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how does the shrike bird kill bacteria in it's stomach? | _url_0_ i was watching planet earth ii (sorry, i couldn't find the scene on youtube but it was the desert episode) and there was a scene on the [shrike](_url_1_). for anyone unaware, the shrike bird impales their prey onto a spike for ease of feeding and to store for later. now my question is, these prey must be riddled with bacteria after being left out for so long in the heat. how does the shrike survive after eating a rodent that's been contaminated? | while a cursory search revealed no studies done specifically on the shrike my best bet would be that they have adaptations similar to other carnivorous avian species such as vultures. this would mean that the shrikes digestive system is simply extremely tough and kills the majority of dangerous bacteria before they can do damage. & nbsp; additionally, shrikes probably have developed a resistance to some of those deadly bacteria that survive the gts harsh conditions. in vultures, clostridia and fusobacteria have adapted to the vultures' harsh gut conditions, but they may also help the birds by further breaking down nutrients and they live in the birds lower intestine. it wouldn't surprise me if this was the case for the shrike as well, although the diet shrikes have is much less harsh than vultures in that it mainly consists of insects and it uses the time delay to allow any defensive toxins to naturally degrade before consumption. & nbsp; for further reading on this subject see [the microbiome of new world vultures (nature communications)](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPXDouwQFFs",
"https://www.rspb.org.uk/birds-and-wildlife/bird-and-wildlife-guides/browse-bird-families/shrikes.aspx"
] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms6498"
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on average, how many redditors die on a given day? | worldwide death rate is 7.99 deaths / 1000 population: _url_0_ reddit gets about a little over 4m unique visitors every month: _url_1_ so assuming a reddit population of, say, 6 million overall relatively frequent visitors, and assuming an even distribution of age, geography, etc, that would be 750 redditor deaths a month or 25 a day. of course, in practice it will be less than that since the death rate includes infant and child deaths. i don't know what the adult death rate is. edit: i should also add that the reddit population will most likely be in the younger-adult part of the age distribution, so older people dying are less likely to be redditors. so that will push the number lower as well. edit: oops. that was a yearly death rate, and i calculated as a monthly rate. d'oh! off by a factor of 12! that would be 750 redditor deaths a *year*, or about 2 a day. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html",
"http://www.webpronews.com/reddit-traffic-stats-show-huge-subreddits-2012-07"
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|
how come each vibrating particle in a mechanical wave doesn't transmit the energy equally to the particle before as well as after it? | in other words, what make waves one way? | there is nothing inherent in a system that causes waves to be one directional. in fact, [d'alembert's solution](_url_0_) to the 1d wave equation gives identical waves moving in both directions. however, the initial waves will travel away from the impulse to the system. imagine a guitar string. if you pluck it at one end, the wave will initially move away from that point toward the other end. the wave is acting to distribute the energy you applied by plucking the string at one point equally throughout the system. if there is a high amount of damping, that expanding wave will die out and all you will see is the wave going away from the initial disturbance. if there is low damping, you will get reflections from when the wave hits the other end of the string. these reflections create standing waves, which in the d'alembert interpretation, are just equal waves travelling in opposite directions. when you pluck a real guitar string, the note you hear is from this standing wave. in the stone dropping into water example, you typically don't see the reflected waves because the body of water is much larger than the dropped stone so the waves get damped before the reflection takes place. if you have a small enough container or apply a continuous driving vibration, you will see the same standing wave effect, [just in 2 dimensions](_url_1_). **edit:** you can also see this initial spreading effect in the standard, separation of variables type solution method to the wave equation as well. in that case, you get an initial, transient solution that dies out exponentially in time. you also have a steady-state solution, which is the standing wave. the transient solution acts to spread out the energy from the localized initial disturbance to the equally distributed state of the standing wave. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/dAlembertsSolution.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrations_of_a_circular_membrane"
] | [
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how do redox reactions actually work? | like say you drop some magnesium into a bucket of hcl. it would involve the breaking of an o-h bond from the hydronium ion and a forming of an h-h bond to form the h2 gas, right? does a h-metal bond form as well to transfer the electron? i can't find anything in my text books or in scientific databases on it though. | i don't know the mechanism there offhand, you'd have to look in the academic literature. most likely it involves a number of pathways and intermediates. but the simplest would seem to be mg + h2o +h^+ -- > mgoh + h2, followed by mgoh + h2o + h^+ -- > mg(oh)2 + h2 | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's actually happening when water erodes rock? is it mechanically wearing away the material, or chemically dissolving it? | like the question says. what is the physical process taking place that allows water to carve-out entire canyons through solid rock? or is water erosion really a scam, and the erosion is actually from particulates within the water? not too important, but the question popped into my mind while thinking about material hardness. harder materials scratch less hard materials, but surely enough of the softer material would *eventually* have an effect on the harder one, right? for example, could i wear a hole through hardened steel, with nothing but popsicle sticks? i'm here for erosion, but would not be disappointed to hear about jailers escaping with nothing but popsicle sticks and time. | there are many types of erosion. there are physical processes of weathering like freeze-thaw action which would be the most common in the likes of canyons. water from rsinfs gets into small crevices in rocks. when it freezes at night the water expands as it turns to ice. once temperature rises again the water fills the bottom of the now larger hole and the process continues until the crack is big enough to break a part off of the rock. then there are chemical methods of weathering, like acid rain. here rainwater mixes with acids in the sky to make a weak carbonic acid. this dissolves certain types of rock. there are lots of other types of weathering buts that's two that are pretty common. as for infinite popsicle sticks vs. steel yes, eventually you would bore a hole in it but even assuming you hit the exact same spot it would take 100s of millions of years to make a dent. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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momentum in electromagnetism | i recently realized that in some configurations of charges the sum of forces due to electrostatics and magnetism seems to be a non-zero vector. (ex. one + charge with a velocity (1,-1,0) and another + charge 1 unit in the x dir of the last charge with velocity (1,1)) i applied the lorentz force from biot-savart and concluded that the momentum of the charges did not seem to be conserved. a quick wikipedia search (_url_0_) showed that the momentum is transferred to the em field. how does the em field have momentum and how is it transferred? side note: how does the magnetic potential compare to other potentials like the electric potential? | yes, a field can transfer momentum. one way to visualize this is by considering a transfer of virtual particles. the virtual particle transferred is the gauge boson of the interaction. so for two charged particles, an exchange of virtual photons models the transfer of energy and momentum between the charged particles. do you mean the vector potential? it's basically just a made-up field whose curl gives the magnetic field vector. the vector potential is not unique (in other words more than one vector potential can give the same magnetic field). so it's not actually a real thing in the physical world, just a mathematical tool that makes things work nicely. in special relativity, the electric potential and the vector potential are unified into one object called the electromagnetic four-potential. combining certain spacetime derivatives of the four-potential yields the electromagnetic field tensor. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum#Classical_electromagnetism"
] | [] | [
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what does "thinness" or "thickness" of air imply and how does it happen and change? | thick and thin are referring to density, i.e. how much air is contained in a given volume. on planets like earth the atmosphere's density changes because gravity pulls it down. the air high in the atmosphere pushes down on the air lower in the atmosphere, compressing it and increasing its density. so, in places with high altitudes, the air is less dense (thinner) and so it can feel harder to breathe because you have to work harder to get the same amount of oxygen. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how long does it take after division for a cell to become fully operational? | after meiosis, is there a time period that the cells remains inactive and prepares for its function? or does the cell immediately begin to function right when division is done. | it's different for different cells. and likewise depends on the function. for some white blood cells, they have to actually divide multiple times and then actually start making protein (several hours) before they're considered active. alternatively, cells in a developing embryo don't wait any time at all since theyre main job is to divide. there's almost no g1 or g2, just s and mitosis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
the melting point of caffeine is 238° c, but the boiling point is only 178° c. how can his be right? | i've looked in many places, but the **sublimation** point has always been lower than the melting point. it's all pretty inconsistent, though. | the problem here is that you didn't state a **pressure** at which one observes these phase changes. here's a sketch of roughly what the phase diagram of caffeine looks like: [sketch](_url_0_) depending on the pressure (position on the vertical axis), the solid can undergo different phase transitions. if the pressure is quite low, it will sublimate (go from solid to gas); if the pressure is higher/intermediate it will melt (go from solid to liquid); at higher pressures it might also undergo transitions in crystal structure (solid phase 1 to solid phase 2). so it all depends on the pressure. often in organic chemistry, we perform sublimations at reduced pressures. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://www2.volstate.edu/chem/2010/labs/caffeine-6.gif",
"http://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/science_of_cooking/caffeine.htm"
] | [
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what influence does the coriolis effect have at the equator? | _url_0_ i was doing some reading and came across this article which claims that a match placed in water will have different effects based on where you are standing in relation to the equator. on the equator the match will not move. to the south and the match will spin to the left to the north and the match spins to the right. 1) is it correct to attribute this spinning to the coriolis effect or is it something else 2) the match isn't magnetic so this isn't related to the poles so what is making the match spin? | this is just a common tourist trap at locations near or on the equator. yes, it is true that the coriolis force is exactly zero exactly on the equator, but flows near the equator are not dominated by the coriolis force and the dynamics of water swirling in a bucket are just negligibly affected by the coriolis force anyway. the so-called *rossby number* of a fluid flow is a non-dimensional number that roughly measures how strongly the flow is affected by coriolis forces. it is essentially the ratio of the characteristic inertial force to the coriolis force. it is defined as where u is the characteristic fluid speed, l is the characteristic length, and f is the coriolis frequency. a large rossby number indicates that inertial forces dominate and a small rossby number indicates that coriolis forces dominate. for flow near the equator, f is approximately 0 (f = 0 exactly at the equator), and so the rossby number is very large. thus coriolis forces are always negligible near the equator. to suggest that one can observe the difference in direction of coriolis force in the two hemispheres over a length of a few centimeters straddling the equator is just ridiculous. what's even funnier is that very often these tourist locations are not even on the equator but several hundred meters or kilometers away. (the famous monument in ciudad mitad del mundo is notoriously about 250 meters away from the equator, and there is no shortage of tourist traps there spewing bad science.) also note that if l is very small, then ro is very large, and so coriolis forces are again negligible. so for flows whose length scale is small (e.g., water swirling in a bucket, water flushing down a toilet, water draining out of a bathtub), the coriolis force is completely negligible. the coriolis force is non-negligible in practice (for fluids, at least) only for either low-pressure weather systems, flows across oceans, or weather systems spanning oceans. so think hurricanes and ocean currents. (not tornadoes though! the rossby number for tornadoes is very large.) although not an example of fluid flow, long-range ballistics may also be affected non-negligibly by the coriolis force since in these cases, the length scale *l* may be large enough to make the rossby number very small. so think cannons and long-range rifles, not handguns. but anyone who tells you anything about the coriolis force affecting how a bathtub or toilet drains in different hemispheres is lying to you. to get a small rossby number, the length scales of the system generally have to be very large and the flow needs to be sufficiently far from the equator. ultimately, the planet just does not rotate fast enough for coriolis forces to make much of a difference in systems other than the ones i mentioned. so how are these demonstrations with the match or bucket done? the performer just tricks you. they spin the bucket, they swirl the water with their hand, they make a blog post where they simply lie to you, whatever it takes to fool you. | 29 | [] | [
"http://www.hisiasafaris.com/en/blog/safaris/equator-and-coriolis-effect-kenya"
] | [] | [
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is there a condition where a person can't feel worry or anxiety? like the char slevin from lucky number slevin. | i have not seen that movie, so i am not sure if this is exactly what you are looking for. there is a woman called s.m. in the literature who lacks part of the brain known as the amygdala. this part of the brain is critical for fear and anxiety type behaviors. in fact, she can't seem to feel fear at all. here is a very good blog post that summarizes some of the research done on her: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2010/12/the_woman_who_knows_no_fear.php",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataraxia"
] | [
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|
