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what is the formula for altitude in relation to pressure and temperature? | say we know our temperature in celsius, we know our barometric pressure in hpa, and we can use google to find the sea level pressure, how do use this to find our altitude? no, i'm not cheating on homework, this is part of a hobby project. | unfortunately, you can't. think about it: temperature changes all the time with the amount of sunlight, type of environment, and wind/air conditions. someone on a parking lot might record a temperature of 30c while someone on a grassy field at the same altitude nearby records 28c. using barometric pressure gives you the same problem--there are too many local variations to make any determination of the kind you're proposing work. i'd recommend using google to look up your altitude :p edit: i am wrong. [barometric altimeters](_url_0_) not only exist, but can be very accurate. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altimeter#Pressure_altimeter",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barometric_formula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_models"
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would lactic acid build up from running cause you to feel sick? | i realise i pushed the envelope a little bit and ended up trying to puke. i am just wondering what causes the sickness feeling. i understand that lactic acid is dealt with in the liver. i was wondering if that might be the cause. edit. afai am aware feeling of sickness often are related to the liver such as in the case of alcohol poisoning , and so thought that the stress from the liver dealing with the lactic acid conversion could result in sickness. | if you scale things up and consider a person with [lactic acidosis](_url_0_), you have a situation where the body is producing too much acid and lowering blood ph ([metabolic acidosis](_url_2_)). to counteract this, some people will [vomit](_url_1_), which leads to dehydration and loss of chloride, causing the blood ph to raise. ultimately, vomiting can be used as a method to counteract the lowering of ph by lactic acid. i'm not sure that this is why runners vomit, but it makes physiologic sense. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acidosis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis"
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what are the ramifications of a severed transatlantic cable for an average person? | i'm trying to understand how important transatlantic cables are to average people. would my internet go out, my phone stop receiving data/calls, etc? | it all depends on how well your country is connected to the outside world. a large country will have many redundancies, so you will only notice speed degradation. if it's not well connected, the other redundancies might just fall over and you will be in an island of internet. nowadays, even local services might depend on external connection. let's say your photo printing service uses your facebook account as a login. without access to facebook's server, the whole service will go down. never mind that you likely use a service like gmail or _url_0_ which does not have servers in your immediate country, but only at regional data centers closer to you, but still connected through those data cables. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"Outlook.com"
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can we mine the ocean floor? | so, i know that the ocean floor is made mostly of basalt, a mineral that is relatively worthless. but meteorites fall to earth all of the time, and most of them are tiny, but there are large ones that contain incredibly scarce materials. since the earth has been around for so long i would assume that these large meteorites may be collecting at the bottom of the ocean just waiting to be retrieved by mankind and used to further science. my question is do these meteorites exist at the bottom of the ocean, and would it be possible to go down and retrieve them? | polymetalic sulfides form at hydrothermal vents, and are analogous to ore bodies found on land. there is some interest in mining these. there has been renewed interest in mining manganese nodules and crusts from the seafloor as well. so far, the yield from these types of deposits has not proven to be more profitable than mining them on land. it is expensive and complicated to work in the deep sea. however, there may be marketable resources in rare earth elements in some metalliferous sediments recently sampled off japan. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://business.financialpost.com/2014/06/25/nautilus-minerals-inc-says-its-poised-to-begin-undersea-mining-following-dispute-settlement/",
"http://www.fastcoexist.com/1680334/worlds-first-deep-sea-mining-project-gets-approval"
] | [
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] |
how do we know that the mass of an object is constant? | apologize is title isn't clear, what i'm asking is basically: if we have an object how do we know that in 1000 years it will have the same mass? for example: how do we know that the mass of an electron doesn't change over long periods of time? | on the time scales of a 1000 years we are pretty sure that every particle has the same rest mass, this can be iseen by looking at nearer stars. cosmological red shift does not really influence them and they show the same spectra as we find in our solar system. however on cosmological time scales we simply do not know. for example there is an alternative to an accelerating universe, where the red shift is explained by varying particle masses. one thing we are certain is that at the beginning of the universe particles like the electron were exactly massless. they only gained mass after the so called electroweak phase transition. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~mmurphy/mu_NH3/paper.pdf"
] | [
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what resources do you recommend for learning about quaternions and applying them to the physics of electromagnetism? | i am taking junior-level ee courses and would like to find out if using quaternion mathematics would give me an edge in the electromagnetics classes. i have taken calculus iii, diff e, and linear algebra, but could have done better in those classes, so a "for dummies" approach might be best for me. thanks! | for your needs, i wouldn't focus too much on quaternions. to get an edge, go back and review that linear algebra. become a *master* at vector algebra and matrix manipulation. know how to find eigenvalues in your sleep. live, eat, and breathe matrix diagonalization. also, get comfortable with imaginary numbers. tattoo euler's formula to your hand like it's a reminder of sammy jankis. that said, if you simply can't convince yourself *not* to study the quaternions, consider getting a math major. algebra for its own sake can be pretty fun. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is 80% of amber from the baltic? | what are the factors that make baltic amber so much more prevalent than other types of amber? | in the marketplace, its mostly because it is comparatively cheap and easy to get to. baltic amber, particularly that from the sambia peninsula, is acquired via open-pit mining or simply erodes out and is picked up along beaches. the source is easy to get to and has been exploited for centuries. compare that to dominican amber which, though the actual mining is done via inexpensive (and very dangerous) bell pits, is usually found in the mountains, has only been exploited commercially occasionally since the 1940s, and today is exploited predominantly by poor villagers just trying to get enough to feed their families. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciadopityaceae"
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how does _url_0_ know where to put the sun/moon on its maps? | the geographic position (point on the earth where a body is directly overhead) is very well known for navigation and astronomy. basically, for a specific time, the exact location of the geographic position is easily plotted on a map. | 2 | [
"timeanddate.com"
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|
what would happen if water was compressable and how would that affect our lives? | water systems would be designed differently and there would actually be fewer stresses on the system. things like 'water hammering' would disappear. boats would have a slightly different shape to be more fluid-dynamic. hydraulics (presuming oils follow suit with water and suddenly become compressible) would be less useful and would likely be abandoned for air pneumatics (which would suddenly have exactly the same functionality but be easier to use). many other technical anomalies would come from water being more readily compressible! but i think the most significant things would be within the human body (and other living organisms). plants would constantly be wilted. the human heart would need a different design to not go into afib. the overall biological impact would be enormous! there are many many things i missed, i'm certain. but in general, it would simply require our entire civilization, down to the cellular structure, be designed differently. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can chemists predict the resulting products of alkane cracking? | for example - if we break down decane we can produce propane + heptane or perhaps pentane + hexane, etc. how can we dictate the result and choose between what we want the product to be? | almost all petrochemical plants use fluid catalytic cracking to convert higher alkanes to lighter ones and olefins. i'm no chemical engineer, but it all boils down to carefully controlling all the process parameters (pressure, temperature, feed velocity, etc.), and catalyst composition, in order to obtain a higher percentage of the desired products - these get eventually separated by distillation. in fact, obtaining a *single* product from a *single* reactant is not something of interest for this process. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question concerning time reversal in qm | i have heard a professor say that if one reverses the direction of the propagation of some particle in the [double-slit experiment](_url_0_) (via some electromagnetic field) without doing a measurement on the particle, then the particle will go straight back to the emitter along the same path in which it propagated. he said that this is the same as reversing time. so my question is this: can one conclude from this experiment that if we once reverse time, and then repeat the exact same experiment with the same particle, we would get the same answer? if so, then how is this consistent with the idea that there are no local hidden variables? edit: i should have included the video where leonard susskind explains the phenomenon. he makes the argument from [minute 34](_url_1_) through 38. | the equations of quantum mechanics behave the same way if you replace t with -t in all cases. that's called "time reversal symmetry", but it does not mean that reversing time is a meaningful action to take. even if you're just doing it mathematically. | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JzhlfbWBuQ8&t=34m0s"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry#Time_reversal_in_quantum_mechanics"
] | [
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how do anti static garments work? | hey guys, so i was wondering how anti static clothing works. more specifically how does it stop the charge buildup in your body. two scenarios that might help are: 1) if i rub my anti static shoes against a carpet, when i touch a door knob will i still get shocked. why or why not? 2) will changes in the weather, especially when it's dry out, would i still buildup a charge. if not what is the mechanism that is going on? | the anti-static wrist-straps and shoe attachments used for handling electronics work by providing a conductive path between your body and ground. if you interrupt that grounding (say by placing a carpet on top of your conductive floor and then standing on the carpet) you can still accumulate a charge. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hydrology: does river discharge affect bathymetry? | out of curiosity, would it be reasonable to assume the bathymetry of the ocean floor at the mouth of a major river would be shallower proximate to the river's mouth? my reasoning is that the discharge of sediment would accumulate to over time cause a shallower ocean floor. however, i can't find anything online to support this (maybe i'm googling it wrong) | it is the discharge of large rivers which creates river deltas. as the rivers widen at the sea sediment settle out due to the slower water flow. new land is formed damming the river into smaller diverging rivers. i hope this helped. :) -science source: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.onegeology.org/extra/kids/earthprocesses/deltas.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta"
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do the abdominal muscles of animals have a similar structure to human abs? | a bit confused by the question, but if you are asking whether the muscle group commonly known as "abs" is present in other animals, the answer is yes. the muscle groups are the rectus abdominis and external obliques that define that area we think of as a "6-pack" in humans, and they are present in many other mammals when studying comparative anatomy. homologous ab muscles exist in all primates and many other mammals like dogs and cattle, but just may not be as well-defined due to their behavioral habits (most cows don't do crunches). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does generating electricity work? does voltage induce current, or vice-versa? | despite my degree in computer engineering, i still find myself lacking an intuitive understanding of basic electricity physics. specifically, how is electricity generated? i always thought of a power source creating (somehow?) a deficiency of electrons at the positive terminal which cause electrons to move from the negative terminal towards the positive terminal, and somehow this process is sustained for some time. recently, i came across this in some reading: > now that we are armed with the requisite tools, let us turn our attention to the main topic of our discussion: the use of electromagnetic waves to carry information. an electric current element j at some location [1] induces a potential a at other remote locations, such as [2]. if the current is harmonic in time, the induced potential is as well. the situation is depicted in figure 1.7. quite the opposite! help me fill in the gaps here, reddit. what's going on? **edit: thanks for the help! it seems i was mixing up simple current generation with a much more complicated process - using an induced magnetic field to generate a voltage at another point. i need to read up on my e & m more! but glad to know my understanding of basic electrophysics is about right.** | it's both, actually, the two descriptions are describing the same thing from different points of view. voltage is a pressure- a surplus of electrons in one place, a lack of electrons in another place, there is a pressure to equalize the relative concentration. if there is no path for those electrons to follow, the pressure remains. but if those electrons can move through their environment, they will, and that is a current. in terms of current- a changing magnetic field will induce a current to flow in a conductor. if that conductor is a loop, current flows nicely. if it is broken, the electrons have nowhere to go, so they "pile up" at one end, causing a voltage difference between the two ends. when the magnetic field stops changing, the force to induce the current is gone, and the voltage will induce a current in reverse until the voltage is equalized. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://topnews.in/files/Alstom-Opens-Largest.jpg",
"http://www.steam-boilers.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/steam-turbine.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current",
"http://amasci.com/coilgen/generator_2.html"
] | [
