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does water always find true level? if the curvature of the earth has a drop of 8 inches over 1 mile, is it possible for any body of water to be absolutely level? | "level" and "flat" are different terms. if you created a trough a mile long, and filled it with water, the water would be level at any point. across the mile, it would not be flat though. a local story to the nyc area is that the verrezano narrows bridge support towers are both plumb, (perpendicular to level), but because they are so far apart, there is a measurable difference between the distance between their bases and their tops. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q65O3qA0-n4"
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|
can you turn electricity into a liquid? or other state of matter | electricity is the name we use for a set of varied phenomena involving the transport of electromagnetic charge. it isn't matter, and so it doesn't make sense to ask about changing its state of matter. as an analogy, you can't turn electricity into a liquid any more than you can turn the emotion of happiness into matter...it isn't a thing that exists in that way. you can ask the question about the matter that you're observing electricity phenomena in, if you want. in this case, many different states of matter may conduct electricity and exhibit many different effects depending on what you do to them. for example, liquid water with impurities will conduct electricity, which is probably more boring than you hoped, but you might also be interested in things like [plasmas](_url_0_) which have interesting electrical properties you might not know about. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_physics"
] | [
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|
how do we know that the laws of physics are constant? | [a philosopher's stance.](_url_0_) short answer is, we don't. but we can reasonably trust our observations to continue to reflect our experiences. | 68 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_induction",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/9509090.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/09/100909004112.htm"
] | [
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|
what causes different consistency in semen? | i'm not sure if this would be more appropriate in /r/sex, but i was kind of wondering why some guys have different consistency of semen. of the three guys' semen i've seen in person, two of them had a snot-like consistency while one had a more water-like consistency. does this correlate at all with fertility? how about the kind of diet they eat? i'm really curious about what causes this kind of difference. | it all depends on the fluid that comes out of the prostate and other sexual organs. the extra fluid coming with the sperm, *semen*, is to deacidify the acid present in the vagina and the acid from the urine in the urethra. pertaining to your question: the consistency of the semen would depend on how much extra fluid the body produces to fight acidity. hope i helped. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
light speed is a tricky mistress | so in high school, my teacher said you can't run faster than the speed of light. if this is true, wouldn't that mean that if you were to say, run at the speed of light (you're body moving at the speed of light), you wouldn't be able to move your arms forward since they'd technically be going a bit faster than the speed of light? if that was true, you'd kind of look like a speeding plank, wouldn't you? | i've only been reading this subreddit for a month, yet this question appears more than daily in various forms ("can you go faster than light?" "wait, wait, wait, i know you can't go faster than light, but maybe you could?" "i know you've told me 1000 times that you can't go faster than light, but i've come up with a thought-experiment loophole"). i'm kinda tired of it. can we just put on the main page something that says "no, you can never go faster than the speed of light. please, see these threads and don't ask" and then link the threads. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a formula to calculate a nuclide's halflife, or is it all scientifically collected data? | i'm starting to grok the table of nuclides, and there's nothing about halflife on the chart itself, only decay modes. is there an absolute formula that gives us the expected picture, or is it all experimentally collected data? | there is no exact formula, it has to be measured empirically. however, we are not totally blind, we can figure out how stable a given isotope is by considering how much energy it would lose if it were to decay through a known mechanism (e.g. beta decay), comparing the mass of the nuclide to that of the potential daughter nuclide. a formula that is akin to what you're looking for is fermi's golden rule, but we don't know enough about the nucleus to use it to make exact predictions. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Nuttall_law",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370269314003761",
"http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/GamowModelForAlphaDecayTheGeigerNuttallLaw/"
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does takeout stay warm longer if you hold it close? | i know that my body's heat capacity is much higher than the air, so it will take up more energy. but it is also warmer than the air usually is. would holding takeout close to your body to keep it warm do more harm than good? | for starters, it'll likely depend on the ambient temperature. i couldn't say where the cutoff is, but probably the answer is going to be different when the ambient is 40°c (hotter than body temperature) versus when it's -10°c! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the human eye use the photoelectric effect? | it seems obvious, but after reading another thread about how our eyes can see pressure on the eyelid, it got me wondering if our eyes are influenced by the pressure of photons or if it's the em wave doing the work. maybe i've been so long removed from physics that i'm confusing the two as different. | interesting question. from what i can tell, the answer is no. the term "photoelectric effect" is a bit of a historical throwback, because it described a strange event that occurred under certain conditions - light can induce an electric current in metals under certain voltage conditions. we use the term now to describe a process where a photon is able to liberate an electron from the atom to which it is bound. the biochemical process of vision is called [visual phototransduction](_url_0_). i am not a biochemist by any means, but the process seems to rely on a conformal change in the structure of a chemical induced by photon absorption. the molecule isn't ionized, it just changes shape. so no electron is liberated, and you wouldn't say that the photoelectric effect is occurring. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototransduction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodopsin"
] | [
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do spider's mandibles have enough force to penetrate chitin, or how else do they get to the tasty insides of their victims? | there are two important factors to remember here. one is that chitin layers vary in thickness, and the other is that most harder exoskeletons are reinforced and/or treated with other chemicals. different spiders have different lengths and strengths of chelicerae, giving them different piercing power. so there isn't a single clear answer: it depends on the spider and what it is eating. a large spider eating a small insect can most likely pierce it anywhere, while a smaller spider eating a comparatively larger or more well-armored insect might need to select a more vulnerable spot to attack. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question regarding primitives | how can, some functions, despite not being continous still have primitives? | well, a trivial reason is that some functions have derivatives, but their derivative is not continuous. the first example that comes to my mind is f(x)=x^2 sin(1/x) and f(0)=0 | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is someone who is risk-averse or risk-seeking have something physically different or is it learned? | basically is there something physically different (brain, chemicals hormones w/e) from someone who is more risk-seeking say from someone who is risk-averse. is risk a learned behavior and/or a physical trait? | it can be both. there are more and more studies finding that there seems to be a difference in those at the extreme end of the spectrum of risk-seeking behavior, those people who get diagnosed with conduct disorder (as adolescents) and eventually anti social personality disorder. they find that there are marked chemical differences in the brain, specifically in arousal levels. not sexual arousal, but like just paying attention, things interest you sort of arousal. what is going on is there is not much that really interests a person who is extremely risk seeking. so they put themselves in dangerous situations in order to satisfy that interest. which is why you get an extremely high comorbidity between adhd and odd (oppositional defiant disorder), cd (conduct disorder), and antisocial personality disorder. but again, there is a learning component. think of it this way, a lot of times genetics kinda gives you the range of possible traits for you to fall into. lets say, for the sake of explanation, the possible range for risk tolerance runs from 0 (takes no risks) to 10 (extremely risky). genetics might say you will potentially range from 2-7 in your risk tolerance, but your life experiences and learned behaviors puts you at a 5. while somebody else with different life experiences, but the same genetics, might land at a 7, or a 3. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would an apple look like at absolute zero? | would the molecules turn into a bose einstein condensate? would that even be possible? edit: i'm wondering more about the physical change as the apple approaches 0 k. | technically you can't look at anything at absolute zero - the light that it takes to look at it excites the molecules making it not absolute zero anymore. | 102 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ldaWxLRuTbg"
] | [
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is it possible to use piezoelectric crystals placed under roads to generate electricity? | since many cars travel long distances across roads, would the piezoelectric crystals placed under roads be an efficient way to generate electricity? | it's definitely possible. there are a few articles showing it has been done on walkways. you can even buy your own piezoelectrics and try it yourself! the main problem, as i see it, would be scaling up the design to such large areas. the materials costs would be huge to do this for ~100 miles of highway. _url_0_ _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.treehugger.com/renewable-energy/japan-producing-electricity-from-train-station-ticket-gates.html",
"http://www.piezo.com/prodproto4EHkit.html#priceinfo"
] | [
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what is the process of chelation? | i'm not exactly sure how chelation works or what it really is for that matter. | basically it's a loose association of a molecule and a metal, particularly a multiple bonded ligand. think iron and hemoglobin. the iron molecule "sits" in the center of hemoglobin sort of like an egg in a nest. source: wikipedia, chemistry degree, biochem degree. please note that all answers are given with analogies to help describe a complicated idea and may not necessarily be the most accurate or exact | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if an event happens an average of every x years, and it is been > x years since it last happened, are we more likely to experience the event? if so, can this likelihood be predicted? | in another thread someone mentioned how we are "due" for a yellowstone eruption because it tends to erupt at a certain interval and we are well past that point in time. mathematically, is this true? is there a way to predict if this event is late or if it was skipped? if this is possible, how is this predictability different from scenarios with gambler's fallacy? | it depends on if events are independent or not. for example, the result of one coin flip has nothing to do with the last result. so, if you flip a bunch of tails, the chance of the next flip being tails is still 50%. but geological events don't generally work that way. eruptions and earthquakes tend to involve a build up of pressure or stress over time which is eventually released. it can be difficult to predict when that build-up reaches a point where it must be released, or even how much of the potential is released when it does. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_sub_page_54.html"
] | [
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can a computer pick a trully random name out of a line-up? | say you have a list of 100 names, and need a completely random name out of this list, like a raffle. can a computer pick one that is completely random. or is everything "random" that a computer does based on some sort of algorithm? (not sure if algorithm is the correct word but it comes to mind, not a native english speaker) eg; the shuffle option on say spotify or itunes, is it a trully random song? or are there many different obscure algorithms that decide it? like say, reverse alphabetical order of the third letter of the first word for example. this question has plagued my mind for quite some time now and i'd love to get an answer. (i'm again terribly sorry if i used the word algorithm wrong, but it was the best i could think of) | edit: _url_0_ go there. it'll explain everything. it has a true random number generator and explains it's process using "atmospheric noise." | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.random.org/randomness/"
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chemistry/physics. chiral centres and light | how does a chiral centre in an organic molecule cause the polarization of light to change? | my answer is based on my chemistry experience. a physicist could give you a more detailed answer and break down the math, but i can give you a basic idea of what's happening. imagine you have a sample and you're shining a polarized beam through it. the polarized beam is flat, but it is actually made up of 50% (-) and 50% (+). since the right hand and the left hand rotation is equal, they cancel out and you have flat beam of polarized light. when you shine the light through a sample, it get's refracted. basically, it travels through the sample slower than it would travel through a vacuum. if the sample in achiral, it will refract the (+) and the (-) portions of the beam equally so there is no rotation of polarity. if the sample is chiral, it will refract one of the portions more than the other. if the sample refracts more of the (+) portion, the beam of light will get rotated in the opposite direction since the (-) portion isn't being refracted as much. this sample would thus be the levorotary enantiomer. a sample that refract more (-) portion would rotated the beam clockwise since it's letting more (+) light through. this sample would thus be the dextrorotary enantiomer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is happening inside this vacuum causing plasma to appear from a tesla coil? | _url_0_ if theres a vacuum in the syringe, what particles are being charged up to glow like this? is it just electrons flwoing from the nail into the tube? | hello! i just posted about this on the other thread in /r gifs. i'm a plasma scientist getting my phd soon. the metal nail is getting charged by being in the electric field created by the tesla coil. the plunger part of the syringe is moved backwards which creates a vacuum in inside. a plasma discharge is formed when the charge is large enough between the two electrodes and the correct pressure/ distance combination is achieved. this breakdown condition is called a pachen's curve or law. basically a plasma can only be formed when atoms can collide with each other to transfer energy but not too often or the energy is lost quickly before it can reach the far electrode. this is only part of it, i can clarify anything as you want! | 6 | [] | [
"https://gfycat.com/brightsoulfulgallowaycow"
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why do spacecraft engineers wear those overalls? | i'm sure its been asked before but i just want to know why the people that work on the spaceships have to wear the masks as well as those white overalls? | spacecraft are manufactured in 'cleanrooms', where everything is kept very clean and dust free, as spacecraft have lots of sensitive electronics/sensors which can be disturbed by a hair falling into the sensor (etc.). more info at _url_0_. cleanrooms come in different levels - semiconductor fabricators are known for being incredibly strict about maintaining low air particles/dust levels etc. i'd imagine that spacecraft are expensive enough that it's not worth the risk of not implementing a cleanroom - if just one part of the sensor system fails, that's probably worth millions of dollars; and implementing a cleanroom strategy would be far cheaper than this. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/1353/why-are-spacecraft-assembled-in-cleanrooms"
