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does modern medicine actually make the human species less fit by allowing traits that would normally die out to be passed on? | fitness is the ability to survive and reproduce. modern medicine contributes to the fitness of those with access to it. what do you mean by normally? | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactase_persistence",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_evolution#Recent_and_current_human_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_vestigiality",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin_color",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease#Genetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCR5"
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|
why do many invertebrates have hemolymph rather than "normal blood" like vertebrates? | from what i understand - and thats very little - is that hemolymph is copper-based whereas our blood is iron-based. why do they need a copper-based fluid rather than iron-based? was this an early stage in the evolution of the blood that we have in us? or maybe what i'm asking is, was this flowing through most creatures during the cambrian period? what would happen to an insect is they had blood rather than hemolymph? | insects do not have an enclosed circulatory system, and they have a tracheal system (open-air tubes reaching almost every cell) to provide oxygen. the hemolymph serves to move nutrients and hormones, and to regulate waste products. there are (of course!) exceptions, [insects which use hemoglobin](_url_0_)(*edit format), often in poor-oxygen aquatic systems. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02061785"
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what's "greener" and/or more energy efficient? paper towels or hand dryers? | there are many variables, but electric dryers are lower in cost to operate and, over a lifetime, can be better for the environment (how much depends on paper source, type of dryer, power source...). however, they may not be as hygienic as paper. an efficient dryer (like a dyson airblade) with a renewable electrical source should always beat paper with transport and disposal costs. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(12)00393-X/fulltext",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_dryer",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/joe_smith_how_to_use_a_paper_towel.html"
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|
is there any kind of dream analysis that is derived from scientific studies rather than just mumbo-jumbo? | for a made-up example, a study that found that clinically depressed people more often dreamt about "empty houses" compared to a control group would demonstrate experimentally-derived information, rather than the tripe about dreams you find on self-help bookshelves. | there is nothing scientific that addresses dream content at the level of detail you're suggesting. for example, there is research that tries to answer questions like "do persons with depression experience dreams with greater emotional content than non-depressed persons." by simply asking people to rate the "emotional level" of their dream on a scale of 1-5 for example. however, there is nothing where you could be so specific as to say "a dream containing an empty house is frequently seen in persons with depression". the magnitude and scale needed to do a study like that is far greater than the benefit it would provide in my opinion. i may take some flack for this statement, but as a physician with training in psychiatry, i argue that the science consistently shows that dream content serves little or no purpose in the diagnosis or treatment of psychiatric disorders. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does water gather together? | when i spill water, why does it create a puddle instead of evenly dispersing? and when it starts to flow, why does it move in a little line or stream instead of just spreading in all directions? same goes for water droplets and when water comes out of a hose. thanks for your help! | yay finally a question i can answer! water molecules want to bond together and form hydrogen bonds between each other. this causes them to exhibit surface tension. the water molecules at the surface of the liquid don't have as many other molecules to bind to. therefore, the surface molecules create stronger bonds with each other. this is called surface tension. that is why water droplets are created - the surface molecules have a strong bond. water molecules actually have the second highest surface tension, mercury has the highest. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what were the technological breakthroughs that ushered in the drone era? | in my opinion, smartphones. here's why: to make a modern quadcopter drone, you need the following: * lightweight, high capacity batteries * very powerful tiny motors * a motion sensing chip to stabilize flight * a tiny camera * a tiny computer to operate all of the above. every one of these technologies was originally developed for mobile phones, smartphones especially. (the tiny motors are needed to run the vibrate feature.) early modern drones often used tons of cell phone parts in the construction, and there's still a huge amount of technological overlap. it's no coincidence that quadcopter drones started becoming popular as soon as smartphone parts became cheap and widely available. (i should mention i'm not talking about military drones here. those are, imo, basically a totally different tech.) | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do the indoor fountains at the bellagio maintain such a solid stream when every other supersoaker, shower and urine making human can't? | _url_0_ | i assume you're talking about the water streams being smooth, rather than turbulent like a stream from a tap? there was a how do they do it? episode about how they manage this at the bellagio fountains, which you can see [here](_url_0_) (set to the time where it actually explains how they do this.) | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfqgD5PI8OU"
] | [