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askscience, can someone please explain this weather-radar anomaly? | _url_0_ is it just a radar anomaly or something more sinister? this showed up about a month ago. haven't seen it again since. | out of curiosity, do you know what date and time this screen capture was taken? i would like to compare it to raw radar data, because i think there was an issue with the radar in warner robins, georgia at this time making the odd circle. the map you are looking at is a composite reflectivity image of all of the wsr-88d level iii radar data which is the "clean" version of data compared to the level ii data which is raw. contrary to what others have said, this is not a mass bird migration occurring throughout the southeast. radars scan in two different modes, a "clean air" mode and a "precipitation" mode. the difference between these modes is that a clean air scan sends out fewer pulses in order to maximize the range of the radar and rotates more slowly to obtain a higher resolution, compared to precipitation mode. clean air mode is most likely the mode that all of the radars in texas, oklahoma and the rest of the southeast are in. clean air scans can be used to detect birds, insects, dust, moisture and boundaries. if you continue to watch the radar tonight in austin, texas for example, you will notice these rings begin to grow. since the sun has set, temperatures are cooling off and getting closer to the dewpoint temperature, so the air is becoming more saturated and thus the radars are picking up moisture in the boundary layer. finally, an inversion layer is probably going to establish tonight. typically, temperature decreases with height but sometimes it will actually increase with height. this inversion will bend the radar beam downwards towards the ground, so it will end up detecting more ground clutter and thus show anomalous propagation. edit: replaced peachtree city with warner robins. edit 2: the large circle in georgia is due to a malfunctioning radar that had issues with data quality, that has since been recently repaired by the national weather service. the other circles throughout the south and southeast are explained above. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/MMZJQ.jpg"
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what is the difference between superdeterminism and non-local hidden variables? | i was reading the wikipedia article on bell's theorem ( _url_0_ ) and noted that at numerous points it refers to superdeterminism as a "non-freedom" loophole, implying that it's somehow different from the "non-local" explanation. wouldn't superdeterminism just be a case of a complete set of non-local hidden variables that describe the entire future of the universe? why is the idea of "non-freedom" necessary as a separate concept from "non-local"? | the hidden variables in superdeterminism are local. (recall that "local" doesn't mean 'in one place', but that there is no faster than light causality.) in superdeterminism there is no causality (since everything is already determined) so there can't be any faster than light causality. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell's_theorem"
] | [] | [
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three questions on positron plasma | i'm thinking about sci-fi weaponry. what would happen if a bolt of positron plasma hit a metallic surface? could this attack be diverted by a magnetic field? if that's the case, wouldn't the positrons end up in the poles of the field generator? | first of all, i'm not even sure you could produce a positron (or electron) plasma; all the particles have the same electric charge and repel each other. in order to create a bolt of positron plasma you'd have to figure out how to bind them together more strongly than their electric repulsion forces them apart. but since you're asking about science fiction, we can assume this problem has been overcome by the creators of this weapon. 1) positrons are antimatter electrons, so striking any surface with a positron bolt would cause the electrons and positrons to annihilate each other, creating a massive explosion of pure energy in the amount of e=mc^2 , where m is twice the mass of your positron bolt because you also have to count the mass of the electrons. to put this in perspective, the energy released by the hiroshima bomb was equivalent to about 1g of mass. 2) whatever trick you used to bind the positron bolt together might cause some weird effects, but in general, yes, you can divert any charged particle with an em field. earth's magnetic field does just this to protect us from solar wind and cosmic rays. 3) it depends how you have your field set up. a field like the earth's does carry the particles to the poles, where they then collide with the atmosphere and create the light show we call auroras. but physicists also use em fields to contain antimatter (since it can't come in contact with matter without annihilating, you can't just put it in a bottle) so this is not necessarily the case. unfortunately, i don't know enough about the process to give you any more details. **edit:** it occurred to me that the positrons would also annihilate with the electrons in the atoms in the atmosphere, so you could only really use this weapon in a vacuum. space would be best, but if you can figure out a way to create a temporary "vacuum tunnel" between the weapon and its target, that might work too. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if a person spent years in a hyperbaric ambient and was suddenly decompressed? | i've once seen a film (the keeper of the lost causes) where a girl was kidnapped by a psychopath and put in a hyperbaric chamber for 6 years, with the pressure rising 1atm every year, with the intent of killing her with decompression at the end of the process. what would happen in real life if such a thing was performed? | she'd be dead from oxygen toxicity long before the guy ever got around to decompression. at 6atm using room air, you're looking at a partial pressure of oxygen (po2) of about 1.26 bar. for diving, the maximum safe time limit at a po2 of 1.2 bar is 3.5 hours. no one has ever looked, but a year at that would certainly be lethal. the only thing i'm not sure about is if the pulmonary edema would kill you first, or the cns toxicity would kill you first. i lean to the pulmonary edema. also, the girl would be seriously "narc'ed". at high partial pressures of nitrogen (pn2), she'd experience nitrogen narcosis, which is pretty much like being drunk. this would probably kick in around year 3-4. but let's say he does it smart and replaces the gasses properly. uses helium instead of nitrogen after a certain amount of time, and keeps the po2 at atmospheric. the solubility of a gas in a liquid goes up with increasing pressure. you see this when you buy a 2l bottle of coke. squeeze the bottle...you can feel that it's pressurized. look at the liquid...there are no bubbles. now open the cap. you hear the pressure coming off and can feel the bottle start to give a little...there's no more pressure. also, you see bubbles start to form in the liquid. this is the carbon dioxide coming out of solution as its solubility decreases with decreasing pressure. now imagine that's your blood. that's what would happen to her; the gasses she breathes in the chamber under pressure get dissolved in her tissues; her blood, her muscles, her cells. when the pressure is released, that gas suddenly comes out of solution, forming bubbles...in her blood, her muscles, her brain...everywhere. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident"
] | [
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] |
how does bpl (broadband over power lines) work? | my father worked almost 50 years for a large us electrical utility company. something like 20 years ago he told me that this particular company was investing in bpl technology and most employees would be offered this free of charge as a testing ground and once made public then at a reduced rate. this however never came to be even after much talk about it over many family dinners. my questions are how does it work, is it efficient and if so why aren't we using it today? | 1. how does it work? bpl is specified to use high frequency carriers (3-80 mhz) over low- and medium- voltage power lines to transfer information. there's nothing special or interesting regarding modulation or transmission techniques; it was specified to use either cdma or ofdm. cdma implementations never achieved mbps data rates, and so ofdm won by default, although it is quite problematic with narrowband interference. subsequent [proposals](_url_1_) to avoid nbi with ofdm require(d) new user equipment. for the return path, similar transmitters would be needed at the commercial / residential endpoints. due to the high frequency carriers, it was deemed necessary to have repeaters (described in short [here](_url_0_) - skim section 4 for a good laugh) in short distances (the higher the signal frequency, the more attenuation with distance, all other things being equal). to keep interference down, the repeaters would have to demodulate the signal, modulate to different downlink frequencies, and retransmit. it was specified by [ieee 1901](_url_2_) for bandwidth up to 500 mbps. trials and deployments never surpassed 3 mbps (see above link). it is a _power line specification_, and as such it was adopted by sae for electric vehicle charging stations and by sgip for its "smart-grid" standards for ac device controls. while the initial motivation was for an additional means to provide broadband services, reducing cost and increasing coverage, it was later adopted as a convenience for communication applications over the power grid after its broadband aspirations died down. 2. is it efficient? high frequency ac is well known to radiate away from its source (aka. transmission lines). transmission lines are also unshielded, untwisted, big antennas - the implications are well known to universities and pirates legally sharing (mostly tv) signal over power lines for a good amount of decades at least. while power lines in principle offer less attenuation than e.g. dsl coaxial cables, they offer no shielding. thus bpl emits rf interference across all short-wave radio bands. while those were (are?) within the legal limits for unintentional radiation in the usa, the fcc was asked raise the limits on permitted interference by several orders of magnitude. they declined at the request of the ntia and the army. its transfer rates are not comparable to fiber, and its infrastructure requirements are significant. 3. why aren't we using it today? it's hopelessly uneconomical. in the usa, after the international broadband electric communications stopped bpl operations in early 2012, no further promotion has taken place. at & t tried to mention it alongside its "airgig" project in 2016 and quickly had to distance themselves from it to save face. the standardisation work specified nothing on compatibility, reuse of or interoperation with existing standards, so deployments are very costly. it also raised significant political conflicts of interest and security issues, at least in the usa. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Broadband-Over-Power-Lines-Internet-Everywhere.pdf",
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/5357394/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1901"
] | [
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energy when adding velocities? | so say you had a gun, this gun when still can fire a bullet at 99.999999% the speed of light. since velocities don’t simply add together (link to formula: _url_0_) if the gun were to fire when moving 99.999999% the speed of light (in a vacuum), what would happen to the energy of the bullet after being fired since it can’t go faster than light? | energy transforms like the time component of a four-vector (the four-momentum) under lorentz transformations. in a frame where a free, massive particle is at rest, its energy is mc^(2). if you then boost into a frame where its lorentz factor is γ, its energy is γmc^(2). in the limit where v goes to c, γ goes to infinity. | 12 | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity-addition_formula"
] | [] | [
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is it possible that an elephant stepped on my foot without breaking it? | when i was around 8 years old, i went to india. i was at an area where we saw an elephant and was able to ride it. before being placed on top of the elephant, i remember my foot getting stuck underneath the elephant's front leg. there was some pain but i was able to get my foot out. i didn't tell anyone at the same and when i told my dad a few years later, he said it was impossible since my foot would have been broken. is my recollection of the event possible/plausible? or would my foot have been broken if the elephant stepped on it? | elephants actually have rather soft soles that are [cushioned](_url_0_), not hard hooves like horses or cows and their feet are much wider, distributing their weight. if fact, elephants have been known to move about rather quietly as they can step on dried twigs without breaking them. so yes, it is entirely possible to get your foot trod on by an elephant without breaking anything. | 66 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2048995/"
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is the sexual behavior of paramecium caudatum considered reproduction or not? | i was told in my biology lecture that when paramecium perform conjugation, it is a sexual behavior but it is not considered sexual reproduction because no offspring are produced. however i keep seeing other biology department websites and encyclopedias and countless web posts referring to this behavior as "sexual reproduction". which is correct? | paramecium have two nuclei (a large macronucleus and a single compact micronucleus). they cannot survive without the macronucleus and cannot reproduce without the micro-nucleus. like all ciliates, paramecia reproduce asexually, by binary fission. during reproduction, the macronucleus splits by a type of amitosis, and the micronuclei undergo mitosis. the cell then divides transversally, and each new cell obtains a copy of the micronucleus and the macronucleus. fission may occur as part of the normal vegetative cell cycle. under certain conditions, it may be preceded by self-fertilization (autogamy), or it may follow conjugation. during conjugation, the micronuclei of each conjugant divide by meiosis and the haploid gametes pass from one cell to the other. the gametes of each organism then fuse to form diploid micronuclei. the old macronuclei are destroyed, and new ones are developed from the new micronuclei. without the rejuvenating effects of autogamy or conjugation a paramecium ages and dies. only opposite mating types, or genetically compatible organisms, can unite in conjugation. hope that helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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bigger difference in ectronegativity leads to better protection? | is it true that when chosing a metal for cathodic protection the bigger difference in potential also leads to better protection? so if the metals all work in the current circumstances it's better to use the one with the biggest difference to the metal that needs to be protected. | kinda... as long as there is a diffrence the sacrificial anode will be attacked and give its elektrons to the protected material. the bigger the diffrence the more likely this is but a huge diffrence also means you get elements from the first main group which are less than ideal in water if you know... therefor zink is the most used metal because its below steel (iron i know) and cheap | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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with today's technology, would it really differ that much in risk if you just had a c-section instead of vaginal birth? | i've often wondered when mothers declare how much pain was involved during childbirth, why they simply did not choose to have a c-section. in my mind, it sounds doubtfully simple and so i'm sure there is a good reason. can you guys help me out? | yes, there is a risk to a c-section. the risks come from many things: **anaesthesia** she may not tolerate the drugs well, or have adverse reactions to them. **bleeding** the risk of intraoperative bleeding is increased, 1 in 6 mothers typically requires transfusion. [here](_url_2_) **2nd pregnancies** these can often carry a higher risk if the first is delivered via c-sec. [here](_url_0_) **infection** major surgery always carries with it a risk of infection, the incision for a c-section is *large.* this risk is lessened in vaginal births. it's entirely possible to accidentally nick an artery, the bladder or even the baby, although this is rare. not passing through the birth canal leaves the infant with lung complications. [here](_url_3_) it also seems mortality rates are higher in infants born with elective c-sections. [here](_url_1_) | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17267823",
"http://www.medicineonline.com/news/12/6008/High-infant-mortality-seen-with-elective-c-section.html",
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4409562?uid=3739392&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3737720&uid=4&sid=47699067444247",
"http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/121/5/651.abstract"
] | [
