiency. in this case, the seasonal nature is no problem: like santa's workshop, it takes you a whole year to make the stuff that gets binged on in one night, so the only difference between you and a non-seasonal product is that you have to pay for some extra warehousing. if people want *more* masks than you can make by operating this way, then that's also not a problem, economically speaking. you can charge extra and still sell out, but pretty soon another competitor will just pop up and undercut you, and eventually you'll both have to charge the original peak-efficiency price. but what you're really getting at is a scenario in which people want *less* than you can produce at peak operating efficiency. in this case, you could still scale up and substantially reduce the price you charge, but there just wouldn't be enough takers for that to be worth it. now you're faced with a choice that implicates my second bullet point. you can either: - produce the product all year round, but at a smaller scale than optimum, even though that means you'll have to charge more and sell fewer just to make the same profit margin, or - produce the product at close to that peak efficiency scale, but only run the line for part of the year whether you choose one course of the other would seem to depend on which of the inputs (tools, personnel, infrastructure) can be reassigned for other tasks during the downtime. in the case of the halloween mask factory, it's likely that the kinds of moulds, plastics, assembly skills, etc. would be very useful for a variety of other tasks. therefore, you can use more or less the same assembly line with more or less the same workers to produce other seasonal or non-seasonal goods once you've put out the optimum number of halloween masks, and the minimal changes required mean that you're producing both the masks and the other products at close to the lowest possible price. you might need a fair bit of skill to properly design, produce, and utilize the tools of plastics production, but there is enough diversity of use for those things that you don't have to worry about going idle. now take the case of the christmas tree farm. you can't use the land for much else while the trees are growing on it (which actually takes years rather than just one year)...maybe a paintball arena? and you need hardly any of the personnel that you have on board at christmas during the rest of the year -- you just need someone to occasionally check up on the trees. there's nothing else for them to do in your business. *however*, the skills that you use at the peak season (cutters, transporters, salespersons) are not ones that take a significant amount of time or money to develop up front and also do not need to be honed all year round. you can draw on plenty of people who are happy to work on christmas tree stuff for a couple of weeks to earn extra money; even if you own the business yourself, you may even be doing it as a sideline. so you don't need to "stay in business" all year at any particular clip: you can just scale up to near peak efficiency / lowest price and then scale back down again with a minimum of fuss. you don't even usually need to maintain your retail space all year round: christmas tree farm sales points usually get set up with cheap temporary accommodations in big parking lots or vacant outdoor retail spaces that aren't earning any money for their owners otherwise. a third and more complex example that i'll bring in is tax preparation. a company like h & r block needs office spaces that are fully-functional enough that it would be too costly to break them down every may and then set them back up again in february. and tax law is complicated enough that you probably need to incentivize some significant number of the preparers to spend time in the off-season honing their skills and reading up. they really do need to "stay in business" to some degree all year round, though not fully staffed. furthermore, since they keep more normal office hours rather than focusing on the evenings like christmas tree farms, it's harder to to a full 9-5 job and also be a tax preparer for two months out of the year as a side income. so it becomes more complicated in terms of how many people you keep on permanently and in what roles, and how many people you only bring on seasonally. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_%28economics%29"
] | [
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what is the most blue-shifted object that we have observed in space? | we hear a lot about red shift because there are so many distant objects moving away from us so quickly. what have we observed that's the most blue-shifted? is there anything moving toward us that we wouldn't expect to be (that is, something other than nearby stars and galaxies)? | the only answer i can find on this is [this article](_url_0_) on scientific american which mentions an "object far beyond the local group's borders with a blueshift of 1,026 kilometres per second" which is a redshift of approximately -0.00342, this is over three times andromeda's redshift of -0.001001. there is not a lot of material on this as most objects apart from our local cluster are moving away from earth. i hope this helped answer your question | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/found-the-fastest-approaching-object-in-the-universe/"
] | [
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why do many hotel and public hot tubs have warnings that say “limit time to 15 minutes for personal safety”? what are the detrimental effects? | just as hypothermia (being too cold) is bad, hyperthermia (being too hot) is bad. the reason for this is the proteins and enzymes in your body are designed to function in a relatively narrow temperature range (aka body temp) before they start to denature, where their shape and functionality can start to change. once the proteins and enzymes are denatured they can no longer function properly and you will eventually die if it gets bad enough (this is what happens during a heat stroke). edit: typo | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
am i missing something about cardiality and well-order? | since every set s admits a well-order, and this implies both the existence of a minimum in the set and of "consecutive" elements (the consecutive element of some x defined by min{y in s : y > x}), why does this not allow for a way making every set countable? take the real numbers r. they admit a well-order. a certain number x must be somewhere on the list? or is it just that you might never be able to get to certain numbers? | essentially, yes. let's consider a simpler example so you can see why the well-ordering cannot be used to create a one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers, even for countable sets. suppose the set *s* is well-ordered. thus *s* has a least element *a*. we will define a function *f*:n-- let's forget about the reals for now and just consider the set s = n ∪ {∞}, where ∞ is an element which is greater than all natural numbers. the set s can be trivially well-ordered via the well-ordering on n. any subset t of s has either the form e ∪ {∞} where e is a subset of n, or the form {∞}. in the former case, the least element of t is the least element of e, and in the latter case the least element of t is ∞. now consider the function *f* that we defined above. clearly, we have f(0) = 0. then f(1) = min{x in s: x if we had considered an uncountable set *s*, the situation would be even worse. the range of a recursive function is *always* countable, so the well-ordering could not possibly show that the reals are countable. the reals are actually uncountable, so that's good. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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gm rapeseed, aka canola, what exactly was modified from the original? | so i've looked up a few things about gm rapeseed, the wiki article and other sources, and i found that it was originally used for industrial lubricant, and because of glucosinolates and erucic acid, that it was too bitter to be sold for use of food, and the meal leftovers from pressing the oil was too toxic to be used as animal feed. but after reading the wikipedia articles on rapeseed, erucic acids, and glucosinolates, and also another source on gm rapeseed (_url_0_) i became confused about what actually changed, and what was the problem with the natural rapeseed, that made people want to change it. i'm hoping the brilliant minds of reddit can clarify things for me. | it seems (and says in the linked article) that gm has been used for herbicide resistance and changing the ratio of oils. herbicide resistance should be obvious. oil ratios could be used to give different nutritional or physical properties or to fine tune the oil for feedstock to produce various products (detergents, industrial oils, margarine, etc.). | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/grocery_shopping/crops/21.genetically_modified_rapeseed.html"
] | [] | [
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how does the f-35 air intake design overcome the problem of boundary layer ingestion? | _url_0_ most planes have air intakes that aren't flush to the fuselage to avoid undue stress on the turbine blades in the form of uneven boundary layers that have formed on the body and the other edge of the inlet. seeing as the f-35 can fly properly, how do the engines cope with the consequences of flush mounted inlets? boundary layer suction? some other super classified technology? even looking at the f-22 raptor, it has offset inlets to prevent this issue. | the f-35 uses a diverterless supersonic intake (dsi) - these intakes utilise a specially designed bump on the inner surface of the intake, combined with a forward-swept intake cowling / lip. what this does is causes high pressure air to build on the front surface of the dsi bump, pushing the turbulent boundary layer to the top and bottom of the intake, and causing it to spill out over the corners of the intake lip. ([here's an official graphic that shows a simulation of this](_url_0_)). as mentioned, the intake lip is swept forward (unlike on most fighters); this is done to prevent usable air flowing over the dsi bump from [bouncing over the intake](_url_1_) (suffocating the engine), and also to create a leading shock wave during transonic and supersonic flight. the cowling causes a shock cone that increases the air pressure on the dsi bump, helping further minimise the amount of boundary layer that makes it into the engine, and also helping slow the airflow to subsonic speeds needed for the engine (in other words, doubling as the shock cone seen in some other intakes ([here's an f-111's shock cone that bounces supersonic air off the intake cowling / the shock cone that comes off the cowling](_url_3_))). one disadvantage to dsis is that because they don't feature moving parts (at least on the f-35), they have to be designed to a certain mach, meaning that they have the potential to be a limiting factor when it comes to aircraft top speed (by limiting air mass flow to the engine). their main advantage, besides reduced maintenance and weight, is that they don't leave a diverter flow channel which can become resonant cavities for enemy radar emissions, meaning that they result in a lower radar cross section over a wider range of frequencies. also, while the f-22 doesn't feature them anyway, dsis are another way of removing the need for [variable geometry intake ramps](_url_4_), whose hinges, gaps and seams provide radar returns, increasing an aircraft's radar cross section. [here's a lockheed article on some of the history of its testing with the f-35 \(and on an f-16 testbed\).](_url_2_) edit: first image rehosted onto imgur, also changed some terms. | 24 | [] | [