what compels a microorganism to reproduce? | the title says it all really. what compels any/all organisms, that lack functional brains, to reproduce/survive or any other "humanly" motives. even stuff like bacteria and viruses. is it hard coded in their dna from years of natural evolution? perhaps i'm just confused and i'm asking a stupid question. it is 1am after all, and my eyes are barely open. | life is heavily ruled by dna, as it lays out the genes that a cell will transcribe and make into proteins. for almost anything they do, it is generally a matter of cells need to sense their external environment using these proteins (i.e. receptors, channels, etc.). activation of receptors causes signaling cascades that in turn can affect many cell processes, including turning on other genes to be made. in terms of reproduction, let's say receptor a detects warm temperature, receptor b detects glucose, and receptor c detects other bacteria. receptor a being activated causes some signaling cascade that makes bacteria go toward the warm source (or stay in it). at the same time, if b is also activated (meaning there's ample supply of food) + c is not activated (meaning there's space to grow), you have a combination of signaling cascades that in turn allows activation of some reproductive gene to be transcribed, which then induces the cell to undergo fission. so receptors sense the environment and if certain criteria are met then other proteins are made that allow for reproduction to happen (which itself is a series of a-- viruses are different in that they are basically just protein and dna without any ability to make anything new on their own. they "know" how to bind and invade cells much like glucose "knows" to bind its receptor and enter cells, it's all a matter of binding (which is basically just favorable interactions). | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you get that feeling you get where your 'heart sinks', what are you actually feeling? | ok, so the scientific response would be due to stimulation of your heart from the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. in non-scientific english, sympathetic stimulation of the heart results in an increased heart rate (fight/flight) while parasympathetic stimulation via the vagus nerve (rest/digest) tends to decrease your heart rate. there are hormones, receptors, and nerve endings associated with these systems which affect the way your heart contracts and to what extent. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how many strands of rsv are there and does rsv mutate like the flu? | there are a large number of strains of rsv (i'm not sure of the exact number), but they are grouped into 2 subtypes, a and b, by antigen. rsv, like any nucleic acid, has the potential to mutate, but is considered more antigenically stable than influenza (which has a higher potential for antigenic drift). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
env.canada forecasts -51 c w/ windchill in saskatoon, what happens to normal stuff at those temps? | i have experienced that windchill temperature firsthand while i was living in fargo, north dakota. i was moving at the time so i was doing a lot of packing into the back of my pick-up truck. i can confirm just_commenting's statement firsthand. i remember that my normally flexible clothes hangers shattered under the slightest bit of pressure and i had some sort of flexible plastic/rubber shoe organizer that just tore and shattered when i tried to rearrange it. any bit of exposed skin instantly hurts. i was really worried about letting my dog outside because his wet nose and paws were definitely at immediate risk of frostbite. it is very, very unpleasant. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/p1uem/if_actual_temp_is_above_freezing_but_windchill_is/"
] | [
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|
if a lion or any animal dies in the wild, what conditions must be present, other than time, in order for the same to become fossilized and preserved for millions of years? | short version: i'm assuming you mean a fossil skeleton, like the kind you see mounted in a museum. first the organism must be buried quickly in sediment. this may mean, for example, a mudslide or it died in a body of water and was covered by sand. it then must remain undisturbed for a very long time as sediment mineralizes the bone. your lion has an extremely slim chance of being fossilized, since odds are he's croaking in the middle of the savannah, where his entire body will be broken down in various ways. there are [other ways](_url_0_) to fossilize an organism—like if your lion is frozen, or sunk into tar, or somehow covered in amber. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fossilmuseum.net/fossilrecord/fossilization/fossilization.htm"
] | [
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|
why can't i push fine powders like baking soda through my syringe needles? | is it because of the friction between all the individual particles? do powders under pressure act like solid objects? what if it was ground so fine that all the particles were so small that rather than crystals they were individual molecules? is that possible? would they form together anyway? what part would intermolecular forces play? i'm confused! i don't mean to flood with questions. i ask a lot of follow-ups here, but i really only need the original question answered. thanks! | the powder inside the syringe pushes outward on the walls as you push on the plunger. very little force reaches the bottom where the needle is. you can simulate this easily by taking a cardboard paper towel tube and placing a single sheet of paper towel over one end. use a rubber band to keep it in place. then pour salt in the tube about three inches deep. take a broom handle and try to poke down into the salt to get it to burst through the paper towel. it won't happen. there's tiny spaces between the salt crystals. when you shove the broomstick into the salt, the crystals collide. that redirects the force in every direction. the tube gets most of the force. only a tiny fraction reaches the paper towel. (you can use sand instead of salt if you want. works the same) as a side note, instead of thinking of a syringe or cardboard tube, think of a pile of sandbags protecting soldiers. sand in a bag has the power to stop bullets due to all that force being redirected when they hit those particles. same principle as to why you can't push powder out of a syringe. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
exactly what side effects would this man be suffering from his injuries? | saw this (nsfl) [pic](_url_1_) in this [post](_url_0_) and was wondering exactly how this man's brain will function now? what is he missing out on? how will he function? | he appears to be missing most of his frontal lobes. this is responsible for executive decision making, working memory, and most higher mental functions. he'd likely have trouble focusing, changing tasks intentionally, and following social conventions. he could also have a decreased aversion to risk. [wiki](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/s4er7/aah_well_who_needs_foreheads_anyway/",
"http://i.imgur.com/4GloW.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_lobe"
] | [
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when i move, do i give off ionizing or non-ionizing radiation? | radiation is the transfer of energy in waves, so anything that moves gives it off. but is that radiation ionizing (bad)? | when you accelerate you give off sonic radiation in your noise, and if you have a net electric charge (you probably have a slight one from static) you'll give off a *tiiiiiny* amount of radio waves with *extreeeeemly* low frequencies. you'll also give off even vastly more tiny quantities (utterly undetectable) of gravitational radiation due to your mass. most of your radiation is thermal: the infrared light you give off all the time from your body heat. none of these radiations are ionizing, so there is no danger from it. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the streetlamp stave off winter dormancy for part of this tree? pic included in text (x-post from mildyinteresting) | what are the mechanisms at work here? how does this section keep a nutrient supply, ect? _url_0_ | that branch is actually still dormant; those leaves aren't functioning, the chlorophyll has already drained out of them. my guess is that it has something to with the abscission layer in those leaves, where the plant weakens special cells to allow the leaves to fall. formation of this layer is thought to be controlled by plant hormones, especially auxin, production of which is influenced my light (this is the same hormone that causes plants to grow towards light). the increased light from the lamp was probably enough to cause the closest leaves to continue making auxin a little longer than the those on the rest of the tree, which has in turn delayed the formation of their abscission layers. | 173 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/eEIYK.jpg"
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what is the purpose of these tendons connecting each finger to one another, like in this gif? [gif included] | these are the tendons of the extensor digitorum, the muscle that helps you extend your fingers back towards the top (dorusm) of your hand. the connections between them are cleverly named as the "intertendinous connections of the extensor digitorum." they are part of the reason you cannot move one finger without the other fingers moving. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
has anyone ever produced irrefutable evidence for endogenous dmt production? | tryptamine isn't present in the body in large concentrations. this leaves the only viable precursor as serotonin which has 5-hydroxy group. and the enzyme to methylate amine groups is found in the spine i believe so how would it ever be made? this is before you take mao-a degradation into account. i cannot believe that dmt is produced in the body to any significant extent. lots hippie/pseudoscience folk push forward the concept that dmt is endogenous and is released when we dream but neuroscientists (e.g. dr nichols) seem to ridicule the whole idea. if dmt was produced in the brain then someone would have found it surely? | there is evidence of endogenous dmt. [this paper](_url_0_) describes a recently discovered receptor for the molecule. if you can access it, the introduction briefly goes into much of the research history of endogenous dmt - references 8-16. it seems like it is found in the central nervous system in mice at least, but it doesn't look like there is much information on its localization or concentration in humans (at least as of 2009, the date of publication). i don't believe it is known how or where dmt is synthesized in humans, and i also don't know of good scientific evidence relating dmt to dreaming. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5916/934.long"
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how exactly does one ionize xenon, such as in ion propulsion? | i understand that it involves sending an electrical charge through the xenon, but my questions revolves around why a noble gas is used and what happens when the charge is imparted upon the xenon? | in ion propulsion drives, xenon is ionized by shooting it with electrons. xenon has a pretty low ionization energy, so it doesn't take much to steal an electron off of it! once you have a nice xe+ ion, you shoot it out the back by electrostatically accelerating it through a set of charged grids and into space, giving you a tiny bit of acceleration. xenon is used both due to the low ionization energy i mentioned before and it's ability to be relatively easily stored as a liquid at room temperatures and high pressures. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could you "overheat" the brain by stimulating as many cortical columns as possible in a short time span? | it's supposed that each cortical column in each cortex has a specific receptive field. i interpreted this as meaning that each column senses a specific frequency in the case of the auditory cortex, or vertical lines vs diagonal lines vs color in the visual cortex, etc. it's also supposed that the upper layers in the column are in standby until they are needed. if someone divised a method to activate as many columns as possible through stimulation of the senses, would this have any adverse effects? | i'm fairly certain the answer is *no*. a 2003 study in curr. biology (v13: pp 493-497) examined how much cortex could be simultaneously active based on a detailed analysis of atp consumption. the figure the author came up with was a measly couple of percent (not even the "10%" myth you see all the time). for better or for worse, the cortex is energetically limited. if you tried to activate all of it at once, it wouldn't "overheat" ; it would simply start ignoring stuff. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to study fields in space rather than excitations of those fields? | i was wondering if it is even theoretically possible if we can directly study and measure quantum fields that 'make' subatomic particles like the electron field. rather than study the electron itself? thanks in advance for the answers! | yes, this is possible. the study of fields directly led to the prediction of the higgs field, higgs mechanism, and higgs boson (which was not detected until ~50 years later). the existence of a higgs-like mechanism was already more or less known to be fact, though the details of the higgs field were not known until the higgs boson was discovered (and we are still learning more about both today). other examples of measuring field effects without measuring particles/quanta would be the [casimir effect](_url_1_) and [van der waals forces](_url_0_). hope that helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_effect"
] | [
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does the scientific community have any plans in place already for how to deal with extraterrestrial life, taxonomically speaking? | this is really a question for /r/asksciencediscussion because the answer it utterly open ended and completely debateable our current phylogenetic 'tree of life' explicitly models the fact that all living things on earth share common descent so it wouldn't make sense add a branch that doesn't share common descent. it would make more sense just to have separate phylogenies for life on earth and extraterrestrials. also from an ontological pov terrestria and extratrerrestria would make no sense at all as then your phylogeny has a large degree of earth-centric bias. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
have their been any studies about the transmission rate of common illnesses in schools with the increase in useage of shared devices like computer keyboards and tablets over the last few years? | computers have really been proliferating in schools over the last several years. have there been any studies done to see if there has been an increase in the transmission rates of common communicable diseases in schools accompanying it? in the past, people didn't generally share resources like paper and pencils. shared contact surfaces would mostly be limited to things like doorknobs. now you have labs and libraries with people rotating in and out all day every day. that presents a lot more shared contact surfaces that kids are exposed to. in the interest of full disclosure, i work it in a school system. we are in the midst of drastically increasing the numbers of instructional technology devices in the district. i would like to find out if this is a concern that's worth raising. | _url_2_ _url_0_ _url_1_ so, yes, there is, and yes, keyboards should be sanitized and hands should be washed daily to prevent spread of germs. you could simply ask that the school provide hand sanitizers [gel cleansers] in the it rooms and require students to use it before and after usage. while its not something to freak out about, given that children are less likely to be clean and sanitary, there is most likely a higher occurrence as compared to say an office. any inanimate object can be a nidus for infection and those which are used daily by multiple people have a higher risk of carrying and transmitting bacteria and viruses. you can also get clear silicone keyboard covers which can be quickly dipped in bleach by the cleaning staff each night. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://journal.unaab.edu.ng/index.php/Series_B/article/view/79",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19233511",