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why do ducklings generally follow their mother in a line? | i've seen lots of duckling formations but it's usually a line. why? also, what determines the order? do the stronger ducklings go at the back because they can run faster or do they go at the front because keeping them safe is a better investment... or is it arbitrary? tell me all about ducklings.... | i don't know all about ducklings but i can tell you a few things. ducklings can walk and swim about 24 hours after hatching. they don't need to eat during those 24 hours because they still have a small amount of egg yolk being absorbed in the region of their belly. they find their own food which consists of vegetation and invertebrates and even small mammals such as mice and shrews. when they are very young, duckling struggle to get through heavy vegetation. they generally will follow their mothers in single file because her movement through the area pushes the foliage aside and creates a path for the ducklings that follow. the slowest ducklings, or ducklings with legs injuries, tend to be the ones at the back of the line but the order can vary based on which ones get distracted while chasing a fly for a moment. ducklings rely on their mothers for the water-repelling oil on their down during the first 4-6 weeks of their lives. they begin to grow their real feathers at about 4 weeks of age and the oil producing gland at the end of their spine begins to produce oil at around the same time. ducklings without a mother duck will probably die if they get wet during the first few weeks of their lives. the mother and ducklings communicate vocally with each other through cheeping noises. this communication begins a few days before the ducklings hatch. the pitch and number of repetitions varies a little between species. if one duckling doesn't see any of the others nearby, it starts cheeping. if a duckling hears another one cheeping, they also begin to cheep and move towards the sound. this combination of instinctive reactions helps to prevent the group from splitting apart or getting lost. all domestic breeds of duck are descended from either mallard, american black duck, muscovy ducks or mandarin ducks. lots of websites and online resources about ducks have cut and pasted the incorrect info that mallards and muscovies are the only 2 wild ancestors of domestic ducks. edit: left out a | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how well backed is the "broken window" theory? | i just want to know how established the "broken window" theory is i.e. if it is there is evidence for it and how good that evidence is. | just as an aside, the criminological theory is called 'the broken windows theory', the economic theory is called 'the parable of the broken window' or 'the broken window fallacy'. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we have lines on our hands? | those wrinkle looking lines, why? | fate put them on our hands so that we can palm-read. just kidding. those lines are known as [flexion creases](_url_2_), and most of them were formed on our hands even [before we were born](_url_1_). the reason we have them on our hands is so that when we squeeze our hands, the loose skin is folded into the creases instead of dangling out like sagging skin. for instance, you can see the creases deepening when you make a fist. fun fact! a [study](_url_0_) suggests that union of palm lines correlates with hand grip strength. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://synapse.koreamed.org/search.php?where=aview&id=10.5115%2Facb.2010.43.2.169&code=1049ACB&vmode=FULL",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1786348",
"http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=21155"
] | [
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are more turns and smaller wire diameter better than less turns and larger diameter in an electromagnet? | i would assume smaller diameter and more turns are better, because i see commercial electronics with them, but i think that is only to save space and material. after a bit of research, i found out (this was a while so i could be wrong) that: doubling wire diameter doubles the strength of the electromagnetic field, and that doubling the amount of turns also doubles the strength of the electromagnetic field. therefore, if i double the diameter, the amount of turns would halve, resulting in the same electromagnetic strength (assuming negligible wire insulation). do industrial electromagnets have thicker coils? and for what reason would that be? p.s. while writing this post i realized that thicker wires would be able to carry more current, but i would still like a second opinion. thanks in advance! edit: thank you for all your answers! i will take it all into consideration. | the magnetic field strength of a solenoid (cylindrical coil of wire) is b = μin/l. μ is just a constant depending on the magnetic properties of what's inside the coil. something magnetic like iron would make it higher than air. l is the length, let's say we keep that constant. so that leaves n, the number of turns, and i, the current, as both being proportional. with n, doubling the number of turns would double the length of wire, which would double the amount of copper. so a proportional relation, twice as much copper, twice as much field strength. with i, it is a little more complicated. doubling the amount of copper would double the cross sectional area. doubling this would halve the resistance. the power, which let's say needs to stay constant to avoid overheating, is p = i^2 r. so if we halve r with twice the size of wire, that means i^2 can be twice as large. which means i is only sqrt(2) times larger. so twice as much copper, only means a sqrt(2) increase in current and therefore only a sqrt(2) increase in field strength. this isn't quite the same overheating temperature limit though, as even with the same heat generation, we now have more mass to spread the heat over as well as more surface area to dissipate heat. in addition, the wire overheating is a little more complicated as they are all wrapped up together. but simplistically, more coils would be better. but there's yet more issues that may come into play: * i've assumed you can simply supply whatever current you need to reach the ampacity of the solenoid wires. really, if you have a voltage source the resistance will determine your current. too much lenth of a high gauge wire and you will get almost no current, few turns of a low gauge and you'll get a lot of current, but you'll be back to worrying about overheating or exceeding the capacity of your power supply. * higher guage wire or mutiple layers of wires stacked will and at what factor you stack then push the current further out radially. while ideally the radius doesn't matter, realistically it does unless your solenoid is infinitely long. * the length also needs to come into play. it effects the total heating and beat dissipation, which is no simple matter. as well, a very short length with a very large amount of stacked turns would seem like the way to maximize the strength, but again that pushes more out radially and shortens the length making the formula less ideal and more dependent on radius. * your limit for overheating is going to be very dependent on what your installation is. * if you stick a iron core inside, there is things to consider with regards to strength. * if you care about response time, there's even more considerations. all in all, it's no simple one eqaution engineering task to globally say how to maximize a electromagnet. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do crts need to be in a vacuum? can't electrons be shot through air? | is it a matter of accuracy and precision losses colliding with air molecules, or perhaps energy loss? i've often wondered why people can't bend lasers the way we do crts. | not if you want to control where they end up on the screen. as you suggest, firing electrons in a non-vacuum is a good way to make sure they get scattered... | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it even possible to offer a simple explanation for how computers work? | i have a basic understanding of how programming language works (can write some simple vba) and a basic understanding of how a microchip works but it totally boggles my mind how a bunch of tiny transistors flipping on and off can lead to a full-blown computer game, video, the internet, etc. presumably there are people out there who actually understand how something like skyrim can be created from a bunch of 1s and 0s. | the ones and zeros of binary correspond to a circuit being on or off. so, if there is current, we call that "1", if there isn't, we call it "0". now, we can mathematically do quite a lot of things with just a binary number system, using [boolean algebra](_url_1_). for quite a few decades now, we've been able to create physical implementations of boolean algebraic functions using various methods and materials, the most ubiquitous being silicon [logic gates](_url_2_). and boolean algebra can be used to perform [arithmetic](_url_3_). this is how, in a tiny nutshell, we can make electronic calculators, which, from a historical point of view, is the really hard part. getting from this to skyrim is... complicated. without getting into too many details, once you've got a mathematical system that is sufficiently complex to do arithmetic, you can also do quite a lot more. for example, we can build a series of chips connected to lights, and control the behavior of those chips by defining a [matrix](_url_0_), so that depending on what functions are performed by the chips, different bulbs will light up, and now we've got a simple visual display. from that point on, it's really just a matter of increased mathematical and electronic sophistication. tl;dr: your personal computer is a bunch of materials engineered to reliably behave in mathematically well-defined ways, which we can freely manipulate using progressively higher levels of abstraction. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_arithmetic#Binary_arithmetic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)#Full_adder"
] | [
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is there a situation where crossing two beams of light could interfere with the way the beams look/act after they cross paths? | for instance, if you pointed two lasers at each other in an x pattern, is it possible that one might come off at a different angle, or that the color might change? i thought of this because in one of my classes there are two projectors that cross paths to project lecture slides on angled screens, if that makes sense. and i was thinking that of enough photons "collided" or something of that nature if the image on the screen could change. i clearly know little about light so bear with me. | the short answer is yes, it is indeed possible for light to interact with light, though it happens only at very high intensity, around 10^24 w/cm^2 for ~1 micron wavelength light (not far from realization in the laboratory given the present state and trajectory of high intensity laser technology). this is about two orders of magnitude higher in intensity than we can make in the laboratory today and will probably be reached in a decade or so, allowing for direct probing of quantum electrodynamics in the laboratory using high-intensity lasers. [this article](_url_0_) describes one such experiment. the essential physics is that at high enough laser intensity, one starts to "polarize" the vacuum, creating virtual electron-positron pairs that interact with the incident light as a nonlinear dielectric. such dielectric behavior of the vacuum allows for the creation of a "matterless double-slit" in the article. the physics of this process is described well by quantum electrodynamics. your projectors are many, many orders of magnitude lower in intensity, so this bit of exotica is not occurring in your classroom. [edit: fixed some awkward wording.] | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nphoton/journal/v4/n2/abs/nphoton.2009.261.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1mnn6q/is_there_a_situation_where_crossing_two_beams_of/ccayzm5",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_x-ray_free_electron_laser",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0512033",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_laser"
] | [
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can people who have had their corpus callosum severed multitask? | since the two halves of the brain should have no communication with each other, is it theoretically possible for each half to be working on a different task simultaneously? if so, has this been studied and/or documented? | sure, it's theoretically possible. kim peek was this guy who was born with a lot of brain deformities, but one of the major ones was he lacked a corpus callosum. look him up, he was a really interesting guy, and he was the inspiration for the rain man movie. he was a savant literally spent his time memorizing everything he could, in a ton of different subjects, and he when he read, he read the left page with his left eye and the right page with his right eye. it's honestly absurd the sheer volume of information he ended up memorizing. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a reason that the maxwell field must exist? i just finished my ba in physics at a top school; technical answers please. | perhaps my question is the same as "what are the axioms of the maxwell field lagrangian?" | you'll get the answer by taking a quantum field theory class. in my opinion it's one of the most mind-blowing things i've ever learned. a rough explanation is "attempt to write a globally lorenz invariant, locally u(1) invariant, renormalizable lagrangian... bam! maxwell field." | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could i jump off of the moon deimos? | in [this xkcd comic](_url_0_) it says a person could jump out of deimos gravity well with a bike ramp, or throw a baseball from phobos. is this accurate or am i reading it wrong? could i actually jump from deimos? what would happen if i did? would i just fall to the martian surface? | the escape velocity of deimos is about 12 miles, or 20 kilometers, per hour. that's well within the range of human capability of running, so your 'jump' would need to be a running jump, as no human (yet) has managed to attain 20 km/h in a vertical jump. if you did, you would go into orbit around mars, not fall to mars. | 12 | [] | [
"http://xkcd.com/681/"
] | [] | [
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how does a butterfly get a new exoskeleton inside of the chrysalis? | so a caterpillar will molt for the final time and under its old skin will be a chrysalis. inside the chrysalis a butterfly forms by breaking down a bunch of the old caterpillar bits and using that material to grow its "imaginal discs" into new legs and wings... but how does it get a new exoskeleton around its organs? when a little caterpillar molts it's just skin off the main skin layer, like if my skin flakes off there's a layer pumping out more skin underneath. but when a caterpillar pupates the entire outer skin layer becomes a shell. is there a second skin around the organs that becomes the butterfly's skin? does the new skin grow from "imaginal discs"? does the inner skin layer somehow get relocated closer to the organs? | metamorphosis is pretty gruesome for most bugs. it's often less like something shapeshifting and more like the animal dying and totally different animal growing and eating it's corpse. like some types of butterflies have more complicated transformations where some structures survive but for a lot of them they just all die except for like a couple hundred cells that just eat their way out of the corpse and just build a whole new bug from scratch. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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suppose i cut the handle off your coffee mug leaving two holes. would the coffee flow out of one hole faster than the other? | according to a philosopher in a [submission from r/foodforthought](_url_0_): "if we tried to figure this out by experiment, we would need to carefully measure the flow – and we would ruin your mug. we should instead mentally replace the handle with a tube. if the flow of one hole exceeded the other, we would have a perpetual motion machine. since that is absurd, we can deduce that the holes have the same rate of flow." i think the pressure at the bottom of the mug will be greater creating a (slightly) greater rate of flow, and the philosopher's thought experiment fails because in the tube scenario the coffee from the bottom hole must flow upward against gravity, slowing its rate. i also think it's funny (if i'm right) that this guy thinks thought experiments are as good as actual experiments but actually proves the flaws in relying solely on thought. am i right? | this is the difference between philosophers and scientists...one of them thinks of things and talks about it and the other thinks of things and does experiments try it yourself with a styrofoam cup and a sharp pencil...the hole at the bottom will have more pressure and thus more flow and farther stream. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.3ammagazine.com/3am/on-blindspots-paradoxes-and-thought-experiments/"
] | [] | [