"https://media.defense.gov/2014/Mar/11/2000783826/-1/-1/0/140310-F-NG006-007.JPG"
] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/aTYpQhE.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/7UGKa.png",
"http://www.codeonemagazine.com/article.html?item_id=58",
"https://i.imgur.com/5d3OiXF.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/qjPDGCh.jpg"
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why doesn’t kangaroo blood clot? | i was watching a nature documentary and they were doing surgery on a kangaroo, and mentioned that kangaroo blood doesn’t clot. they didn’t say why this was, and google turned up no results. it seems like clotting blood is a critical thing, since a small cut could lead to a kangaroo bleeding to death. why doesn’t this happen? | i think thats either a myth or perhaps you misunderstood? i don't have any first hand experience with kangaroo veterinary care, but i've done research on marsupials including dissecting a kangaroo carcass and i have never heard that their blood doesn't clot. did the kangaroo perhaps have some condition that prevented its blood from clotting that was specific to the individual? i did a quick literature search and the only reference to blood clotting in kangaroos i could find was this reference about kangaroos infected with a blood borne parasite: "the most common necropsy findings included variable body condition, ... thin watery blood that was slow to clot " [source](_url_0_) so clearly their blood does clot if blood that is 'slow to clot' is noteworthy for an infected kangaroo. | 26 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213224415000103"
] | [
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why are humans still susceptible to superstitions? | is there some sort of evolutionary or psychological reasoning behind it? | there are a few reasons: 1) from an evolutionary perspective, there is a far greater risk in a false positive than a false negative. think of the case of hearing a rustle in the bushes. you have to choose quickly whether it's a predator or not. if you think predator and you're wrong, you may feel foolish or waste some energy but you're alive. if you think *not* predator, you're lunch and don't pass on your genes. 2) some theories posit that it's an over-generalisation of a biological urge to trust authority. you've probably heard of the milgram experiments (authority figure instructed participants to give incredibly painful electric shocks to a 3rd party) which showed how willing we are to act out of character if told to do so by an authority. most superstitions are also presented by authority figures (religion generally runs in families, people who proport to be more educated present 'facts' about alternative medicine etc.) 3) we are poor estimators of causality. you've probably heard the phrase that correlation doesn't equal causation. this is of fundamental importance to understanding the world objectively but consider how recent the scientific method is. humans have to make rules about the universe and correlation is often a good short-hand rule. 4) humans are poor at changing their opinion or beliefs. two concepts are important here; cognitive dissonance and confirmation bias. cognitive dissonance is a psychological discomfort with conflicting answers. we're programmed to try and eliminate this dissonance because we want the world to be explicable. the way we do this is primarily by confirmation bias. confirmation bias is a bias wherein we over-estimate the importance and truth of information that supports our current belief and derogates the importance and truth of dissonant information. there have been some amazing studies on this - most notably, a seminal study that showed participants who were given *less* money to participate in an incredibly boring task actually enjoyed it more as they had no way to rationalise their involvement. 5) mortality salience and terror management theory - this is somewhat more controversial but i think there's some merit in the data coming out. terror management theory is the idea that our awareness of our own mortality (mortality salience) provides psychological discomfort. to combat this, we try to act in ways that give us life after our death, such as having a family, creating a legacy, giving charity, believing in life after death or being a part of something bigger than us (such as science or a shared belief). it's important to note that all of these factors affect skeptics, atheists and scientists alike. there are methods of inquiry that limit our propensity for error but don't make the mistake of thinking that you're not as likely to make fundamentally flawed attributions and conclusions. **i'll add to this list later but i'm at work at the moment and it's the best i can come up with off the top of my head.** | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner#Superstition_in_the_pigeon"
] | [
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is superstition a learned behavior? are humans naturally superstitious? | it's a learned behavior based on innate learning algorithms. the classic paper in this area is skinner's: [superstition in the pigeon](_url_0_), where he demonstrated that the misattribution of reinforcement can produce superstitious behaviors. to understand how this works, it's important to note that learning (through the process of [operant conditioning](_url_1_)) is a result of behaviors being shaped by their immediate consequences; for reinforcement, whenever a behavior is followed by a reward, then the probability of that behavior occurring again increases. what skinner found was that when he set up a reinforcement schedule where the food was presented irrespective of the behavior of the individual, the food would increase the behavior that preceded it. that is, the pigeons responded as if there was a causal relationship between their actions and the delivery of food, when in reality there was no association between the two at all. these results have been replicated across a number of species, and many times in humans (with the obvious advantage of using humans is that they can verbally confirm our conclusions, by stating that they were responding to our reinforcement schedules in complex ways in order to produce the reinforcement - despite no causal relationship existing). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning"
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|
(physics) entangled particles: when are the states undetermined, when just unknown? | (noobie question, apologies if formatting is bad...) concerning entangled particles. how do we know they are in really in 'superposition', how do we know the states are really indeterminate and not just simply unknown? e.g. take a matching shoe pair, randomly (eyes closed...) put each shoe in separate identical boxes and send one box to the moon. when a colleague on the moon opens his box, he immediately knows what is in the other box. the complementary shoes though were never in superposition. which shoe was where, was simply unknown. somehow in qm "unknown states of a complementary particle pair" is not enough to model an entanglement experiment. it is necessary for the states to actually be undetermined to best explain the experiment. if one had both separate unopened shoeboxes again, how does one decide if the shoe states are in superposition or "simply unknown"? if *anyone* peeks in the box the states "collapse" ... to experimentally determine non-superposition would it be necessary to create a steady stream of "randomized complementary shoe box pairs" and do a statistical analysis? somehow i think bell's inequality fits in here, but i do not know how (and don't understand it yet...) (of course i do not believe that shoes can be in superposition) | that's exactly the reason. bell inequalities give you correlations between measurements in different bases that are incompatible with a local hidden variable theory - so a scenario where the actual state is just unknown. but maybe there is a slightly easier way to see how superposition is different from statistical mixtures: imagine you have a coin and you know with which probability it is heads. now i tell you that you should transform the coin into a state where the measurement outcome is certain without gaining knowledge about whether the coin was heads up or not. obviously this is not possible. the only operation that is not gaining information about the coin is flipping it upside down blindly, but that means that it is still in an uncertain state afterwards, just with the probabilities for heads and tails switched. a spin 1/2 is the quantum equivalent of a coin. now lets consider that you have such a particle that you know is in the |up now again i ask you to flip it blindly such that you gain no information about whether it is up or down. the quantum equivalent to blind flipping operations is unitary rotation. and indeed for any superposition state of a spin 1/2 particle there is some unitary operation that brings it into the |up that's the crucial difference: with a classical statistical mixture you only have part of the information and you need to gain the missing information before you can bring the system into a state where your measurement has a certain outcome. quantum superposition on the other hand contain all the information that can have about the system. even if a measurement has an uncertain outcome for a certain superposition, you can always use a 'blind' unitary transformation to bring it into a state with certain outcome for that measurement. every pure superposition state is a minimum entropy state that can be transformed into an eigenstate of the measurement in which you are interested for 'free, so without the need of gaining additional information about the system in the process. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know that the laws of physics are the same throughout our universe? | we don't. it's *possible* that physics functions differently in different places. but we have no evidence that would suggest it to be the case, and for the most part our observations are consistent with the assumption that, at least within our observable universe, the laws of physics are essentially the same everywhere. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when coming down with a cold (or if you already have one), will working out help or hinder your recovery? | standard advice would be to take it easy in this situation, but i was wondering if there is any evidence to suggest that exercise could actually help you fight off a cold. my naive reasoning would be that increased blood flow might boost the immune system. | this is actually a pretty fascinating question because the answer is so complex. we're really only beginning to understand the interplay between exercise and immune function. a very thorough review of the literature was published in 2011. you can read the abstract of the findings [here](_url_0_). if you have access to the full article, i highly recommend giving it a read. it's roughly 30 or so pages reviewing the current body of knowledge on this topic. the old thinking (based on a couple of older studies of marathoners) was that exercise increased infection risk 2-6 times that of a sedentary person due to exercise "destroying" natural killer cells in the blood. we now know exercise doesn't destroy nk cells, but it does cause them to migrate elsewhere in the body. current thinking is a lot murkier regarding whether exercise is beneficial or detrimental. there's still a lot to learn here! but to summarize the current findings pertinent to your question: acutely after exercise, the blood sees an increase in white blood cells of multiple types. this is proportional to exercise intensity and duration and is mediated by two processes: 1) shear stress knocking white blood cells into the blood, along with catacholamine (think adrenaline) induced activation 2) a second wave of activation from cortisol. some of these elements, like t-cells, work better after exercise. however, other elements don't fare as well. b-cells produce lower levels of antibodies, and the neutrophils (these act on the acute phase of an infection or inflammation) are less mature and have been theorized to work less effectively - though experimental studies haven't demonstrated any objective measure of decreased neutrophil activity after exercise. after this acute rise, there is a subsequent drop below pre-exercise levels in blood titers of white blood cells and immunity elements, followed by a return to baseline around the 24 hour mark. so what does all this mean regarding an upper respiratory infection like the cold? as i mentioned earlier, there is good evidence that exercise decreases antibody levels. key to fighting off respiratory infections is a certain type of antibody called iga. iga is secreted in the mucous, and can be found in the nose, the mouth, and throughout the gut. during exercise, iga levels drop off with long duration or high intensity workouts. however, short bouts of moderate intensity exercise with *plenty of rest* in between do not affect iga levels and may even temporarily boost them. so, mucosal immunity may or may not be impaired depending on the type and quality of exercise. anecdotal reports imply that respiratory infections may be made worse by exercise, but little hard evidence has been found to support this (depending on the pathogen). so the pathogen responsible for the illness also matters a great deal as to whether exercise is a good idea or not. basically, if you have straightforward cold symptoms (sneezing, runny nose, congestion, cough) - it should be fine to continue exercising, just don't overdo it.if your symptoms also include body aches, fatigue, fever (consistently greater than 100.4 f / 38 c), this represents a more serious infection; then exercise is likely not a good idea, if for no other reason than to avoid the transient drop in antibody levels. arguably though, we need more data! edit: added metric units for temperature. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21446352"
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psychologists: how effective is subliminal messaging? | not the overt ones... i'm thinking the ones like the pyramid eye (free masons), demons speaking in modern pop music on reverse, etc | "demon speaking in modern pop music in reverse". do you have a good example? the famous examples such as stairway to heaven and the beatles have been debunked and do not suggest there is anything hidden in them, except for the human mind looks to resolve what it is hearing, and if there has been priming and suggestion, then the brain will make inferences of what it is expecting to hear. if you have an idea what is supposed to be in the message, then your brain will start to imagine it is hearing these words. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the rate of pressure change through a medium? | (sorry about the strange way of phrasing the question but a quick google search on pressure change and the like leads down a bunch of wrong way streets.) when i'm in room with two doors and i open one of them, i can usually hear a bump from the door at the other end of the hallway because of (i believe) the decrease in pressure causing the door to shift. so if i were to open the door at the end of a 100 meter long hallway, how long before a door at the other end would shift in response? hence, what is the speed of pressure change through air? | the phrase you are hunting for is bulk speed of sound. a sound wave is a pressure disturbance in any medium. in more technical terms the speed of sound is the fastest velocity any information (aka pressure) can be communicated or travel through any medium in an isentropic manner. a very cool video to watch that shows the propagation of sounds waves is [this] (_url_0_). we can determine this sound speed for any medium. in your example, we will assume the temperature of your hallway is 75 degrees f. this results in: c (speed of sound in air) = 345 m/s or 1200 km/hr. if we use this the length of the hall 100 meters, and cancel out the units. distance / c = 100/345 = 0.29 seconds. this is how long it would take for the far door to react to the pressure shift. all materials have a bulk speed of sound. if we assume the hall is full of water then this math becomes: c_water = 1481 m/s distance/c_water = 100/1481 = 0.068 seconds lets go crazy and assume we have a solid gold bar that is the same length (100 meters) and we hit it with a hammer on one end: c_ gold = 3240 m/s distance /c_ gold = 100/3240 = 0.0302 seconds it will take the pressure from the hammer strike 0.0302 seconds to run that distance no matter how hard the hammer was hit. source: i am an shock physicist, edit: good real source for explaination, explosives engineering by paul cooper or other books on acoustic theory like u/kolkom provided. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=px3oVGXr4mo"
] | [
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what is used to set a standard of second? | couldn't find the answer on google. | _url_0_ "since 1967 the second has been defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom" | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second#International_second"
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] |
i wear glasses and when looking along the horizon i see very clearly, 2 lines coming from the sun. the one on the right looks blue, the left red. what am i seeing? | sorry for the delay in getting back to you. it was more like _url_0_ | something like [this](_url_1_)? then it's [chromatic aberration](_url_0_). not all wavelengths/colours of light are refracted the same way in the lenses of your glasses, effectively shifting the blue a bit to the right, the red to the left. i'm not sure wether this really fits your description, but it immediately sprang to mind. it fooled me into thinking the stove was on because of a blue shimmer around the burners :) | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/voiRyBT"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration",
"http://www.tlc-systems.com/pp011185crp.jpg"
] | [
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my 5th grader needs an expert for her report. can i post her q`s about plastic? | thanks for your attention. my very ambitious daughter is doing an "expert" report for school and she was hoping for a real expert opinion not just me and google. we called all of our friends and relatives for some help, finally i told her i would post on reddit. she typed out some questions she has. i will post what she wrote. any help is great. what is plastic made out of and how is it made? polymer is a main ingredient. it is also made out of vinyl chloride monomers, micro organisms that chain together. why doesn’t it decompose? what kind of creatures grow on plastic? is anyone taking action to stop plastic in the oceans? does the plastic affect the creatures that grow on it? how does the plastic affect creatures that don’t live on it? how does the plastic affect the ocean environment? how does the plastic get into the ocean? why is there so much plastic in the world? what would life be like without plastic? | good evening! i'm a professional chemist who works in the polymer industry, i finished my phd in organic chemistry about ten years ago, perhaps i'm expert enough? (of you'd like further credentials feel free to send me a message.) **what is plastic made out of and how is it made?** there are many different types of polymers that are made by man and many that are naturally occurring. those that are made by man are formed by a reaction called a polymerization, which converts a lot of monomers (a small molecule) into a polymer (a very big molecule.) plastics are composed of polymers. monomers are generally made from fossil fuels, either petroleum or natural gas. a good deal of research is being done to find renewable sources for making plastics. **polymer is a main ingredient. it is also made out of vinyl chloride monomers, micro organisms that chain together.