"https://www.uop.edu.jo/download/Research/members/74_1762_A._A.pdf"
] | [
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] |
what can shear-thickening fluids do? | i've been asked to demonstrate shear-thickening fluid (aka non-newtonian fluid, aka "[oobleck](_url_0_)") to a class of 3rd graders as part of their "phases of matter" unit. i'll be mixing up corn starch and water and letting them play with it. i'll do the standard "roll it into a ball in your hand" and "punch it, it doesn't splash" demonstrations. i'm also considering hooking up a guitar amp to show the "fingers" that appear when the stuff is exposed to high-amplitude, low-frequency sound. what else can this stuff do? | oobleck will also stretch if pulled slowly and snap if pulled quickly. pick up a big mass of it and let it ooze through your fingers so you've got a few 6-10" "tentacles" hanging off of your hand, then quickly yank on one of them, it should snap off. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-newtonian_fluid#Oobleck"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GZ_grB1pPf0"
] | [
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a question about evolution and living in the modern age. | i'm not sure this question even makes sense, but i've had this thought on my mind lately and thought this might be a good place to discuss it. evolution caused humans in different areas of the world to grow in different ways. you can look at most people and generally tell what area of the planet their ancestors come from. this means things like the climate, the environment and genetics have a lot to do with how we look and feel today. now in the 21st century, we can live anywhere on the planet and thrive, but my question is...should we? specifically is it healthy for somebody with irish ancestors to live in mexico and vice versa? if your genetics has made you pre-disposed to living off certain kinds of foods with a specific climate, is it more likely for you to have long term problems if you try and live in a different climate entirely? i ask this mainly because a lot of the sick people in my family live in a very warm climate near a beach, while the others that seem much healthier live further north. we're of mostly european descent and i left a long time ago to move further north because i just couldn't stand the climate. i'm wondering...is there scientific proof that supports the idea of you living in a climate that you are genetically designed for. | there is evidence that populations have genetically adapted to their environments. tibetans, for example, have lower hemoglobin levels to counteract the high altitude they live in. natives of central africa have a high frequency of the sickle cell allele, which is useful in combating malaria. it's a difficult question to ask whether we should be living in certain places in the world, because technology has allowed us to overcome a lot of the shortcomings in our genetics. eyeglasses and contact lenses or in-home climate control are good examples of technologies that allow us to expand our functionality and range of habitable climate. it is possible that not being used to a climate could negatively affect one's quality of life (such as pollen causing allergies), but there's a lot of technology to counteract these things. mankind has always adapted to its environments, whether through genetic advantages or advancement through technology. that's one of the beauties of living in our current age. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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alkaline water, fact or fiction? | my mom recently got into buying a alkaline water filter and is talking to me about how it makes me healthier. is this true? she is talking about balancing ph level | it's almost certainly nonsense. your body is extremely good at regulating ph on its own, which is one of the reasons we don't often suddenly die. [this article](_url_0_) debunks a range of alkaline water claims. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4139"
] | [
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] |
can electrical wires be too thick? | when picking how thick your wire for something should be, the danger is having something be too thin for the current and it heats up and you can use a thicker wire fine. is there a limit to this? if you use a 1" thick bar of copper to transmit enough power to charge a phone, does it become less efficient somehow? or is using thinner wires purely a cost saving thing? | thicker lines are more expensive and harder to bend, that makes them less practical, but they are not an issue for electronics. if you happen to make a short circuit with these cables then the current flow will be much higher, but that should be caught by fuses. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if we had to, how quickly could we put a man on the moon again? | if money were no issue, and there was an urgency of some sort to go back, how soon could we land a man on the moon again? | probably within 2 years. the major constraint would be the development of a lander (although nasa's [project morpheus](_url_0_) could probably be drafted for the effort). a fast, bare-bones lunar mission would probably involve launching separately a crew capsule (most likely based on the spacex dragon or nasa orion spacecraft), a morpheus-derived lander, and one or two rocket upper stages (most likely from the existing delta iv heavy, or from the soon-to-exist falcon heavy), which would then be assembled and flown to the moon and back. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://morpheuslander.jsc.nasa.gov/"
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what is the largest (and/or most massive) known solid/liquid body? | as far as i understand, [largest](_url_2_) and [most massive stars](_url_0_) and [planets](_url_1_) are designated including their atmosphere, which accounts for most of their mass and volume. if we ignore the atmosphere, what would be the largest solid and/or liquid body known to us in the universe? in particular, i'm interested in bodies that are kept solid not by extreme pressure, but because of their composition (i.e. that would have been solid even without the pressure). | check out the [sloan great wall](_url_0_). it's 1.37 billion light years in size, or about 1/60 of the size of the universe. though that may not quantify as the largest 'body', it is indeed the largest known system. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R136a1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WASP-17b",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VY_Canis_Majoris"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Great_Wall"
] | [
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] |
cervical vertebrae are those in the neck. the cervix is the barrier between the uterus and vagina. is there a connection between the two terms, or is it a false cognate? | not sure if i should tag this as anatomy or lingusitics, but... | first of all, the names of a lot of anatomical structures are metaphorical or "generalized." (e.g. the "[islets of langerhans](_url_0_)" in the pancreas - nobody is claiming that you have little [islands](_url_3_) inside your pancreas. :-) ) _url_1_ _url_4_ _url_2_ so, it just means "neck". for the actual neck between the torso and head, that's not very tricky. the cervix between the uterus and vagina was metaphorically considered to be a "necklike part". | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islets_of_Langerhans",
"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=cervix&searchmode=none",
"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/neck?s=t",
"http://www.mwallpaper.com/images/small_tropical_island_640x480_8160.jpg",
"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cervix?s=t"
] | [
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photos and the naked eye | all of these photos we see, like of the pillars of creation, if we were to be at that point would our naked eye see what we do in the pictures? the reason i ask is i vaguely remember reading that the photos are a collection of different spectrum all added to one photo. update: thank you for the wonderful (and sort of heart breaking answers.) the question has bothered me for a long time. | many astrophotographs do, as you point out, compile signals from a large array of the em spectrum than just visible light. however, some photos do not. usually, if the photo is nicely documented, there will be some tag saying what you're looking at as far as xray, gamma, radio, etc. or something about the coloring like false-color. from the numerous photos i've noticed that have these sorts of descriptions, many are false-colored but not all. other ways to figure out these details is to note what telescope has taken the picture. for example, [this apod photo of bullet pillars of orion](_url_1_), states the image was taken with the [gemini north telescope](_url_0_). it says on the wiki link that gemini's silver coating and infrared optimization allow sensitive observations in the mid infrared part of the spectrum (5 - 27 microns). this is covered by t-recs at gemini south, and by michelle at gemini north, both of which have imaging and spectroscopic cababilities. gemini north has nifs (near-infrared integral field spectrograph), built by australian national university. it takes a 30x30 array of spectra (covering a three-arcsecond-square field) at r=5000 in the 0.95-2.4 µm wavelength range. it also has phoenix, a high-resolution infrared spectrograph build by noao of the united states, although this instrument is no longer offered. this still doesn't say exactly what you might be seeing in the apod pic, but from the information given in both links, i would say that the image is likely enhanced since the infrared part of the spectrum is the telescope forte. the adaptive optics the apod link mentions is a method to remove atmospheric noise form the image. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_Observatory",
"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070326.html"
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my school's chem department threw this out, it was way too cool to trash so i took it. but what is it? | it's a roundbottom flask. you use it for certain types of organic chemistry reactions. the ones i've used were like 3" across, so that one looks awesome. and to my knowledge it's not illegal to own it, you're just not allowed to use it to make meth. so- don't make meth :d | 337 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencelabsupplies.com/image.php?type=P&id=3150",
"http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/figures/V82P0126-2.GIF",
"http://www.hitechtrader.com/detail.cfm?autonumber=77567",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pt0rIZ3ZNE",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Kipp_apparatus.jpg",
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|
lizard to snake transitional forms | a while back i saw someone explain lizard to snake transitional species using extant examples. there were pictures of each species as the lizard slowly lost its legs and became a snake. anyone know where i can find it? i got into a discussion along the lines of "where are all the transitional species" discussion today and this really is a good example of the answer. edit: after pages of googling i found a purple link! _url_0_ | to my knowledge, there is not a particular family of extant lizards that is directly related to an extant family of snake. that being said, some species of lizards in the families [scincidae](_url_2_) and [anguidae](_url_3_) have both convergently arrived at limblessness. it is generally accepted that lizards lost their limbs as they became more fossorial (below ground) foragers. after a long enough period, these lizards lost eye-sight as well. the suborder [amphisbaenia](_url_1_) contains many of these legless, sightless stepping stones between snakes and lizards (again, not a direct relative of any extant snake or lizard). at some point, it is hypothesized that these fossorial lizards changed enough to become the suborder serpentes (snakes). many of these snakes then reoccupied niches in the terrestrial biome and redeveloped sight, however members of the infraorder [scolecophidia](_url_0_) (blind snakes) remain fossorial snakes still. sorry i don't have a nice photo-series for this, but you should be able to find pictures of all of these families, orders, and such on google if you would like to see the convergence first hand. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.realmonstrosities.com/2012/03/how-lizard-lost-its-legs.html"
] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=anguidae&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&aq=f&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=5yaNUe2lH-WHywH_3oH4Bw&biw=1333&bih=665&sei=7yaNUbn_L5TeyQHQkYCAAw#um=1&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=scolecophidia&oq=scolecophidia&gs_l=img.3..0j0i24.44631.48261.0.48414.13.10.0.3.3.0.128.846.9j1.10.0...0.0...1c.1.12.img.xDYfjbL5VQQ&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.46340616,d.aWc&fp=a109a983f2ef4142&biw=1333&bih=665",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=amphisbaenia&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&aq=f&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=jyWNUfHvF5T8yAGiuIGACw&biw=1333&bih=665&sei=wyaNUZOiGaWYyAHbp4DQAg",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=anguidae&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&aq=f&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=5yaNUe2lH-WHywH_3oH4Bw&biw=1333&bih=665&sei=7yaNUbn_L5TeyQHQkYCAAw#um=1&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=scincidae&oq=scincidae&gs_l=img.3..0j0i24l5.27001.29268.0.29447.9.8.0.1.1.0.89.649.8.8.0...0.0...1c.1.12.img.9Ehia37lEX0&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.46340616,d.aWc&fp=a109a983f2ef4142&biw=1333&bih=665",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=anguidae&rlz=1C1CHFX_enUS462US462&aq=f&um=1&ie=UTF-8&hl=en&tbm=isch&source=og&sa=N&tab=wi&ei=5yaNUe2lH-WHywH_3oH4Bw&biw=1333&bih=665&sei=7yaNUbn_L5TeyQHQkYCAAw"
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how does this trick work. | _url_0_ how does this work? from a physics perspective drawing a free body diagram it just doesn't seem like its at equilibrium to me. the entire weight of the spoon/fork is at the end of the tooth pick. this creates a large torque but there no torque acting in the opposite direction to keep the tooth pick from spinning. so i guess my question really is, where's the opposing torque? | whoa! this does look trippy, doesn't it? well, to answer your question, the opposing torque is the force of gravity between the earth and the portion of the fork+spoon on the other side of the point where the toothpick meets the glass. you said, "the entire weight of the spoon/fork is at the end of the tooth pick." that is incorrect. half of the weight is on one side of the point where the toothpick meets the glass, the other half of the weight is on the other side. an object spins (and balances) around its center of mass. the center of mass of the fork+spoon system is the point where the toothpick meets the glass. let me know if this doesn't make sense. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FjliE4c5L-U"
] | [] | [