"http://youtu.be/rQDUeVg_418?t=1m10s"
] | [
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is the current us economy a zero-sum game? | is the current us economy a zero-sum game (as defined in the first paragraph or so of the [zero-sum wiki](_url_0_))? | further down in the article it explains that many economies aren't zero-sum: the us housing market collapse is a great example of this. homeowners, banks, and shareholders all *lost* money on the bottom line without it being accounted for elsewhere (no one gained the amount that others lost). that money is simply *gone*. this is likely to get some replies of "nuh-uh! big banks made the money back! zero-sum!" so, i'll address it here. *some* banks *did* make money by selling their subprime loans, but they didn't also profit off the money that was lost by other lenders. similarly, even though banks now own lots of real estate through foreclosure, the values of those homes have been destroyed and they're unlikely to recoup full loan amounts. yes, i know they will be sold at auction, but many will be sold for tax value and not mortgage value. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-sum_game"
] | [] | [
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when i was a kid i would get a strange reaction when touching an aluminum soda tab to my braces then my tongue... | what exactly was happening? was i making a battery in my mouth? it always made a weird taste, but it was fun to 14 year old me. i would place the tab by itself on my tongue and nothing would happen, until i also touched it to my metal braces. | essential, yes, you made a battery with your saliva acting as an electrolyte. different metals have different electrode potentials causing an ion migration. this is likely what caused the weird taste as your tongue completes the circuit. try licking the terminals of a 9 volt battery and see if it tastes the same. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a power supply how do rails work? | looking for a new power supply so i can power 2 gpus. apparently amps running on the 12v rail is very important. could you explain how the rail works? also 1 rail vs say 4 rails? if it means anything i was looking at: corsair cx series cx750 or evga supernova nex 750 | rails in a power supply are like the individual circuit breakers in your breaker box, they are just current limiters on a cluster of wires. in a modern psu ac comes in from the wall, gets converted to dc, and that dc gets converted down to 12v, from there some is converted down to 5v and 3.3v, but there is only a single 12v source. from that source there are bundles of wires that run out, if they make two bundles and run them through 2 current sense resistors(equivilent to the branch breaker) you get 2 "rails", if they split them into 4 bundles through 4 current sense resistors you get 4 "rails". single rail design is the easiest, you simply tie them all together and only place one current sense resistor. in the case of a multi-rail supply you cannot exceed the rail limits(branch breakers equivalent) or the combined rating(main breaker equivalent) or the psu will trigger its overcurrent protection and shut off. most power supplies have their connectors and current limited laid out such that you will only hit the overcurrent protection on a rail if you have something short out or start using adapters with the intent of overloading a single rail. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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not sure if this is a science question, but why are there paradoxes? | wouldn't the existence of paradoxes imply that our logic is flawed? one would think that if you discover a paradox in, say, a thought experiment, that you need to scrap your current idea and start over? why do we continue to say something is correct in the world of science when there are paradoxes surrounding it? | a paradox does indeed indicate that something in your assumptions or your logical reasoning is flawed. but keep in mind that many things in physics which are referred to as "paradoxes", are not in fact paradoxes according to our best physical theories, they're just things which clash with our intuition. two examples are the [fermi paradox](_url_1_) and the [twin paradox](_url_0_). the fermi paradox basically asks, "if life is as common as we estimate, why haven't we heard from it?" why are there no loud alien radio signals blaring at us, why aren't aliens visiting, etc? there are several possible resolutions to this problem. the most obvious is that life may actually be very rare in the universe. others include: * intelligent life tends not to last very long * interstellar travel is prohibitively difficult, and interstellar communication is not something that aliens are investing much effort in * related, the aliens have some reason to hide their presence (hawking and others have suggested that it may be dangerous to broadcast one's presence, in case there are malevolent aliens out there) as for the twin paradox, it's not really a paradox when viewed properly. put one twin on a relativistic spaceship, send them out into space for a few decades of earth time, and when they come back they'll have experienced less time and be more youthful than the other twin. but wait, in either twin's reference frame, the *other* was going rapidly! so how can one of them be actually younger? the answer is that one of them stayed in an inertial reference frame, and one of them didn't (the one who had to accelerate in the spaceship). **long story short, most paradoxes in physics aren't true paradoxes but rather are thought experiments which appear troubling but are in fact resolvable.** | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_paradox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_paradox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox"
] | [