** vinyl chloride is a monomer used to make one type of plastic, pvc- polyvinyl chloride, which is commonly used in plumbing and other products. vinyl chloride is made from natural gas and salt. a side product of the manufacture is sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda, and more commonly known as drain cleaner. this is why drain cleaner is so cheap, it's a by-product of pvc manufacturing! other plastics are made with different monomers, such as ethylene, isoprene, styrene, butadiene, and others. polyethylene is used in beverage containers, among other things, polyisoprene is used in car tires, polystyrene is used in insulation and disposable coffee cups, polybutadiene is used in rubber for shoes. we can also use more than one monomer to make a plastic, an interesting one is styrene-butadiene rubber (sbr rubber) this is both the rubber found in running shoes, and the rubber found in chewing gum! ([sbr wiki](_url_2_) microorganisms will take sugars and put them together to form cellulose, a type of biopolymer, plants also make cellulose, it's what wood is made out of. there are many types of biopolymers, too many to list here, but here is the [biopolymer wiki page](_url_1_) **why doesn’t it decompose?** many plastics do not readily decompose because microorganisms do not have the means to break them down. many commonly used plastics are quite resistant to chemical reactions, this is actually one of the reasons we use them. polyethylene is the most common, think of milk jugs, the major route of decomposition of polyethylene in the environment is by the sun light breaking it down in to very small pieces. other plastics will decompose in the environment, [polylactide](_url_0_) was developed specifically for this. sun chips were sold in bags made of this, but the plastic made a louder crinkle noise that bothered people, so they removed it from the market. this demonstrates a major problem we have in the plastic industry, we would love to introduce products that are now environmental sounds, but the general public has rejected many of them, and we won't stay in business long if people don't buy our products! **what kind of creatures grow on plastic?** there are some bacteria that have the ability to break down plastics. to my knowledge there are no larger life forms that can however. **is anyone taking action to stop plastic in the oceans?** plastics in the ocean are the result of the general public being irresponsible with their waste. plastics bags have been banned in some cities to address the problem, unfortunately, people are not willing to pay more for a biodegradable plastic bag. **does the plastic affect the creatures that grow on it?** i'm not sure i'm qualified to answer this question. **how does the plastic affect creatures that don’t live on it?** plastics, generally speaking, don't pose a huge threat to creatures, mostly they are just unsightly. there are some concerns with regard to wildlife getting wrapped up in plastics, but this is hardly a major cause of death and injury in the natural world. the natural world is a brutal place, but that is not to say that this cause of death should not be reduced. **how does the plastic affect the ocean environment?** again, i'm not completely qualified to answer this question, that is more of a marine biology area, a bit beyond my knowledge. **how does the plastic get into the ocean?** plastic gets into the ocean be people not disposing of it correctly, often times the wind blows old bags into the ocean, for example. **why is there so much plastic in the world?** plastics are amazing in their ability to be modeled in to useful items. before plastics, everything had to be made out fo wood or metal, which made for a much less safe world! the short version is plastics are generally cheap and useful. **what would life be like without plastic?** our human life would be quite different, just look around at all of the things around you that use plastics! there probably isn't a product made these days that doesn't use a plastic tool or part at some point in it creation. our cars would not have tires, medicine as it is now practiced would be totally different, the list is quite long. | 1,304 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Styrene-butadiene",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/gallery/2008/dec/05/water-pollution-citarum-river",
"http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1AFAB_enUS460US460&sugexp=chrome,mod%3D19&q=sidon+garbage+dump&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=MvjKT8uGGamU2QWmoqzaCw&biw=1309&bih=713&sei=OvjKT5juAYj02QWlnpDaCw",
"http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/270/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=en4XzfR0FE8",
"http://aem.asm.org/content/77/17/6076"
] | [
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if you had one molecule of water, how would you determine its state? | i guess if you had it in a vacuum, it'd have to be a gas, right? because of the pressure. but let's say it's at an unknown temperature and pressure and there is no other matter around for it to interact with (like air). is it a solid, liquid, or gas, and how do you tell? | a single molecule doesn't have "state." a state of matter is only meaningful when you describe how that molecule interacts with the molecules around it. it's like asking an only child how they get along with their siblings. there's no answer. | 71 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is land usage for beef increasig or decreasing (production/land area) anyone have data resource globally or country per country? | meat production increased the last 30 years, but i suspect land area usage decreased due to more effective farms ect. who knows? i would like to know! | livestock covers 45% of the earth’s total land. thornton, phillip, et al. "livestock and climate change". livestock xchange. international livestock research institute. november 2011 smith, pete & bustamante, mercedes, et al. "agriculture, forestry and other land use (afolu)". intergovernmental panel on climate change. chapter 11 | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do metabolic processes the liver have a queue? | if somebody were to take paracetamol/tylenol or another drug known to metabolise in the liver, and then consume alcohol, would it slow the metabolic process of removing ethanol, or would the liver simply metabolise both at the same time? | it's more complicated than that. it depends on what kind of metabolic process you're talking about. liver cells have a ton of different enzymes that all do different things. what you're probably talking about is the cytochrome p450 system, which is what does drug "breakdown". substrates that have higher affinities toward these enzymes are "moved up" in the queue, per say, and are more likely to get grabbed up by an enzyme and then acted on. if two drugs both want to get processed by the same enzyme and you had enough drug that you saturated the enzyme system, then yes, you could slow down metabolism of other drugs. this is why if you take certain medications, like coumadin/warfarin, they warn you against taking other medications like certain antibiotics or antiseizure meds, since these drugs all play together in the cytochrome system and affect the metabolism of each other. there really are tons of enzymes, though, so it usually takes a lot to overload the system. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=12&po=13"
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are "muscle knots" and "muscle release" real things? if so, what is the underlying physiology? | surrounding your muscles, and underneath your skin you have a fibrous layer that is called your fascia. when you dont move very much your muscles atrophy and "stick" to the fascia, this is due to lack of hydration and basically ends up kinking the fascia and drying it out; thats why it becomes stiff. the longer the muscle stays in an un-active position, the harder it is to unglue the muscle from the fascia, hence the knots. so when you feel that spot release, or pop its actually the muscle releasing from the fascia. this is the reason that some massage is caused myofascial release. a big part of stopping this from happening regularly is to either move around regularly and do not sit in one position for too long or workout and make the muscle bigger. the bigger the muscle is, the harder it is for the fascia to stick to it due to the fact that a larger muscle contracts much harder then a smaller muscle. this is also part of the reason why we get so many knots in the small muscles in our backs and not big muscles like our glutes or hamstrings. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://ptjournal.apta.org/"
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|
in terms of energy, does the average family use more food or more electricity? | that is to say how many watts of food does a family use vs. how many calories of electricity does a family use? also what category does this go in? | for this, i am going to count everything in joules. both the caloric intake and the electricity consumption will change drastically between family to family. from the 2010 census, the [average household was 2.58 people](_url_0_) in the us. the caloric intake will have a broad range as well. i am going to say 3000 calories per person (this might be way too high, but the orders of magnitude difference in the answer won't be affected. [this](_url_1_) states the some energy consumption figures. i am going to use 10000 kwh per month. so, after converting the units and multiplying calorie intake by people, i get 1.2 * 10^9 joules (1.2 billion) of energy used from the power grid for the family per day. the total caloric intake to be 3.2 * 10^4 joules (32 thousand) per day. tldr: us family uses much more electricity from the power grid than is consumed from food intake. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb11-cn144.html",
"http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=97&t=3"
] | [