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why is it not feasible to perform one "master test" for any and all health problems? | i know nothing of the science or biology of health checks/tests. i understand that when blood test are to be done they have to perform different tests for different diseases. but why isn't it feasible to take a bunch of blood, separate it to be sent off for dozens of different diseases? would this not assist in early diagnoses, and potentially find abnormalities in a persons health where symptoms may not currently be a concern? also finding family/genetic diseases in the meantime. hopefully that makes sense, and thank you for your time. | the first and most fundamental misapprehension you have is that tests diagnose conditions. **physicians** diagnose conditions. (that is, people and not tests.) they do so on the basis of a history, a physical, and additional data in the form of tests. test results do not exist in a vacuum. they must be interpreted in light of the clinical scenario. tests can be misleading, they can be wrong, and they can suggest the presence of incidental conditions which confuse the diagnosis. moreover, many disorders do not have a single confirmatory test. sometimes because no definitive biological marker has been found. other times because it is infeasible technically, financially, or otherwise to directly test for the biological factor. that is why there is no master test for every condition. and why, even with tricorders and other magical medical devices, physicians are still apparently necessary in the _star trek_ universe. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does camphor sublimate? what property of it enables it to go from solid to gas? | are there any other solids like camphor? | the liquid phase is basically when something becomes amorphous and mobile. meaning the molecules are moving about and aren't in any fixed crystal structure any more, but at the same time they're still attracted to each other to the extent that their thermal kinetic energy isn't enough to cause them to fly apart completely and become a gas. a substance sublimates when it doesn't have a liquid phase (at that temperature/pressure). in other words, it has structural and intermolecular binding properties that are such that, once it gets hot enough to break the bonds holding it together as a crystal, the remaining forces between the now-disorganized molecules aren't enough to keep them together, given their thermal energy. so they go straight to a gas. substances that sublimate are like chemical plugs and sockets, they'll only stick together when arranged in a specific way. while substances that form liquids are more like chemical velcro strips. they still stick together even if they're not perfectly lined up. | 5 | [] | [] | [
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what is physically happening to our bodies when we move to a colder/hotter climate and we acclimate. we usually say the blood thickens/thins | i move between ma and fl a lot. when i get to fl, during colder months in ma, it's hot and we set the ac around 72 in the house which feels great. in a short time (less the two weeks) we have slowly raised the temperature in the house because it feels cold. by the time i've been there a couple of weeks it's set as high as 80 because that now feels comfortable. the opposite will happen when i go from warm fl to cold ma. | there are physiological changes in the amount of plasma present in people in different climates - it takes some time to happen, but functionally in hotter weather our [blood becomes more dilute](_url_0_). in addition, the total blood plasma [tends to increase](_url_1_). this effect does several things: first of all, more of your capillaries near the surface of your skin will be open at any given time due to the increased blood volume (a bit like the inverse of the cold weather response that reduces circulation to the hands/feet, except this is simply caused by there being fewer places for the blood to go). this means you will have faster heat radiation. the increase of blood plasma also means you can sweat a bit more, increasing your cooling capacity. the opposite takes place when moving to a cold climate, but remember that, coming from a warm climate, you have more plasma and *it has no place to go*, so you still lose extra heat (and therefore feel colder) until your blood concentrates a bit more and you get rid of the excess. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/43/4/591.extract#",
"http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9071&page=215"
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is there any way of discharging static electricity without getting 'zapped'? | the "zap" you feel is often the static electricity arcing between your body and another surface, which causes the current to briefly flow through a very small surface area of your body. to negate this effect you can spread the surface area the current will flow to by holding a medal object touching a larger area of your bare skin (such as a key, coin, frying pan, cheese grater, monkey wrench, whatever), and touching the object that would otherwise zap you with that. another way to discharge your static buildup would be to discharge it through a resistor. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you get "hit" by the earth? | i know it's a vague title but my question is this: if i were to calculate the exact point in space that the earth will occupy, say, 2 hours in the future, if i then got into a space ship and came to a complete stop at that point an hour before the earth, would i see it coming towards me then eventually hitting me? | yes this is perfectly possible. the earth spins at a rate of 1 revolution per 24 hours on its axis (solar day) and revolves around the sun on an elliptical orbit at a rate of 1 revolution per 365 days(sidereal year). the earth travels at a speed of 108000 km/hr and the total distance covered over the period of the year on its orbit is roughly 150000000 km. for example if you were 24 hours ahead on the earths orbit you would be roughly 0.0027% around the distance of the orbit or 405000 km away from the oncoming earth. from a human point of view you would most likely looking at a small dot because if you look at pictures taken from the international space station they appear to see roughly half of the earth from a distance of 386 km. but yes, the earth would "run into you" technically and by that i mean you would be incinerated by the atmosphere. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are boxers taught to punch through an opponent when quickly pulling your arm back generates more power? | specifically, i'm talking about the equation p = w/t. my understanding is that the less time your hand has on the face/object/whatever, the more energy is imparted on the impact. therefore, punching an opponent and quickly withdrawing should be more effective. am i wrong in this thinking? | yes. first, in p=w/t, work = force x distance. so if you were to just barely touch a face with your fist and immediately pull back, you'd do 0 work. so you have to displace the target some non-zero distance (i.e. punch "through" the target). of course, doing this same amount of work with a faster punch (less time) will impart more power. additionally, this isn't all about just power, but also momentum/inertia. the fist/arm has considerable inertia that (a) you're trying to impart on the target and (b) would take considerable energy from the puncher to withdraw a fist as quickly as it's thrown. and we're talking about humans here. coaching a boxer to *punch through the target* is more about the psychology of maintaining proper form than it is the physics. if you tell a person to punch a board, they know it's going to hurt and will most likely clench up and punch it softer than they can because of a fear of the pain. it you tell a person to punch 6 inches behind the board, it can alleviate that mindset. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does it seem like there is a gap between published research findings and actual implementation of findings (if applicable)? | i work in a field where this issue is turned on its head, but extremely relevant. scientists often use a "bad" numerical technique for their given problem because they haven't read the literature or aren't sufficiently knowledgeable about computers or mathematics to make an informed decision. oftentimes, a mature, robust numerical library will be overlooked in a project for which it is aptly suited because the pi has no idea that it's now 2012 and blas isn't the only show in town. economy usually rectifies this issue, albeit slowly. a technique will become available and remain widely ignored until an already-notable researcher decides to hop on it and apply it to **timely**, **important** problems with some sort of **funding opportunities** behind them. i believe this is the same in the medical community. i'm always left wondering how quickly brand-new techniques percolate down to scientists (and whether they apply them in the domain for which they are intended) and, even worse, the medical field. i know in the mid 00s there was a fertile collaboration between geophysicists and medical researchers in employing a novel solution to the tomography problem (and some other new machinery) to come up with a cool way of screening for breast cancer. hopeful note: science is becoming more interdisciplinary, so maybe the presence of more scientific polyglots in academia and industry will help cross-pollination. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does pyroelectricity work? in what real world applications can it be found? | i've briefly read about pyro and piezoelectricity - i had trouble finding understandable applications. i gather it can be used to induce nuclear fusion. moreover, at what temperature do pyroelectric crystals generate voltage? how feasible is their use in more common applications? thanks in advance! | i don't know much about pyroelectrics, but if you're interested in the general concept (thermal to electrical energy conversion), i'd suggest thermoelectrics as a much more robust field to explore -- there are already many applications of this effect in use today, and quite a bit of ongoing research into finding new, more efficient thermoelectric materials. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if astronauts aboard the soyuz just decided to make a beeline for mars, could they make it? | no. several things: as far as i'm aware the soyuz doesn't have that much navigational technology on board. all the standard stuff, sure, but not enough to plot a course to mars. bear in mind that a degree mistake in when and in which direction you fired the rocket would mean you missed mars by potentially millions of kilometres. so say you do get the shot right, use the last of your fuel to put you in a hohmann transfer to get there, that's timed precisely to put you into mars orbit. the soyuz doesn't have the capability to land on mars. to get back to earth it does some serious aerobraking and then essentially crash lands in siberia. the atmosphere of mars isn't think enough to let the soyuz do the same kind of manoeuvre there. then bear in mind that the journey would take 6 months, and there's no way in hell that the soyuz has enough provisions and air to keep people alive for that long. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
since the human body can withstand multiple atmospheres of pressure under the ocean with nothing but eye protectant and an extension to the respiratory system, can the same protection be used to acclimate a human being to air pressure less than an atmosphere? | say for example, the terrain of the martian atmosphere. as this will be eventually traversed by human beings, assuming adequate radiation protection is present, and the humans are dressed for arctic weather, can a similar pressurized respiratory system to diving equipment, such as the ones portrayed in "avatar", be used in place of a space suit? is a fully encompassed suit truly needed for an atmosphere such as this? | the reason that this works at depth is that the gas pumped into your lungs is at the same pressure as the water and your lungs can essentially extract oxygen and deposit co2 into gas at such pressures (some issues may still arise, but let's keep this simple for now). if we had a breathing apparatus which delivered a gas mixture equivalent to the external < 1 atmosphere pressure, it would cause you not to distend. however, i do not know if the lungs could extract oxygen effectively from a low pressure gas mixture. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_limit"
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] |
what do the units in some of the more abstract physical constants mean? do they have physical meaning, or are defined that way to make the units cancel properly? | the constants that inspired this question were the gravitational constant ( l^3 / mt^2 ) and the electrostatic constant (t^4 i^2 / m^3 l). as an additional question in the same vein, what do the units mean in things like meters^4 or mass^2 that don't have clear physical relations? | you could try to see those units as equations in themselves, but it probably wouldn't get you far in terms of physical intuition. so you could try and say that g = "the volume per mass per second per second", but this is not only unhelpful but also... what does it mean! which leads us back to your question. i would try and interpret things like g as being objects which allow us to go from one set of measurables to another: {measurables} -- any equation can be put into a form consisting of [si units](_url_0_), which are things that can be measured [nb: measurables are fundamentally defined in terms of physical constants or counting (in the case of the second) - what's tautological is that the physical constants are themselves defined in terms of measurables, with the exception of time/temperature/mass - if these physical constants were to change... well read [this article] (_url_1_)). so that is how we can take measurables to measurables. you are right however that there is no physical intuition to something like metres^4 or mass^2 in isolation (well technically metres^4 defines some 4d hypervolume, but let's not go there...). but the key is to remember - only in isolation these are unphysical equations. given the right context (i.e. right equations), these can be interpreted again as taking measurables to measurables. it may be unsatisfactory, but then again - why should it be? [begin: philosophy of science] if every equation had a physical concept then the universe would have an infinite set of physical relationships, which due to the infinity in itself is unphysical. hope that helps, although i reckon it's probably unsatisfactory. sources: given above, general science knowledge, final year physics ug | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=inconstant-constants-jan-12",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_analysis"
] | [
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what happens if the all the geothermal activity were to suddenly stop? | in such an exceedingly improbable event, that would be the end of earthquakes and volcanoes, the land would erode away into the seas and never be replenished except by the occasional long lived coral colony. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i don't plan on having kids. how much lower is my carbon footprint/impact on the environment than those with children? | i'm in my late 30's and don't plan on having children. if i don't have said children who will possibly have children with children and so on, am i actually doing more good for the environment than someone who makes a conscious effort to be carbon neutral but has offspring? | this article in the [la times](_url_0_) states: the greenhouse gas effect of a child is almost 20 times more significant than the amount any american would save by such practices as driving a fuel-efficient car, recycling or using energy-efficient lightbulbs and appliances, according to paul murtaugh, an oregon state professor of statistics. under current u.s. consumption patterns, each child ultimately adds about 9,441 metric tons of co2 to the carbon legacy of an average parent -- about 5.7 times a person's lifetime emissions, he calculates. this is based of calculations by statisticians at oregon state university. edit: i also think this article delivers the term you want to use. you are talking about carbon legacy not carbon footprint. your (theoretical) great great great great grandkid's carbon footprint is not directly yours you are not directly responsible for the carbon they might or not emit. it is part of your carbon legacy however. the only way your kids might contribute to your carbon footprint is if you change your behavior to accommodate them. examples would include buying a bigger car/house/more toys/whatever to accommodate them. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/07/local/me-greenspace7"