] | [
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what is getting cancelled in a majorana fermion interaction? | i understand the logic behind spin pairs in subatomic particles, what wikipedia refers to as a dirac fermion. but what is happening with majorana fermions? is this just a conceptual framework or are there actual particles being talked about? | the fermions we know of each have an antiparticle which is distinct. the electron and positron are clearly different particles, the proton and antiproton are clearly different, the neutron and antineutron are clearly different (same charge, but different decay modes), and so on. neutrinos and antineutrinos are trickier but we can make arguments about helicity and/or parity to distinguish them if we want to. many bosons are their own antiparticle. a photon, for example, is the same as an antiphoton. it's not that antiphotons don't exist, necessarily, it's just that they're the same thing as photons, so it's not a meaningful distinction. a majorana fermion would be a fermion which is its own antiparticle. i can easily hypothesize one: it would have neutral charge, a baryon number of 0 (it wouldn't be a lepton), half-integer spin, and so on. some mesons (such as the neutral pion) obey most of those properties, but notably have integer spin and are thus bosons. despite not existing in nature, as far as we know, that doesn't mean we can't use majorana fermions to *model* other phenomena. a "quasiparticle" is a phenomenon which "acts" like a particle and can thus be described as one, but is understood to not actually be a real particle. "electron holes" in semiconductors are a good example of a quasiparticle. an electron hole is a vacancy in the valence structure where an electron would normally be. the *absence* of an electron acts like a particle: for example, it can flow through the material as if it were one. think of a row of theater seats where one is empty: if the audience members move around, the empty seat "moves" as if it were its own entity, even though what's actually happening is the audience members are moving around it. likewise, electrons can move around in such a way that the vacancy (the "hole") moves as if it were its own entity. the effect is thus that a hole can be considered as a particle with positive charge and mass (it takes work to move it so its mass is positive), and although we know it isn't *actually* one, it simplifies our models greatly to just treat it like a particle. electron holes in particular act as dirac fermions, since we could technically construct an anti-hole out of a material consisting of antimatter. in other applications, like the one you read about, quasiparticles arise which act like majorana fermions. again, it's not that there's an actual majorana fermion lurking around, but the aggregate behavior of the material can be simplified by modeling the emergent phenomena as one. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://phys.org/news/2015-05-monopoly-aluminium-broken.html"
] | [
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how does evolution work on the most basic of levels? | this is going to be difficult for me to put into words, and may sound extremely dim-witted, so please bear with me. when an animal evolves, even slightly, how does that animal's dna know how to develop itself in order to get better acclimated to its surroundings? in other words; on a molecular level, is the dna structure somehow communicating with the animal's anatomy in order for it to revise itself for the animal's betterment? how does the dna take in information from the host body's surroundings and then have an answer as to what it can specifically change within itself to give future generations an easier life? imagine this hypothetical situation. a group of people begin living in a lightly flooded area. slowly and after many years of living in this forever moderately-flooded area, the offspring begin developing webbed feet. how does the dna/genetic composition of those people recognize that webbed feet will give them an easier time when walking about? | there is nothing willful about evolution. it is a blind process. let's think about your genome and your descendants for a second. your genetic code is composed of about 6 billion bases (each a t c or g in your code is one "nucleotide base") spread out over 46 chromosomes (a chromosome is just a linear molecule consisting of a bunch of as, cs, ts, and gs lined up in a row (note that it's actually 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, where you have two copies of chromosome 1, two copies of chromosome 2, etc.). and of course, the order of the sequence on the chromosomes is important! so, when your sexual organs produce gametes (sperm or egg, depending if you're male or female), it does so by having a "[germ cell](_url_8_)" divide in a special way such that the gamete winds up with only one set of 23 chromosomes (i.e. just one of chromosome 1, one of chromosome 2, etc.), such that each chromosome is a mosaic of the two that you had, with the proportions being largely random (and you can read up on [genetic recombination](_url_6_) and [meiosis](_url_3_) to get a better sense for how this works). that's all a bit beyond the scope of the question though.... anyways, the dna on each chromosome is double stranded, and the bases pair one another in a particular way. a pairs with t, c pairs with g. so if a short segment of your dna reads: then it's complementary strand will read if you're reading it in the same direction. when this cellular division to produce gametes happens, the cell has to duplicate the dna molecule in order to make sure that both of it's daughter cells wind up with double stranded dna. it does this by breaking apart the two strands of the molecule and using each one as a template to reconstruct the missing half (it can do this because of the exclusive way in which the bases pair with one another). so there's an enzyme, called a [dna polymerase](_url_7_), that comes along and reads the code of the one strand, and lays down bases across from it to create a new complimentary strand. however, it's not perfect. sometimes it makes mistakes, and puts down the wrong base. you've just had a mutation (or rather, there's just been a mutation in a gamete that you could pass on to your kids). so i said these polymerases aren't perfect, but they are pretty damn good. of the 3 billion base pairs that you pass on to your kids, they'll have mutations at roughly 60 bases, relative to your genome. that's really not a lot, but it's enough for evolution! ok, so that's one way random mutations can happen, and it's by far the most common. however, you can also have [insertions](_url_1_) and [deletions](_url_2_) (which are what they sound like), [translocations](_url_4_) (where big chunks of dna get cut out and moved to different places in the genome), [inversions](_url_5_) (where chunks of dna get flipped around in reverse order), and a number of other more intricate things. **all of these things happen at random with respect to their "usefulness" to the individuals they are occurring in**. ok, so then this is where [natural selection](_url_0_) comes in: some of these mutations, *purely by chance* will wind up being beneficial to the organisms that carry them. individuals who *happen* to wind up with these mutations (again, by chance), will wind up surviving to reproductive age and having kids more often than those who don't, specifically because of the advantage the mutations they carry afford them (i.e. very much not due to chance), and as such those mutations will tend to spread through the population over long enough time scales. many mutations will be deleterious (disadvantageous), and as such individuals who happen to carry those mutations will be less likely to survive and reproduce, and thus those mutations will tend to not ever make it up to a high frequency in the population. many mutations are completely (or very nearly) neutral in effect, so they'll just drift around randomly within the population, until perhaps one day the environment might change, and they might suddenly become either advantageous or disadvantageous, in which case natural selection will begin to act on them as described above. so in the case of your hypothetical situation, we first would have to accept that having webbed feet actually ensured the people that had them a better chance of surviving long enough to reproduce than people who didn't have webbed feet. if this was true, then the population still has to wait around for a mutation for webbed feet to appear by chance before natural selection can begin to act on it. also note that this example portrays evolution happening in a very simple "one gene, one trait" framework, when in fact nature tends to be more complicated. while these sort of traits do exist, current research is starting to suggest that the majority of natural selection may act on traits that are underwritten by very large numbers of genes in a much more complicated manner. for example, there are something like 200 genetic loci known to be associated with human height, and there are estimates that that number may actually be as high as 600, with each locus having a small effect on its own, and natural selection acting on them all in concert to produce the differences in heights we see between populations today (note: this is still just a hypothesis. we don't actually have strong genetic evidence for selection one height yet, that i'm aware of, but i wanted to give you a sense for a real trait that had this complex sort of genetics going on) ok. hope i didn't ramble all over the place too much and that that was understandable. i've glossed over a lot of details, because individual paragraphs alone could be the topic of study for many week long units in an undergraduate course, but i hope i've given a good overview. let me know if anything was unclear. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insertion_(genetics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deletion_(genetics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_translocations",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomal_inversions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_cell"
] | [
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dedicated areas on the tongue for sour, salty, bitter and sweet, true or false? | i was always taught that there were areas on the tongue for each of the 4 taste groups, but i had been stumbling upon articles saying it's purely a mistranslation of a german (?) article. i've read those articles a long time ago so i don't remember quite well what they had said, but the main point is that the theory was bollocks and that there were no such areas, that we feel all of the groups exactly the same on every part of the tongue, but with different intensity, depending on the density of the taste buds in that particular area. in my psychology class, i was also taught that these areas do exist, so now i'm confused. i'm inclined to believe that this is true since that's what i've been taught my entire life, but i'm still in doubt. a follow up in case it is true, what makes us taste one flavor group better in a particular region of the tongue then? | it's false. different regions on the tongue may take slightly longer to react to taste, or have slightly less intensity in general, but all parts of the tongue taste basically the same. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue_map",
"http://wwwalt.med-rz.uni-sb.de/med_fak/physiol1/LDM/chemotopic_1.htm"
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does fluid continuity apply when kinetic energy is lost? | for example, if water flows through a turbine generator and loses energy, coming out of the generator at a lower speed, does it apply? | the continuity equation in fluid mechanics expresses conservation of mass. so it would apply in that situation, assuming no mass is gained or lost. and anyway, you can modify these transport equations to have source terms, so in that sense, they never really “don’t apply”. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do communities on deep ocean vents populate new vents as theirs dies away? | i just asked my friend who recently finished her ph.d in deep sea hydrothermal vents this question, here is her reply: well no one really knows. all vent animals have highly dispersible embryos and they travel in the water column till they find a vent but we dont really know much. some travel with vent plumes, others take advantage of bottom ocean currents based on the species they have different lenghts of survivial in the water column, some of them are non feeding and have big yolk preserves to go far, others are feeding and rise somewhat in the water column and then who knows how and when they sink to find a vent. edit: i'm actually gonna be hanging out with her tonight and i'll have my phone on me to see replies to this comment if anyone wants to do an ama with a deep sea hydrothermal vent ph.d | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.hawaii.edu/malamalama/2009/09/whale-falls/"
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|
how large does a body of water have to be in order to have a measurable effect on local climate? | this is a tough question because of the phrases 'measurable effect' and 'local climate.' with enough data, even a very small effect may be 'measurable' but the bigger question is how local is local? there is no general definition of 'local climate.' for any size body of water, it is probably possible to define 'local' to be narrow enough that there is an effect. if you are looking at a small patch of land bordering a lake, there is bound to be something about its local climate which would be different if the body of water wasn't there. a general rule of thumb is that a body of water probably will influence a local area of about the same size as the body of water. so if a lake is 1 km across, there will be a region of about 1 km adjacent land influenced by the lake. however there is certainly lots of variation. a deeper lake will have the potential for greater influence because it has a larger thermal mass. also the strength and direction of prevailing winds will strongly control which areas are influenced (mostly those downwind). finally, what is the general climate of the area? in arid regions a body of water will have greater influence. mountains or hills would also limit the potential range of influence. in the arctic tundra, if the lake is frozen over for most of the year it may have little impact. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does light effect stalactite formation? | after a trip to zeus' cave in greece my sister told me that the guide forbid the group from taking photographs of the stalactites. the reason he gave was that the light from the camera flashes would effect the stalactites. is this true? | though i'd only be guessing, i can't immediately think of any significant effect that camera flashes would have on stalactites. the only minor effect i can think of is the energy from the flash could cause a very tiny heat increase in the droplets which deposit minerals on to the stalactites. this would make minerals dissolved it the fluid very slightly more soluble, meaning they'd be less likely to go out of solution and onto the stalactite. if this was going on with hundreds of flashes constantly all day long for hundreds of years, it may become a problem (i haven't really done the maths), but to be honest, the best bet is that the cave owners want a monopoly on photographs of the cave for advertising to make it look as good as possible. edit: [here](_url_0_) is a handy pdf i found that has quite a bit of information about speleothems (stalagmites, stalactites and flowstone) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/file.aspx?id=31232"
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do people retain information better depending on the color of light source they're under? | i'm not sure if that's a dumb question or not. | i don't think that's dumb at all, rather interesting, but complicated question! there's [that](_url_0_), a study of the effect of "biological lighting" on students, so that's close-ish to what you ask... | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.osram.com/osram_com/news-and-knowledge/the-biological-effects-of-light---light-means-quality-of-life/scientific-studies-on-the-biological-effects-of-light/study-on-the-effect-of-light-on-the-performance-of-students/index.jsp"
] | [