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when looking for the higgs, is there a difference between optimizing the analysis for signal/sqrt(background) or signal/background? aren't both encoding the same information? | it's not specific to higgs analyses: it's quite a common technique within statistical inference in general. most measurements in particle physics are basically a counting exercise, so they're subject to poisson statistics. in a poisson distribution, variance is equal to n, the number counted, therefore standard deviation is sqrt(n). in a dataset, there will be s signal events and b background events so n = s+b. you may define signal significance as being the size of the signal relative to 1 standard deviation i.e. s/sqrt(s+b). ignoring systematic errors etc, this is basically your "number of sigma". from this perspective it's obvious why we'd choose that as the figure of merit to be optimised, but whether or not it's mathematically the same as optimising s/b i'm not sure. i don't think it is but i can't think why. sorry this doesn't directly answer your question. it might get a better answer if it were tagged as mathematics. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
energy: what exactly is it? how would you describe it physically? | how would you physically describe different types of energy e.g. energy produced from respiration in body cells, energy in em(electo-magnetic) waves? how does energy made from respiration enable you to make your muscles work? thank you for any answers. | it's a (usually) conserved quantity that can be calculated from measurements on a system, and becuase it is conserved, it can be used to calculate/predict new measurements when the system changes or interacts with another system. this makes it very useful to know! the same is true for other similarly conserved quantities, such as momentum. because it is conserved, we can construct equations relating different quantities/systems. if you are looking for a technical definition ... the *most* fundamental definition we have for energy is: energy is the conserved quantity associated with *time-translation invariance*; meaning, the fact that the laws of physics don't change over time, leads to the quantity we call energy being conserved. this is proven mathematically through [noether's theorem](_url_0_). well, you wouldn't really. energy has no "form" or "substance" of its own -- rather, energy is a *property* associated with systems. it would be equally difficult to describe "velocity" physically. velocity doesn't really have a physical, tangible existance, it is just a property that systems have; they can be moving quickly or slowly in various directions, or they can be stationary. likewise, systems can have large or small energies and in various forms. you can only describe energy insofar as you can describe systems which possess energy, and the way they interact. energy in em waves is just a property that each photon carries with it, and which is transferred to another system upon interaction with the photon. energy produced from respiration in body cells is transferred through the interactions of the body's systems with oxygen molecules in the air. and so on ... it's just a big, long, (often complicated and poorly understood) chain of interactions which transfer energy from one system to the next. from the air, to your lungs, to your blood, to your muscles, and so on. you can get into much deeper levels of detail, but the deeper you go, the more you realize you're just describing the other informational aspects of the system itself, and not only its energy. yet, that is why the quantity of energy is useful to know, because we can calculate some of those other informational aspects *from* the energy, if we know how the system behaves. hope that helps! | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem"
] | [
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the nand game (_url_0_) shows how all logic gates can be built out of nand gates. can this be done with any logic gate as a starting point, and if not, what makes nand (and any other gates with which it's possible, if any) special? | the structure of which binary functions can generate which other binary functions is given by [post's lattice](_url_0_). at the top is the set of all binary functions, which is equivalent to just combinations of nand, which is equivalent to just combinations of nor, which is equivalent to combinations of or with not, and so on. the and gate alone (or or alone) makes up the rather low level λp (or vp) of the hierarchy. in between you have levels like t1^(∞) which is given by the implies gate, which returns true unless the first input is true and the second input is false, and at the very bottom you have the empty set of functions generated by no gates at all. | 20 | [
"nandgame.com"
] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%27s_lattice"
] | [
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|
does a warm core temperature slow down the effects of frost bite? | when you're cold, your body redirects blood to the core to keep your vital organs warm, which increases your likelihood of frost bite, says this [link.](_url_0_) so, what if your core stays warm, say, with a coat. will your exposed tissue be less impacted by the cold than if you didn't have a coat? | it depends to some degree on the level of cold. if it's cold enough that over hours you'd get frostbite as you slowly died from exposure, the coat would definitely postpone the point where the need to conserve heat results in frostbite. however, to some degree blood flow is locally controlled. if you stick your hand in ice water, the vessels will still constrict flow even if the rest of you is in a sauna. so in very low temperatures, you would be a little better off with a coat, but frostbite would still occur very quickly to exposed fingers and toes. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.tdi.texas.gov/pubs/videoresource/fsfrostbite.pdf"
] | [] | [
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since energy and matter can not be created nor destroyed, how did they get here in the first place? | i've known for a long time that energy and matter can not be created nor destroyed, but for as long as i've known these laws, i have always wondered how they (matter and energy) got here. | energy is not conserved on cosmic scales. you can't even properly define "energy" globally. this has to do with the fact that conservation of energy is a *consequence*, a consequence of whether or not our universe is invariant under time-translations. it's expanding, so it looks different at different times, thus energy is *not* conserved. however, for instance, the universe *is* invariant under spatial translations, so momentum *is* conserved. this is called the noether theorem. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can a person tell if their tap water is 'hard water'? (specifically calcium?) [picture and story inside] | i recently had a ct scan done, and they found a 3mm kidney stone in my right kidney. this was a little bewildering to me because, up until that point i had considered my calcium intake pretty poor. i don't drink milk, and dairy is not a major part of my diet. mind you i'm not asking for medical advice. however, i had the hypothesis that perhaps the water i'd been drinking while i was at school had calcium in it. the off-campus house i'm renting is quite old and run down. the tap water i drink comes from my bathroom sink. i've attached a picture of some slight discoloration where the sink drips. my question is to all of you is, is this discoloration (maybe build up?) a sign of hard water? or is it just caused by the fact that the sink drips? sink: _url_0_ | low calcium intake is associated with increased risk of kidney stones, not a decreased risk. even very hard water is unable to supply levels of calcium to promote kidney stone formation. highly calcified water isn't going to supply more than 400 mg per day at the extreme end. the masai take in 5,000 to 7,000 mg calcium per day and do not suffer from kidney stones. [this paper](_url_0_) measured kidney stone forming products in the blood on high and low calcium water sources and concluded that the intake of high calcium water was off-set by the intake of the fluid. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/XpomH"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6698088"
] | [
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can someone please explain the difference between sound intensity and sound pressure in laymans terms? | im having trouble distinguishing between the two. thanks! | in simple terms, sound intensity is a measure of power (per unit area) while sound pressure is a measure of acoustic potential (per unit volume). if you are familiar with electricity, then sound intensity is to sound pressure as watts is to voltage. to put it another way, sound intensity is the product of sound pressure and acoustic particle velocity. just like how watts is the product of voltage and current, both are a product of a potential and a flow. a mechanical analog is mechanical power, which is the product of force and velocity, where the force is the potential and the velocity is the flow. for sound it's often possible to come up with a direct relation between pressure and intensity. this is because air has a specific acoustic impedance, and that determines the relationship between pressure and particle velocity for a traveling wave. if that's the case, and the acoustic impedance of air is z, then i=p^2 /z (this is similar to electrical power expressed as v^2 /r where v is voltage and r is resistance). note that if the wave is not a traveling plane wave (as with a standing wave), then pressure and particle velocity are not *in phase* (ie, pressure and velocity are not changing together). if that's the case, then i=pv cannot be reduced to the above form. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
so i just watched an episode of rocket city rednecks...something doesn't make sense | i was watching the episode where they build a radio telescope to listen to the sun or eventually far off galaxies for radio waves (and alien signals). while the premise was pretty cool, and i can see the value in it education/interest wise, something is bothering me. its really late, and i need sleep, so i could be brain farting like a sumbitch, but i'll ask anyway. at the end, they had this giant 11 foot antenna, and they tried to copy the design of the biggest radio antenna in the world. the dug a hole in the ground, then positioned the antenna over top, then in the middle they place a "horn" or a receiver to pick up the signal. the idea being, radio signals will bounce off the dirt, hit the antenna, focus on to the receiver. cool, with them so far. the thing bothering me, is they had the antenna "upside down", like they were putting 2 bowls together. i made a ms paint picture to explain, you can see it [here](_url_0_). the one on the left is what they built. to me, it seems like the radio waves would bounce off the ground, then bounce right back where they came from, instead of being focused. i thought you had to have it pointing inwards like a flashlight to focus the signal (like the one i drew on the right). or does it have something to do with the angle of that design that the complimentary (or supplementary, whatever) angle makes it line up perfectly with the receiver? am i being retarded or did they really mount it upside down? even [the biggest one in the world](_url_1_) looks like its aiming down, albeit way more focused. | your drawing shows the receiver being on the ground, when in fact it is hanging over the middle of the dish. the arecibo detector which you pictured is indeed pointing down toward the primary dish of the telescope. the primary dish focuses incoming radio waves into the point where the large feed array is hanging. there are two additional reflectors in there which actually get the waves into the appropriate instruments. but in principle you could just hang an instrument there and let it collect the waves (this wouldn't be optimal though). the receiver itself and the secondary and tertiary reflectors are all sitting inside that round housing which is shown in your last picture. [this picture offers a good description of the optical setup](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/KUsQAAi.png",
"http://www.naic.edu/public/about/photos/hires/ao008.jpg"
] | [
"http://astro.berkeley.edu/~ay203/2001/assignments/optics/ao/ao_radome.gif"
] | [
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how do you categorize a state of matter and how do we know if something's a "new state of matter"? | i mean, it's easy to tell the difference between solids, liquids, and gasses in terms of intermolecular forces, but what about other states of matter? why is plasma a different state of matter from a gas if its just an ionized gas? | phase boundaries are marked by the input of energy *not* associating with a change in the matter's temperature. for example, when ice-water is melting the addition of heat does not change the solution temperature until all the ice is melted. the additional heat energy is going into changing the microscopic order, breaking the bonds of the ice crystals. as you point out this is easy to understand. so too a plasma is differentiated from a gas by a phase boundary. as energy is added to the gas the temperature increases until suddenly it doesn't as the gas becomes ionized. [here is a picture of that data for nitrogen, hydrogen, argon and helium](_url_0_). and by the way, in thermodynamics it is better to refer to this as the matter's **phase** and not its state becasue a state is fully identified by values of a suitable set of parameters known as state variables or when plotted over a range, state functions. examples include temperature, pressure, volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy. in contrast heat and work are not state functions, but process functions. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.gordonengland.co.uk/pft.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice#/media/File:Hex_ice.GIF"
] | [
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if you have a pair of entangle particle, is there any way to know if they are still entangle while testing only 1 of them? | no. entanglement exists as a *correlation* between particles. having either one of the particles alone doesn't help. this is why we like them for quantum encryption, that you need measures of both particles to find information between them. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would you still be "weightless" in a geostationary satellite? | this [vsauce video](_url_0_) mentions that astronauts in the iss are subject to 90% of the gravity you and i are feeling here on the surface. the illusion of weightlessness is due to the fact that they're in "freefall" around the earth at orbital velocity, and if we built a tower that high we could walk around unhindered. so what if the satellite was geostationary? would the zero-g "freefall" occur or would it behave like you were standing in an orbital-height skyscraper? | geostationary satellites are still in freefall, so you'd still feel weightless. a geostationary satellite orbits the earth with an orbital period of one day (as compared to, say, the iss, with an orbital period of around an hour and a a half), which is why it can stay over the same spot on the earth. but is still orbiting. | 11 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTL_sJycQAA"
] | [] | [
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how does the network for a one way pager know whether or not i've received a page? | i'm on call this week and our business uses a pager. as it is, my apartment doesn't get great cell service, and from what i know about networks a system has to be two way to alert the network it has received a signal. does this mean if my pager is out of network it will entirely miss the page? | i don't know much about pagers, as by the time i got into computers they were already on the decline. however, i can speak to networks. it's possible, but not particularly likely, that the pager is able to communicate back to acknowledge that it received the message. even if it can't, however, there are a number of ways to increase the chance that the message was received. as an aside, in internet networks, udp is an example of a one-way protocol. there's no technical reason that acknowledgment of data received is necessary; it's done that way because as users, we care. here are a couple of examples of how a one-way paging system could work: * cell towers already put out far, far more power than your cell phone does. if there's no need for a response from the mobile device, functional range increases dramatically. * the system could send the message, with a unique id embedded, several or many times over minutes or hours. the first time the pager receives it, it informs you. every subsequent time a message with the same unique id arrives, it is discarded. which of these is the case, i sadly do not know. perhaps someone with more experience can elaborate. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do you tell if a process is random? | let's say you had a process that produced a list of numbers (be it a complex algorithm or the time interval between the decay of a radioactive source) how do you determine if the process is producing random numbers? or put another way how does one determine if a random process has an equal likelihood of selecting every individual in the population being sampled? considering, "a sample may be defined as random if every individual in the population being sampled has an equal likelihood of being included." [source](_url_0_) | in general, distinguishing between truly random data and pseudorandom data generated by an algorithm is extremely difficult but actually proving that this is difficult is in many forms still open. one formulation is the claim that p=[bpp](_url_1_). that is, that a computer with access to randomness is not more powerful (in terms of what computations it can do in polynomial time) than a computer without access to randomness. if this were not the case then one could tell that data was pseudorandom by (roughly speaking) observing that the data was not sufficient to give speedup when fed in as random bits. there are technical details here i'm skipping over- this is closely connected to the problem of [constructing pseudorandom generators](_url_0_). | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3105563/#ref3"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_generator",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPP_(complexity\\)"