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why does the digital root of every multiple of *n*-1 equal *n*-1 when working in base *n*? | note that the digital root of a number in base n is the same thing as the remainder of that number after dividing by that number. for instance, 32 divided by 9 has remainder 5 (32=9\*3+5) and 3+2=5. the only thing we have to do is that if we get remainder zero, then the digital root has to be 9. for example, 144 is divisible by 9, so it has remainder 0, so it's digital root is 9. this all works because writing, say, a three digit number in base n is just writing it like * a\*n^(2)+b\*n+c where 0 < =a,b,c < =n-1. the remainder of n and n^(2) after dividing by n-1 is 1, which means that * a\*n^(2)+b\*n+c and a\*1+b\*1+c will both share the same remainder after dividing by n-1. but the second one is the first step in finding the digital root. now, we might end up doing this a few times but eventually we'll get down to the digital root. for example, in base 10 we can look at * 8922319 after dividing by 9, this will have the same remainder as * 8+9+2+2+3+1+9 = 34 after dividing by 9. but 34 will have the same remainder as * 3+4 = 7 after dividing by 9. since the remainder of 7 after dividing by 9 is 7, we get that the remainder after dividing 8922319 by 9 is 7. we did all this by adding up the digits and computing the digital root. now, if n is a multiple of n-1, then the remainder of n after dividing by n-1 is zero, which means the digital root has to be n-1. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is flourine's atomic radii smaller than neon? | the noble gas atomic radii are measured a little differently than all of the other atoms in the periodic table. for everything that's not a noble gas we use average bond lengths as a measure of how big an atom is. fluorine has a small radius because it tends to form short strong bonds. noble gases don't usually form covalent bonds so their atomic radii are usually their van der waals radii which are generally much larger. for instance wikipedia lists fluorines atomic radius as 68 pm but its vdw radius as 135 pm. neon has a covalent radius of 58 pm which is smaller than fluorines as you would expect, although i have no idea where this number comes from. tldr: they're measuring two completely different things in most tables. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can the speed of particles in a plasma be modelled by a maxwell-boltzmann distribution? what about a liquid? is the maxwell-boltzmann distribution only for gasses? | you can use a maxwell-boltzmann distribution for plasmas... sometimes. it's a frequently invoked approximation, and relates directly to the ideal gas law. unfortunately, magnetic fields can mess things up a bit, and depending on if there's a strongly anisotropic magnetic field present, you can have different distributions (and different temperatures) depending on whether you're looking parallel or perpendicular to the magnetic field lines. in those cases it's common to approximate the distribution separately as two maxwellians multiplied together, with one temperature and velocity parallel to the magnetic field and one perpendicular to the magnetic field. collisions and temperature gradients are also problematic, and lead to lorentzian distributions. the most accurate thing you can do though is use something like the vlasov or fokker-planck equations to compute the distribution directly, and oh boy does that math get messy quickly (see: landau damping). ~~not a liquid though. an important assumption in the derivation of the maxwell-boltzmann distribution is that the collisions between molecules has to be nearly instantaneous, and that the molecular states are all independent of each other. in a liquid, the molecules are still so closely packed that they are essentially constantly colliding and interacting with each other (for example, intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonds in water are constantly active).~~ liquids can have maxwell-boltzmann distributions too. the caveat is that the intermolecular forces do change other things that would result from the maxwellian, e.g. the ideal gas law is not true. (edited per discussion with u/puteh below) | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why can protein structures not be predicted by computers? why is crystallography necessary? | i thought it could be done as scientists probably know the amino acid sequence, and because the chemical properties of the different amino acids are known. | good answers in this thread, the folding space is many orders of magnitude too large to search exhaustively. two additional comments: * computers *can* predict protein structures rather well today. however this mostly works based on alignments and homology modelling with closely related proteins (of known structure), as opposed to *ab initio* (from scratch) quantumchemical or md calculations. the more structures (and unique new folds) are solved, the better this gets. david baker for example does amazing work in this field. * crystallography is not the only method available, structures can also be determined by nmr and more and more by cryo electron microscopy. edit: typo. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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spinach making me high? | i am not sure i fully understand the effects of this and was wondering if some body could help me understand please? recently its been shown that spinach contains opioid peptides called rubiscolns. i did a quick search and got this _url_0_ the wiki states the rubiscolins' impact on mental health is not yet known. but would anybody here with a solid grounding in advanced nutrition be able to supply me with some theory's? i am just curious as i eat 160grams of spinach every day for breakfast and i notice how crap i feel when i don't consume my morning meal. | i think the best answer is found [here](_url_0_). sure, rubiscolin has anxiolytic effects that appear to be mediated by opioid receptors. i found some other studies showing positive effects of rubiscolin on memory consolidation, and other things in mice. but not much in the way of human research. i would say that "making you high" is a little bit of a stretch, however. there are plenty of other foods that have effects on opioid receptors (e.g., milk proteins, wheat gluten, rice albumin, as examples). i'd say that in order to get "high" you'd have to consume a joey chestnut worthy amount of spinach. but, is it possible that you could notice a positive effect from eating spinach? sure, it seems reasonable. spinach has plenty of other positive health benefits, so it's likely that the reason you don't feel as good is due in part to missing the health benefits (including rubiscolin) from spinach, and perhaps in part to placebo, but it's not like you're going through "rubiscolin withdrawal". | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubiscolin"
] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196978107002677"
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what would a blind duck at birth be attracted to if can't see anything? | [deleted] | if you are referring to imprinting then the answer is no. a blind duck will not imprint and will most likely die. imprinting must occur in a short window of opportunity and if the animal cannot see with its eyes during that window then no connection will be made. i hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have a rowing machine that uses a water tank, and it requires chlorination to prevent algae growth. if i allow the algae to grow, will the rowing resistance increase? if so, by how much? | i have a rowing machine in my house that looks like [this](_url_0_). it's recommended that i add small chlorine tablets (similar to the ones added to pools) every six months to prevent algae formation in the tank. if i neglected to do this and allowed algae to form, would the rower resistance increase? | it would add a small amount of mass and possible jam or slowdown the rotational part somewhat but mainly it would just start looking horrible. if you added a thickening agent however you could increase resistance by making the liquid denser. | 3 | [] | [
"http://ecoki.com/wp-content/uploads/water-rower-full.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
why do old fashioned projectors show 1 whole image? | the frames are just images on a moving strip of film. why might we not as well see two parts of two different frames on the screen? | the frames are simply images on a moving strip of film, but the image isn't projected continuously. the projector has a [shutter](_url_0_) and [intermittent mechanism](_url_1_), so you don't actually see anything while the frames are transitioning. the actual process for the frame would be 1) advance frame 2) open shutter 3) close shutter 4) repeat all of this happens in 1/24th of a second, which is fast enough you can't detect the light continuously flashing. if you didn't combine these mechanisms, you would just see a mess of combined frames on the screen. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_projector#Shutter",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_projector#Intermittent_mechanism",
"http://www.graumanschinese.org/projection-1.html"
] | [
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] |
how do you predict electronic configurations and bond orders given a molecular orbital (mo) energy diagram (for diatomic molecules only)? | the orbitals are filled in a similar way compared to atomic orbitals on the periodic table - using the aufbau principle and hund's rule. for molecules the bonding orbitals are filled first, followed by the non-bonding orbitals then the anti-bonding orbitals. the energy ordering is determined by taking linear combination of atomic orbitals to generate molecular orbitals. comparing molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen is a good exercise that elucidates the qualitative predictions one can make using lcao - namely that oxygen is paramagnetic and nitrogen is not. this is due to the difference in the electronic energy manifold between these molecules. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
brazilian president suggested that someone should start working on a way to storage the wind, as we do to the water, for later use to generate energy. it's possible ? | _url_0_ | it's possible. there is a utility down south that put aircompressors on their towers and corked a cave to store the compressed air. then they added an airturbine to the front of one of their steam turbines and use the compressed air to drive the generator when there is enough wind. when there isn't they use the boiler to run the steam turbine. pretty slick. we could do the same thing with depleted oil and gas domes most places. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7vJy1zbopJ8"
] | [] | [
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is a spinning rod or metal stronger than a static one? | observing the fact that glass blowers have to constantly spin their glass to keep it from falling off would a rod of steel hold more load if it was spinning. or is this strength negligible? and would it be different at different scales (such as being very significatn in nanotechnology applications) would this be a good application where weight is an issue and you can use the power from an existing motor. | you're not adding strength by rotating the part. in the case of glass, it's an amorphous solid, so spinning it helps to reduce warping from gravity. if you're talking about doing the same thing with a cantilevered rod with a load, it won't help because if the load is high enough that it is yielding the rod, then you're actually fatiguing the material. with fatigue, a load that is within safe limits when applied statically can cause the part to fail when applied cyclically. there's also centrifugal force and associated internal stress if the part is rotating quickly. tl;dr: the spinning rod will actually fail under a lower load than a non-spinning rod. it also depends on the materials, loading conditions, max stress, etc. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
humans, lichens, coral reefs, and cancer: what is a species, really? | [i made a comment in a post in /r/biology earlier here.](_url_0_) i see a difference between an "individual" being an instantiation of one genome, and an individual being the ensemble of cooperating nested subsystems regardless of arbitrary distinctions of species. is there foundation for this view? i see this relationship- a:b::c:d where a. the grouping of morphologically distinct living cells that constitute different tissue/biomass types and functionalities like reproductive organs, skin, *gut bacteria*, neurons, osteoplasts, white blood cells, mitochondria living inside these cells, etc b. cancer cells, a growing mass of cells of one type c. the constituent types of tissues and cells that form a lichen d. the form of the fungus that grows as a mass of hyphae isn't a human just a type of packaged, mobile ecosystem, not a species? a white blood cell might just as easily have developed from a variety of bacteria, functioning just like a predator in a reef, as opposed to being just one more cell type. i think the whole understanding of species is weird because it divides everything where the reality is more continuous with any divisions occurring at varying levels of the system? i understand that at some point, we have to divide things so we can even talk about it. [here's a similar situation](_url_1_). coming back to the lichen/cancer issue that sparked my obsession today...is a cancer just a piece of a tissue that "forgot" the biochemical cues that allow normal tissue to perform a role in the "venn diagram" way of looking at things? *and is any of this even an issue in modern biology?* i apologize for my rambling style...the gaps in my knowledge are surely wide and i can only bridge them with a broad "argument" like this. i fear i misunderstand something crucial here, like the nature of cancer. i want to be critiqued...educate me! tell me about some books to read! thank you! | generally, the widely accepted definition of a species (though highly debated) is when organisms can reproduce to produce viable, fertile offspring. though this gets quite complicated with asexually reproductive species... interesting concept. the whole 'ecosystem' idea is sort of true, as many, many species are specifically adapted to live in, or on our various organs and body cavities etc. but i think what differentiates our *own* cells is that they all originated from the original zygote formed from the fusion of our parent's gametes. so we're not the coral reef, we're the rock they're sitting on (for want of a better analogy). but a living one. or perhaps we're the cnidarian polyps that all the other organisms live off. so a human isn't everything inside our body, as that would also count all the parasites and pathogens and stuff. while we are an ecosystem, the ecosystem isn't us, if you get my reasoning. what cancer is, (though i don't have a huge knowledge on it), are cells which have had mutations in their genomes on either proto-oncogenes, which regulate cell growth, or tumour suppressor genes, which are there to stop tumour growth. so in essence, yes, they have forgotten their biochemical cues to stop functioning, and just replicate and replicate until they're a tumour. i think lichens are named based on their fungal components. they are composite organisms that have evolved to exist in a mutually symbiotic relationship, but still separate species. stuff like this is seen commonly throughout the world, other examples include the relationship of coral and zooxanthellae, and plants and mycorrhizae. a theory i think you'd be interested in is the [endosymbiotic theory](_url_0_). sorry i can't give you a better explanation, this post was the result of my rambling mind. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/zufs3/cancerous_cells_is_like_a_computer_operating/c68mmnx",
"http://imgur.com/gallery/UdcPL"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory"
] | [