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in the event of an heart attack why is it an either or decision between thrombolysis and angioplasty? why can't both be done at the same time or successively? | non-native english speaker here. from what i understand, in the event of an ongoing heart attack the doctors must choose between thrombolysis or an angioplasty with stenting/pci (pci and angioplasty are the same thing right?). but both cannot be done. so suppose someone is very far away from a hospital with angioplasty facilities. why can't they be given thrombolysis first to save heart muscle and then when they reach the hospital after an hour they are treated with angioplasty with stents? why does it have to be an either or decision? | mostly bleeding risk. once you take those thrombolysis meds, your risk from complications from any intravenous activity shoots through the roof. also, thrombolysis meds only work in a short window during the onset of a heart attack. so it's more of a what's the best too for the job, not really an either or. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where does the fluid come from in the amniotic sac when a woman gets pregnant? | the water component when the amniotic sac begins to fill( linearly with growth ), comes majorly from plasma from the mother, through simple diffusion and hydrostatic pressure. the exact composition changes throughout gestation. as growth occurs, electrolytes, sugars, lipids, etc will be added. for a long time it was thought the amniotic fluid was entirely fetal urine after about 20 weeks. we don’t know the exact breakdown of fetal urine/nutrient rich water currently on a more scaled basis. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
could the rise in temperature world wide cause adititional jet streams, or just cause current only one to increase in volatility? | no the rise in temperature will not cause a new jetstream. in the atmosphere there are 3 "cells". [polar, ferel, hadley cell](_url_0_) jetstreams always form at the border between the cells. these borders are at the equator, at 30 and 60° latitude (makes 5 jetstreams in total). this structure of the cells is a direct result of the influence of the sun. the sun heats the surface of the planet. the strongest heating occurs at the equator so the air rises up at the equator which in turn creates a low pressure system near the surface. thats why there is so much rain in the tropic region. the air in the upper atmosphere flows to the 30° latitude. creating a high pressure system at the surface. thats why it always so hot and sunny at these places. these circulations repeat themself at 60° latitude as well. so unless the sun drastically changes its behaviour these cells won't change very much. and because the jetstreams form directly from these cells there won't be an additional jetstream. btw, the 30° and equator jetstream they are generally much weaker than the one at 60°. now does the climate change have an effect on the jetstreams? recent research suggests so. [rossby waves and extreme weather](_url_1_) the jetstream forms these meanders, the wavy pattern. these waves mean that cold air can get muuuch farther south than it usually can while warm air can get much further north. if the wavy pattern is stable and persists over longer period of times it creates a very persisten extreme weather phenomenon. for example the big floods in pakistan in 2010 were probably a result of this. the research suggests that these stable wavy patterns have increased in frequency for the past 15 years potentially linked to the climate change. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MzW5Isbv2A0"
] | [
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|
what would the effect be if you rotated the magnets and coils in an electric generator in opposite directions at a similar/same speed? | would it produce a current? if so, what would said current look like? would it be efficient? this is obviously disregarding the technical aspects, i just wanted to know if this made any sense, even from a hypothetical standpoint. | in a permanent-magnet dc generator, the output voltage is determined by the rpm, and the rpm is relative rotation between rotor and stator. so, if you spin the rotor at 100rpm, but spin the entire housing backwards at 200rpm, then the relative speed between the two is 100+200 = 300. and so the output voltage will be three times higher than if you kept the housing still and just spun the rotor at 100rpm. if it was an ac generator, then the output frequency as well as output voltage would also be higher. (spinning the generator housing backwards is just like spinning the rotor faster. the two rotations add up.) n. tesla apparently invented a generator where the "stator" was actually a multiple coil with a rotating magnetic field going backwards, backwards compared to the rotor motion. he was using it to get much higher output frequency, so his ac generators could directly create radio waves. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when those at nasa were plotting the trajectories for the apollo missions to the moon, did the solar wind have to be factored in? | i'm thinking probably no, but the distance covered, and the need for precise orbit insertion makes me wonder & i can't find any data about it. | the force of the solar wind is a maximum 9.13~micro newtons per sqaure meter, the total force even over a moderate period of time would have been negligible. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are programs actually encoded into an fpga? | i understand the principle of constructing a web of logic gates to perform a particular function (process a data stream, do a math computation, etc.). however, i do not understand how my specification for a set of gates is converted into actual hardware. | the key component is called a lut or look-up-table. this is a small circuit that has 5 inputs and can be programmed to generate different outputs for each of the 32 possible combinations of the 5 inputs. what kind of device/circuit has that capability? a ram. a lut is basically a 32-bit bit-addressable ram. in addition to the luts there are numerous other memories whose outputs are connected to pass gates and other control structures that set up how the luts are connected to each other, how they connect to flip-flops, etc., etc. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the sun and heat. | well, i was in class learning about thermodynamics, and i heard that heat always goes from high thermal energy to low thermal energy. now, i don't know about space and thermal energy, but wouldn't all the thermal energy in the sun be displaced throughout the solar system trying to heat up space? what regulates the flow of thermal energy? thanks :) | the sun has a thermonuclear reaction going on in its core. the same sort of reaction that occurs in nuclear bombs. therefore it is constantly creating more heat for all the heat that it is spreading throughout the solar system. as for how the heat is spread, space is basically a vaccuum which means there aren't molecules in it which can vibrate. therefore heat is spread by radiation which includes the light we can see as well as other frequencies (uv = ultra violet radiation might sound familiar from sunscreen). since the nuclear reaction can't go on forever (eventually the fuel will run out) the sun as it functions now has a limited lifetime of about 5 billion more years. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the ongoing flame in london was followed to an electrical blame in an ice chest cooler. how might you follow with such exactness what was the single machine that caused it? | alter thanks for the instructive reactions and particularly from individuals who work in this field. how about we trust your insight forestalls loathsome episodes like these later on. edit2: quite a considerable measure of reactions here additionally about the authenticity of the field of flame examination. i know essentially nothing about this territory, so hearing this perspective is additionally fascinating. i did askscience all things considered, so the basic focuses are welcome. much obliged, all. | basically, fire expands in predictable ways and leaves tracks that can be traced, so that examiners can 'walk back' the expansion. these tracks are called "fire patterns." it's pretty easy to find lots of information using google and the phrase "fire pattern." as with any forensic investigation, some evidence is going to be more compelling or clearer than others, and people do make mistakes. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the relation between disk utilisation and iops? | also what is the exact definition of utilisation? is it taken with respect to the time frame of one i/o request or the time frame of one request servicing? | utilization is what the amount of filled vs. total disk space is right now. iops measures how much a disk "works" during the day, or specifically the number of **i**nput/output **o**perations a disk makes **p**er **s**econd. they're two different variables and don't correlate, meaning that a high amount of iops does not mean a high disk utilization and vice versa. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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rosetta implications - other life forms in space? | |astronomy| with organic molecules being discovered, what implications does it have on our understanding on other life forms in space? wouldn't this be proof that there are indeed other life forms in space, and that we are not alone? i understand that the studies are absolutely nascent, was just wondering about the immediate implications of other life forms in space. | organic molecules have been detected in hundreds of different environments in space dating back to the detection of formaldehyde (h2co) in 1969 in a variety of molecular clouds. here, we can take "organic molecule" to mean anything with carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. that is what the scientists and press releases from rosetta are referring to when they say they have found "organic molecules." as far i know, they've not been specific with which ones yet. but i digress: even though formaldehyde is incredibly simple, we've detected far more complex organic molecules in sources in the interstellar medium (molecular clouds - the birthplaces of stars and solar systems). things like hydrogen cyanide (hcn), methanol (ch3oh), water, acetic acid (ch3cooh), even glycolaldehyde, the simplest sugar-related molecule (ch2ocho). if you want to see a full list of these molecules, including where, when, and by whom they were detected (literature references!) you can find it at the [bibliography of astromolecules](http://_url_0_/astrochymist_ism.html) maintained at the [_url_0_](http://_url_0_/). now, that's just out in these clouds. what have we detected in meteorites? waaaay more. take the [murchison meteorite](_url_3_), which fell in the late '60s, for example. it contains a slew of [amino acids](_url_2_), literally the building-blocks of the proteins you and i are made of. and their isotopic composition gives definitive evidence that they are extraterrestrial in origin - meaning they were there before they fell to earth! this and other samples have been found to contain dozens and dozens of different amino acids, sugars, and other life-essential "organic molecules." so, why are we excited by the possibility of there being "organic molecules" on rosetta's comet? well, because landing a probe on a comet and getting direct samples into a mass-spectrometer makes for a far more sensitive analysis than even our previous measurements of comets. the stardust mission detected glycine, the simplest amino acid, in samples returned to earth from comet wild-2, but there was so little sample, it makes it very hard to detect anything else. here, we had hoped that the instruments on philae and rosetta, which wouldn't have to shoot the stuff back to earth for analysis, would let us see things less abundant, but more complex, than glycine, and to determine isotopic ratios of things like water, co, and co2, which all have implications for where these things on earth originally came from. the presence of "organic molecules" does not in any way indicate the presence of life. rather, as far as we know, the presence of these molecules is a *requirement* for the presence of life. the molecules can form and react in a completely abiotic (lifeless) environment. but understanding how those reactions occur, and could lead to the formation of life, requires that we study them in all stages of their life cycles. we think the time they spend in comets may be an important step! so, at least in my field, that's why we're excited that "organic molecules" were found on rosetta's comet - it means that we might have the best chance yet to understand the chemical evolution of life-essential molecules in space! and yes, perhaps, learn something about the possibility of other life. | 167 | [] | [] | [
"www.astrochymist.org",
"http://www.astrochymist.org/astrochymist_ism.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_meteorite",
"http://www.astrochymist.org/"
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how do we know that ammonites had external shells? | it seems odd that ammonites had external shells while almost every other cephalopod species which has a shell, including some extinct species, has an internal shell. or is that incorrect? either way, how do we know that ammonite shells were external? | a couple of things; first, one must not forget that the closest phylogenic lineage to the ammonites is the [*nautilidae*](_url_0_), and *they* have external shells to this day. furthermore, with the exception of the complexity of the septae, the use of the shell appears homologous between the 2 lineages. second, there have been a few instances where there was preservation of soft parts in some ammonite fossils, those specimens showed no significant soft tissue on the outside of the shell. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautilus"
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why are male ligers "sterile", but not the females? | this is called "haldane's rule": if there is sterility in a hybrid population, it is more likely that the heterogametic sex (that is, the one carrying xy) will be the sterile one. in mammals, the male is xy, while in birds, it's the female that's xy (called zw, but that's just terminology), and so hybrid male mammals are more likely to be sterile, while hybrid bird females are more likely to be. the reason for this isn't well understood, but there are some hypotheses listed in the wikipedia article: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldane%27s_rule"
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|
what is the difference between thrombotic and embolic stroke? | both refer to blood clots blocking blood flow to the brain so what is the difference between them? additional question: ischemic and embolism refer to the same thing? blood clot blocking the artery, whether to the brain or to the heart? another question: does it matter if the blood clot is formed or becomes lodged in an artery or vein? are the medical terms used to describe them the same? will their effects on the body be the same as well? | a thrombus is a blood clot in a blood vessel (artery/vein). the phenomenon of a moving obstruction (thrombus or gas) is called an embolism. obviously you could have a non life threatening thrombosis but the embolism will soon find its way on smaller capillaries in which it will totally obstruct the blood flow and thus kill the cells. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what temperature is needed before the avg. speed of a molecule becomes a significant fraction of the speed of light? | this is dependent on the gas (more specifically, on the mass of the gas molecules). lighter gases are easier to move, so we'll use molecular hydrogen and assume that 5% of the speed of light is 'significant'. the average speed is ~92.1% of the root-mean-square speed, itself given by sqrt(3 * k_b * t / m). solving for t, we get a nice and toasty [21 billion kelvin](_url_0_). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/i2IIFt9"
] | [
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|
what process do materials engineers use to design something new? | for example, if i wanted to make a substance that was putty like at x degrees, but permanently hardens and changes color when cooled to y degrees? | well this is a paricularly vague question, so here is a vague answer (followed by a more specific one though, don't worry). you start by looking at an existing material whose properties most closely resemble what you want to make. you then predict what kinds of chemicals you will have to add to it or subtract from it during its manufacture such that you give your material the other property. for example, to make your phase-changing putty, i know that the property of changing colour with temperature is called thermochromism. if we wanted our putty to change temperature once it got to, say, 0 degrees celcius, i would through journal articles and other academic publications for such a compound. an example might be [leuco dyes](_url_0_). if i wanted a putty that hardened upon cooling, i would do a similar thing. it turns out that polyester and polyamide-based glues can cure upon cooling, which would effectively give a transition from a putty-like substance to a solid. what i may then do is find a solvent which will dissolve both the dye and the glue, mix them up together, then cool them to see if it works. if it doesn't, find out why not, and go back to the drawing board. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuco_dye"
] | [