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holes in the theory of evolution | the word "theory" when used in the context of science, **does not** mean the same thing it does in everyday speech. it's meaning is closer to "an explanation of how something works" rather than "a guess." | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does our body get rid of co? | everyone knows haemoglobin prefers carbon monoxide over any other gas and that that is why it kills us. so how do our bodies get rid of it if they can't replace it with anything else? | well it's not like the heme group take a look at some incoming possible substrate molecule and decides it likes the one it already has better. the way these things work is that you have an equilibrium, where a certain proportion of the substrate molecules will be bound, and a certain portion will be in solution, and the individual molecules move back and forth, while the proportions stay the same. heme-co (bound) < -- what those proportions are depend on how strongly the molecule binds. if it binds more strongly, then a higher proportion of the molecules will be in the bound state. so the situation could be that you have 90% of o2 bound to heme and 10% in solution, while with co it'd be 99% vs 1%. (qualitatively but not quantitatively accurate numbers since i can't bother to look up the actual ones). so you have a situation where both these molecules are competing with each other, but co wins out. but if you take someone with carbon monoxide poisoning away from the co gas and give them pure oxygen, you increase the amount of o2 in solution in the blood, allowing a corresponding increase in o2 bound to the heme. at the same time the fraction of co that's in solution in the blood may escape through the lungs, and since there's no new co around, that concentration will go down with time. the equilibrium strives to keep that 1%-99% proportion so as co gets lost from solution in the blood, it gets replaced with co previously bound to the hemes. now, molecules can bind so strongly that for all intents the reaction is irreversible and there is no equilibrium worth talking about. perhaps only one trillionth of the molecules of that type are in solution rather than 1%. this is the case with cyanide ions, which bind to heme even more strongly than co does. (again that's not the exact number) in that case you do not recover by breathing oxygen for a while, because the cyanide doesn't dissociate and leave through the lungs to any appreciable extent. what happens in that case is that you have to wait for the body to produce new hemoglobin and other heme-containing enzymes like cytochrome c oxidase that bind cyanide. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the pancreas serve as a receptor and a modulator for blood glucose? | we all know that the pancreas can respond to blood sugar levels by secreting insulin or glucagon, but does it detect these levels itself with its own chemo-receptors or is this job done by another organ such as the hypothalamus? | beta cells in the pancreas do the detection. they take up glucose from blood, which is then metabolised normally to generate atp. when atp is used for cellular processes it gets converted to adp. if blood glucose is high, the ratio of atp to adp in beta cells increases. this causes activation of an atp-sensitive potassium pump and then a calcium channel which leads to secretion of insulin into the bloodstream from beta cells. edit: pancreatic alpha cells do a pretty similar thing but with glucagon getting released at low glucose levels. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/g-protein-coupled-receptors-pancreatic-islets-and-14257267"
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] |
what are some examples of evolution being observed in a lab? | this is one of the most striking examples that occurred recently. richard lenski, an evolutionary biologist at university of michigan, has been monitoring the decedents from one *e. coli* bacterium (split into 12 different samples) in lab since 1988 - over 44,000 generations of *e. coli*. in 2008 he published findings that indicated that one of the samples had evolved the ability to metabolize - or eat - citrate, a nutrient that normal *e. coli* cannot use. ([pnas paper](_url_2_)) the cool thing is that this mutation could be repeated. every 500 generations, a small portion of the population was frozen, allowing the researchers to restart the evolution of the *e. coli* from any point. when they unfroze earlier samples they found that after a certain generation number, these *e. coli* would reliably evolve the unusual citrate metabolizing ability. more information about the [e. coli long-term evolution experiment here](_url_0_) and a [good summary on new scientist](_url_1_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment",
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14094-bacteria-make-major-evolutionary-shift-in-the-lab.html",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/105/23/7899"
] | [
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|
have there been any studies about the economies of largely isolated tribes? | i'm referring to tribes of south america or africa which have very little contact with the outside world. i know anthropologists and sociologists will venture into these isolated corners of the globe to study their dynamics. but what about economists? | david graeber's book debt: the first 5000 years touches on this very question. in the beginning he examines and tries to pinpoint specifically when does currency and the marketplace arise and why do economists constantly begin with the barter system. in reality, no economist can give an example of an actual barter system ever being used, it is used as a mythology and taught in business courses across the globe. why? the story somehow gives economists a legitimacy to teach their form of economics. graeber describes ancients writings from mesopotamia and of the way trade was conducted by indigenous tribes in north america. there was never a system of, henry wants chickens, so henry trades john shoes for his chickens. communities tend to develop a system of judging value against different objects, and how they expressed this value and traded it amongst themselves varied. in some north american first nations, women were the ones who allocated resources and men would go to their women when something was needed. if henry's shoes were old, his wife would mention it