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if we had a convenient black hole available to observe, what questions could we answer about them that we can't already calculate? | like if we had a moon-mass black hole orbiting us at the distance of the moon, and could launch any space probe with our current technology, what sort of questions about black holes could we answer? (i'm not sure if a moon-mass black hole at moon-orbit is safe, if it isn't, just readjust the black hole to be a safe one at a safe distance) we seem to calculate out so much of their properties. i'm curious as to what we don't know but would love to directly observe. | it's not about our ability to calculate their properties, but about our ability to verify those calculations. strictly speaking, we can't say that a solution is physically valid, unless we observe the corresponding behaviour in nature. p.s.: am i the only one finding the idea of 0.11 mm big black hole orbiting our planet funny? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the process of bonding two materials together with steam and heat called? and how strong is this bond? | for example, if i were trying to permanently bond a thin layer of raw cork to a rubber sheet? | gluing comes to mind. not just as a joke, but in general if the two materials do not have sufficient molecular attraction they will not bond well. typically via van der waals forces. in the case of your example there would be two ways to do it. one is to mold liquid monomer rubber (like butadiene types) onto the cork. then use steam heat to polymerize it onto the cork. this bond will be partly mechanical. since the liquid will flow into the pores of the cork. making it tight nit with the rubber once it cures. the second is to use an adhesive. the adhesive acts as an intermediary between the two materials. a substance that bonds well with both materials. basically gluing them together. steam heat could be used to cure some types of adhesive. generally you can you use steam heating for these operations, but not steam directly. the water will infuse and damage many things like the cork. also in your example, pressure is often used with heat. sometimes along with melting the adhesive to a liquid or to sinter the material. _url_0_ _url_1_ then there is fusion bonding. where the heat melts one or both of the materials. there is some cloth patching material that works like this. you place a patch of this material over a hole in a cloth and then use a hot iron. there is a plastic in the patch that melts into the repaired cloth, then solidifies when cool. _url_2_ it would help if you elaborated on more specific examples. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintering",
"http://jtc.sagepub.com/content/17/4/303.abstract"
] | [
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how does water pressure "stack"? | how does water pressure work when there is water in a cave which is under water? does it "stack" like if the cave entrance is 4 meters underwater does the water pressure feel same when you are hugging the ceiling of the cave? | in general you can you say that it stacks, but in the case of an underwater cave it depends on the material making up the walls. if it's strong enough to withstand the pressure from the ocean above without deforming, that pressure will be nullified as far as the inside of the cave is concerned. if the walls are entirely too weak, the pressure will act additively. this is incidentally what a submarine is: an underwater “cave“ where the walls can withstand the outside pressure, allowing you to keep one atmosphere on the inside. if you blew up a balloon and submerged it, it would't be able to, and it'd shrink until the air inside equaled the pressure outside. if you filled a balloon full of water, the same thing would happen, except the shrinking would be pretty much unnoticeable (water is essentially incompressible). you'd still get a higher water pressure in the balloon though. if the water in the cave is connected to the ocean via a channel, the pressure will be the same everywhere at the same level, whether inside the cave or outside (assuming equilibrium conditions). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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for how long can aneurysms grow before rupturing? | aneurysm rupture depends on a several things. one important concept to know is the law of laplace which, when adapted to aneurysms, states that the stress on the aneurysm wall = (pressure)x(radius)/(wall thickness). this is assuming the aneurysm is spherical, like a balloon. using this formula, you can see that that the larger the aneurysm (increasing radius) or increasing the pressure, the more stress on the wall. making the walls thicker also decreases the wall stress. it may help to think about the aneurysm like a balloon. the higher the pressure inside the balloon, or the larger the balloon is, the higher the wall stress and therefore more likely it’ll pop. and the thicker the rubber, the less likely the balloon will pop. if you rearrange the equation, then you get: pressure = (stress)x(thickness)/radius. so if you assumed a constant pressure, then you can see that if the radius gets larger, the stress must also increase. in the real world, the pressure inside your aneurysm is your blood pressure. so if you have a blood pressure of 120/80 mmhg and an aneurysm 4 cm in diameter, the wall stress on your aneurysm will be much less than a person who also has a blood pressure of 120/80 mmhg but has an aneurysm of 6 cm. so the likelihood of an aneurysm rupturing depends on these factors which will differ from person to person. different people have different blood pressures, aneurysm sizes, and even wall thickness (some people have genetic defects, for example marfan syndrome, that cause increased fragility of their connective tissues, increasing their risk of aneurysm formation). if we look at abdominal aortic aneurysms (aneurysms of the abdominal aorta, which is the main artery from your heart that carries blood to the rest of the body), evidence suggests that the risk of aneurysm rupture per year is as follows: -less than 4.0 cm in diameter = less than 0.5 percent -between 4.0 to 4.9 cm in diameter = 0.5 to 5 percent -between 5.0 to 5.9 cm in diameter = 3 to 15 percent -between 6.0 to 6.9 cm in diameter = 10 to 20 percent -between 7.0 to 7.9 cm in diameter = 20 to 40 percent -greater than or equal to 8.0 cm in diameter = 30 to 50 percent the average rate of aneurysm growth is about 0.3 to 0.4 cm per year. a surgical repair is recommended when the aneurysm reaches 5.5 cm in diameter, or if it has grown 0.5 cm in 6 months. [source](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/documents/vascularsurgery/files/aaa5%5B1%5DGiuidelinesforTreatmntofaaa.pdf"
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|
scientific study on the diffusion of pens? | i'm not sure how to phrase this really, but as i was sitting at work today, i was thinking about how pens move (are stolen, forgotten, left behind, etc.) and i was wondering if there ever had been research done about this. i imagine it would be similar to diffusion of anything that's evenly distributed, but would be interested in how far pens usually travel. this is similar to the distribution of money, but i would be interested in that as well. thanks. | i see this as more better modelled as an epidemiological transmission than diffusion. i'd imagine some co-workers are better vectors than others in "transmitting" pens. (because they're kleptomaniacs.) and some pens are more likely to be "transmitted" than others. (clicky-tops and twisty-bottoms, for example, would have different vectors.) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how to improve seed beck effect . what material are the best energy harvesting thermo-couples made from? | the two primary material properties that can be manipulated for thermoelectric are thermal and electrical conductivity. ideally for a given material you would want a low thermal conductivity and a high electrical conductivity. an easy way to decrease thermal conductivity is reducing the grain size of the material but that also typically hurts electrical conductivity so it depends on which property changes fastest. as to what material is best, that depends on the temperature you want to operate at. the best material at one temperature will not be the best at a higher or lower temp so your heat source temp plays a big role. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does kinetic energy (hitting hands against eachother) turn into sound energy (clapping)? | more to the point; why does a physical presence make sound? | sounds is a pressure wave in the air. the clap disturbs the air, generate the sound wave. when that wave hits your ear, you hear the sound. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what’s the science behind a stuffed nose? what is its purpose and how does it occur? | pre med student! external membranes and skin are the first line of defense in mammals. when your body senses some irritant around the nose or believes that you are sick, correctly or incorrectly, it will signal your nasal membrane to secrete mucus to prevent more pathogens from entering the body. many pathogens typically enter through your nostrils, so this is the body covering its bases while it works with what it believes to be the matter at hand. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the pressure different in these two scenarios? | does the pressure experienced at a certain point in a barrel filled with water change if the depth stays the same, but the volume decreases? for example, if there is a sphere sitting at the bottom of a barrel, will the pressure be different if the distance between the sphere and water opening stays the same, but the opening area is smaller in one instance. here is a simple picture i made in paint to illustrate my question: _url_0_ edit: i found this website _url_1_, but i just wanted to verify | right, you can think of hydrostatic pressure as the weight of the water column above whatever surface the pressure is exerted upon. remember that pressure = density of liquid * gravity * height of fluid. this might make more sense if you think about what the formula means. say you have a square of area a at the bottom of a pool with depth h. so above that square, the volume of water is a * h. you can convert that volume to a mass by multiplying by density ρ, such that the mass of water above the square is a * h * ρ. now, the force of that mass is simply f = ma, where a is gravitational acceleration. so the force that the water column exerts is a * h * ρ * g. and remember that pressure is just a force divided by the area over which it is applied. so dividing by a, you get pressure = ρ * g * h. thus, the rest of the water in the tank doesn't matter. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/NNOCi",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pflu.html"
] | [] | [
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please help, stuck on this physics problem regarding orbits, anyone able to explain what i'm doing wrong? | [removed] | use ratios, they are easier and faster to work with. here: kepler's third law is what you're looking for. it tells you that t^2 = r^(3) * 4π^(2) / (mg) where t is the period (the "year"), r is the orbital distance (semi-major axis if not circular), m is the star's mass and g is newton's constant. you can find this formula [here](_url_0_). then, apply this formula to both your exoplanet *and* earth. don't use any numbers, just write it two times in symbols on two lines, using _e labels for earth quantities and _k labels for exoplanet quantities. then, divide one equality by the other to obtain: (t_k / t_e)^2 = (r_k/r_e)^3 (m_star / m_sun)^(-1) note how all the constants have cancelled, also everything now is in ratios. now, r_k/r_e is just the exopl orbital radius measured in au, because earth's is just 1 au. so this ratio is just 0.0058. m_star/m_sun is, similarly, the star's mass in solar masses, so it's 0.13. so t_k/t_e = sqrt ( 0.0058^3 / 0.13 ) = 0.00123 but this is just the planet's "year" measured in earth years. so the period of revolution is 0.00123 years. now i did this on my phone in the bathroom so probably i miscalculated something, but i hope you got the spirit of the thing. note a very, very, very important thing: you did not need the value of newton's constant! this is extremely useful because g carries a large uncertainty and it's good when you can compute things without resorting to it. | 48 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion"
] | [
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does dove or any other creamy soap really help your skin? | from a harvard medical school publication: "the great outdoors may be cold and wet during the winter, but inside we live in desert-like conditions. winter heating creates bone-dry air. water evaporates quickly out of the skin in such parched circumstances. dry skin by itself isn’t a medical worry, although serious cases can result in cracks and fissures that invite infection and inflammation. the real issue is discomfort. there’s also the red, rough, scaly appearance lamented in many advertisements. this is one problem that hasn’t suffered from lack of attention: there are dozens of creams and lotions for dry skin. they are sold as moisturizers, which is more of a marketing term than a medical or scientific one. indeed, routine skin care is a realm where there’s little science to be found. well-controlled studies of ingredients are few and far between. companies keep information about ingredients proprietary and are careful to limit claims for what the products do to stay within fda rules. but salespeople learned ages ago that science sells, so labels and ads often use scientific terms. moisturizers are often billed as hypoallergenic or “allergy tested” — even though there’s no government standard for making such a claim, so any product can do so. some products brag about being noncomedogenic — an impressive word that means they won’t cause pimples — but that’s not saying much: almost all moisturizers on the market today use ingredients that are noncomedogenic. lists of vitamins are supposed to get us thinking that moisturizers can nourish skin or stoke it full of antioxidants. yet in most cases vitamins in moisturizers probably don’t make much difference, either because the amounts used are too small to have much effect, or because the vitamins degrade with exposure to light and oxygen. the fact is that despite the long lists of obscure ingredients and the pseudoscientific hokum, all moisturizers help with dry skin for a pretty simple reason: they supply a little bit of water to the skin and contain a greasy substance that holds it in. in fact, if greasiness weren’t a problem, we might all go back to using the solution for dry skin that our grandparents used: 100% white petrolatum, which most of us know as vaseline. one reason for the proliferation of moisturizers is the continuing search for a mix of ingredients that holds in water like petrolatum but feels nicer on the skin. the good news is that despite all the unknowns and salesmanship, you really can’t go very wrong. almost all the moisturizers on the market will help with dry skin, and in most cases, the choice comes down to subjective experience — and simply whether you like the feel and smell." | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