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how are new materials designed? are they "discovered" by computers or are they stumbled upon during experiments? | how exactly do scientists go about creating new materials? what methodology do they use? is it more of a hit-and-miss approach since they aren't sure exactly what they're looking for? take carbon nanotubes for instance... what comes next, and what is the process? | i work in a research lab where i go through this process on a daily basis, and in my experience, there are four ways that "new" materials tend to come about... 1) the logical continuation of a previous project. the trends in the periodic table, previous experience with similar materials/applications, and/or other considerations often give us a pretty good idea of where to look next for what we're trying to do. 2) accidents. sometimes you try to make one thing and end up making another. sometimes you find this new material useful for your own work, sometimes you just mention it in your publication and it one day (sometimes years later) ends up being useful for someone else. 3) theoretical prediction. first principles calculations, especially assisted by computers, are becoming increasingly useful for giving experimentalists a good idea of where to look for materials with the properties we want (the tricky part is actually making them...). 4) returning to a previously discovered material, but with newer/better methodologies for processing it and/or better insights into how the material can be modified in more useful ways. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the everyman's guide to the nobel prize 2012: chemistry. (no self posts in /r/science/, so i'm answering a question that hasn't been asked yet because i dig biochemistry! fill in the gaps, askscience community as you see fit.) | the nobel prize in chemistry was awarded yesterday, and after watching a certain news personality express confusion at the meaning of the physics nobel it occurred to me that as a scientist and an educator it might be appreciated if i stepped up to the plate for my own field (biochemistry) and attempted to give a sneak peak into what this years chemistry nobel prize is all about! i'm going to put this into *who what when where why* format, because it strikes me as familiar. **so who won?** two medical doctors actually, robert lefkowitz and brian kobilka. the really key thing that you never see with these nobel prizes though is that these men *did not act alone!* robert lefkowitz was the personal mentor and the boss of over 150 phds an postdocs from when this research began to when it ended! those researchers did the majority of the messy bench work! kolbika doesn't have alumni on his website, but one of the papers he is being honored for has 13 different authors. *this just goes to show you that science is very much a group effort guided by those who have proven they have the chops.* big ups to the individuals and to their groups! **what did they win the prize for?"** a whole lot of work really, the nobel tag probably goes something like "significant work towards discovery of the form and funciton of the gpcr" but that makes no sense to anyone who doesn't dabble in biochem. basically they were the first ones to figure out the shape of an adrenaline receptor and did extensive research into how various changes affect the shape of the receptor. they expanded that research to a whole family of receptors called gcprs or g-protein-coupled-receptors. these are found in all animals, and in most eukaryotes. they are basically amplifiers which sit on the surface of a cell, a means by which a small chemical signal like a single neurotransmitter can cause enormous chemical changes in the cell by initiating massive chain reactions. they are also fiendishly complex proteins, so analyzing them is quite tricky. **when did they do this research?** over many years. lefkowits group were the first people to clone an adrenaline receptor and then lots of different receptors afterwards. the exact shape/conformation of these receptors was only discovered by kobila in the late 90s and figuring out how that shape changes when bound to something else is even more recent. this is actually kind of neat for the nobel prize: most nobel prizes are awarded long after the discoveries are made. for instance, robert grubbs was awarded the nobel prize in 2005 for a reaction he researched in 1972! **where did this happen?** two american universities: duke and stanford university respectively. this is maybe not super surprising: the united states currently spends a little over 3 times as much on medical research as england, which is next up the list. lots of talent and money goes into the field and these two universities certainly attract great talent. **why is their work important?/why did they win the prize?** because receptors like this are essential to being a complex organism! being able to easily transmit signals between individual cells is why you are an animal instead of a colony of surly streptococcus. of course we always knew that, but the key thing is before these guys started cloning these first receptors they didn't realize that there was even such a thing as the "family" of receptors we call gcprs. by cloning many different receptors and examining them these researchers realized that all of them were similar in shape. in architecture they used to say "form follows function", but in biochemistry we say "form is function". a protein acts the way it does because it is shaped the way it is, so knowing that a family of proteins have similar structure means we can predict their behavior and that knowledge lets us treat illness. and what a powerful tool this has proved to be: we've come to learn that this type of receptor forms about four percent of your genome. almost half of all modern drugs target gpcrs, and in recent years we've actually begun designing drugs specifically to "fit" or interact with a certain receptor in a specific way, something we could not do before!. not only that, but from a technical standpoint there research was really impressive. for a long time people thought investigating proteins as complex as the adrenaline receptor was a fools errand, the tech wasn't there! these guys and their teams really brought together a lot of relatively new techniques and tools and integrated them in a novel way to explore a system of daunting complexity and so set a standard by which all these systems are explored. anyway, feel free to jump in biochemists and embellish on what i've wrote or correct me if i've made any mistakes. i would also love to see some other fields attempt their own stuff because i'm no dang physicist and don't have the chops. **edit: editing. jesus with the punctuation and the broken cut paste junctions** | a really great summary. this is my field and a bit near and dear to my heart, so i will just add that kobilka only determined the structure of the receptor alone in 2005, though he had been working on it off and on for 15 years, and it wasn't the first gpcr structure, that was the rock-solid rhodopsin circa 1999. so that makes it all the more incredible that the prize was awarded so quickly. also, kobilka was the postdoc who cloned the gene when he was in leftkowitz's lab, so he has a longstanding history with it. the form is function bit is absolutely true. i recommend anyone to simply look at his latest paper, that helped solidify the nobel prize, [the beta-2 adrenergic receptor in complex with its g-protein](_url_1_). its stunningly beautiful, and revealed a hinge motion change in the g-protein which absolutely no one expected. this is the stuff of life and cellular communication - its hard to overstate how impactful it is. you can view and play around with the structure [here](_url_0_). this and previous gpcr structures have told us how hormones bind and change the shape of the receptor to transmit a signal, how the signal moves from the gpcr to g-protein, and how the change in g-protein is changed by the signal, exposing a new binding surface that goes off to do something useful in the cell. we now have enough snapshots to see this process all the way from adreniline binding to increased cellular calcium and an increased, faster heartbeat at an atomic level. its really heady stuff. just a final word about the complexity of the problem kobilka tackled, gpcr's like this were attempted for a long time but were extremely difficult to work with. first, they're membrane proteins, making them difficult to produce, extract, purify, and crystalize. these problems were compounded by the gpcrs, because of they're activity. if you think about it, they slide between two conformations, active and inactive. this activity is present even when their activator is absent, so its really a floppy and flexible mess, not something that you want for crystallization. to solve this problem, they adopted a number of new technologies, namely lipidic cubic phase crystallization, which allows for a more native-like environment for the membrane protein. it was hugely impressive, and getting the complex with the g-protein bound was the crystallographic structure of the year if not the decade - but its still amazing that it was the cornerston in a body of noble prize work (i don't think he would have gotten it without the complex) only months after it was found. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/explore/explore.do?pdbId=3SN6",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21772288",
"http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2012/advanced-chemistryprize2012.pdf"
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in qm, what is the difference between a base ket and a state ket? | ...as in how the state ket is time dependent in the schrodinger picture but stationary in the heisenberg picture, and vice versa for base kets. i'm reading sakurai and he doesn't really have a good explanation. please help! | i thought sakurai did quite a good job explaining this, actually, but i'll take a go and see if i can say it in a way that makes a bit more sense. we start with some observable, *o* and wish to expand arbitrary state kets in terms of the eigenkets of *o*, which we call base kets. the defining equation for an eigenket **v**_*a*_ is (1) *o* **v**_*a*_ = a **v**_*a*_ for the eigenvalue a. now, let's consider time evolution in the two pictures. in the schrödinger picture, the observable carries no time dependence. solve the eigenvalue equation corresponding to (1) at time t = 0, say. then, since *o* doesn't depend on time, the solution kets to (1) at t = 0 will also be solutions at later times. we therefore have a time *independent* basis (since we've assumed *o* is an observable and therefore carries a complete basis of eigenkets). now, an arbitrary state ket *will*, in general, depend on time. when we expand it in terms of our stationary basis, we'll find that all of the time dependence is carried by the coefficients. now switch to the heisenberg picture. once again, (1) defines the eigenkets of *o*, but now *o* changes in time. in order for (1) to remain true for all time, we must have that **v**_*a*_ changes in time inversely to the change in *o*. meanwhile, we know that a general state ket is time independent in the heisenberg picture, so we will again find that the coefficients carry time dependence in order to cancel the time dependence of our basis eigenkets. note that all of the ambiguity goes away if you just write the time evolution operators into all of your equations explicitly, but that gets cumbersome. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much force would act on a dam across the strait of gibraltar if the mediterranean sea was drained? | would it really be possible to hold back the entire atlantic ocean? how thick would the dam have to be? would the size of the atlantic ocean make any difference to the force exerted, beyond a certain size? i.e. would adding oceans increase the force on the dam in a linear way? or would the height of the dam be more relevant? | all that matters is the depth, because that determines the water pressure, which with the area fo the dam determines the total force. it doesn't matter if it's the whole atlantic ocean, or just a 1 cm thick water layer. wikipedia says the strait is 14 km across and 300-900 m deep. i'm having a hard time finding a better description of the depth profile, but we don't need to be super exact here, so let's say it averages 600 m deep. the *average* pressure will be the same as the pressure 300 m deep then, which is 300m * g * water density = 3,000,000 n/m^2. that times the area of 14,000x600 m^2 = **2.5x10^13 n or about 6 trillion pounds.** | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the point on the moon surface perpendicular to l1? | does it have a name? if not how can i find its coordinates? since the moon is tidally locked this point should never move with respect to the lunar surface right? i'm talking about l1 in the moon-earth system of course | this point is constantly moving a little bit over the moon's surface due to its libration (the small difference between rotation and translation). you're right that the moon is tidally locked, so its rotation and translation period are the same. however, its orbit is elliptic, so the translation speed is not constant. that said, it can still be defined as an "average" point. the l1 point lies along the earth-moon path, thus, the point you're describing is equivalent to just saying "the sub-earth" point on the moon. afaik it doesn't have a special name, but the zero-longitude meridian on the moon was defined as the one passing through this point. its coordinates are thus (0;0). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why computers work on 12v instead on 120/220? | sub-question: why many many electrical devices work on dc instead of ac? why would we want to convert ac from the grid into dc? thank you very much! | it is dc because modern computers are based on transistors used as switches and these require dc. the transistor junction in a computer has current flowing just one direction. the voltage used in computers has been steadily dropping. back in the 80s it was 5v, it dropped to 3.3v. internally many chips are getting down around 1.1v. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when your muscles get stronger, do things feel lighter to you or do you simply need less energy to pick that object up? | there are a couple ways to measure this, an [easy way](_url_3_) and an [accurate way](_url_0_). both of these focus more on the improved efficiency of the person doing the work, than on the change in body strength. when you get stronger you will perceive heavier weights as being lighter. this is perception only, the amount of energy needed to pick that weight up doesn't change. that's just physics: [work energy and power](_url_1_). what does change is the percent effort you have to supply to do the work. also [this](_url_2_) may not directly address your question, but i came across it while searching for appropriate sources, and it's a pretty interesting peer reviewed article on energy expenditure during weight lifting. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://breakingmuscle.com/olympic-weightlifting/how-to-calculate-the-energy-expenditure-of-weightlifters",
"http://www.physicsclassroom.com/calcpad/energy",
"http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/H10-093",
"http://breakingmuscle.com/olympic-weightlifting/how-to-properly-analyze-the-performance-of-a-weightlifter"
] | [
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|
could kessler syndrome make icbms useless? | after reading [this](_url_0_) post i wanted to know if a scenario like this could occour. | no. icbms don't have to stay in orbit, so they can be low enough that there's still a not completely insignificant amount of air resistance. they'll still be able to cross the world once, but space junk won't stay in that orbit. | 2 | [] | [
"https://np.reddit.com/r/geopolitics/comments/3ngx8k/rendering_icbms_useless/"
] | [] | [
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i am a resident of miami, florida and my mom is convinced the entire city will be underwater in 25 years. while i know this is false i don't have any evidence to back up my claim. can someone knowledgeable on the subject tell me why this is false and at what time miami will be underwater? | current sealevel projections for the next 25 years forecast a rise in the order of 10 to 25 cm (see [horton *et al*, 2008, figure 1](_url_0_)). the predicted rise over the next century is somewhere between 40 cm & 1 m. on the other hand, maps of parts of miami which are susceptible to flooding show that some parts of the city such as coastal islands, spits and sandbars are more vulnerable than others ([see wweiss *et al*, 2010, figure 3c](_url_1_)) and lie at or beloe 1 m from current levels. but most of the city is in the 2 to 5 m above sea level range. so there is that. while the answer sort of dépends where you are looking, and over what time period, there is no reason to state that "miami will be under water in 25 years". some parts might be, slightly. also worth noting these projections do not factor in accelerated erosion. which isn't to say sea level rise will be without consequence, but this might mostly be from increased vulnerability to storm surges and like that. the new atlantis it ain't... | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2007GL032486/full",
"http://www.geo.arizona.edu/dgesl/publications/reprints%26access/weiss_et_al%26implications%262011.pdf"