] | [
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watching cosmos...questions about light...brain hurts! | longtime carl sagan fan, but i've somehow avoided watching cosmos. awesome, awesome series, but i have all these questions about light now and i'm really hoping you guys and gals can help me out. forgive me if these questions are ridiculous. i'm assuming that i'm missing some pretty basic concept here and i'm not really expressing it correctly. the unfortunate thing about sagan is that goofballs like me start getting interested in science with pretty much no appreciation for the basic concepts of physics... 1) do all wavelengths of light move at the same speed? i have a very hard time making sense of the speed of light. in episode 8 sagan talks about redshifts and blueshifts and i realized that i've never heard the speed of light described in terms of anything but the visible spectrum. what happens in the non-visible spectrum at the speed of light? this concept of red/blue shifting seems to imply that some parts of the spectrum move slower than others (i'm probably misunderstanding...). but if so, it seems like it would technically be possible to move faster than the visible spectrum while still remaining below the "true" speed of light. so maybe the best way to say this is, can you help me understand the speed of light, especially with regards to how relativity impacts the non-visible spectrum? 2) okay, bear with me here...light is constantly emitted by the stars. eventually it reaches us and we perceive the visible spectrum in terms of the light that is reflected by the material objects around us (am i on the right track so far?). but we also perceive the light as it reaches us when we look directly at the sun or stars. in these cases, it hasn't been reflected so we perceive it as bright, piercing white light, which i assume is because no part of the visible spectrum has yet been absorbed so it is all hitting our eyes. but light from stars is not emitted on a single line...it's emitted in three dimensions and at all times. "new" light is constantly arriving from all directions since there are start in all directions. why is the sky not always a wash of bright white? has the light from distant stars been impeded somehow so that it doesn't all reach us? another way of stating it, why does it matter how far away a light source is? does light lose something (momentum/strength...not sure of the right term) during its trip through space? 3) lastly, when light is reflected off of a material object, it's reflected in three dimensions as well...not on a single track (man, i hope someone is still reading this mess). so, here's where i get locked up...is the light emitted/reflected on a fixed trajectory and is it right to think of light as having a trajectory? if so, why aren't our eyes constantly bombarded by a combination of all portions of the visible spectrum from all of the things around us? it seems like we should see nothing but pure white all the time since there is a constant stream of incoming light from the sun and stars, and a constant stream of outgoing light (at least a portion of it) reflected off of the material objects around us. why doesn't the incoming and outgoing portions of the visible spectrum wash out and leave us blinded? ...as an aside to sort of help explain where i'm coming from, i've wondered (probably mistakenly) what it would really be like if we were able to freeze time. my thought is that freezing time would be awful, because we only perceive the world around us due to the movement of various portions of the visible spectrum of light. were time to freeze, light would freeze in place and our eyes would be immersed in all portions of the spectrum. wouldn't our eyes perceive nothing but the glare of pure white as if we were staring at the sun? man, i hope this makes sense. i've wondered about this for a long time and never thought to ask about it. | 1) all light moves at the same speed in space. period. the redshift is the change of *wavelength* of light. in the electromagnetic spectrum, light has different frequencies/wavelengths, but not speeds. maybe someone can elaborate. 2) [inverse square law](_url_0_). a certain amount of light is emitted from a star. as that light gets further and further the same amount of light is covering much more area in space (like the surface of a sphere). so when it hits us it is effectively diluted. the sun is close so it hasn't spread its light out and is still bright. 3) on a microscopic level everything is bumpy so light hits it and is spread out, but on flat surfaces you can get most the light to reflect one way because more of the area the light hits (even on a microscopic level) is facing the same way. but light does bounce off in a straight line with a specific angle that you can measure. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"
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how do we know that ∫ exp(x^2) dx is unsolvable in terms of elementary functions? | the best i could find is a line [here](_url_0_) saying that the risch algorithm proves that the integral cannot be solved in terms of elementary functions, but the risch algorithm was only invented in 1968, so i doubt that was the first proof. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_integral",
"http://math.stanford.edu/~conrad/papers/elemint.pdf"
] | [
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|
solubility | how can i determine the solubility of a clear liquid in water? more specifically, i'd like to know how much polyurethane thinner i can mix with water without the solution separating. given that it is clear how can i tell when it is not possible to mix with water any further. sorry if i am unclear, english is not my first language. | unless the liquids are engineered to have identical appearances, they likely do not have the same index of refraction. if this is the case, they should form a visible meniscus when not mixing. if this is not observable to the naked eye, try sticking an opaque rod into the container and measuring its refraction (or just eyeballing it) if it looks like it's bending at the surface *and* somewhere below the surface, then there is a separation. titration is your best friend, in any case! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is solubility transitive? | [deleted] | no, there are plenty of counter examples. water is soluble in acetone. acetone is soluble in ether. water is not soluble in ether. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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native american mound builders and 'giants' | i saw this [tedx](_url_0_) talk about native american mound builders and 'coloniel' root cellars. i'm somewhat familiar with the mound builders and the understated accomplishments of native americans, but i've never heard of 7 - 9ft tall dudes with double rows of teeth. i'm deeply skeptical of the claims, but on the other hand, none of the claims that this guy is making are ridiculously exceptional (no ancient aliens or 20ft tall giants). i can't find anything about this on the web that isn't from some crackpot website. are there actual native american skeletons with exceptional (though not inhuman) height? double rows of teeth? | i've never heard of 7-9 ft tall skeletons with double teeth and i would be extremely skeptical. for one, human skeletal structure simply can't support people much taller than 7 ft. also size is very dependent on food. you need a massive steady food supply for a whole group of people to grow that tall. there are people with physical anomalies which result in extra random teeth and even double rows. in theory there could have been a family with a form of pituitary abnormality which resulted in this. i would bet that if these skeletons actually existed they are a hoax; either rearranged bear bones or made of plaster, since they disintegrated when touched. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=d_FSmvBgHUc"
] | [] | [
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what is the maximum amount of hours you can spend in the same date? | if you could travel fast enough. what is the maximum amount of hours one could spend on a specific date? say i went 24 hours in one time zone, then had the speed to go to the edge of the next on and repeat as many times as possible to stay in today. | the time zones go from utc -12:00 to utc +14:00, as can be seen on [wikipedia](_url_0_). that alone is enough for a 50 hour day. you could get an extra hour if the line islands used daylight savings time, but it seems they don't. you don't have to go that fast for this. you basically just have to cross the international date line. edit: [here's the path](_url_1_), using [this map](_url_2_). | 26 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_time_offsets",
"http://orig00.deviantart.net/b52c/f/2015/315/f/9/50hourdaypath_by_dcarrier-d9gdzqs.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Standard_World_Time_Zones.png",
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/question618.htm"
] | [
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is it theoretically possible to deconstruct a nucleus into its substituents and reconstruct a nucleus from the subatomic particles? | for example, take some oxygen atoms, deconstruct it into its protons/neutrons/electrons & fuse them into carbon atoms? apologies if this is a stupid question, i'm not sure i'm phrasing it right, plus i'm half asleep. | we can't pick apart nuclei like lego blocks, but we can manipulate them using nuclear reactions. and we do so all the time, for experimental purposes, and also for commercial reasons where certain radioactive isotopes need to be harvested. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there anyway to determine without instruments how far the clouds you see in the horizon are? | e.g you see rain falling down far in the distance, can you estimate where it rains. | if you know the size of your thumb and the length of your arm you can determine the distance or height of an object clouds are about 12500 ft above ground, on average. thus, with an extended arm and a closed eye, you can point your thumb at the space between the ground and the cloud. if the thumb does not exactly fit then make a guess, ie .5thumb to determine distance (arm length (in feet))/(thumb lengths (in feet)) multiplied by 12500 to give the range from you to the cloud this will give you a rough estimate of the distance. example fred's thumb is 3 inches long, or .25 feet. his arm is 2 feet long. upon extending his arm and using above method, the space between ground and cloud base is approx 2 thumb lengths (.5 ft) therefore the formula is 3/.5 times 12500 resulting in a distance of 75000 ft from you to ground beneath cloud | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens when two spatially cohesive, 180˚ out of phase light waves are moving in the same direction? | i asked the same question [**here**](_url_0_) in /r/askphysics several months ago and got several interesting answers, but i thought a little more exposure might help me get a better understanding. this assumes the two waves have the same amplitude. | this is exactly what happens with antireflective coatings. in that case, light energy that would have been reflected off a interface between two media continues instead into the second medium. antireflective coatings (eyeglasses, photo lenses) consist of a thin deposits of transparent mineral on a lens surface, in several layers, each calibrated for a specific color. when light passes through the first surface, a small amount is reflected back off the surface. the remaining light continues 1/4 of a wavelength further, and a second small amount is reflected back. the two reflections are spatially cohesive and 180˚ out of phase. they cancel each other out. the energy is not lost, but continues into the material, allowing eyeglass peddlers to claim that you get "3% more light!" | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskPhysics/comments/1a5gp1/what_happens_when_two_spatially_cohesive_180_out/"
] | [] | [
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how sensitive is our touch sense. can we differentiate between fractions of degrees? 1/4, 1/8, etc? | [deleted] | i think what you're asking about is called [two point discrimination](_url_0_) and is dependent on where on the body you measure. it can be as fine as being able to sense 1 mm gaps and as wide as being unable to sense gaps of several centimeters. this is a product of specialized nervous circuits in the skin which help increase the resolution of the incoming signal. additionally, there was a [study](_url_1_) which showed humans could detect wrinkles on a seemingly smooth surface down to 10 nm in size. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-point_discrimination",
"http://www.nature.com/articles/srep02617"
] | [
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i see these pics on reddit; so how do people get stuff stuck in their rectum, and why can't they poop it out without medical assistance? | yesterday /r/funny had an x-ray of a buzzlight year doll stuck in somebody's colon. (there are similar x-rays on the internet of all kinds of objects) ignoring the sexual aspect of it, why can't the colon (rectum? lower intestine?) expel such things, considering that's what it's designed to do. these objects clearly fit *in.* | there are various reasons why an object might get stuck. first of all is shape, imagine pushing a cone through an opening. obviously it is much easier if the point in in the direction of travel. it allows for gradual stretching while avoiding issues on none smooth surfaces acting as barbs. in the doll example the arms might be easily pressed against the body if inserted head first but could catch on something when being extracted. also the object might cause some irritation and swelling of the area making the fit "tighter" than it was during insertion. finally there is the issue of leverage. it may be possible to push an object in when you have a firm grasp of it but once it's in your body it might be quite difficult or impossible to get a good grip on it. that's why doctors use this long calipers. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in what regime does the potential energy of a system depend on generalized velocity? | the idea for this question come from a special case in hamiltonian mechanics in which the hamiltonian is the total energy of the system. from what i understand, for this to be the case, three things need to be true: 1.) the lagrangian must not depend on time (dl/dt = 0) 2.) the generalized coordinate transformation must not depend on time 3.) the potential energy of the system must not depend on any generalized velocity (du/dq' = 0) conditions 1 & 2 seem pretty straight forward but condition 3 kind of boggles my mind. does anybody know of a physical situation in which the potential energy is velocity dependent? | charged particles in a magnetic field. the lagrangian has a term in it proportional to **a·v**, where **a** is the vector potential and **v** is the velocity. this isn't really a "potential energy", but it's a term in the lagrangian which is not a kinetic energy. this is probably the simplest and most well-known case of when the hamiltonian is not the same as the mechanical energy. another example, unrelated to condition 3, is a bead constrained to move along a rotating hoop [like this](_url_0_) with constant angular velocity. it turns out that the hamiltonian is *not* the total mechanical energy. the hamiltonian is conserved but the energy is not. it's because some external "entity" is influencing the hoop, forcing it to rotate at constant angular velocity regardless of what the bead is doing. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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what determines the speed of a domino “wave”? | i saw that video on the front page with like 1000 pallets set up like dominos in a line. it got me wondering - what determines the speed that the domino “wave” moves at? is there a max speed? my guess is it has something to do with the size/weight, or maybe how far they’re spaced apart. any physics pros out there that can lend an answer? | it essentially boils down to the factors you listed (weight, spacing, size, etc.) combined with things like coefficient of friction against the grounds, as there is some slipping involved in some cases. smarter every day has a great video about just that question, but in short, science is not entirely sure of the exact way to predict speed, but we can find some indicators of what will be slower it faster. sed video: _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/9hPIobthvHg"