electric field lines in classical electromagnetism? | this may be a dumb question for most people here, but this has been bothering me for awhile, and i am just a layman. positive charges have lines "pointing away" from the charge while negative charges have lines "pointing toward" the charges. & #x200b; other than it's the "direction of the electric field," i don't know what the lines actually represent, and i don't know what the electric field actually is, but it looks like positive charges emit unlimited electric energy for as long as the charges exist, and negative charges consume unlimited electric energy. but unless i am missing something, electrons and photons have finite energy. & #x200b; any help appreciated. thanks. | in electrostatics, electric field lines tell you the instantaneous direction of the acceleration of a fictional positive test charge if you were to place it at that particular point (assuming the electric force is the only force acting on it). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know that what we consider normal passage of time isn't already suffering from time dilation? | this is one of those questions that my brain comes back to every few years. today i watched interstellar for the first time and it came right back to my brain. basically, how do we know that the passage of time within the solar system is the same as in interstellar space? if there's something in unknown physics that causes time dilation near star systems (or specific to our area of space), do we have any observations that would clue us into that? if every second that passes on earth is actually a year or a microsecond to someone living on another star system, would we be able to detect it? the last time i was pondering this question was during one of the many announcements about voyager "leaving the solar system"; if time flows at a different rate outside the solar system, would our first and only clue be that the signals from a probe start speeding up / slowing down as it enters that are area of space? | we already know that the time we experience is subject to time dilation. if you consider kinematic time dilation only - i.e., time dilation due to relative velocity - each observer will see their own clock as ticking the fastest (or "normal passage of time" in their own frame), and they see the other clock running slow. they cannot agree on a "normal" passage of time. if you look at gravitational time dilation, then an observer nearer a gravitational source will see their clock tick slower than that of an observer further away. both will agree on that observation. we have detected both of these already - see the classic [hafele-keating experiment](_url_1_), where atomic clocks on planes sent at different directions around the world show different times. we also use this to correct for time differences that would arise in our gps satellites. in fact, you can measure gravitational time dilation on a [road trip to mt rainier in a diy experiment](_url_0_). | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.leapsecond.com/great2005/tour/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafele%E2%80%93Keating_experiment"
] | [
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what are negative g's? | [deleted] | as another person said, the magnitude acceleration due to one g is the same as one negative g. what they usually mean is g's in directions we don't usually experience g's. an example is in high performance aircraft. a positive g is when the pilot is pushed into their seat, where as a negative g is where the pilot is pulled away from their seat (think a plane pulling up hard compared to a plane suddenly diving hard). this distinction is made because while humans start to blackout at around 8 g's down, it only takes 3-4 negative g's (because negative g's cause blood to rush to your head). | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much data do we have on snake evolution? | what evidence supports the competing hypotheses on the evolutionary history of snakes? do you think the burrowing lizard hypothesis or the aquatic/marine ancestors are more likely? | the evidence that snakes may have had a burrowing ancestor is that 1) [blindsnakes]( _url_0_), a type of burrowing snake, are considered to the be the most ‘primitive’ extant type of snake, and 2) snakes have a clear scales that cover their eyes (called brille) and no external ears, unlike other reptiles. evidence that suggests that snakes may be descended from marine animals, something like the mosasaurs or agigialosaurs also comes from their unusual eyes; their cornea and lens exhibit features that would assist in seeing underwater and resemble those found in aquatic animals. snakes have also lost other features which traditionally are present in terrestrial animals, such as the nictating membrane (which is basically a transparent eyelid present in some mammals, birds and reptiles). other evidence linking snakes to mosasaurs is similarities between the skulls and detention of snakes and mosasaurs ([source]( _url_5_)), and possible similarities between snake and early mosasaur locomotion ([source]( _url_4_)). mosasaurs are most commonly linked to the extant varanid lizards, which includes the modern monitor lizards and komodo dragon. according to this, if snakes are descended from mosasaurs, or a mosasaur like ancestor, then genetic evidence is going to place them as being most related to the varanids. however phylogenetic reconstructions do not show a particularly close relationship between the snakes and varanids ([source]( _url_3_)) . phylogenetic trees also show that the blind snakes (the burrowing ones i mentioned earlier) appear to have branched off from the rest of the snakes really early on, indicated that perhaps the earliest snakes really were burrowing. of course, we don’t have any dna from the mosasaurs, so who’s to say that the mosasaurs are not descended from a different group of lizards? this paper uses morphological data to show that the mosasaurs may have been more closely related to snakes than varanids, and suggest that a different type of now extinct lizard was the ancestor to the snakes and lizards. (sorry, i don’t have an online version to it) lee, m.s.y. molecular evidence and marine snake origins (2005) biology letters, 1 (2), pp. 227-230. to counter this, some basal snake fossils have recently been discovered that possess back legs from the mid-cretaceous. if snakes evolved from marine reptiles, they would have lost flippers to become limbless, not legs. ([source]( _url_6_). of course, confusing the whole situation, several of these basal limbed snakes have been found in marine deposits. ([source- links to papers]( _url_7_). intrestingly there is a modern group of reptiles called the [lanthanotus]( _url_2_), with only one species call the earless monitor ([pic]( _url_1_)). they are both burrowing and semi-aquatic, and while not closely related to snakes, show how an animal can have traits that support both lifestyles. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scolecophidia",
"http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~varanus/lanthanotus.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanthanotus",
"http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/8/6/1043.long",
"http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1666/09023.1",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6745/abs/400655a0.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7087/abs/nature04413.html",
"http://paleopolis.rediris.es/cg/CG2003_A01_JCR-FE/index_uk.html"
] | [
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] |
given a molar mass, how can you guess what from a salt has? xy or xy2 | our result gave us a molar mass of 51+-4 g/mol. it was a white powder. no real smell. i found nh4hs, are there any other salts that have a mm of +-51 and are soluble in water? | if it's safe for an undergrad lab to handle, my first guess would be [ammonium chloride](_url_0_), nh4cl. there are probably other combinations once you factor in all the possible cation components (li, be, na, mg, nh4, others?) and anion components (f, cl, cn, others?). [sodium cyanide](_url_1_) is also a possibility, but i doubt that you used that in lab as an unknown since it's potentially toxic. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_cyanide"
] | [
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does hale bopp belong to the solar system? or does its trajectory just go through the solar system from time to time? | hale-bopp is a long-period comet that orbits once about every 2500 years. at closest approach it is slightly closer to the sun than earth, at furthest separation it is 370 times as far from the sun as earth, or about 13 times as far as neptune. we tend to think of the solar system as the region with the planets, in which case hale-bopp does just pass through, but it is in a stable orbit of the sun and may well has been for a while--it may have been orbiting the sun since it formed, though it's also conceivable it has been captured at some point. there are other long-period comets which can get as much as 50 times further from the sun as hale-bopp, and probably unobserved ones that get even further but still remain in orbit. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do aquaporins stop the influx of protons into the cell? | that's a pretty cool discovery, peter agre got the nobel for it. it's described in the [wikipedia article](_url_2_), although not very clearly. they key is that you have several positively-charged arginine residues in the middle of the pore. since they're positively charged, protons are repelled and can't move straight through. but that alone isn't enough to stop them getting past, because they'd still be able to get past using a [grotthuss mechanism](_url_1_), where protons are exchanged along a chain of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. and that's the second thing the arg residues do - the water molecules orient themselves with their partially-negative oxygen atoms towards the positively-charged arginines. so instead of having a h-o--h-o--h-o hydrogen-bond chain, you have h-o--h-o-- arg^+ --o-h--o-h , the chain of hydrogen bonds is 'broken' in the middle (also seen in the article's [picture](_url_0_) if you look carefully). so they can't move along the hydrogen bonded chain any farther than to the arginine, but that's a place positively-charged particles don't want to linger. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/AQP-channel.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grotthuss_mechanism",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaporin#ar.2FR_selectivity_filter"
] | [
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|
how do dogs make atp? | every being needs energy. animals cells make atp from sugar and oxygen. so where do dogs (and other meat eaters) get sugar from if they eat exceedingly meat. | gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from protein-rich sources. this is quite commonly used for production of energy across all living beings (plant and animal alike). in humans this is frequently seen in ketogenic diets or diets treating diabetes (and, to an extent, also the atkins diet that was popular in the early 2000s). glycogen can be produced in this manner from fatty acids and amino acids with pyruvate (as well as lactate). it is also associated with the cori cycle as a part of the larger krebs cycle. while carbohydrates are more easily converted to glucose/glycogen, gluconeogenesis fills the pathway to atp production in the absence of sugar stores. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are there two types of anchoring junctions in cell biology? | anchoring junctions can consist of either actin or intermediate filaments. when would you want one and not the other, and why? | according to essential cell biology, 4th ed., adherens juntions are linked to actin filaments and desmosomes are connected to keratin (intermediate) filaments. and > bundles of ropelike keratin filaments criss-cross the cytoplasm and are "spot-welded" via desmosome junctions to the bundles of keratin filaments in adjacent cells. this arrangement confers great tensile strength on the epithelial sheet and is characteristic of tough, exposed epithelia such as the epidermis of the skin. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are rates of mountain growth calculated? | modern measurements of current uplift (and subsidence for that matter) has been made easy by the development of very accurate gps. [here's](_url_0_) a very short article about how this is being applied in new zealand's southern alps to determine uplift rates. essentially you can just measure your precise altitude relative to a reference point over time, and from that deduce the uplift rate. as for determining ancient uplift rates from geology, that's a bit trickier. one of the easiest ways is by using uplifted marine terraces or reefs. these features form at or around sea level, so if you see one, say, uplifted 100m above sea level, you can deduce that the terrace has been uplifted 100m, and if you can deduce how old the terrace is and therefore how long it took to uplift, you can work out the rate of uplift. this requires a correction for the sea level at the time of deposition- sea level is not constant, it may have been higher or lower at the time of deposition. other, less certain techniques for deducing rates of uplift might come from things like pollen preserved in sediments. as altitude increases, the types of plants that grow change dramatically and so too the types of pollen that will accumulate and be preserved. applying the same technique as with marine terraces, one can subtract the original inferred altitude of the sediment to the current altitude and thus estimate the rate of uplift. this is hampered by significant uncertainty though, as pollen may be affected by climate as well as altitude. there are several other potential altitude indicators, but they all have lots of uncertaintly. just look at the error bars in [this graph](_url_1_) from [garzione et al.'s](_url_2_) paper on the rise of the andes... not very precise at all! i'm sure a proper structural geologist could give a better answer than that, but i believe that's the general gist of it. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/News-and-Events/Media-Releases/Researchers-measure-mountain-growth",
"https://i.gyazo.com/504469d3310593258145523bb994babf.png",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/320/5881/1304",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2TS01Ro_JM",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-L7PS2NvJuk",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8L-6WIvVikI"
] | [
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|
if you one day woke up in the middle ages how would your knowledge of science help you survive? | supposing it were possible of course, how would your knowledge help you without any of the infrastructure we have currently? what would you do first and why? how would you live your life? | wash your hands. do whatever is necessary to have other people wash their hands. move the midden heaps away from the kitchens. find someone with cowpox and infect yourself immediately. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldo_da_Rosa"
] | [
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] |
how do we know a fundamental particle decaying into another does not reflect/show that it is not actually a fundamental particle? | it's not what it decays to that tells you about compositeness. what *can* tell you about compositeness is the form of the probabilities for the processes (such as cross-section for scattering, and decay width for decay). typically you can predict almost exactly these probabilities if you assume the particles are actually pointlike and not composite. the real data, if the particles are actually composite, will deviate from these predictions. typically the most drastic deviations will appear when the momenta involved are such that the wavelengths are smaller than the structural size of the particles and can therefore probe the internal structure. for example, the proton's compositeness becomes obvious when the collision energy is at least of order hbar * c / (size of proton ~ 1 fm). | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any good evidence showing that fish experience suffering? | if not, is there any good evidence showing adverse effects of fish farms on the environment? | define suffering. you're asking a somewhat loaded question. fish can experience nociceptive stimuli. it's an open question. if you really want to know the answer, at least google "pain in fish" because there's a really nice layperson article on this on wikipedia. [here, i'll link it for you.](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_in_fish"