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|
did ocd exist in pre-industrial societies? | it seems like many of the compulsive rituals that afflict people with ocd involve aspects of their artificial surroundings. would people obsessively wash before modern hygiene was understood? is there evidence of ocd back when people lived in a more asymmetrical, organic environment? i know mental illness wasn't understood back then, so this may be hard to answer. | just to be clear here, ocd is not just the stereotypical hand-washing-afraid-of-germs-can't-stand-asymmetry behavior made popular by the media. not everyone with ocd has physical compulsions, and they certainly don't all involve "cleanliness". icd defines it as: obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterised by the presence of either obsessions or compulsions, but commonly both. an obsession is defined as an unwanted intrusive thought, image or urge, which repeatedly enters the person's mind. obsessions are distressing but are acknowledged as originating in the person's mind, and not imposed by an outside agency. they are usually regarded by the individual as unreasonable or excessive. a minority are regarded as having overvalued ideas (veale, 2002) and, rarely, delusions. the person usually tries to resist an obsession, but in chronic cases this may be to a very minor degree or not at all. unwanted intrusive thoughts, images or urges are almost universal in the general population and their content is usually indistinguishable from clinical obsessions (rachman & de silva, 1978). examples include having the urge to push someone under a train or a thought that the cooker has been left on. according to current psychological models, the difference between a normal intrusive thought and an obsessional thought is the meaning that ocd patients attach to the occurrence and/or content of the intrusions. individuals with ocd tend to believe that intrusive thoughts and urges are dangerous or immoral and that they are able to prevent harm occurring either to their self or a vulnerable person (salkovskis et al., 1995). compulsions are repetitive behaviours or mental acts that the person feels driven to perform. a compulsion can either be overt and observable by others, such as checking that a door is locked, or a covert mental act that cannot be observed as in repeating a certain phrase in the mind. covert compulsions are generally more difficult to resist or monitor than overt ones as they are can be performed anywhere without others knowing and are easier to perform. a compulsion is not in itself pleasurable which differentiates it from impulsive acts, such as shopping or gambling, that are associated with immediate gratification. the term "ritual" is synonymous with compulsion but usually refers to behaviours that other people can see. this is how dsm iv defines the criteria for ocd: a. either obsessions or compulsions: obsessions as defined by (1), (2), (3), and (4): (1) recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are experienced at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and inappropriate and that cause marked anxiety or distress (2) the thoughts, impulses, or images are not simply excessive worries about real-life problems (3) the person attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, impulses, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or action (4) the person recognizes that the obsessional thoughts, impulses, or images are a product of his or her own mind (not imposed from without as in thought insertion) compulsions as defined by (1) and (2): (1) repetitive behaviors (e.g., hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (e.g., praying, counting, repeating words silently) that the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly (2) the behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviors or mental acts either are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent or are clearly excessive b. at some point during the course of the disorder, the person has recognized that the obsessions or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable. note: this does not apply to children. c. the obsessions or compulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming (take more than 1 hour a day), or significantly interfere with the person’s normal routine, occupational (or academic) functioning, or usual social activities or relationships. d. i another axis i disorder is present, the content of the obsessions or compulsions is not restricted to it (e.g., preoccupation with food in the presence of an eating disorder; hair pulling in the presence of trichotillomania; concern with appearance in the presence of body dysmorphic disorder; preoccupation with drugs in the presence of a substance use disorder; preoccupation with having a serious illness in the presence of hypochondriasis; preoccupation with sexual urges or fantasies in the presence of a paraphilia; or guilty ruminations in the presence of major depressive disorder). e. the disturbance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition. nothing about that definition explicitly requires an industrialized society, although, like all psychological issues, it's virtually impossible to compare against historical examples given changing cultural expectations and behaviors. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ocdhistory.net/nutshell/collins.html"
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is it possible to measure the rate of evolution in an experimental setting? | some clarification of terms: by evolution, i mean the emergence of dominant traits in a species. by experimental setting, i mean not merely an observation of the natural environment. | yes, absolutely. look up richard lenski's landmark e. coli study. in short, around thirty years ago he and his colleagues put three identical strains of the bacterium into six different flasks and continued moving a small portion of each flask into a new, identical flask each day, freezing a sample every so often, effectively creating a "fossil record" that could be thawed to compare to future generations. each e. coli strain was found to evolve convergently, though through different means, to have slightly larger cell size than originally over the course of many generations. they also increased their efficiency at processing the agar solution that was their food. the theory behind the experiment was that each day's flask would have a greater concentration of any e. coli which mutated to reproduce and survive better within the experimental conditions. those individuals would have an advantage when entering the new flask, and eventually the entire population would be dominated by those individual's descendants. they got some very interesting results and i have a house to clean or i would say more, except that one flask of e. coli managed to mutate into having a beneficial trait to process another source of food in the flask, effectively doubling its population from that point onward. a long suffering grad student undertook the task of finding which generation had the first mutations that allowed the subsequent evolution of that strain's advantage (if i remember generation 20,000). not sure if this answers your question, but articles on the original research might. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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gravitron: centrifugal or centripital force? | i took two semesters of physics last year and understand uniform circular motion, but i cannot convince my of sister the force(s) that are acting on you when you ride on the spinning ride "gravitron" also could you explain how this works and why? [picture](_url_0_) | the difference between a centripetal ("center seeking") and centrifugal ("center fleeing") acceleration is really a matter of reference frames. the existence of one or the other depends on whether the frame in which you describe the motion is an inertial or a (non-inertial) co-rotating reference frame. --- centripetal acceleration: inertial frame --- forget about the gravitron amusement ride for now. consider first the inertial lab frame s (the frame of someone waiting on line for the ride). suppose we observe a particle moving in a circle of radius r at constant angular speed ω. then its position vector is hence its velocity and acceleration vectors are notice that the velocity is perpendicular to the position vector, and that the acceleration is antiparallel to the position vector. that is, the acceleration points toward the center of the circle. so the acceleration is said to be centripetal. newton's second law says that so if we observe a particle to move in a circle, there must be some force that acts on the particle toward the center of the circle. this force can be a variety of forces: tension in a rope, a magnetic force, a frictional force, gravity, etc. the left-hand side **f** can even be a sum of several forces. but because we observe the particle to move in a circle, we know that the sum of all of those forces must take the form -mω^(2)**r**. --- centrifugal acceleration: non-inertial frame --- but what about if we tried to describe the motion of the particle in a co-rotating reference frame s'? this is a frame that rotates with respect to the lab frame at the angular speed ω. because the particle is also rotating at angular speed ω with respect to the lab frame, *the particle is at rest* in the rotating reference frame. that is, its position vector is the particle never moves in the rotating frame. in particular, the acceleration is **a'** = **0**. but there is something very wrong if we tried to use newton's second law, which states that the right-hand side vanishes, so the left-hand side should also. but this can't possibly be correct. if there is, say, a tension in the rope in the lab frame (which is why we see it move in a circle in the lab frame), there will be a tension in the rope in the rotating frame also. so the left-hand side of newton's second law is non-zero, but the right-hand side is zero. something has gone wrong. what's the problem? newton's second law holds only in so-called inertial frames. rotating reference frames are the prototypical example of non-inertial frames. for such frames, newton's second law has to be modified. the left-hand side is not just **f'**, but also includes inertial forces, which are, unfortunately, also called fictitious forces. (they are not fictitious.) for a uniformly rotating reference frame, there are two inertial forces that must be included on the left-hand side of newton's second law: (1) the centrifugal force and (2) the coriolis force. the form of these forces can be derived by computing how vectors transform their components from one frame to another. these inertial forces appear only in the non-inertial frame. the coriolis force is non-zero only if the particle has a non-zero velocity perpendicular to the axis of rotation (in the rotating frame). for our case, the particle is at rest. the centrifugal force is non-zero for all particles, unless the particle is on the axis of rotation. it turns out that the form of the centrifugal force is so then newton's second law in the non-inertial frame is the right-hand side is zero. the left-hand side is tension in rope (or friction or gravity, whatever) + coriolis + centrifugal. our particle does not move in the rotating reference frame, so the only inertial force is the centrifugal force. hmmm... if we just move the centrifugal force to the right-hand side we get back the force equation for the lab frame. (there is a small subtlety in terms of coordinates, since **t** and **t'** do not have the same components, despite being the same vector. but it's a small point that we can ignore here.) in other words, the inertial forces are required as extra terms in newton's second law for a non-inertial frame precisely so that the description of the motion of the particle is consistent for both frames. --- summary --- so if i describe the motion of the particle from a non-rotating reference frame, i would say there is one force on the particle (say, tension in a rope), which causes a centripetal acceleration by newton's second law. if i am rotating with the particle, i would also say there is only one force on the particle, the tension in the rope. but now the tension in the rope is constant and does not change direction (as it does in the lab frame). so newton's second law would naively say i should just accelerate along the direction of the tension, in particular, i should move toward the axis of rotation. but newton's second law does not hold since i am in a non-inertial frame. if i include the inertial forces (coriolis and centrifugal), then the net force on me is zero, and so i stay put, exactly what i observe to happen. --- the gravitron --- let's work in an inertial frame. the ride works as follows. the passenger stands at the edge of the chamber, which then begins to rotate. once the chamber is rotating fast enough, the passenger is lifted off the ground and feels pinned to the wall. in many variations of the ride, the floor of the chamber is then removed or otherwise moved away from the passengers to emphasize to give a feeling of defying gravity. also, since the doors to the chamber are closed, the passengers cannot tell they are moving (since everything they see moves with them) except by the increasing force the wall exerts on them. what are the forces on the passenger at any time during the ride? there are three forces: (1) gravity pointing in the negative z-direction, (2) friction from the wall pointing in the positive z-direction, (3) a contact force (normal force) from the floor, and (4) a contact force (normal force) from the wall pointing toward the axis of rotation. the passenger is observed never to slip along the wall, so that gravity and friction balance exactly. (in some variations of the ride, the passenger does move along the wall, but it is not necessary.) so the net force in the vertical direction is 0. where f*_μ_* is the frictional force from the wall and n*_floor_* is the normal force from the floor. note that the left-hand side terms are not constant, but change depending on how fast the chamber is spinning. the frictional force is that of *static* friction. so it cannot exceed a certain amount, but it is not necessarily equal to that maximum amount. the passenger moves in a circle, so the net force must be a centripetal force. the only force we have not considered is the contact force from the wall, which therefore must be providing the necessary centripetal force. the frictional force from the wall and the normal force from the wall are proportional to each other, which is determined by experiment. the constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction. (like i said though, the frictional force from the wall is that of static friction and is not required to be equal to the full amount.) that is, where μ is the coefficient of static friction between the passenger and the wall. the quantity μn*_wall_* is the maximum possible friction force between the passenger and the wall. if the passenger does not slide, then the friction force can be any amount from 0 all the way up to μn*_wall_*. putting everything together (assuming the passenger does not slip), we get question: what is the minimum angular speed of the chamber so that the passenger is lifted from the floor? in that case, n*_floor_* = 0. so we get > ω ≥ ω*_min_* = √[ g/(μr) ] | 11 | [] | [
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question from a physics standpoint, what is best way to weight down a canopy. | my wife does regular craft shows and we have a first up canopy. we have never had a problem, but yesterday the wind was so strong that it blew the canopy over, damaged a bunch of her product, and also broke the canopy. so now we are out money on broken product and the cost of the canopy that we have to replace. we always use bricks and secure it, but this time it was not good enough. my question is from a physics standpoint, is it better to put our weights at the bottom of the poles or to secure them in the middle. i see that people do it both ways. here is the canopy that we [have.](_url_0_). we have always secured it in location b, but would it be better to secure it in section a. (see pic). maybe it would not have fallen over. many times we are inside or a parking lot so we cant stake it down. also with stakes and rope people who come to look always trip over them and it causes drama. tl;dr wife sells crafts canopy broke from high winds, what is the best way to weigh it down. | b is better - the centre of mass of a canopy weighted at b will be closer to the ground than that of a canopy weighted at a, which will make it harder to tip over. | 8 | [] | [