] | [
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is there any credibility to the idea of weight-loss/dieting "plateaus"? | so i'm busy losing weight, standard calorie controlled diet and it's all going rather well so far. i've been reading anecdotes about weight-loss plateaus whereby people stick to their diet and yet the weight simply won't come off. aside from seeming a little disconcerting, it also sounds a little implausible given my (frankly pathetic) knowledge of the human body. it does seem to be a fairly common anecdote but i can't see how it would happen. if your calorie intake is lower than what you're spending by merely existing (bmr?) then isn't it pretty much physically impossible to *not* lose weight? i could understand a plateau for a week or so, water weight, bowel movements (or lack thereof) could account for that, but i've read people have this for months at a time. so... any explanation or is it likely people are just sneaking chocolate? :) | a few points: 1. your body will adapt and become more efficient at burning calories, so eating the same amount is resulting in more calories per day as you lose weight. you should increase exercise to offset this. 2. water can be retained for up to 6 weeks. keep drinking water to offset this. if you have more than your body needs, it will get rid of it eventually. 3. no weight loss is "even." on crash diets where you can see rapid change, it is expected that in 7 days, 2 days may show no loss or even gain, and 5 days show 1 pound lost each day. if you are accurately counting calories burned and ingested, and you ingest less calories than you burn, then you will lose weight as a trend. but nothing more. some tools: _url_1_ is great for tracking food eaten and exercise done. including driving and desk work, etc. they have a free app to aid you as well. for a graph of your trending data, which is more realistic over a longer period of time, check out the hackers diet. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/HackDiet",
"Fatsecret.com"
] | [
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is muscle failure all in our heads? | > much is known about the physiological impairments that can cause muscle fatigue. it is known that fatigue can be caused by many different mechanisms, ranging from the accumulation of metabolites within muscle fibres to the generation of an inadequate motor command in the motor cortex, and that there is no global mechanism responsible for muscle fatigue. rather, the mechanisms that cause fatigue are specific to the task being performed. the development of muscle fatigue is typically quantified as a decline in the maximal force or power capacity of muscle, which means that submaximal contractions can be sustained after the onset of muscle fatigue. there is even evidence that the duration of some sustained tasks is not limited by fatigue of the principal muscles. [source](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2375565/"
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|
(how) does repeated stress on a fragile item eventually break it? | i'm thinking about things like my phone or other such common items. i've dropped them a bunch of times. how do they weaken with each fall, or do they at all? | the materials word for repeated stress wearing out an object until it eventually fails is "fatigue". a simple example of this is repeatedly bending and straightening a paperclip until it snaps in two. when you drop a phone, there's probably some amount of this, but unless you're repeatedly dropping it on the same corner it may not be much of a factor in the eventual failure. if i had to guess, it's more likely that the failure occurs when it happened to land *just so* on a hard/sharp surface at a speed and angle where the material can't take it. but that's mostly speculation from having taken a couple of materials courses. someone else may be aware of experiments in this area and able to weigh in. as always, [wikipedia](_url_0_) has a lot of information. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material\\)"
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can a material under high stress break at random without any additional change to the system? | lets say a ballpoint pen is pushing on the centre of a tensioned sheet of foil so that the foil is as close to its breaking point as possible. if there are no external changes (vibrations, temperature change, etc.) could the foil still randomly snap? this was just an analogy similar to the situation that had me puzzling, but apply it to the breaking point of any material if preferable. | yes. there is a process call creep which is a slow yielding of the material under a stress below what is considered the yield stress. as it thins the real stress increases and will fail. this is more typical for polymers than metals. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i were to have a completely blue shirt in a pitch black room, and i shone every other color in the color spectrum at said shirt, would i see the shirt? | so say if i have a blue shirt, and i had some lights that could shine a very specific light out. and i emitted the colors red, orange, yellow, green, indigo, and violet. only those colors would come into contact with the shirt, would the shirt be visible? | if the shirt was a perfect absorber of every non-blue color, then no, the shirt would not be visible under any light except blue. however this wouldn't happen in practice- what we see as a blue shirt is still reflecting those other colors to some extent, it just reflects blue a lot more. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have question about electrical power/batteries and gears? | hi everyone! i have what i feel to be a simpleton question for you. i recently watched the antikythera mechanism from lego video and i got to wondering about power generation with it. for numbers and maths sake: lets assume a battery can crank a 10 toothed gear at 1 revolution a second. would it be possible to fully transfer that same power in a multiplied force? (similar to how gears and increase/decrease work performed)? i know some energy gets lost as heat, but i guess i'm wondering if there would be a way that the output of the battery via gear maniuplation could equal more than the battery threshold itself. tl;dr - using gears, can a 500 milliwatt battery output more than 500 milliwatts of energy? (i understand energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can you tell me why it doesnt work in this case) | so you've answered your own question- energy is conserved, so a battery pumping energy into a gear cannot be 'multiplied' by successive gears. this is a common mistake that our friends in the perpetual motion community make- there is simply no arrangement of gears and widgets, however complicated, that will put out more energy than you put in to power it. [let's go into some detail and study the *gear ratio*](_url_1_), which just says that the *product of the rotational speed and radius of a gear will be the same as a gear it is connected to*. you can see this quite straightforwardly in the gif i linked to- the gear with the smaller radius has to turn faster to keep up with the bigger gear. therefore, the smaller gear makes more complete revolutions in the same amount of time. this ratio (of gear radii) is called the [gear ratio](_url_0_). so to really answer your question - why doesn't this allow us to generate extra energy, aside from just appealing to the fundamentals of energy conservation? i think it suffices to point that if you build a gear train, the bigger gear will rotate slower, and so you don't get a sort of "multiplied" kinetic energy in the gear. [what you *can* multiply is the torque.](_url_0_#torque_ratio) by connecting gears together to make a greater or lesser gear ratio, you multiply the output torque. so while energy is conserved, the torque/force you are delivering can be scaled. to the best of my understanding, this is the basic principle behind a bicycle gearing. sadly, i am not a mechanical engineer, so this is about where my knowledge of gears ends. ps: i'm glad you enjoyed the antikythera mechanism comment thread in askreddit :d | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_ratio",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Gears_animation.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_ratio#Torque_ratio"
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what's the little peg in an airplane window for? | _url_0_ | it's not a peg but a little hole. there's 3 panes to an airplane window. the hole is only in the middle pane. it's purpose is to allow the pressure of the cabin to mostly be applied to the outer pane of the window, it also helps the window from fogging up. | 42 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/mL1CX6W.jpg"
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is it possible for the reverse of a polar vortex to move north to the arctic in summer? | say there is a big heat bubble that lies over the american midwest the gets shifted north, and we have a mass-melt of glaciers/arctic ice - would this be what global warming is, or what global warming could cause? | there is a phenomenon called a 'heat low', where intensely high temperatures create a low pressure system - these are typically weak climatological features that set up a seasonal circulation, like tropical monsoons. i don't really know if what you are describing could realistically occur - the polar vortex is created through a combination of maximum planetary rotation and the formation of a mid-level vortex with deep polar air underneath it (a rotating wind pattern that is a natural result of the cold air pool). i don't think the dynamics support the "reverse of a polar vortex" in the way you describe. in any event, transient mixing of warm air into the polar regions happens all the time through the passage of frontal systems, and the polar vortex is very similar in form. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i were just inside the event horizon of a black hole, is it impossible for me to communicate with someone infinitely far away, or even with someone 2 meters away on the other side of the event horizon? | in my relativity class last semester we went over two explanations of why nothing can escape from inside the swarzchild radius of a black hole. the first was because to a far away observer, the person falling in would slow down in time more and more as he approaches the event horizon, and since the outside observer never sees him pass it, he'll never receive any signals sent out afterward. we did plenty of math to back this up, but conceptually that was the idea and i understood it. the second thing we talked about was the energy of a photon, and how it is lost while climbing out of a gravitational well. again we did a lot of math, but if i remember correctly we arrived at something that said the photon had zero energy as seen from *any* point outside the event horizon. this seems to imply that if i'm only a very short distance inside, and you're a very short distance outside, my photons will still never reach you - and this doesn't make conceptual sense to me. my question is this - regarding the first example, we considered a "far away" observer, meaning that the frequency of a photon measured by this observer is equal to that of it measured at infinity. obviously this is a fair approximation, but it isn't entirely accurate, is it? even if the observer is far away, he's still *slightly* under the influence of the black hole. wouldn't that mean that if i'm only 1 meter inside the event horizon, i could communicate to someone close by, just not all the away to infinity? | even if you're only inside by a nanometre, you can't communicate with the outside. [here's](_url_0_) a good explanation using light cones, which represent the expanding path of a flash of light. the cones get tipped steadily towards the black hole, and the point at which even the outermost edge of the cone doesn't radiate away from the black hole is the event horizon. so, if you're even slightly inside the event horizon, there's no way that a signal you send can cross back out. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/modules/LIGHTCONE/schwarzschild.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/f1lgu/what_would_happen_if_the_event_horizons_of_two/c1cuiyw?context=2"
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question about muons | admittedly i don't have a super deep understanding of particle physics, which is why i am writing here. however from what i understand when a particle accelerator smashes particles together the point of impact has such a localized energy density that those target particles dissolve into energy. after that instant of impact when the energy density decreases that energy reforms into any random arrangement of elementary particles as they try to reach the most stable state they can. i understand muons have a short half life and are fairly large so that any given collision will only generate a few and those that exist won't last long. so i have been thinking of ways you could change that, and what occurred to me is that if you can't change their stability and you can't change their energy requirements then maybe you can change how many you make at a go? since, if i am correct in my understanding, muons are generated as a result of random energy forming into particles, then is there a way to limit this plurality such that only muons can form? maybe changing the local amount of energy so that smaller particles aren't likely to form? i recognize i am probably in way over my head in even considering this, but i also figured there might be someone out there who could at least tell me if this has been considered before or is fundementally flawed from the start. thank you for your time. | when we collide particles in a collider, we control the momentum (and thus the energy) of the bunches of the incoming particles. quantum mechanics/particle physics has this odd rule that whatever is not explicitly forbidden must happen some fraction of the time. so, when two particles collide, there is a ton of energy at the point of collision, and possibly some net momentum (colliders are designed so that the net momentum is near zero). the energy can generate any combination of particles, so long as all of the conservation laws of nature are followed. so long as we have sufficient energy, we can make a top/anti-top quark pair with low kinetic energies, or we could create a positron/electron pair with high kinetic energy, or any combination of particles nature doesn't forbid. you can manipulate the energies, however, as far as i'm aware, there is no good means of dictating which particle forms. it's like radioactive decay: it's an inherently probabilistic process. all we can do is measure the relative chance of all the possible end states. that being said, some creations and decays leave very clear signatures. a pi0 for instance decays into a photon pair, whose rest mass reconstructs to ~135 mev, so if you see 2 photons, and their rest mass is 135 mev, chances are, you saw a photon. in particle physics, what happens is we don't collide particles once. we collide particles insanely high numbers of times. computers sort through the deluge of data, and try to pick out the most interesting events based on what the scientists running the detector decide is interesting. then, from the interesting events which get saved, scientists can look for specific fingerprints (an electron coming out perpendicular to the beam, a muon coming out with a specific energy), and thereby only look at events that might include the process they want to study. by computing expectations of the number of signal events and the number of background events they expect to see, scientist can hopefully compare regions where they think their interesting process and a bunch of other things are happening to areas where they think just the other things are happening. we can improve our studies by improving on ways to discriminate between the events we want to study, and things that just look like those events. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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this may be a dumb question, but are stars loud? | depends on where you're trying to listen to them, i suppose. let me get into some detail here. sound is a pressure wave. what does that mean? it's a periodic change, or oscillation, in air pressure. your brain interprets this regular change in air pressure, detected through your eardrum, as a noise. however, in order for there to be sound, there must of course be a medium for the sound to travel through: gas, plasma, liquid, or solid all work. if you try to "listen" to a star from far away, then, you won't hear anything, because the vacuum of space is between you and the star. there is very little to no matter in a vacuum and thus no way for a pressure oscillation generated by the star to reach you. if you were to attempt to "listen" to a star from *within* the star, though, you would certainly hear things! the plasma that constitutes a star is turbulent: the surface of a star boils up and down constantly (these are observed as granules on the surface). violent explosions such as flares and coronal mass ejections are also not uncommon. in fact, i imagine the pressure wave that would be generated by a violent coronal mass ejection would be *incredibly* loud. for example, the typical coronal mass ejection releases around 10^23 joules of energy (calculated from the average speed/mass on the wikipedia page). one of the loudest events in recent history, the krakatoa eruption, could be heard three thousand miles away, and is estimated to have released 10^17 joules of energy: one millionth the amount in a coronal mass ejection. while it's unclear to me what fraction of the energy of a coronal mass ejection is converted into sound waves, even assuming an incredibly small fraction would result in a spectacular noise. if you ever are in a position to "hear" a star-- bring earplugs! furthermore-- this is a bit afield, but still interesting-- one of the only ways astronomers have to measure the internal structure of a star is called asteroseismology. this is something akin to a "star quake": measuring periodic pressure oscillations that travel through a star. i'm not entirely sure what the typical oscillation frequency for asteroseismology is, but i imagine it would be far below the spectrum of human hearing. still, this is one way in which astronomers can "hear" stars and use it for science! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible to create a prince rupert's drop on a large scale say the size of a baseball or bigger? if it isn't please explain why? | i know prince rupert's drops are created when molten glass is dripped into cold water and this means the outside of the glass cools while the inside takes longer which creates a lot of tension. i've also seen how breaking the tail makes them explode, so why hasn't some super villain decided to make larger ones in some sort of grenade? | you could make them bigger, but they won't shatter more violently if they're bigger. they shatter because of internal stresses caused by the uneven cooling. but the temperature difference that's creating this stress is the same regardless of size, and a bigger drop will cool more slowly, so you'll end up with less internal stress. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does putting a price floor on wages really effect economic drivers? (read: "what really happens when we raise minimum wages?") | there has been a lot of talk in the news recently about increasing the minimum rage to some amount higher than what it is. while i do not know a lot about economics i know enough to say that adding a price floor to wages will increase prices. my thoughts are driven towards the consumers, government, and firms. will that increase in prices offset the added wages? will the added minimum wage still keep everyone in the same tax bracket, ultimately not being beneficial to the consumer but the state and federal goverments getting more money? lastly what really happens to the firms with mostly minimum wage employees? | first off, this is a **highly controversial topic**. you can find well-credentialed economists on both sides of the issue. there's been a lot of research and data collection on the subject (perhaps one of the most studied in economics), but whichever research you cite, someone is going to say that it's biased or politically-motivated or obviously wrong because it disagrees with the theory or invalid in some other way. you might want to browse through /r/economics for a more wide-ranging discussion. that said, here are *my* answers based on my understanding of the theory and data: from the firm's perspective, they will probably not be able to raise prices enough to maintain the same total level of profit (if they could do that, then a legal mandate wouldn't be required). from the employees' perspective, because there are many workers who work for more than minimum wage, and their wages will rise less-than-proportionally to the increasing wages of minimum wage workers, their cost of living may increase, but not enough to offset the increased minimum wage. tax brackets are picked by legislators, so they can adjust them however they find to be appropriate or politically beneficial or whatever. that said, if wages rise due to government mandates, but tax brackets are not adjusted accordingly, then some people will move into higher tax brackets as a result. the government will get more money, but not so much as to entirely offset the gains for employees. they do tend to reduce their employment, but much less than you might think. they make a variety of adjustments, including prices, number of employees, hours per employee, turnover rate, changes in ratio of higher-skilled to lower-skilled workers, "compression" of the pay scale differences between higher-paid and minimum wage employees, shifting towards relatively more capital-intensive (as opposed to labor-intensive) production methods... to get you started on some sources: [here's a recent nyt article from one of obama's former advisers](_url_1_) which has links to a bunch of stuff. you can also try [the footnotes of the wikipedia article on the subject](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wage#Notes",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/03/business/the-minimum-wage-employment-and-income-distribution.html"
] | [
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what effect does the doppler effect play in bluetooth, wifi, cell towers, etc.? | can you get higher speeds simply by getting closer to the source? if you're moving away from the source, will the speed drop dramatically? or are the speeds of bluetooth and wifi simply too fast to even matter? | you can't get higher speeds, because the doppler effect only shifts the frequencies. therefore you would only change the frequency, which could lead to worse speeds, because a part of your transmission won't be in the expected frequency range. but because all those emissions move with the speed of light, it will be hard to achieve any effect with the speeds that you can travel at. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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any ideas on the next steps of human evolution? | life extension technology will improve. we'll start adding prosthetic devices to our brains. this and advances in brain reading will allow us to communicate better and better until we are literally sharing thoughts. as our minds expand past the limits of our brains there will come a point where we can't really be called human or even an individual organism any more. read up on [singularity](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_singularity"
] | [
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|
lenz's law - can you change the magnitude of the effect (magnets fall slowly in conducting tubes) by drawing current off? | i was watching the [mobius strip mag-lev video](_url_0_) posted by /u/stillbourne in a [question about monopoles and superconductors](_url_0_). one of the segments was a demonstration of the consequences of [lenz's law](_url_1_), where a strong magnet dropped through a copper fell at a slower rate than a non-magnetic object. my engineering-only educational understanding is that this is basically caused by currents induced in the tube creating their own magnetic fields that oppose the motion of the falling magnet. so i was wondering if you could somehow change the strength of the force opposing the fall by mucking with the currents induced in the tube. obviously a solid copper tube wouldn't work, but i was thinking about maybe a nice tight regular coil of insulated wire or something where you could attach two ends to ... something ... and then either increase or decrease or "consume" (not the right word, i know) the current being induced. | magnetic fields can be superimposed, so by mucking with the induced currents, you are basically adding new currents which have their own magnetic field. these new magnetic field can be used to do all kinds of stuff to the falling magnet. more specifically, with some clever scheming you could tailor the new currents to counteract the induced current thus making the magnet fall at "normal" speed. or crank them up and make it fall faster. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPqEEZa2Gis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz's_law"
] | [] | [
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are clouds good conductors? | they must have some ability to hold current considering lightning. to be honest i wasn't sure where to post this, because the main reason i ask is i am having a recurring vision of giant towers (like radio masts) that penetrate the cloud layer and use clouds like a massive wire. i was thinking about turning it into a story...or having someone sketch it...i'm so obsessed with the idea. that's not my question though. i know there would be almost no point to something like that other than looking awesome and making my most awesome lightning tower dreams come true. | to add onto quarkster's "no", clouds may be very electrically charged, but that does not require them to conduct electricity well. they build up charge until the relative potential is so great that the charge can flow through the air. lightening in a sense is evidence that they are not good conductors. lightening is caused by superheating due to the air's relatively high resistance. note: i am a layman. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a good reason not to redefine weight? | classically we define weight as gravitational force, but for students learning physics intuition aligns it more with the normal force (a term that confuses them). adding in the term apparent weight comes with its own confusion. is there a good reason not to redefine f(n) as weight (since it's the amount of force we actually perceive in a situation)? i think relativity bolsters this argument as it would define a person floating in space with a platform accelerating at them to have weight. i'm aware that this simply comes down to semantics, but all the more reason to use the semantics to rid learners of confusion. impracticality of changing the definitions is a realistic, but lame excuse. | the normal force isn't always in the opposite direction of weight and consequently isn't always equal to weight. we use weight to determine how gravity affects an object, and the varying normal force doesn't allow that. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you lost an extreme amounts of weight, through exercise or surgery, could you use the excess skin for graphing for burn victims? | your cells have specific proteins on their membranes that serve as markers for your immune system to differentiate self from non-self. these proteins can vary from person to person, although they serve the same function. the reason you typically graft skin from yourself is that the skin will not be rejected by your immune system, where as if you used someone else's there's a very likely chance it will be rejected and cause an immune response. the larger the graft, the more higher chance of rejection. in a person whos body has already been weakened by the fire or damage, a full, deep tissue autograft (skin from another person) is taxing, along with the requirements of immune suppressing drugs. mesh grafts are now the most widely accepted. it allows a framework for new skin to grow while allowing the damaged and removed tissue to heal and drain, lessening the chance of infection and need for immune suppressing medications | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the body convert nutrients energy into movements? | hello askscience, i was reading on how we can convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, and i was wondering: how does the body convert nutrients such as fat and carbo into motion. for exemple, when i'm raising my arm, how (and in what form) does the signal starting from my brain trigger the reaction in my arm muscle to transform the energy stored in my muscle (i think?) into mechanical energy? | through the metabolic processes of [glycolysis](_url_0_) and the [citric acid cycle](_url_5_), cells transfer the energy stored in carbohydrates and fats to molecules of [atp](_url_3_). your muscles contain bundles of the microfilament protein [actin](_url_2_), and the motor protein [myosin](_url_4_) that moves along actin molecules. when the electric signal from a neuron stimulates a muscle cell, calcium ions basically trigger myosin to start working. when this happens, atp molecules bind with the head of a myosin molecule. this causes the myosin head to release the actin fiber. the myosin head is spring loaded to jump forward. at this point, the atp molecule is hydrolyzed to adp; this process releases the energy. the myosin molecule binds to the actin molecule again, but at a point that's further ahead then it was before. then, the myosin molecule folds up, pulling the actin molecule along. this is called the power stroke. finally, the adp molecule is released, a new atp molecule binds in its place, and the process starts over. for an overview: [muscle contraction](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_contraction",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myosin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"
] | [
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if santa existed, what would be the most efficient route he could have taken to visit every home in the world? | this is known as the travelling salesman problem and it is in a very difficult class of problems called np-hard. to answer this question would take an amount of time, in any units you like, some constant multiple of 2^(number of homes in the world). | 36 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if he moved at the speed of light and just flew over every house in the world, could santa do it in day? | assuming there are 4 million domiciles in the world, scattered evenly across all the continents, how long would it take for a light speed santa to fly over all of them? the math is a bit over my head. | the calculation is pretty simple. 4 million houses scattered evenly over all the [land area of earth](_url_0_), which is 149.1 million square kilometers, there is an area of 32.275 square kilometers per house. if the houses are in a grid pattern, there is a distance of 6 km between each house. so he has to travel 4000000*6km, or 24 million kilometers. at 300.000 kilometers per second, which is the speed of light, you can see that it will take him 80 seconds. the tricky thing is then, it will not take *santa* any time, because traveling at the speed of light means that you do not experience time. in other words, you start your stopwatch and measure 80 seconds, but his watch doesn't measure anything other than 0. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=land+area+on+Earth"
] | [
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will humans eventually evolve to lose our appendix? | seeing as it does nothing useful, will it just phase out over time? | in order for an adaptation to occur, there usually needs to some selective pressure. since people today rarely die from appendicitis and the formation of the appendix is negligibly costly, it seems unlikely that we're going to lose it. however, if there is any negative effect to fitness from having an appendix, we could lose it after a long time. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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some news sources are reporting irma is strong enough to measure on seismometers: is this atypical? | [example](_url_0_) | i saw a documentary where the scientists that used the laser retro reflectors on the moon to do precision ranging said they can "see" the ground level changes just due to normal atmospheric pressure changes. so that from a hurricane would give a booming signal. _url_0_ look at around page 15. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/irma-hurricane-strength-category-earthquake-measurement-seismometer-a7931286.html"
] | [
"https://tmurphy.physics.ucsd.edu/papers/rop-llr.pdf"
] | [