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how does accumulation of diversity and natural selection lead to entire new organs? | good day fellow reality admirers. i need your help on something that i am missing in my understanding of evolution. i understand that evolution takes place over a long period of time by diversity of ofspring being selected by natural selecting. the genome that has a better chance at survival has a better chance at reproducing. because of the diversity of ofspring the changes accumulate to form great diversity. now i get to the part that i fail to fully comprehend. i will present it with an example. for example many years ago there was an animal without let's say an organ to observe light. i mean really no organ that does it. now, over the years that animal has gotten an eye with a lense. now i fail to see how the accumulation of natural selection paired with diversity of ofspring could lead to an animal getting an organ from not having that organ in any way. i fail to see this because i can see diversity of ofspring can lead to one of the ofspring being a bit taller or having a bit thicker cell wall. i just don't get how one of the ofspring can get something that observes a photon or any other way to observe light. i can not see a way that the accumulation of natural selection could lead to an entire eye or even a very simple light observing organ. maybe occasional mistakes in the genes or the switches in genes but i am just not educated enough on dna. i would greatly appreciate it if someone could explain me how this accumulated change can happen. even if it goes deep into genetics. thank you for reading and apologies for my ignorance and for the long description. | you seem to have inadvertently come upon a very old argument *against* evolution actually! this one is called 'irreducible complexity'. and the argument goes: "a complicated structure such as the eye couldn't possibly evolve since any less fully formed version wouldn't be functional." actually it's not too hard to imagine how the eye could have come about and we can look at existing animals and find your accumulation of diversity in living organisms, all of which use them to great effect! i'll briefly describe them: the unicellular protists called [*euglena* have only a single organelle](_url_0_) that is capable of detecting light and allows the creature to seek out light sources. the chordate called a [*lancelet*](_url_1_) has a primitive light detecting organ marked off as the [number 16 in this image.](_url_4_) which they can use for simple light detection. the flatworms called [*planaria* have a cup shaped region](_url_6_) of light detecting cells. they also use this to move to or away from light. the nautilus has a [semi-enclosed pinhole](_url_5_) type eye that produces blurry images. they use this to find prey and avoid predators. the [gastropods](_url_8_) have a more enclosed [orb shaped eye with a gelatinous blob forming a focusable lens.](_url_2_) they can see. the [eye of the squid](_url_3_) is nearly identical to the vertebrate eye. the important point here being that "transitional forms" are fully functional in and of themselves. _____________________ so you can see through this sequence how the eye could have grown out of less complex, but still fully functional organs. very interestingly, we recently found a [single celled organism that seems to have a complex eye](_url_7_) like that of the cephalopods and vertebrates! (edit: made it better.) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/env108/changes/euglena.jpg",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtomics/files/2011/10/lancelet.jpg",
"http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRW2tpyXR02yoC3U6UfPa_UZ8uvi-0R7mPdPrEqR_hREHU4fNHa",
"http://alexpop7.weebly.com/uploads/3/6/7/7/3677036/6668264_orig.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelet#/media/File:BranchiostomaLanceolatum_PioM.svg",
"http://24.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_ma8lwbEFtU1qlxziho1_500.jpg",
"http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/images/evo/planaria.jpg",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v523/n7559/full/nature14593.html",
"https://naturallycuriouswithmaryholland.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/4-27-10-land-snail-img_84171.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_s1cmOjvAQ"
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is it possible for a machine to perfectly rip a tissue in half by pulling in opposite directions with equal force? | i was tearing a tissue and i thought about how uneven it came out. i wondered why that was, and thought it may be because the force from my hands was uneven as well as the angle. i wonder if there was ever an experiment done, or if it is possible, for a machine to perfectly tear a tissue/piece of paper without leaving the rough edges. just a random question. thanks! | the biggest two factors i can think of would be method of clamping/holding, but more importantly, the way the tissue itself is manufactured. it's the way the fibres are aligned or formed that will have maximum effect on how it tears when pulled apart. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long till self-flying planes are a reality? | with the (fairly) recent incidents such as mh370 and the germanwings plane crash, along with other pilot related aviation disasters in the past, i couldn't help but wonder if it would be better overall to have a machine flying the plane. humans make mistakes, and sometimes it costs lives. advanced autopilots already exist but still need human instruction and someone flying the actual plane. but with the recent advancements in autonomous cars that pass safety tests with flying colours, i wondered to myself how long till a similar tech is developed for planes? a few years? a few decades? or more? i would love to know what sort of advantages/disadvantages such a technology would have. | as others have said, self-flying planes are already a reality, how long will it be before there are pilot-less commercial aircraft, probably never. although there are pilot-less trains these days. i think a lot of people would not be willing to fly in a plane that had no human pilot. but they are self flying for virtually the entire trip already. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are gravitation waves expected to be the same "shape" as other waves like light, and if so would the crests of these waves have an anti gravitation effect? | no, actually. as you may know, gravity is directly related to the shape of spacetime, so gravitational waves change this shape as they pass. specifically, if a wave is moving in the y-direction, it will alternately squeeze the x-direction and stretch the z-direction, then the opposite, as it passes a point. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are small constant exercise beneficial? | i watch exercise videos on youtube and when i read the comments i always see some guy saying that " i just do random pushups and situps constantly throughout the day" my question is. does it really work? if i started to do small exercises like (situps, pushups, squats) in 15-30 minutes intervals throughout the day. would it be better than a real workout at a gym (say for 1-2 hour or so 3-4 times in a week)? | your muscles don't know the difference between a "real" workout, and an incidental one... all they care about is how much work they're required to do, and whether it's demanding enough to elicit an adaptation response. so, pushups done in your office are the same as pushups done in the gym. however, if you're well trained in pushups, you may need a stronger stimulus to create an adaptation response. in this case, you'd be better off in the gym, because i presume you don't have a squat rack in your office or bedroom. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the practical reasons for the partition of time into weeks? what is significant about 7 day periods? | i know the day is roughly the time it takes for the earth to revolve around its axis and the year is about the time it takes to orbit the sun and the month is close to the time of a moon cycle, but why would we have weeks? is it simply because of religious tradition? | the lunar cycle is 28 days, but each lunar cycle also has 4 very notable phases of the moon: new moon, full moon, and two half moons. if you consider the new moon as the start of the cycle, the first half moon occurs 7 days later, the full moon 7 days after that, the next half moon 7 days after the full moon, and finally the new moon again 7 days later. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if telephone companies see value in from using negative voltage, why don't power companies do so as well? | the recent askscience question regarding [negative voltage](_url_1_) got me wondering about why phone lines are typically delivered in negative 48 volts. i consulted the [book of knowledge](_url_0_) and learned about the cathodic protection provided to the copper wires by the use of the negative voltage. assuming that this is correct - why wouldn't electrical companies also deliver their power with negative voltage? i'm certain this is an easy and obvious question for those working in this field - and i look forward to your answers. this sub-reddit rocks! | i'm a bit confused on the phone thing and not an expert, we us ac in the home which means both positive/negative voltage. you also normally have 3 lines in with one neutral and the other two in opposite phase from each other -120/120 so when you use them together you get 240 volts. being ac they oscillate but stay in opposite phase, so really you always have negative volts coming in. | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip_and_ring#Negative_48_volts",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lk69q/negative_voltages_intuitive_explanation_please/"
] | [] | [
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what are the uses of memristors. and will we see them being used commonly? | i've heard a lot about memristors recently. what can they be used in? will they be as common as transistors or will they be used sparingly? | hp is developing them for solid-state storage, so in terms of sheer numbers, they'll be really common. maybe someone who knows the theory better can say what sorts of uses they'll have in other electrical circuits. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a memristor work? | i'm not an expert but i do have some colleagues that study their applications. basically in circuit elements you have resistors that relate electric potential to current; capacitors relate electric potential to charge; and inductors relate flux to current. memristors are the theoretical fourth component that relate flux to charge. they have a property whereby the electrical resistance of the memristor depends on the integral of the current flowing through them whose value persists even when the device is off. therefore, they makeup a type of non-volatile memory (they don't need power to store information). from what i understand, making them is pain in the ass. edit: _url_0_ this image from wikipedia graphically describes how they are all related. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memristor#/media/File:Two-terminal_non-linear_circuit_elements.svg"
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|