in the congregation of other women, and john's wife would tell john to give henry his new shoes he doesn't wear. this is then passed on as a mental iou note and whenever john would need something, henry would look out for him. tribes would go through economic trade rituals with each other. the head of each group would then start bargaining aggressively. today we try to sell each other objects by describing how much the other would want it. they would do the opposite. if something was valuable, you would describe it as old, useless, junk and not worthy. this would show your interest in keeping it and not wanting to trade. the other group would then try to acquire it. once they believe a deal has been made they would swap or some members may prematurely take the resource which can lead into fights. a ritual dance would then begin where the men mimic sexual expressions with their weapons towards the women of the other tribe, this would allow a release of tension between the groups without leading to a fight. graeber goes more in depth, specifics of currencies, markets and down to the root of a debt system. markets developed not freely and open as capitalists would believe but only through a state power that developed market systems to sustain armies. have this book a read, you wont regret it. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you use a normal (cmos) camera for detecting scintillation? | i was reading up on how to make a radiation detector using a scintillator, and all of them say that a photomultiplier (pmt) must be used to detect the scintillation. can you just use a normal camera (phone camera) to detect this, assuming it was sealed off from all external light? | i don't think you will get sufficient gains from using a phone to detect scintillation light, but if ionization occurs within the camera chip itself you can detect it. there is active research on trying to make a cosmic ray observatory by using networks of smartphones. you can read more about it [here](_url_0_). fig.5 actually shows a picture of muons leaving tracks in a phone camera when it was exposed to a test beam at cern. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1410.2895.pdf"
] | [
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is there a way to change wavelength of light without using doppler effect? | as the title says. i was wondering if there was a way to make a contraption to mount eg. on the house window to see outside in different colours. | yes, certain materials can scale the frequency of certain wavelengths. for example potassium titanyl phosphate will double infra red's frequency to emit green light, and is used in green lasers, or monopotassium phosphate. these nonlinear crystalline materials take in light and output higher order harmonic waves, doubling or tripling the frequencies of the incoming light. they might be rather expensive still to put on a home window though. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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certain whiskies go from clear to clouded and/or start exhibiting rayleigh scattering after i add water. why? | i have several whiskies at cask strength ( > 55% abv). it is advised to dilute them with water before drinking. a lot of these whiskies are also advertised as unchill-filtered. as far as i know chill-filtering normally removes proteins, fatty acids and esters naturally present in the whisk(e)y. before adding water, all of these whiskies are clear, yellow-to-amber liquids. however, after adding water they usually become cloudy and start exhibiting rayleigh scattering (at least i think it's rayleigh, the one that makes a fluid look yellowish on one end an blueish on the other). however, intuitively i'd say that adding clear water to a fluid should reduce the cloudiness and scattering of the fluid in question, not increase it. can anyone tell me what's causing it to increase? if necessary, i can take some pictures | a picture could probably tell more, but from the description i think you might be seeing the [ouzo effect](_url_0_). this effect would make the whisky very cloudy though, and would require that there was a significant amount of oils left over from the fermentation. in essence you are making a microemulsion out of the oils that were dissolved in the higher % ethanol whisky (hence, clear solution) that are now forming a different phase when you dilute the ethanol with water. the microemulsion caused by this effect usually makes droplets that are too big to scatter visible light though, so it is also possible that you are just crashing out very small particles that were not filtered. in this case, the water again dilutes the alcohol which can cause lower solubility of particles left over from the fermentation/distillation. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouzo_effect"
] | [
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can granite rock in the earth be related to elevated instances of cancer? | the reason i ask is because of where i live (in southwestern new brunswick, canada) the ground is rich in natural mineral deposits and has a large amount of red granite as well. so much red granite, in fact, that one town in the county is nicknamed granite town. recently (by that i mean in the past couple of decades or so) there has been an increase in cancer cases which has caused many theories to spread around as to why this is so. one theory is the nearby nuclear power station is what is causing the cancer, but i disregard this because of the fact that nuclear power plants have such low emissions and are closely monitored for this sort of thing. another theory that is spreading around is that granite rock holds a lot of radiation and that it is the cause of the increased instances of cancer cases in the county. could this be possible? i've read that granite can be associated with uranium and radium along with radon gas and i am wondering if with the ground so rich in granite that it is actually a health risk for people living in this area? i am open to any related information. | there is some truth to this, actually. [some forms of granite contain up to 10-20 ppm of uranium.](_url_0_) radon is a product of uranium decay. to boot, there was some [controversy](_url_1_) recently over whether granite countertops were producing radon through uranium decay, causing an increase in the incidence of cancer. radon, of course, being one of the top causes of lung cancer. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite#Natural_radiation",