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does electrical current travel farther in saltwater or freshwater or are they the same? | i am not the brightest lad so dont flare me if there isnt a difference. thank you for your time looking at my question. | salt water is a much better conductor as conductivity in water mainly comes from ions dissolved in it - like sodium and chlorine. electricity doesn't have a "range", so asking what travels farther is not well-defined. electric currents in salt water tend to be stronger for the same distance. on the other hand: if you are in freshwater, you are a relatively good conductor, while in salt water you are a bad conductor. the current that flows through you (or any other object in the water) can be smaller for salt water. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do all spinning objects emit synchrotron radiation? | an accelerating charged particle emits radiation, right? so do all rotating objects radiate? what is the approximate radiation power for say a 1kg 1m radius object for a given angular velocity? | ignoring spin, neutral bound quantum systems shouldn't emit bremsstrahlung under acceleration, despite being composed of charged particles. this is due to the boundary conditions of being in a potential, which you can read more about [here](_url_0_). however, neutral composite particles with spin have magnetic moments that couple to electric fields. atoms can have non-zero spin and magnetic moments, and therefore it's not inconceivable that a spinning object might emit bremsstrahlung. the calculations for the emitted power are not the same as when dealing with point-like charged particles. [these slides](_url_1_) give a nice introduction to neutron bremsstrahlung. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/questions/bob.html",
"http://indico.cern.ch/getFile.py/access?contribId=45&resId=1&materialId=slides&confId=153576"
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why does the strong nuclear force switch? | why does the strong nuclear force switch from being a repulsive force close up to being an attractive one? in terms someone who hasn't done any physics in a decade can understand please. | are you talking about the [nucleon-nucleon potential](_url_0_)? the repulsive core comes from pauli exclusion between the quarks. if you have two nucleons very close together (less than 1 fm), you can think of the wavefunctions of the valence quarks overlapping strongly. because quarks of the same flavor are identical fermions, pauli exclusion prevents them from occupying the same state, and causes an energy cost when they're brought into similar states. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Finspirehep.net%2Frecord%2F917433%2Ffiles%2FFigs_phen-pot_new.png&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Finspirehep.net%2Frecord%2F917433%2Fplots&docid=94JrP-YV0_-oVM&tbnid=I7dhb8yA4e5utM%3A&vet=10ahUKEwiq8MH8mrTeAhUJQ6wKHX4WDA4QMwhDKAUwBQ..i&w=433&h=388&client=safari&bih=649&biw=1280&q=nn%20potential&ved=0ahUKEwiq8MH8mrTeAhUJQ6wKHX4WDA4QMwhDKAUwBQ&iact=mrc&uact=8"
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what would happen if blood flowed smoothly? | what if there was a constant stream instead of consecutive pumping? would it be more efficient? | i don't think it would have any adverse effects. there was an article in popular science about a mechanical heart that was a turbine, instead of a pumping system. the patient didn't have a pulse because the blood flowed smoothly through his veins | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there an advantage in seeing in colour? | i was just viewing a previous post of how other animals see the world and for the most part they either see in grayscale or on a part of the electromagnetic spectrum that we cannot see (i.e. uv). i'm not sure if this is common amongst all primates, but is there an evolutionary advantage to being able to see in colour or was it purely by accident that we developed the rods/cones that we did? (sorry in advance if my terms are mixed up) | so the distinction we want to make here is dichromacy, which is how most mammals such as cats and dogs view the world (in 'black and white') and trichromacy ('in colour') which is what you and i experience. thrichromacy is a strongly selection-driven trait that is observed in nearly all apes (including us) and new world monkeys. the strongest driver for it seems to have been foraging behaviour. look at this picture: _url_0_ by being able to distinguish red and green, you can a) spot the tasty fruit and b) tell if it's ripe or not. since fruit was a high-value, nutritious meal, our ancestors had a strong natural selection drive towards those individuals who were best at finding and exploiting the ripe fruit. the figure comes from this excellent paper by kit wolf: _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/VNwL2",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982202007856"
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how does a duoplasmatron work? | [deleted] | i think the diagram from the [wiki article](_url_0_) is pretty straightforward. there are many different kinds of ion sources, duoplasmotrons are just one example. the general idea is that you heat a material up and/or subject it to strong electromagnetic fields such that electrons are stripped away from nuclei. once the atoms have become ions, they can be manipulated with electrostatic fields to extract them from the plasma, and inject them into your pre-accelerator. the extraction and injection process is not 100% efficient, but it doesn't need to be. depending on exactly how precisely you want to focus the beam, this could be very easy, or it could require some work. in some accelerators, the beams are huge (millimeters in transverse size), and you don't really care. these would be for fixed-target experiments. in a collider, to maximize the probability of particles in the beam colliding with each other, you need the size of the beam to be as small as possible at the crossing points. but it turns out that the beam has some phase space volume (the "emittance"), which is conserved when there is no acceleration occurring, radiation losses, etc. the conservation of emittance then sets a lower limit on how small you can make the transverse size of the beam. so let's take the lhc as an example. the beam is "born" with some emittance out of the ion source. the various stages of acceleration decreases the emittance somewhat, but then once the "storage ring phase" has been entered, the beam is just coasting. acceleration and synchrotron radiation are negligible, so the beam emittance is fixed, and you'd better hope it's small enough to focus the beam down to the micron scale at the interaction points, or you may not get enough collisions. luckily, we know how to decrease the emittance of the beam. it's called "beam cooling", and there are a few different ways to do it. if you imagine the particles in the beam as some kind of gas, the emittance is sort of like the "temperature" of the gas, and "cooling" it decreases its phase space volume, and allows it to be focused more tightly. so in the example above, you'd implement beam cooling somewhere along the way to the maximum energy so that your beam has the desired emittance in the final state, where collisions are occurring. yes, the vast majority of cases are like this. every time two bunches cross in a collider, a very small fraction of particles in each bunch actually collide with each other. it depends on the setup, but it's common to just use electrostatic extraction, like in the diagram above (except for a heavy ion source rather than a proton source). if you apply a static voltage across your plasma, ions will be attracted one way and electrons the other. some fraction of the ions will escape the ion source to be developed into your beam. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duoplasmatron"
] | [
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how does schumann's resonance work? | hello r/askscience~ i stumbled upon this thing called "schumann's resonance" and apparently it makes whatever music you play on top of it seem... well... different. i wonder how it works (scientificly). i would guess it is a sound in frequency that differs (in this case by 7.83 hz) from the natural sound created between the surface of the earth and the atmosphere due to earth's motion, but i don't really know. i would also like to know if it has any proven / theoretical effects on the listener. i personally use this to enhance the music i hear by playing it in the background, but i would like to know more about how it is suppossed to be used. reference: _url_0_ | as can be read [here](_url_1_), schumann's resonances are a set of spectrum peaks in the elf portion of the earth's electromagnetic field spectrum, generated and excited by lightning discharges in the cavity formed by the earth's surface and the ionosphere. these frequencies have nothing to do with soundwaves or human hearing though. the effects observed when listening to sounds with those frequencies are the same effects as with all low-frequency sounds ([detailed info here](_url_0_)). also when played with usual speakers or headphones these sounds can change the loudness and sonority of other sounds played by those speakers in a cycle with the frequency of this sound. when i played the sound and some music over my headphones for example, i noticed the music getting louder and quieter about 10 times a second (because the sound played was 7.83hz). also for me i did not notice a change in how the music itself sounded, but for different music and equipment this might vary. edit: forgot part of a sentence | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-nk3fIUsKA"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrasound#Human_reactions",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schumann_resonances"
] | [
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just watched a program about how the moon may have been formed, couple of questions in text? | my take away is, bm (before moon) the earth had a 5 hour rotation omg right?, am (after moon) the moon has added 19 hours to our daily rotation. 1, is the earth still slowing down? and by how much over how much time 2. will the earth slow down to match the moons rotation reaching a kind of equilibrium? essentially having the moon locked in one place over on the earth? 3. or will the earth eventually stop rotating because of the moon?, and the moon just goes around the earth while the earth has stopped spinning? | the process that answers your questions is called "tidal locking". as an effect of tidal forces, two bodies orbiting each other will synchronize their rotation / orbit. in the case of the earth/moon system, the gravitational pull of the moon bulges the earth out of shape (slightly) in the direction of the moon. if the earth rotates around its axis at a different rate than the moon orbits the earth, this tidal bulge will move away from being in the direction of the moon. this causes a slight gravitational pull that works to correct the problem. since the earth rotates more quickly around its axis (1 day) than the moon orbits the earth (28 days), the primary effect is that the rotation of the earth is slowed down. theoretically, this means that eventually the rotation of the earth would end up in sync with the orbit of the moon. however, the timescale for this to happen is extremely long, an estimated 50 billion year, far longer than the expected lifespan of the sun. note that a similar process has already happened to the moon: its orbit around the earth and its rotation around its axis have the same period. so we say that the moon is tidally locked to the earth. and this is why we only ever see one side of the moon. if you want to know more, the wikipedia article on tidal locking has plenty of information. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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traveling antipodely new zealand to spain through a hypothetical tunnel. | the engineering of a train through the center of the earth presents engineering challenges which we cannot currently tackle (with out level of technology), and as such the cost would be impossible to calculate per ticket, since a ticket is in part a function of the cost to construct and maintain the tunnel, and the construction and maintenance of the tunnel is currently impossible. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i don't see mold, but the mold-testing company says it is there. am i killing my family by living in this house? is there anything i can do? | some mold inspections are scams. some are not. in general, the mold scare was overblown, but that does not mean mold can't be deadly. it is possible you have a problem, even if you can't see it. it is possible you are being scammed. no way we can tell for you. the best you can do is check the background of the company and get a second opinion of you still aren't sure. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how accurate is this infographic on dietary supplements? | [link](_url_0_) obviously this will have a complicated answer, so i don't expect to see each supplement addressed. however, is this a decent chart to show someone who is unfamiliar with the scientific research but wants a quick idea into whether a certain item is worth looking into more, or if a supplement is total bs? (side note: i haven't done much research into the origin of this graphic. i remember seeing it a long time ago and re-searched it now. not sure about the who, what, when or why it's titled "snake oil") thanks for any help! | it looks pretty good to me on the big ones - omega 3, vitamin c, echinacea and chondroitin are all below the line, as they should be. folic acid definitely does work. some of it is kind of sloppy, though - omega 3 has a green listing for depressing and a yellow one? also a bit skeptical about how high up they've put probiotics. but in general it looks about right. | 2 | [] | [
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_YTJBDUN8iSE/S7Cc53VB18I/AAAAAAAACu8/VRJMtIjBIJI/s1600/snakeoil_supplements_956.png"
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my mom always says "if women ran the world there would be no wars". from cleopatra to thatcher, how many female leaders have started wars and how does it compare to male leaders (in percent)? | this is a very broad question. percentage of male leaders, across the world and over the course of 2000 years that have started wars vs women who have started wars? would anyone be able to calculate that, even just focusing on major powers and not the thousands of piddling principalities that have existed in that time frame in europe alone? plus any comparison using real numbers wouldn't be very useful as for most of human history only a few extraordinary women have been able to wield any real, direct power in most cultures. if you want to argue with your mother just read up on the few famous female leaders in history. catherine the great, isabella of spain, elizabeth i of england, indira gandhi, dowager empress cixi of the qing dynasty.... joan of arc wasn't a ruler (for the most part wasn't even really a military leader from what i understand), but i guess you could argue she helped incite the french to fight against the english? boudica would be a good one. although based on my very limited knowledge most of the famous female leaders have fought defensive wars against foreign aggressors, boudica and joan included. going off on a bit of a tangent, but a problem you'll run into when learning about historical powerful women is they're never really portrayed in a positive light (with a very small number of exceptions, like elizabeth i, boudica). i'm pretty certain every great man has done awful things, but women who have either wielded power or have been the power behind the scenes are more often than not portrayed as awful, conniving and power-hungry while men who do the same things or worse to attain their goals are seen as great heroes. look at augustus and his wife livia. they were both hungry for power, both worked to consolidate their power over the roman state. but augustus is portrayed as the benevolent father figure who founded the roman empire while livia is portrayed as his scheming bitch wife who just wanted power for herself. tldr while your mom is almost certainly wrong there aren't enough unbiased sources from before the 20th century to properly answer your question and give you ammunition to use against her. | 109 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why do we have philtrums? | in case you're wondering, the philtrum is the groove in between your nose and upper lip. | the philtrum is actually a conserved trait in mammals. that means that pretty much all mammals have it. in humans and other primates it's a vestigial trait, meaning that it no longer has any function, it's just kind of still hanging around. if you have a dog or cat it's the line in the center of their nose like in [this picture.](_url_1_) most mammals have what's called a a rhinarium, or wet nose. the philtrum keeps the nose moist by carrying moisture from the mouth upward. in most primates it has lost its function, but just sticks around because it's part of our development. so it once served purpose, but now it's just kind of left over -- like your appendix. [here's](_url_0_) another pic with quite a few different mammals. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://biology.lu.se/sites/biology.lu.se/files/styles/lu_page_image/public/rhinariawebb.jpg?itok=kOFuh7UK",
"http://wallpapers.brothersoft.com/the-big-nose-of-the-dog-187502-1600x900.html"
] | [
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