is the amount of force able to be applied by human muscles discrete or continuous? | how do muscles regulate the amount of force to apply anyway? | it is discrete. force is created by the contraction of the muscle cells. the more cells connecting the more effort generated. the cells will either work or not. so the amount of force would increase by the amount that one cell is able to generate alone. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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please explain the role of mirnas in the parthenogenesis of various cancers. | hi askscience! i'm pretty new to laboratory research and would like to learn more about genetics and the role of mirnas in cancer development. the scientific background necessary to sufficiently understand this type of research is vast, and as an engineering student, i don't have the opportunity to take many of the genetics classes i would like to. i would appreciate it if some of you could give me a basal introduction to genetics, including: structures of genes and how they are identified, deviations from the central dogma and terms i should learn/be able to utilize. here's what i know now: in 2002, carlo croche and several other researchers looked into identifying the root cause of cll, chronic lymphocytic leukemia. several years of research in the coding regions of the particular chromosome they were looking at led them nowhere. when in 1998, sirnas were found to share the same pathways as mirnas, they started to look into the introns of genes and found that the removal of two tumor suppressing genes caused cll. these were identified as mir15-16. i'd like to take this knowledge and further expound upon it. here's the pubmed article: _url_0_ thanks! edit: the title was supposed to say pathogenesis not parthenogenesis | that's an awful lot you're asking for. you'd be better off just getting your hands on a molecular biology textbook, but here are some simple/basic answers to your questions. genes are typically identified empirically, that is we look at them in a practical sense to see their products. the easiest way is to sequence the messenger rna (mrna) in a cell. the central dogma of molecular biology is that dna is transcribed to mrna, which is translated to a protein, which executes the function of the gene. by seeing which pieces of dna match mrna, you can make a pretty good guess at what is/isn't a gene. the way micrornas work is relatively simple, they interrupt this process and prevent the protein from being translated. they bind to the mrna and either degrade it or block its translation (how this works is the subject of some debate). the result is that the gene bound by a microrna is inhibited in some way. a microrna would be tumorigenic if it were acting on a tumor suppressor gene, and turning off it's function. tumor suppressors typically serve as a brake on the proliferation of cells. they give a cell signals that say "don't grow" or "drop dead". it's by evading these signals that a cell becomes cancerous. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC137750/"
] | [
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/biology/7-03-genetics-fall-2004/",
"http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v5/n7/full/nrg1379.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v13/n2/full/nrg3170.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nrc/journal/v6/n11/full/nrc1997.html"
] | [
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the science behind testing eggs. | to check if an egg is still good, float it in a glass of water. if it sinks, it's good; if it floats, it's bad. 1.) is the above statement true? 2.) if so why does an eggs density change when it is no longer safely eatable? | eggs make a lot of h2s gas as well as lose water through the shell when they go bad. both mean more gas inside the shell and therefore more buoyancy. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
[earth science] how does the farmer almanac work? | i don understand what they use to predict weather so accurate. who makes the almanac? | it doesn't. it's based on [pseudoscientific nonsense](_url_3_) and should be considered for entertainment purposes only. it's been found [again](_url_1_) and [again](_url_5_) and [again](_url_0_) that they have no better predictive power than a coin flip, and only give the appearance of "accuracy" due to humans' tendency to remember "hits" and forget "misses", and enough vagueness to make directly analyzing their "forecasts" difficult. the whole idea is just silly anyway if you think about it. [here's a map of the different "regions" they specify for their predictions](_url_6_). does it really make sense that northern montana's weather forecast would have anything to do with that in the texas panhandle on a regular basis? or that the weather would be neatly arranged in several-day-long chunks? this is obviously not scientific, but i decided to go back and see what they had to say about colorado for autumn. we just had the [driest october on record](_url_7_) (and one of the warmest), and set an all-time high temperature record for the month of november last week. what did old farmer's almanac have to say? ["september and october will be cooler than normal, with above-normal precipitation."](_url_2_). [there are some legitimate attempts at long-range seasonal forecasts](_url_4_), but these are limited to giving probabilities of above, below, or near normal temperatures and precipitation. and the amount of predictability they offer is...variable at best. | 31 | [] | [] | [
"https://opensnow.com/news/post/should-we-trust-the-farmer-s-almanac",
"https://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/winter-forecast-part-iii-the-old-farmers-almanac",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20160617184515/http://www.almanac.com/weather/longrange/region/us/12",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/climate-weather/atmospheric/farmers-almanac-predict-weather.htm",
"http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/multi_season/13_seasonal_outlooks/color/churchill.php",
"http://blogs.agu.org/wildwildscience/2014/02/28/did-the-farmers-almanac-winter-forecast-verify-nope/",
"http://i.imgur.com/lP23cPP.jpg",
"https://weather.com/news/climate/news/record-warm-dry-wet-october-2016-us-cities"
] | [
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does your body adapt in any way to repeatedly donating blood? things like increased blood regeneration, etc. | not significantly. immediately after blood donation your body may ramp up production of erythrocytes, but not enough to be noticeable. also, your kidneys will hang on to a little more sodium to make up for the electrolytes lost in the plasma when you donate. loss of electrolytes and fluid volume of the blood, *not* loss of red blood cells, is actually the main reason people tend to feel a little off after giving blood and occasionally pass out even hours after donation. electrolytes control osmotic pressure, which is very important in maintaining proper blood pressure. the minimum waiting interval between blood donations (usually ~8 weeks) gives your body plenty of time to recoup completely in between blood donations, as long as there isn't an underlying problem, like a minor iron deficiency. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
shepard tone for other senses? | (edit not 100% sure about the flair...) if one was to apply [this](_url_0_) auditory phenomenon to other senses would it have the same effect? is the shepard tone based on psychological failing to perceive the different tones or is it literally the inability of the ear? are there fundamental differences between ascending and descending? would it work for: * color, perhaps focused on a small area of the eye? * light intensity/brightness? * temperature? * vibration (increasing frequency or amplitude?) * pressure? * pain in general? * volume of a tone instead of pitch? * any others? | not my area of expertise, but definitely an area of interest. a [shepard tone](_url_0_) is actually a set of ascending or descending tones, with each tone fading out to be replaced by a tone at the other end of the range. while the ear combines all these tones into a continuously ascending or descending chorus, the other senses would deal with analogous inputs indifferent ways: * **color, perhaps focused on a small area of the eye?** such an effect using colors within the visible spectrum would be perceived as a white spot, with perhaps some rhythmic chromatic artifacts depending upon how many simultaneous colors were used. * **light intensity/brightness?** since light intensity is additive, there would be no perceived effect at all. * **temperature?** in what sense (no pun intended)? i'm imagining a region of exposed skin--the back of the forearm, for example--above which a grid of servo-actuated thermal conductor tips are positioned. each one in turn is heated to an uncomfortably warm temperature and placed in contact with the skin, then slowly cooled to an uncomfortably cold temperature, when it is raised and the process is repeated. as it happens, this type of stimulation would be quite uncomfortable, and in less-than-extreme conditions would probably manifest itself as an itch, but not a continuously descending temperature. * **vibration (increasing frequency or amplitude?)** the tactile sense of vibration lacks the fine sense of frequency variation afforded our sense of hearing by the inner ear. as such, the sensation would be that of a more-or-less continuous vibration. * **pressure?** in the testing scenarios i'd envision, the sense would be more of a shiatsu massage than of continuously descending pressure. * **pain in general?** this is more interesting. a regimen of rhythmically high-then-decreasing pain inputs would likely be perceived as continuous throbbing pain, but over time would likely *habituate* the subject in such a way that an overall decreasing intensity is perceived. * **volume of a tone instead of pitch?** no, acoustic pressure is additive in the same way as light intensity. * **any others?** none that immediately come to mind, but if i come across any interesting examples i'll update this post accordingly. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepard_tone"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shepard_tone"
] | [
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] |
are dielectrics affected by external magnetic fields? | i understand they are only affected by constant or time-varying electric fields, but are they affected by constant or time-varying magnetic fields? | “dielectric” is a word that describes the response of the material to electric fields. but the material also has magnetic properties (it will be paramagnetic, diamagnetic, etc.). when you have time-varying fields of either kind, you’ll necessarily have the other kind of field as well. so you’ll have a coupled set of equations where both the electric and magnetic fields appear, as well as the response functions of the medium (the electric permittivity and magnetic permeability). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamagnetism"