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do people have different levels of sensitivity to electrical currents? | i'm an electrician and yesterday at work i was asked to use a drill. when i picked up the drill and plugged it in i was shocked by the back casing. i could feel the current going through my finger and up my arm, causing the muscles to contract. as is protocol i brought it to my foremans attention and he put his hand on it (not protocol) but he couldn't feel it. no one else on the crew could. feeling a bit defensive i brought over my multimeter and checked it. it had 5.3v to ground. i didn't have any cuts on my hand, hands were clean and boots are insulated. what would cause my body to react so strongly to a small voltage like that when no one else could feel it? | for one thing, the electrical resistance of the body varies a lot depending on body fat content, how recently you had a drink etc. so you may have had a greater current flowing through you than the others. also with age nerves may become less sensitive so the same current may not cause as large a response. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the most complex entity whose central nervous system can be currently simulated by a computer? | we can simulate so-called [cortical columns](_url_0_). what is the most complex entity that we could map and simulate now? the linked article suggests a bumble-bee but has it ever been done? | the answer really hinges on what you mean by "simulate". let's start with the basics: how does one simulate a single neuron? there are mathematical models that have been developed to describe how the average cell body voltage of a neuron changes over time, beginning with the famous [hodkin-huxley model](_url_0_), which earned a nobel prize. the model includes the cell's ionic conductances, which influence the flow of current and hence the cell body voltage. this model has been very successful in explaining how changes in ionic conductances lead to changes in the firing patterns of neurons. several simpler and more complex versions of the original hodgkin-huxley model have been developed since. however, they all make the same basic assumption: they treat a neuron as a single unit. in other words, they leave out any spatial dynamics. in reality, the whole neuron is not at exactly the same voltage. at any point in time, there may be differences in ionic concentration and voltage between different dendrites and between the cell body and the axon. different dendrites may even be synapsed to completely different cells. researchers have therefore also developed more fine-grained models of neurons. for example, rather than treating a neuron as a single block, they may break it into 20 small connected compartments, each representing a part of the cell. these are more accurate, but they are still a very rough description of the true workings of the cell. then there is the modeling of the synapse itself. how does the activity of the presynaptic cell influence the activity of the postsynaptic cell? in principle, one could model the actual release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles and their binding to the post-synaptic receptors. in reality, this would be extremely computationally intensive and is not usually done. instead, the ionic conductances of the post-synaptic cell are usually varied as some function of the firing rate of the pre-synaptic cell, thereby assuming some consistent relationship between firing rate and neurotransmitter release. more complicated still is synaptic plasticity -- [the strength of synapses can change over time in response to their use](_url_1_). how exactly this is achieved in all cases is still unknown and the biochemical mechanisms can be extremely complex. models that include these dynamics therefore have to make some simple working assumption for how [long-term potentiation](_url_2_) occurs. still, we are not modeling at the level of genetic regulation of the cell or the functions of specific proteins. modeling of protein folding encompasses a large field in its own right. finally, there is the issue of memory storage and information encoding. there are some good theories, but we still do not know for sure how either of these things are achieved by the brain. the question then is: what exactly are you trying to simulate? if you are happy with some coarse-grained approximations, then we have models that do a great job of explaining the bulk behaviors of populations of neurons (e.g., in the cerebral cortex), and models that do a great job of explaining the functions of specific circuits. however, if you want a model that is literally an exact replica of a brain, that behaves identically to that brain, that has the same thoughts and memories and spontaneous behaviors, then in principle you need to go down to the lowest possible scale and literally model the quantum wavefunctions of all constituent particles. that would be a formidable challenge. even modeling a single neuron in that manner is probably beyond our reach. in that sense, we have not completely simulated the brain of any entity. but as i say, if you are interested in simulating at a less detailed level (e.g., using multi-compartment models of neurons and not caring too much about how synapses work or how long-term potentiation is achieved), then we can model quite large systems, up to and including cortical columns in the mammalian brain. it may well be that we can capture all the salient details of the brain's workings without going all the way down to the quantum mechanical level, but we don't know for sure at this stage. | 43 | [] | [
"http://www.artificialbrains.com/blue-brain-project"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbian_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation",
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Stomatogastric_ganglion"
] | [
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how deep can you dig a hole on the moon with a shovel? | on earth, most of the digging that people do with shovels really only touches the top soil level. unless you're in unique places like san francisco or south florida, you can keep digging until your spine gives out, which is quite a ways before you reach bedrock (unless in sf) or coral (unless in south fl). but that's on earth. let's say i land on the moon's surface with a shovel and a goal to dig as deep as i can. how deep *would* i be able to dig? p.s. and would i need a special shovel for this? edit: thanks to everyone for their responses - made for a fascinating read! thank you. | i'm utterly perplexed as to why you chose south florida or san francisco as the two places to highlight as areas with thin soils. moving on, the lunar regolith (there's no soil on the moon) is on [average 5-10 meters thick according to this nasa factsheet](_url_0_), but based on a quick search for papers there is mention of thicknesses closer to 15 meters, [e.g. this paper](_url_1_). i imagine someone who works on lunar science could give you a more precise answer, but 5-15 meters is probably a good ball park estimate. i don't think you'd need a special shovel, but lunar dust/regolith is pretty nasty stuff as it is basically jagged shards of volcanic rocks. there are no erosive processes on the moons surface so no mechanism to round any of the bits making up the regolith layer. edit: see u/nubium's comment regarding the type of erosive/weathering processes which do exist on the moon. the gist of my answer is still largely correct as none of these processes will do much to round things, but saying there is no weathering/erosive processes incorrectly overstates the inertness of the conditions. | 261 | [] | [] | [
"http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/lunar/letss/regolith.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0019103568900390"
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] |
what is happening at the chemical or molecular level when tissues are being fixed in formalin? | i perform formalin fixation quite often but i have never understood what actually happens to the tissue. | short answer: formaldehyde participates in chemical reactions that covalently bind proteins to other proteins or biomolecules that contain carbonyl groups (c=o) next to acidic protons. this causes the tissue to basically stick together through the creation of a lot of new bonds, and slows down degradation as most biomolecules fuse together to become one really really large molecule. longer answer: if you are familiar with electron pushing diagrams and some basic organic chemistry, formaldehyde performs the [mannich reaction] (_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannich_reaction"
] | [
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is it a coincidence that our aphelion and solstice are so close to each other? | it seems like if these were two random features of earth's creation and history that the chances of them happening within 2 weeks of each other would be low (about 6%?) did something happen that caused both? or is there some process that 'pushes' them together? | the date of the aphelion/perihelion is not fixed, the apse points rotate (over about 110,000 years) and so does the earth's axis (over about 26,000 years). the apse points change with respect to the solstices in a 21,000 year cycle, or by about a day every 50 years. it is somewhat of a coincidence that we started figuring this out when they were close. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the squiggly eye floater things you see and why do you see them? | sorry for the bad phrasing | they are actually commonly referred to as "floaters." the technical name is "muscae volitantes" , and the seeing of them is called "myodesopsia." the reason why you see them is because the part of the eye called the "vitreous humour" is usually transparent. sometimes imperfections can develop in it, and the shadows of those imperfections is what you are seeing. | 140 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do logistic function, error function, and hyperbolic tangent function all superficially look the same? | why do 3 functions from such different areas have such similar forms (sigmoidal, with centre at x=0)? i know error function is common in both statistics and solution to certain common pde's (heat and mass transfer in a rod). what are the uses of the other two? could you approximate the error function with one of the other two? is there a certain link i am missing (since they are all sort of related to exponentials)? | the logistic and tanh functions are identical, to within some re-scaling constants. to compare the tanh curve to the error function, keep in mind that the error function is the cumulative distribution function of a gaussian distribution, i.e. it keeps track of the area under a bell curve. similarly, the tanh curve can be thought of as the cumulative distribution function of a sech^2 distribution (also called a [logistic distribution](_url_0_)). [here](_url_1_) is a nice plot comparing the sech^2 curve with the gaussian curve. as you can see, they are very similar, except that the sech^2 curve approaches zero more slowly. thus, the error function approaches its asymptotes more rapidly than the tanh curve. hope that helps! | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_distribution",
"https://www.rp-photonics.com/sech2_shaped_pulses.html"
] | [
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helicobacter pylori? | why did the name of campylobacter pyloridis change to helicobacter pylori? | in 1989, rna sequencing showed that it did not belong in the *campylobacter* genus, so it was placed in its own genus, *helicobacter*. [source](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori#History"
] | [
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metabolically, what advantages are there to "carbo-loading" by loading up on rice/pastas the day before a big marathon or hike? | the most important thing about carb loading is the fact that it replenishes and maximizes your glycogen stores. when you carb load, your body digests those carbs into glucose, fructose, and galactose (mostly glucose). fructose and galactose can be converted to glucose through a series of chemical reactions in the body. the thing is, you don't need all the energy at that moment. so, when you have such an excessive amount of glucose in the body, insulin is secreted which stimulates glyconeogenesis: glucose gets polymerized in a chain to form glycogen. glycogen is almost entirely stored in muscles and the liver. the importance of this is that when the body needs energy, it can then break down the glycogen through a process known as glycogenolysis. this process is stimulated most directly by the epinephrine that is pulsating through your body during physical exercise (it can also be stimulated by glucagon, but during exercise it is primarily epinephrine doing the stimulation). by maximizing your glycogen stores, you maximize the energy your body has stored, therefore, maximizing your energy output and your success in any physical activity. that is why for practically any sport, you are supposed to carb load, not protein or fat load, the day before. this is also why everyone says you should eat the majority of your carbs a couple hours before you workout; you need your glycogen stores filled to push yourself. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does it cost billions of dollars to rebuild notre dame? | to keep the aesthetic, they are going to have to either find trees big enough and old enough to build the structure which will not be easy or cheap. or they are going to have to design a wood veneer around a steel structure that again will not be cheap if they are going to try to make it look like the original. and that's just scratching the surface of the major costs of putting on a roof with existing walls in a historical building. there is equipment that you would use to make it quick if it was a new-build or i got it building but you can't set up a crane and a good scaffold system inside the grounds of that church. at least not cheaply | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does the notre dame cathedral and other churches take so long to build? | so i read recently that experts say the rebuilding of notre dame should take about 10-20 years, which to me seems very similar to the building of the “sagrada familia” in spain which has taken like 100 years to finish. considering nowadays building much larger than these churches can be built in less than a year, what specific engineering challenges makes reconstructions of churches take so long? | im not sure specifically but just the detail in the lost components, the time it takes to get the permits required to work on a piece of history like this, and all the codes they have to follow for historical accuracy. the road outside my house has been under construction for 2 years and nobody cares if it looks pretty after. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a blanket geometry term for the things that are at the ends or sides of 1d, 2d, 3d, etc. shapes? | a line segment has two **points**. a square has four **edges**. a cube has six **faces**. is there a word that would refer to any or all of those things as they function within shapes? limiters, perhaps? so you could say something like "the limiter of a shape is one dimension less than the shape." | a k-face. (_url_1_). a 0-face is a vertex. a 1-face is an edge. a 2-face is a face. a 3-face is a cell. etc. a related notion is that of a [simplex](_url_0_) which generalizes the smallest polygon you can have in n-dimensions. a 0-simplex is a point. a 1-simplex is a line. a 2-simplex is a triangle. a 3-simplex is a tetrahedron. etc | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_(geometry)#k-face"
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if i flip a coin. tails i stop and heads i flip again. what will be the average coin flip before i stop? | the number of bernoulli trials performed until a success occurs follows the so-called *geometric distribution*. if the success probability is *p*, then the expected number of trials required for the first success is just 1/*p*. in other words, on average you will flip the coin twice. **edit:** that's boring though. what if you flip until you get tails followed by heads (th)? not surprisingly, it takes, on average, 4 flips to get th. now what if you flip until you get two tails in a row (tt)? turns out that it takes, on average, 6 flips to get tt. kind of makes you question your intuition on the 4 flips for th, right? | 160 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are we saying that the strong force is the one which maintains the nucleus while it only acts inside hadrons ? why wouldn't it be the weak force instead ? | the strong force doesn’t only act inside hadrons, but also **between** hadrons. this is called the residual strong force, and it’s analogous to intermolecular forces between molecules. the standard electric (coulomb) force acts inside of a molecule to bind the electrons to the nuclei, but different molecules interact electromagnetically with higher multipoles, so there’s an effective force between them, even though each molecule has zero monopole moment, and the interaction doesn’t look like a coullmb interaction. these are van der waals forces, and the residual strong force is like that, except for the strong force rather than the electromagnetic force. also, the strong force is not the only force relevant inside nuclei. in order of decreasing strength, the forces present in a general nucleus are: the residual strong force, the electromagnetic force, and the weak force. gravity is technically present, but totally negligible. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible to be a tetrachromat (aka have 4 cones in each eye) and not know it? | and is there a way to test yourself to know if you are (or aren't) for sure? | i believe i may be a tetrachromat. many males in my family are color blind (including my father) so i may carry the color blindness gene and thus be tetrachromat. from what i read; some women are slightly tetrachromat, and there are a *very* tiny amount of women that are "completely" tetrachromat . i've noticed that i see colors a lot better then other people, some people say they think a certain color is an different color than what i see (if that makes any since). another thing i've noticed is when am helping other people with color swatches for wall paint they think two swatches look exactly the same but i see a different hue between the swatches. just recently i discovered tetrachromat and now maybe i know why am a little more color sensitive then other people? it's a possibility but it just may be me wanting to feel special. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do you find ground water for a well? | what is the process for discovering water underground? if an example is needed, let's say you're looking for places in [bir tawil](_url_0_) for ground water. what would you look for? how would you look for it? | the process will differ from one area to the next, it will be much more challenging and uncertain in a desertic area such as bir tawil than in the canadian shield for instance. step 1 would be to assess current understanding of the local geology as pertains to aquifers. in this specific cases, there are review papers available (_url_1_, _url_0_) detailing known aquifers, their extent and caracteristics. this gives you specific targets you can aim for, as well as reasonable expectations of the kind of flow you can hope for, as well as how deep you might have to go. of course, the closer you are to major rivers, the easier the job gets. and for relatively impermeable areas such as the nubian shield in the east part of bir tawil, you might try your luck on structurally-controlled aquifers, such as intersections between fracture zones. but you must always remember these are natural artifacts whose behavior and geometry can be fickle. | 5 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bir_Tawil"