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why is my depth perception so bad when trying to do things while looking in a mirroir? | thought about it while trying to shut my bathroom door. | because the image is the distance from your eye to the mirror to the object, not from your eye to the object. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain to me what this guy means by "that whole light theory by einstein is being proven wrong by science right now."? | [here's](_url_0_) the context of why he said that statement. was he just trying to be snarky and say that science is always proving itself wrong? or did he hear something wrong? | who knows? but my guess is that he read something about last year's much-reported story about the apparently-faster-than-light neutrinos measured at cern. if true, it'd mean something would be wrong with einstein's theory of special relativity - at least as we understand it today. "einstein was wrong!" makes for a good headline, but it's not really true - since the vast majority of physicists don't believe at all that's the case. if someone thinks science is "always proving itself wrong", they've fundamentally misunderstood science. it's not about being absolutely 'right' or 'wrong', it's about getting more and more 'right'. if a scientific theory works, there's something right about it. if you come up with a new theory that works even better, it doesn't mean the old one is 'wrong', just that it's a more approximate theory, or limited to a certain set of circumstances. since the new theory encompasses the old one, it'll also give insight into why the old one worked where it did. for instance, quantum mechanics is fundamentally different from classical newtonian mechanics. some of the basic assumptions of classical mechanics are false in the quantum realm. but that doesn't mean newton was "proven wrong" - he'd no ability to ever test his theory on subatomic particles. classical mechanics still works just fine for the kinds of things it was created to describe. it can be said to be an approximation of quantum mechanics for objects that are heavy and large. so quantum mechanics didn't prove classical mechanics wrong. what it _did_ prove wrong was the _assumption_ physicists had made, that the mechanics of human-sized objects work the same way as the mechanics of subatomic particles. it's that _assumption_ that was proven false, not classical mechanics itself. there was nothing wrong with making this assumption though. it's rational to assume your existing knowledge applies in new situations until proven otherwise. that's what science is about - coming up with theories that explain what you do know so you can predict the things you don't know. if you deny that this is possible, you're not just denying the scientific method but knowledge itself. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/3aKoh.jpg"
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where does the energy go if you have a power generator / solar panel / wind turbine that is not wired up to anything? | i always wondered this. so there are some giant generators across the world, that are pumping out huge amounts of current. where does that energy go if you just cut the wire? | friction and nowhere. what happens in a spinning generator is that the total absence of current would reduce the "counter torque"* to zero. the generator would speed up until the regulator reduced the torque applied to the generator to maintain desired speed. this would reduce the amount of power going to the turbine and keep it in whatever is your actual energy source. at that point, the only energy being moved is that which keeps it spinning, overcoming friction in the machine, producing heat. for a wind turbine, the controls will either feather the blades so that it shuts down, or if you can't do that, it can, i suppose, bleed the energy to a big resistor to keep it from spinning out of control. there has to be a control, otherwise [this](_url_0_) happens. honestly, i don't know for a solar cell. the energy has to go somewhere. likely the cell just acts like a black panel and heats up more since you can't control the incident energy. conservation of energy rules all. *countertorque and counter electromotive force: every generator is a motor and every motor is a generator. the output creates a force to counteract the input. in the case of a generator, the generated current acts to create a motoring force that wants to spin the generator backwards, in effect, a force that slows it down. the more current, the greater the force. for a motor, the generator action tries for force the electron current back out and slows down current flow. this is why locking a motor makes it heat up. there's no generator motion to create the reverse current force. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/ti1ebjLephE?t=14"
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is the symmetry on an animal's coat in any way related to mitosis? | i've always wondered. also, if after 19 years i still am using the wrong type of cell division let me know. the way i learned was meiosis = gametes and mitosis is everything else, right? | it depends on whether you're asking about x-inactivation or about patterns in general. for the coat patterning on female calico or tortoiseshell cats, the patchy pattern is because of x-inactivation early during mitosis. females have two x chromosomes and males have 1. to prevent doubled gene expression due to two copies of the x, one x chromosome is "randomly" inactivated. it so happens that the genes responsible for coat color in cats is on the x-chromosome. so if a female cat has 1 x where the color gene would create an orange color, and on the other x the color gene would create a black color, when the x-chromosomes randomly inactivate, some will keep the "orange gene" active and some will keep the "black gene" active. as these cells grow and divide with the animal's embryonic development, the inactivated chromosomes stay the same throughout the lineage, so you'll get the mottled look. (note: this is called heterozygosity, it's very common, and when i say "black gene" and "orange gene" what i mean is "gene whose variation contributes to a black or orange phenotype via influence in pigmentation pathways, depending on the gene sequence). so yes. for patterns in general, they are only related to mitosis in a broad sense-- in that, if cells didn't divide, there would be no patterns. first, think about the idea that our whole body plan, not just the stripes on a tiger, is a pattern. a lot of patterns are set up by chemical signalling gradients in cells, which in turn were set up by specific genes being turned on or turned off at specific times. this all starts very very early in embryonic development and can propagate during mitosis because when cells divide, they also divide up the signalling proteins. the symmetry is coat colors is likely related to our bilateral symmetry in general. if signals are sent from the anterior-posterior axis, along the spinal cord, and they diffuse equally on both sides (no reason they wouldn't), you'll get symmetry in all of these signals, some of which instruct the body to form other segments like legs or tails, and some of which set up gene expression for pigmentation patterns in the skin. not all of this patterning is perfectly symmetrical, and this is because a lot of the chemical diffusion (or, in some cases, actual cell migration) aren't perfect, and there is little to no way for a cell on the left side of the body to make sure that a cell on the right side of the body is doing the same thing. but in general, things look similar, because in general, the diffusion properties are the same on each side of the body. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do t.v's make a high pitch noise when they are on? | you may have noticed that flat screen tvs don't make that high pitched noise. older tvs have transformers for producing 15.75 khz electrical oscillations, which also end up physically vibrating at those frequencies. that's at the high end of human hearing. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_transformer#Operation_and_usage"
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|
deflection in atom smashers | when i look at traces of particles caroming after being collided togther, i always wonder what explains those paths that "curve" or "spiral" -- smash billard balls togther and they fly off in straight lines. all i can think that would induce the spin would be the extreme magnet fields within the device. what causes these wild curved deflections? | yes, the magnetic fields force the particles to move in circles, because when a charged particle passes through a magnetic field the particle experiences a force at right angles to the magnetic field lines. we can figure out the mass and charge of the particle from the size and direction of the circle. try this dollar-tour of a bubble chamber: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2003/publish/bubble%20chambers/BC%20website%20beta/01.htm"
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] |
waves, can they be made of the strong and weak force? | there are four fundamental forces. electromagnetism, gravitation, strong, and weak. we are rather accomplished at this point in making and detecting electromagnetic waves. as i understand it making gravitational waves is as simple as oscillating a mass, and if the mass is sufficiently large and close then i believe we already have detectors built that should pickup on the waves. that leaves the strong and weak force. can waves be made of them? if gluons were arranged and moved like electrons in an antenna would the strong force equivalent of radio waves be made? i tried to google things like gluon antenna, but i don't know anything about quantum chromodynamics, partons, or if an antenna function in any way relates to and electromagnetic antenna. | the weak force is short ranged because the w and z bosons are massive[1]. gluons are massless, but qcd is confining so you can't get long ranged gluon excitations either[2]. [1] the w and z are also unstable particles. [2] the hand-waving way to see that qcd is confining is to note that gluons self-interact (since qcd is non-abelian). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what voltage does the human body use to control muscles? | as most people know the human body uses electricity to control muscle movement through contraction. i was wondering what voltage is actually used if at all comparable and just how similar the mechanism the human body uses are to the mechanism of electricity of a house and such | the way the body controls skeletal muscles are through a connection of your nerves, which usually start from your brain, to their associated muscles. most of the time, your nerves are at rest, at -70mv relative to the rest of your body, which is set by an equilibrium of ion pumps and leak channels on the cell surface. so to answer part of your question, the voltage is created by a difference of ions like potassium, sodium, and chloride, unlike batteries. a nerve conduction will travel down the nerve, and at that certain time and point of the nerve, the nerve cell has a voltage +30mv at its peak. this so-called "action potential" is caused by the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels on the surface (which happens when the voltage is around -55mv). the resultant flow of positive sodium ions into the nerve is what drives up the voltage to +30mv. the opening of channels for other ions are what will ultimately bring the voltage back to the resting potential. when the nerve conduction reaches the muscle cell, the change in voltage stimulates the release of calcium ions, again through voltage-gated channels. these calcium ions will react with other structures within the fiber to cause muscle movement. edit: note that this is for your normal simple skeletal muscle. cardiac muscle within the heart operate on different potentials. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why dont acls and meniscus heal on their own? | * connective tissue in general (which includes tendons, ligaments, and cartilage) tends to have very poor blood supply; it consists mainly of fibers and fluids that give it its elasticity. so even if a ligament sustains only a minor injury, that injury takes a long time to heal because healing and repair require supply of nutrients and immune system cells, which come through blood * the connective tissue that is commonly injured (such as acl and knee meniscus) are typically the same ones that are used a lot during your everyday activities. this impairs healing. * some connective tissue injury involves such a great degree of mechanical damage to the tissue that your body has no way to repair it. for example, if you completely tear your acl, you now have two end of your acl flapping around unattached. there is no way for your body to reattach them (which is why this type of injury is treated with ligament graft). similarly, some injury to meniscus can cause it to fold up in ways that can only be undone with surgery. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if unobstructed, does gas dispersion have any kind of set path or is it completely random? | i know very little about science so forgive me if this is an ignorant question. as far as i know, gas dispersion is random. i was wondering, if there is no obstruction (other molecules, etc.) does gas dispersion follow any kind of pattern? | yes, classically, each molecule of gas will obey [newton’s laws of motion](_url_0_). that is, it will move along a straight line at a constant speed until it interacts with and is deflected by something else (another molecule, some wall or boundary, etc.). note that these rules are completely deterministic and contain no randomness whatsoever. gas dispersion is only random in the sense that for any appreciable amount of gas, the molecules are so numerous and moving so quickly that predicting the behavior of the gas with newton’s laws directly is prohibitively difficult, such that you describe the gas approximately with [statistical mechanics](_url_1_), i.e., with randomness. with no obstruction, the gas will expand uniformly in every direction, on average approaching 0 density everywhere. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics"
] | [
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why do you start trembling/shaking if you haven’t eaten in a while? | when you start trembling due to hunger, this is likely caused by hypoglycemia, which is low blood sugar. when your brain detects low blood sugar, it activates your stress response, which releases hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, which will raise your blood sugar levels but also cause you to become shaky. the condition is called physiological tremor. | 482 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does keratin in human differ from keratin in other animals? | i know that keratin is what makes up skin cells and hair cells, and that animals with shells and tougher skin are also made of keratin. my question is, how are they different? is it to do with the thickness? are there other proteins involved that makes it stronger/weaker? what determines it's color and texture? | keratins in animals are not fundamentally different that keratins in humans. the hardness of keratins is mainly determined by the sulfur content. harder keratins, like hooves, have a higher sulfur content. the reason why is somewhat complicated, but basically the sulfur allows parts of the protein to stick to other parts of the protein, making it more rigid. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://bass.bio.uci.edu/~hudel/bs99a/lecture26/disulfide.gif"
] | [
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how does your body produce keratin and what can you do to control the amount it produces? | well keratin is a protein, albeit a very common protein and one that is very strong. it in essence highlights how strong the amide bond really is. anyways, keratin expression is regulated by mrna levels, which is cell type dependent. the most familiar cell with the keratin you know is called a keratinocyte, and they produce a ton of keratin. there is little or nothing you could do to change this with current technology. ramping back on the amount of keratin produced in your whole body would cause you to in all likelihood die within hours. it is not just a component of your hair and nails but also a major part of your individual cells cytoskeleton. in essence each of your cells has a very elaborate and dynamic network of cytoskeletal proteins (tubulin, actin, and keratin being prominent) that are literally 100% necessary for life. | 149 | [] | [] | [] | [
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