] | [
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what physical or psycological effects does living in the arctic circle during the periods of 24 hour light or dark have on someone? | there are extended periods without sunset in the summer, and extended periods without sunrise in the winter above the arctic circle (and below the antarctic circle). what effects does this have on an average person, or someone who lives in that climate? | mostly sleeping problems and depression. also said to lead to hypomania, which is characterized by persistent and pervasive elevated or irritable mood. i want to emphasize, though, that at the polar circle it is not dark all the time in winter. there are many hours where it is semi-dark, as in dim light. due to all the snow reflecting light is is actually not as dark as one would imagine. [layman literature](_url_0_) [academic literature](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night#Effects_on_humans",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1997.tb00372.x/abstract",
"http://www.alaska.net/~mhaa/factsheets/reprint/reprint2.html"
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] |
settle a bet: would lightning do anything to a tank? | my friend and i are at an impasse. he claims that a lightning strike on a tank would, at the very least, disable its electronic systems. i, on the other hand, believe that the electricity would take the path of least resistance straight through the hull and into the ground. my contention is that modern battle tanks, developed during the cold war, were shielded against emp to make them better survive a nuclear blast, and that the electronic systems should thus be isolated from the hull itself. assume, for this scenario, that the lightning strikes the hull and not an antenna, which we both agree would have deleterious effects on at least the radio systems. | [i'm going with "nothing"](_url_0_) for a regular ol' steel-armor-plated tank. at least, for some value of "nothing" -- i assume you don't really care if there's cosmetic damage on the tank. tanks with active armor are a different story, of course. also, i don't know the electrical properties of du armor - could be a different story. but steel? yah, that'll do ya. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_pls/vehicle_strike.html"
] | [
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how much metal is needed to create an electrical ground? | i had this thought driving home while thinking about jumping a car. i know the negative terminal generally has a connection to the frame, creating a ground. but, if the negative terminal was isolated from the car frame and someone connected the negative cable to the frame before trying to jump the car, would there be enough metal in the frame to handle that amount of current? there must be some sort of relationship between applied current and mass/type of metal being used as a grounding source? | there isn't a straight forward answer. "ground" is just a reference point for a circuit. for the electric grid, we like to use the literal ground. for batteries, we use the negative terminal hooked up to a chassis of the device (like a car) or to ground or neutral wires on a printed circuit board. an ideal ground can take or give an infinite amount of current without becoming charged/changing potential. real grounds don't behave like this. a bad ground however would be one with too high or resistance causing too much voltage difference between the two points using it, or one that is too small and overheats while being used. for example with a car and boosting, if the frame for some reason wasn't conductive enough then the boosting car wouldn't be able to supply enough current to the car being boosted, too much voltage is lost in the frame. the answer would depend on what the minimum voltage the starter needs. that or a frame that was somehow to skinny, and boosting the car caused it to blow like a fuse. not a likely problem for a large body of metal, but could be an issue if say a neutral wire in a cellphone was made too skinny. it really depends on what is acceptable for the system to still work. there's no simple answer for it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if we built a clock with a pendulum that swung at 0.99c and left it outside, would the clock after 5 years be old and rusty while the pendulum stayed new? | as /u/iorgfeflkd pointed out, the pendulum wouldn't be able to withstand swinging around at 0.99c. let's just ignore that issue for the sake of argument, though. -think about how a pendulum moves as it swings back and forth. it starts out up high on one side, then it swings downward, increasing its speed, then it swings up the other way, slowing down, then it stops for an infinitesimal moment at the top of its trajectory before swinging back down the other way. its speed isn't constant, it's constantly changing. i'd assume that it would be going 0.99c at the fastest point in its trajectory. also, you'd need an incomprehensibly enormous pendulum for it to get going that quickly, but we can ignore that issue for now for the sake of discussion. -the top of the pendulum, where it's hinged, is moving much slower than the end of the pendulum. technically, right at the hinge, it's not moving at all-- just rotating a bit. the midpoint of the pendulum would only be going 0.495c at the fastest point in the trajectory. so really, the top of the pendulum would look normal, the far end would look very old, and there'd be a gradient of aging along its length. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/1/"
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|
when surgeons "run the bowel" is there a specific strategy to how it's pulled out, and how it's put back in? | i've been watching a lot of house, and whenever they run the bowel in the show they just seem to pull out the bowel in a pile, then put it back in a pile. but isn't there a risk of tangling? is gravity/orientation a factor? | mercifully, real intestines aren't completely loose--they're tethered by tissue, called mesentery, which keeps them in some degree of order. you can pull bowel out to an extent, but it's not like one big loose rope the way it sometimes looks in movies/tv. that said, bowel twisting on itself (volvulus) can still be an issue sometimes, particularly in the non-fixed parts of the colon. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do cells understand/know their niche on the human body? | thanks! | it's a combination of signals from the environment and the cell itself. generally there are a multitude of receptors on the surfaces of cells that perform a biochemical function inside the cell in response to a molecule outside. these serve as signal transducers and the signal gets propagated down into the cell to cause some kind of action (through chemical/physical interactions). there are also times when the signals are taken up by the cell. there are cases where cells "talk" to each other by having surface receptors that recognize one another, or they can form junctions between each other and the signals pass through junctions into neighboring cells. the signal does not need to be a small molecule, a lot of times the physical properties of the space that the cells occupy can act as a signal. we know that for example stiffness of the nearby area can affect certain proteins which can then send that signal down again to let the cell "know" what environment they are in, such as knowing if the cell is near a blood vessel (more elastic) or near bone (stiffer). there is also the other side of that, which is the cell itself. during differentiation, the cells undergo differential protein expressions and remodel their chromatin differently. what results is cells that are made of not only different parts, but are rewired in different ways. that way a certain signal in one type of cell can have different effect than in another type of cell. this is how an increase in one hormone can cause different changes in different tissue types (the receptors are "wired" up to different pathways). | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is paul ekman's work on 'microexpressions' and 'facs' (as seen on lie to me and mentioned in malcolm gladwell's blink) scientificly rigorous/worth looking into further? | so i read about this in macolm gladwell's book blink and found it interesting. i've also since seen it on lie to me but i'm not really asking about that programme as i'm well aware that it's fiction. rather, i'm wondering if the underlying ideas have any merit. i know you can buy training cds to learn the techniques and i reckon this could be really useful in my job. however, i'm also aware that ekman gets a lot of flack for being unscientific. so does anyone know if this is worth spending money on or is it wishful thinking? | ekman recently visited my lab and gave a talk. i've only seen a couple episodes of the show and thought a good chunk of it wasn't proven. fox was going to make it whether he was on board or not. it's accuracy wasn't very good to begin with (~70% correct in the first episode) and has degraded significantly since. he keeps a blog on the legitimacy of claims made in the show [here](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.community.fox.com/drpaulekman/blog/",
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/19/5/508.short"
] | [
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how does microevolution lead to macroevolution? | my friend told me it did. but how? | the same way that being able to take a single step leads to being able to walk a mile, given more time. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are city tram power-lines powered? | i live in prague where there are miles of tram-power lines that power what seems to be dc powered trams (could be ac) with the use of a touch to live wire source. my question is how do they "keep the lines hot"? isn't it wasteful to keep the whole network charged at full? also, i have noticed there are a lot of places where i see power lines connecting to the hot-line, so how is that not causing lops/breaks/shorts in the circuit? edit: here is a map, the purple it the lines; _url_0_ | "keep the lines hot" is a misunderstanding power, in the electrical sense, is when current flows from a high voltage conductor to a low voltage conductor. keeping them separated does not require any power. air is a pretty good electrical insulator, so very little current flows from the power lines to the rails, and very little power is used. only when the train is there, and is connecting the lines, does electricity get used (to turn the train motors). when there is no train, the power required to maintain a high voltage line that is insulated with air and glass/ceramic insulators (those ridged white or grey cylinders) is minimal. it's the same way that all the pipes in your house are full of water, but no water is actually used until you turn on the sink, flush the toilet, etc. | 3 | [] | [