] | [
"http://www.mawari.net/pdf/isarm/Presentation%20of%20Country%20profile%20Sudan.pdf",
"http://heraldjournals.org/hjgrp/pdf/2013/june/Omer.pdf"
] | [
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is there a psychological reason for why people derive pleasure from destroying things? | for example, go to the beach and watch someone walk up to a sand castle, pause, and then stomp it to oblivion, for absolutely no reason whatsoever. same goes with other easily accessible work of art, people just seem to enjoy ruining anything that has a defined and organized structure. why is that? | several explanations... people learn to laugh at pain in general, it helps them cope. for example, you fall down stairs, it hurts terribly, and you laugh it off... that behavior is getting rewarded, so applied to the general destruction of things it brings pleasure. another explanation is that all humans have a destructive impulse, similar to the sexual drives that encourage us to procreate. killing is what humans do best, so naturally it pleases us. a third explanation might be that humans don't do well when facing their own mortality (see the invention of religion), so they laugh it off destruction because they simply can't deal with it. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the doppler effect the result of kinetic energy being changed into electromagnetic energy? | i was thinking in class today about how the doppler effect must be increasing the amount of energy in a wave by decreasing its wavelength. then i thought about how if you are moving toward an emitting body the de is still observed. how can something completely unrelated to the wave increase its energy? or, does the doppler effect just concentrate the original wavelength's energy into a shorter time period? | the doppler effect is an example of different reference frames observing different things, which is true even without einstiens version relativity for example if i walk by you holding a ball, in my reference frame the ball has no kinetic energy, but in yours it does the same is true for the doppler shift, the frequency the two observers will detect is different, dependent on their relative velocity. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the science behind crucibles and foundry rocks? how are they able to withstand much higher temperatures than most common metals and lava rocks can without breaking(mostly)? how did ancient people make theirs? how do they retain so much heat? | i've seen youtubers melt pretty much everything but steel in their backyards and i'm just wondering how the crucible survives all the punishment. i also saw a video of a man picking up a space age material with his bare hands after pulling it out of the forge at > 2000°f. i'm sure that's a totally separate science, but i'm just curious how these materials can withstand so much heat. i suppose the better question would be, what causes certain materials to handle more heat than others? is there a specific trait metals, rocks, and dirt can have that makes them more resistant to higher temperatures? | most crucibles are made of ceramic, which can have melting points of 3800-4250°f. that can more than withstand the temperatures required for melting most commonnly used metals. those that aren't made of ceramic are usually some sort of metal alloy with a higher melting point than whatever they're being used to melt, but ceramic is generally cheaper and safer, assuming it's correctly made with no air pockets. edit: not sure what you mean by "foundry rocks" but the inside of blast furnaces tend to be lined with refractory bricks, also made of ceramic. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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an inch of crystallized sugar stuck in the bottom of a soup cup, how to remove? | so my uncle is determined to make mojitos from scratch, and he supersaturated a sugar solution then let it crystallize in the fridge. i've soaked it in water, used boiling water to improve the solubility, but nothing is touching this. it's not a matter of saving the cup now, just a fun littel project: how is sugar so hard to dissolve? **update:** success. the water got between the sugar and cup and detached the chunk in a whole piece. pic: _url_0_ helped by a hole i augered in with a butter knife. kitchen chemistry indeed. | you may need to consider circulation of your boiling water (what i imagine would be most effective at the household level). it could be that the water in contact with the sugar quickly becomes saturated and doesn't dissolve sugar more quickly. i'd imagine you want to stir boiling water for a while, dump it pour in new water, stir, repeat. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/izaRH.jpg"
] | [
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/je010280d"
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how long does it take a natual diamond to form? | along with this question i'd also like to know how diamonds are synthesized. thank you in advance. | depending on the factors involved, it can take from 1 to 3 billion years. synthetic diamonds are made from any carbon rich substance (even things like peanut butter), and put under tremendous amounts of heat and pressure, thus making the time much much shorter. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Carbon_basic_phase_diagram.png"
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are most or all the yucutan cenotes related to the chicxulub impactor? | at least some of the cenotes are related to the impactor as [this map](_url_0_) clearly shows. but beyond the obvious arc, are the rest of the cenotes related to that impact as well? | taken from the wikipedia page: "cenotes are common geological forms in low latitude regions, particularly on islands, coastlines, and platforms with young post-paleozoic limestones that have little soil development." the mexican peninsular is one such place with this paleozoic limestone. so whilst the obvious arc will have been chicxulub, and perhaps the odd that extend into that larger cenote 'field', many of them will have formed naturally. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/Chicxulub/gpcenotes.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how exactly do "anti-fog" agents work? | or more to the point, why is it something like shaving cream is a much more effective anti-fog treatment than the commercially available fog-specific products? | i assume you're talking about fog on a mirror. in order to understand this, it's necessary to understand how the fog obscures the reflectivity of the mirror in the first place. mirror fog is made up of hundreds of thousands of tiny *tiny* water droplets that are more or less hemispherical that form when warm humid air comes into contact with the cold mirror. because they are hemispherical, each one acts as a lens, distorting the light and effectively turning the mirror into a diffuse surface. antifog agents work by preventing the water droplets from holding the hemispherical shape by breaking their surface tension. the water is still condensing on your mirror, but it's doing it in a way that doesn't diffuse light. you can read more about it [here](_url_0_). as for why shaving cream works better, i'm not sure. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-fog"
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i was watching a show called "everything and nothing" which talked about the origin of the universe and i want to have something clarified. | it was stated that when anti matter and matter pop in and out of existence, and when they meet they cancel each other out. they went on to say that a result of this, are small fragments of matter, and that the universe that we know of comes from one of these fragments of matter. does that mean, in an even bigger vacuum of space, there are possibly many many other universes? | "even bigger"? what can this mean? you cannot measure "size" outside of the universe since space is a *property* of the universe (as is time). i am also not sure what you mean from here: particle/anti-particle pairs are constantly being created and annihilated in vacuum, but they don't leave a residue. in fact, almost all of these particles are called "virtual" in reference to them being thought of as fluctuations of the vacuum. what is important is that these particles can be made "real" (no longer "virtual") by absorbing energy, usually from a photon or gluon depending on the environment and particle. this can be a way of starting to generate matter in the universe, but you have somewhat of a problem, that is that most of the universe we see is matter and very little antimatter. i don't know that this issue has been fully resolved. i know some mechanisms have been proposed for how antimatter might "decay" into matter, but whether or not together they are enough i don't think has been entirely settled. this problem is referred to the matter-antimatter asymmetry. as for many universes, there is a lot use in this "phrase". i don't think many scientists understand that phrase in the same way laymen do. it's useful for guiding an understanding of quantum behavior, but whether or not these universes "actually exist" i think is a matter of philosophy. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do doublecortin-positive cells have to match the host to be effective in healing the brain? | trying to understand [this tedx](_url_0_). wondering if the cells can be donated from another brain potentially. | yes, there can be an immune response if the host is different from the donor. this is why reprogrammed stem cells (such as this researcher uses) is such an attractive system for repair after injury, since it gets around any host rejection issues. this is a link to one of her papers: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/jocelyne_bloch_the_brain_may_be_able_to_repair_itself_with_help?utm_campaign=social&utm_medium=referral&utm_source=facebook.com&utm_content=talk&utm_term=science#t-357258"
] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.23579/abstract"
] | [
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how do manufacturers of voltmeters achieve (ideally) infinite resistance? | i understand why this is done -- so that the voltage being measured isn't affected by the voltmeter itself, but i'm curious as to how exactly one can achieve close to infinite resistance. studying for my physics 1 ap this week, and figured i would ask this question because i thought the idea of "infinite resistance" or close to infinite was really interesting and if anyone knows how this is accomplished, it would be awesome to know. thanks! | the resistance of a standard lab voltmeter or oscilloscope (at least in our labs!) is of the order of 1-10 megaohms, though you can obtain instruments higher resistances. whilst much larger than the circuit resistance in many cases, this resistance clearly is not infinite, and does allow non-negligible amounts of current to pass through when connected to circuits with comparable resistances. as a result, voltage measurements taken under those circumstances do need to be corrected, by treating the voltmeter as a parallel resistor. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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chemical or physical change? | i'm currently in chemistry in high school and my teacher stated that it's quite debated if diluting something in water is considered a chemical or a physical change because of how the particles are seperated from one another but the compounds themselves don't actually change. i'm mostly wondering if my teacher is out of the loop and if there's an actual answer to what it is | i don't know if it's a debate, but it can be a chemical change for some things and a physical change for others. the common examples are salt and sugar. table salt, nacl, dissociates into na+ and cl- ions in water. the nacl compound is no more, that's a chemical change. sugar simply dissolves, the molecules are separated from each other but there aren't changes to the molecules themselves. more generally, ionic compounds tend to be dissociated by water while other materials simply dissolve. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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super-light(low current) electromagnet? | is it possible to create a super light weight, low current electromagnet? i found this: _url_0_ most of the electromagnets i found(1 tesla +) are thousands of kg, they are extremely heavy... like this one:_url_1_ i was wondering the possibility of creating powerful magnetic fields form light weight electromagnets? | your first example has a bore diameter of 35 mm, and only operates at 8 amps. the second example is 10 times the size, and carries 140 amps. you are comparing apples to pumpkins. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/238907723_A_lightweight_low-current_10_K_magnet_for_space-flight_ADRs",
"http://www.gmw.com/electromagnets/dipole/5414/5414_Specs.html"
] | [] | [