"http://czech-transport.com/images/prague-tram-map.png"
] | [] | [
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the flouride debate: toxic poison or dental health necessity | there's not really a debate in the real sense - the "con" side is mostly populated by conspiracy theorists, while the "pro" side has organizations such as the american dental association and the centers for disease control. there are many ways to go about arguing this, but consider the following: the us has been adding fluoride to the water supply since the 1940s. that's seven decades of literally hundreds of millions of people drinking this stuff. if it were truly harmful, we would be seeing effects by now - in fact, we would be seeing effects for a long time now. fluoride occurs naturally in water, in some regions it's actually on par with the artificially fluoride-enhanced water that you get in the us. it's also added to toothpaste. people arguing against this like to point to the toxicity of fluoride. yes, fluoride can be toxic in large doses. *anything* can be toxic in large enough doses. the dosage used in the us is in accordance with expert recommendations from the world health organization ([link to their report](_url_0_) ) and is way below the toxic threshold. people most likely to show symptoms of fluoride overdoses are typically young children. young children tend to do silly things like eat half a tube of (fluoride-enriched) toothpaste. you can see where this is going... finally, when looking at trends of increasing fluorosis (that'd be your fluoride od, which by the way is mostly an aesthetic problem - it makes your teeth look funky) in the us and elsewhere, it is interesting to note that communities both with and without fluoride-added water show similar increases, which would also suggest that the fluoride in the water is in fact not doing anything bad. as far as effectiveness goes, the short answer is "yes, it works". the numbers vary, but [according to the cdc](_url_1_) the addition of fluoride has reduced cavities in children between 18 and 40%. there are several reviews and papers by different organizations that all come to the same conclusion: fluoridation helps prevent cavities. **tl;dr**: it's safe. it works. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_846.pdf",
"http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5014a1.htm"
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|
international electrical outlets have different voltages, as well as prong shapes and length. which of these international standards is the best/worst in terms of energy efficiency? does shape and surface area/volume of prongs matter? does the voltage matter? | the shapes really don't matter. 220/240 volts is slightly more efficient but 110 volts is safer. however, the power lines are all going to be the same or similar until they get to the final transformer. then in the us it is still delivered as 220 volts but includes a center tap that is tied to ground so it effectively gives 110 volts for small appliances and 220 volts for big ones. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some possible explanations for someone being easily upset and brought into a bad mood by what most would consider minor events? | *physical (neurological)* pseudobulbar affect (pba), emotional lability or labile affect is a neurological condition of unknown mechanism, often seen in injuries like stroke and traumatic brain injury, and other neurological diseases. essentially any condition that can markedly effect the integrity of the brain, can cause labile affect. *psychological* many conditions (including subclinical defensive traits) can provoke overreactions to 'minor events'. a handful of examples might be "axis 2 cluster b" (i.e. dramatic) styles, traits and disorders, bipolar spectrum, autistic spectrum (including the broad autism phenotypes like adhd) and obsessive-compulsive spectrum. fundamentally its usually related to all-or-nothing thinking patterns. karen horney ('tyranny of the shoulds' and 'everything must be perfect, or its terrible') and albert ellis (rebt, 'father' of cbt) were really the instrumental thinkers in this line of inquiry. **source: dsm iii and onwards, (apa,) beneath the mask, (sollod et al.)** | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
at what point in the day are you the most mentally productive? ie when is the best time to revise/study? | i'm having a debate with my friend who thinks the best time is the afternoon while i think it's in the morning, so is there any scientific basis to this? | it's very individual, so there's no finite answer. some people are fresh at 6am in the morning, others at 10. also depends if you nap doing the afternoon and when (which is highly recommended if you study). personally i prefer to starting studying by waking up around 8am, wake up slowly and study from 10am to 1pm, take a 1½ hour nap and then continue studying for a few hours after that. but i know of others who are more productive in the early morning and some who are more productive in the late evening. and then there's always the guy who's first motivated enough to focus on it from 1am to 6am on the day it's due. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will "airpocalypse" in china have a direct impact on other parts of the world? | [this](_url_0_) does not directly answer your question, but it is very pretty. it suggests that the answer is no; the impact of chinese air pollution on somewhat remote areas (like us or europe) should be rather small. keep in mind that we *do* "deserve" part of this pollution, because if we manufactured all the goods we consume locally, we would emit at least part of it ourselves. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oRsY_UviBPE"
] | [
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|
if you go from point a to point b, do you burn the same amount of calories regardless of method? | i was required to take a nutrition class in college. one of the things the teacher said never settled right with me, even over all of these years. i'm not sure what made me recall it today, but here goes... if you go from point a to point b, do you always burn the same calories getting there regardless of how you get there? this teacher said that if you walked or jogged or sprinted or crawled the same distance that you would burn the same amount of calories regardless of which method you used. this doesn't make sense to me. my intuition tells me that if i sprint somewhere as fast as possible, i'm going to burn more calories getting there than if i took a leisurely stroll. what does science say? | energy expenditure is path dependent (not only what route you take, but the method you take to get there). for example, running expends more energy per unit distance than walking because, on top of moving your body as a whole, your are moving your limbs far more than you would if you were walking. this extra movement translates (roughly) into more energy "burned". if you take into account things like air resistance, then that is an extra energy expenditure you get over moving slowly as well. depending on speed, certain gaits are more efficient than others. trying to speedwalk at 7 mph will use more energy than a lightly paced jog, while jogging at 3 mph might not be as efficient as just walking. imagine you decided not to travel anywhere at all; would jogging in place burn more energy than just standing there? it is pretty much certain that it would. overall it's a somewhat complex topic, and every energy expenditure can vary between people (our bodies are all different, after all). but we can be reasonably certain that there is a difference between running one mile and walking one mile in terms of energy expenditure. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_potential_energy#Gravitational_potential_energy"
] | [
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how long would a 100km^3 block of butter power humanity? | how long could a block of butter power our cars and generators, lights and factories etc. for? | lets see. 100 km^3 = 1x10^14 l density of butter = .9kg/l 100 km^3 of butter weighs 9x10^13 kg butter contains approx 3x10^4 kj per kg 9x10^13 kg of butter then contains 2.8x10^18 kj total energy consumption of the globe is approximately 5.6x10^17 kj per year which means our block of butter would last 5 years. i find that number hard to believe. does it check out. how much oil do we use a year? estimate 5x10^7 barrels of oil per day worldwide barrel of oil = approx 160 l worldwide consumption of oil per day = 8x10^9 liters worldwide consumption of oil per year = 2.9x10^12 liters. in 5 years = 1.5x10^13 l so that's about an 6th the size of our butter cube. roughly about 40% of our energy consumption comes from oil, so i'm not an order of magnitude out. wow, that is scary. we use a lot of energy. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how well known is the density of pure water? | i've been trying to find the answer for awhile, and just can't come up with anything. at stp it's supposedly 1,000 kg/m3, but is there an uncertainty in that value? | i use the [ittc water properties](_url_0_) (pdf) for my work. the density values are derived from the nist engineering code based on experimental work and checked against the values released by the international association for the properties of water and steam. the above pdf gives a density of 999.8498 kg/m^3 at atm pressure and 0.1c. the maximum uncertainty (ie an approximation of convenience) is around 10^-4 although its lower if you calculate it for your specific case using the given formulas/data tables in the paper. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=ittc%20water%20properties&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fittc.sname.org%2FCD%25202011%2Fpdf%2520Procedures%25202011%2F7.5-02-01-03.pdf&ei=eMGQUJGmJO2jigeYu4CoCg&usg=AFQjCNHT8wJ95icWTzHXHJxqSi0CYqYGPA",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0026-1394/38/4/3"
] | [
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