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how are the high-mountain trails built? | the title says it all. what do they use to transport rocks to form a trail in rocky mountains such as e.g. tatra mountains? i imagine it has to be done either by men or from the air, right? | the short answer, a lot of hard work. i spent many months doing this, and it is back breaking. sometimes you get lucky and you can use mules, but a lot of time you literally do everything by hand. we never got anything air lifted, too expensive. we had special backpacks, that would each carry one big ass rock. then we would hike the rocks up, drop them off. hike back down, get our tool, hike those up drop them down. go to sleep (because that took all day). wake up, and get to work. it was not uncommon to have loads as heavy as 50-80lbs (for reference i only weigh 155 lbs). i built several high altitude trails in the guadalupe mountains in west texas, and it was some of the most amazing stuff i have ever done. we were building new trail, but also repairing old trail that had been damaged in a freak rain storm (doesn't rain much up there), i remember i was so incredibly dirty by the end that when i took a shower, i still left a ring on the tub. we had the army corp bring us water by mule, which is good because its almost impossible to hike enough water into the high desert, as you run into the problem of needing more water because you have so much water you are sweating out more water...etc.etc. building trails has an entire science to it, you need to take into account the landscape, the climate, the intended use (both in terms of mode of use and volume). then you get your tools and you work very hard and build the strongest most rock solid thing you can. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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it may seem obvious, but why do drum kits, etc. not need to be tuned to specific keys? | as a musician, i've always wondered why, from a scientific point of view, the sound generated by cymbals, snares, etc. can function across all keys. it especially confuses me that, despite this, drums need to be tuned. perhaps it's very obvious, but can someone enlighten me? | 2 points: 1. drums *do* need to be tuned, especially to the kit itself. toms should not be too 'close' to each other in tone. 2. their tuning is not as crucial as other instruments, because, rather than generating more 'pure' tones as, say, a guitar or piano, drums put out a 'jumble' of tones. for example, a snare doesn't hit the ear at one particular frequency (strictly speaking, neither does any other instrument), but as a mix of dissonant tones (though it may be centered at one frequency). this leads to drums being heard more for their rhythm than their harmonies. this is also why drum sounds can 'cut through' other sound well. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is all energy on the food nutrition information absorbed or only some? | [deleted] | the calorie count per-serving on food labels in the us is not particularly accurate to begin with. & #x200b; that said, assuming a label had an accurate representation of the actual calorie potential of a food item, there will be variation on how much of that was absorbed by a given individual due to individual digestive system efficiency, workload, and even how well each person chews their food. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you shave down a magnet on one of its poles, does it naturally adjust while conserving net magnetic attraction or what? | like if you were to take some sandpaper and reduce the length of one of the poles, will it lose magnetic energy proportional to how much magnet is lost? will its magnetic poles automatically adjust if you break it in two at the center? i'm thinking a ceramic magnet. | it helps to understand what actually makes a magnet magnetic. every atom has something called a magnetic moment. basically, every atom behaves like a tiny (very weak) magnet with a north and south pole. in most materials the atoms are all oriented randomly, but if the arrangement isn't completely random, then the magnetic fields of the individual atoms will add up to give a much stronger effect. this is what's going on inside a ferromagnet like the one you describe. if you were to shave a little off the end then the rest of the atoms would be pretty much unaffected. you would still have a magnet, but it would be (very) slightly weaker due to having fewer atoms contributing to the overall field. if you were to break a magnet in half you would end up with two smaller (and weaker) magnets for the same reason. each one would have two poles like the original one did. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will successive plastic surgeries across generations make future generations more beautiful ? | i saw this article today about the [korean beauty pageant] (_url_0_) and i am curious - will plastic surgery across successive generations make changes to future generations permanent? e.g. straightening the nose ? edit: added minor clarification to the question. | nope. these changes do not affect the persons genotype, and are not heritable. a plastic surgery patient's child will still get their ugly genes. the scenario you're asking about is called lamarckian inheritance, and it was disproved a long time ago. for example, if your dad has a scar he got when he was young, do you have one too at that spot? of course not. now, we are discovering more about epigenetics which does allow for parental environmental conditions to influence offspring, but i don't think this plays a roll in your scenario. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/funny/comments/1d0784/koreas_plastic_surgery_mayhem_is_finally/"
] | [] | [
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what's the science behind tibetan monks drying cold wet towels with their bodies in ~4ºc temperatures? | here's the video: _url_0_ as you can see, the towels steam up. looks quite mind-boggling, but i'm skeptical of how much of that is from the meditation versus just the conditions of their location. any hypotheses that could scientifically explain the dramatic imagery? | in addition to it being really cold in tibet, it's also very dry. a towel will dry out at any temperature as long as the humidity is below 100%. having the towels draped over the monks just raises the temperature of the water (and its vapor pressure) which makes things go faster. go for a brisk run in the cold and you'll get steam coming off the top of your head when you stop. it's the same effect and not magic. | 19 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=WajTafbG7II#t=75s"
] | [] | [
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why are bio-fermentors always tall and narrow? | is it because it makes diffusing air or mixing the broth easier? or is there a more *sciency* reason? thanks! | temperature control. on the ones i used the heater was wrapped around the outside, and cooling tubes where in the middle, with a temperature probe inbetween. long and narrow helps maximize these surfaces and improve temperature control without cold spots or hot spots. edit: also gives better perfusion for air/gas that gets bubbled in from the bottom. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if two entangled particles are created and one naturally decays into different particles while the other does not, are the non-decayed particle and the decay products all entangled? | i can't think of an example of where this might occur, but hopefully you understand the question. | yes. the easiest toy-model comes from just thinking about spin. if a particle with sz=0 (that is, zero upward component of its spin) decays, the two resulting particles must have total sz=0 still. similarly, if one of those decays again, the total z component of the spin of the three particles still has to be zero. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does magnetic field density behave when there is more than one wire generating current? is it cumulative, or is it more complicated than that? | i'm doing some research on elf magnetic fields generated by electrical wires and appliances. all of the diagrams i've seen of magnetic field strength in relation to distance from the source show just one point source. what happens if there's more than one? for example, in parallel high voltage power lines? would the density in tesla or gauss simply be a matter of calculating the intensity relative to each point and adding or is there more that i have to take into account? | magnetic fields obey the principle of superposition. if source a produces magnetic field **b***_a_*, and source b produces magnetic field **b***_b_*, then the combination of source a and source b will produce the magnetic field **b***_a_* + **b***_b_*. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do water towers get their water? | according to wikipedia water towers deliver water by "hydrostatic pressure" produced by elevation. is this same process use to get water up to the tower? and if so, i am assuming it needs to be that much stronger to get it up to the top of a 130-160ft water tower? | water use is not constant throughout the day. and the water delivery system needs to remain pressurized; otherwise, if there were any holes/gaps in the pipes dirt could get in, also each household would have to have a pump to bring the water in and get it to shoot out of faucets. so these water towers use pumps to elevate water. the pumps don't have to be as big as the peak demand flow because you can run them constantly 24/7. as to where the water comes from - from the local water treatment plant | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does water get into the top of a water tower??? | i understand that there is a ton of pressure oriented downwards the pipe in water towers because of the weight of the water. this makes me think you can't just pump water through the same pipe to fill it back up. so how does the water get up there in the first place? | a pumping station at the bottom of the structure pumps the water into the tank at the top. through a different pipe, not the one that the water comes down through. [wikipedia](_url_0_) has a simple article with a diagram that explains it. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower"
] | [
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is there a psychological or sociological explanation of why humans become defensive or even hostile when encountering a human with a different world view? | for example, what is the underlying reason why many theists are hostile towards atheists? or conservatives being angry towards liberals? this list could go on and on, so i hope you get my point. | is it that we are hostile towards something that's different? or something different causes us to be hostile? of course correlated relationship does not denote a causal effect, but it's attraction in the most technical term. attraction acts on affect, cognition, and behavior that links one person to like or dislike others. it occurs through familiarity - things we come across everyday. the more we experience the same things day after day, the more we like them (a phenomenon called "mere exposure"). this would explain why you tend to like an annoying song after hearing it over and over again on the radio. it can also happen by proximity, the geographical relatedness of you and something/someone else; or functional distance, where you frequently come across the same thing by design. this was found in the landmark study conducted by [festinger, schachter, and back (1950)](_url_0_). other factors such as *physical* attractiveness, the fact that people like others who loook good, can have an effect on likely we would just agree with them (or others agree with you if you're the attractive one). another factor to consider is similarity, or more precisely the similarity-attraction principal, where bonds are formed simply due to positive reinforcement toward each other ("if we both agree, i must be right"), which is followed by an increase in self-esteem ("if i am right, i am a good person), and that leads to attraction ("i feel good around you"). this cohesion then form mutual social membership. this reciprocity could explain how the "us vs. them" group would form in the first place. of course opposites can attract (complimentarity principal), but the research has been pointing in favor toward similarity. you can then argue that, "they don't agree with me; that does not make me feel good; they make me feel bad", which would cause a rift. there are ways around these phenomenon. simply, various forms of controlled exposure of the opposing stimuli would increase familiarity and trigger a change in attraction. one example is effort justification theory, which states that if you had to work really hard at something you didn't like, it causes cognitive dissonance (which someone already mentioned here), and you would change your mind and "trick" yourself into retroactively thinking that you were in favor of this in the first place. there are other similar techniques, such as "low-balling" - where you are asked to do a series of tasks starting from the menial to the significant. this strategy slowly pushes the envelope of their comfort zone, and they would eventually at least behave in the opposite way. there are other techniques but it seems i'm starting to write too much. i hope this essentially explains why people from opposing sides often clash with each other, from a sociological point of view. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propinquity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_judgment_theory"
] | [
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what makes us so indifferent or even aggressive to those we perceive as different? | basically what the title says. why do humans stray from different races, appearance standards (tattoos, piercings, etc), religious groups, etc? i would think it's out of fear of self preservation but then again, i don't work in this field. thanks for your time. | psychology has some answers that i think might satisfy you. the [group serving bias](_url_1_) explains our tendency to take on an "us vs them" attitude. for an explanation of why these attitudes sometimes become extreme i suggest reading about [group polarization](_url_0_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_polarization",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group-serving_bias#Explanations"
] | [
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i have had visions throughout my 18 year life of extremely early events including the lobby of the hospital i was born in. i recently revisited the hospital after 18 yrs and it was as i recalled it to be. how/why is this possible? | this sort of thing is fairly common. you had been told about those places, possibly very early in life, or you heard someone else talking about it, and forgot hearing about it, but didn't forget the description. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why can't einstein's spooky action at a distance be used to transfer data? | we can entangle photons and separate them. then make changes to one that can be detected in the other. simply by making changes and then detecting those changes in the other is transferring data plain and simple. i don't understand why they claim data can't be transferred while they are doing exactly that simply by conducting the experiment. | i feel you have a misunderstanding of what quantum entanglement entails- which this isn't your fault since pop-sci writers screw it up all the time. first let me say "quantum entanglement is not magic." it is cool, but maybe not as cool as people think. second, "quantum entanglement is essentially conservation laws on the atomic scale." and finally, "entanglement can be, and frequently is, broken." entanglement will break after interaction with other atoms. so, more in-depth. let's start with an easy example: conservation of momentum. let's say you and i are in equal sized cars, going the same speed and have a head on collision. both cars will come to rest. how do we know? well- we could work out all the forces acting, but there is an easier way, by using conservation of momentum. we know that the momentum is zero before the collision (because they are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction) so the momentum must be zero after the collision. since they can't pass through each other- the only way to be at zero is if they come to rest. now, we imagine a particle with no angular momentum. it decays into two particles, each of which have angular momentum. we know that if this happens, the particles must have equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, angular momentum. why? angular momentum must be conserved. this is quantum entanglement. how is it different from normal conservation laws? because until a measurement happens, neither particle has a defined angular momentum. but after one particle is measured and its angular momentum is measured, then we know the other particle will cease to have an undefined angular momentum, and suddenly have an angular momentum which is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction of the other one we measured. now onto "quantum entanglement isn't magic" and "quantum entanglement can be broken." entangled particles don't stay entangled. and here is what i mean by that. going back to our old example, with their opposite and equal angular momentums. if i suddenly increase the angular momentum of the first particle, the momentum of the second particle doesn't magically increase. the entanglement is broken, and the second particle will just keep on keepin' on like nothing had happened. particles entangle and un-entangle (dis-entangle?) all the time. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the corealis effect like at the equator? | the cor**iolis** force doesn't depend *directly* on where you are. rather, it depends on *how fast* and *in what direction* you're moving. some illustrative examples: if you're moving in the n-s direction *exactly* at the equator, the coriolis force is zero. if you're moving in the w-e direction *exactly* at the equator, the coriolis force is nonzero, and it acts in the up-down direction, depending on whether you're moving west or east. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how come we can't efficiently cool something quickly? | i know there's things that can supercool stuff pretty much instantly, but ho come there isn't like a microwave equivalent for cold? refrigerators/freezers usually take hours to cool something. | the biggest reason is that it's much easier to turn useful energy into heat than it is to do the reverse. this is a direct consequence of the [second law of thermodynamics](_url_0_), which can be restated in simple terms as: "you can't build an isolated device that converts its own heat into useful energy." on the other hand, the reverse process (converting other forms of energy into heat) is much easier and in fact is essentially inevitable. basically all the energy we use in some fashion will end up eventually being dissipated as heat. this means that we can take useful forms of energy, such as say electricity and pass it through a resistor to generate high temperatures as in an oven, or to create a strong electromagnetic field as in a microwave, which can in turn quickly heat an object. however you can never do the reverse! | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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