"http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/07/25/earlyshow/health/main4292754.shtml"
] | [
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] |
are all non-contact forces unable to be 'felt' when a person is accelerated by them? | video in question [here](_url_0_) astronauts feel 'weightless' in space, despite a 'force' of gravity acting on them that causes them to accelerate around the earth (at least in the classical sense.) do all non-contact forces (such as electromagnetism, etc.) create fields in which objects rotating about them don't 'feel' centripetal acceleration? if i were that water droplet in the video above, would i see myself rotating around but not feel any forces causing it? | what you would feel would depend on your charge-to-mass ratio. astronauts in the iss feel weightless because they are being attracted to earth along with their vehicle. gravity is different from electric fields in the the force is proportional to mass, just like acceleration, so the acceleration of all objects in the field is constant at any point. in electric fields, force is proportional to charge, while acceleration is still proportional to mass, so the acceleration of a particle at a point depends on the mass-to-charge ratio. if you were not charged, and you were 'inside' the water particle, you would feel the force of the particle pushing you toward the center of the rotation. your inertia would make you 'want' to go straight, so the water droplet would have to push you inside to keep you in a circular orbit. the same applies if your mass-to-charge ratio is less than the water droplet's, or the opposite of the water droplet's (e.g. it is positively charged and you are negatively charged). if you were charged even more than the droplet relative to your mass, its inside edge would exert a force to the outside of the orbit. your mass-to-charge ratio would cause you to experience greater acceleration toward the center of your orbit, so the water droplet would have to balance it out. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UyRv8bNDvq4"
] | [] | [
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why don't we use therapeutic hypothermia when dealing with anticoagulation, or brain bleeds, etc.? | if ice can help a bruise by constricting blood vessels, why don't we use that on a greater scale, like for people on blood thinners, or for brain bleeds that won't clot? | extensive research has been done on this, if you’re interested into the science and medicine of it, you should read yourself: [_url_0_](_url_0_) there are many risks associated with major hypothermia, which would be required to result in any affects of coagulation, including cardiac arrhythmias, coagulopathy, hypokalemia, and infections, of which pneumonia is the most frequently reported. these are still rare < 4%. another risk is, as the study cited above tells: “a key adverse effect of hypothermia is shivering, which may cause great discomfort to the patient, triggering massive increases in systemic and cerebral energy consumption, that produce considerably slower cooling rates and increase intracranial pressure”. however; the study mentions multiple clinical trials in the case of severe brain trauma in which hypothermia has certainly helped: “kramer et al. in a 2009 cochrane review, included 23 trials and 1,614 patients with the following criteria: early hypothermia, target temperatures of 35°c for at least 12 h and the need for hospitalization. authors concluded that those patients treated with hypothermia had better results in terms of mortality and neurologic outcomes. “ the study mentions 4 other trials similar to this with similar results, with none citing major downsides. so, like a lot of things in medicine, why aren’t we? well we are- just maybe as not as much as we aren’t. it seems there aren’t many medical downsides, but when it comes to hospital procedure, time, and all that- it’s a different story; hopefully a medical doctor can elaborate. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4456795/"
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i just learned about the sinoatrial node. why does the heart stop in cases like fatal brain aneurisms if the heart has its own pacemaker? | if i understand correctly, the sinoatrial node is sort of like a natural pacemaker that generates an electrical impulse and stimulates the heartbeat. i read that even if you separate the heart from the brain, the heart can keep on beating because of the sa node. what is the reason that, for example, in the case of a fatal brain aneurism the heart stops working? or a broken neck, traumatic head injury, or any number of other things that can kill someone without physically damaging the heart or causing huge amounts of blood loss. why does the sa node stop stimulating heartbeat in these cases? am i just misunderstanding the concept? | not a pathologist, but i think it goes something like this: in a brain aneurysm, the leaking blood is pumped into the space between the brain the skull. this puts pressure on the brain and the vessels delivering blood to the brain, reducing blood flow to the brain. this causes the brain cells to die. if the medulla oblongata dies, your brain stops telling your abdominal muscles to breath. once that happens, it's only a matter of time before your heart stops due to lack of oxygen. basically the brain controls breathing, and if breathing stops the heart runs out of oxygen to continue pumping. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.omicsonline.org/pathophysiologic-changes-after-brain-death-and-organ-preservation-the-intensivist%E2%80%99s-and-anesthesiologist%E2%80%99s-role-2155-6148.1000302.pdf",
"https://books.google.com/books?id=ooH1nH81_h4C&pg=PA2108&lpg=PA2108&dq=heart+arrhythmia+autonomic+%22brain+death%22&source=bl&ots=43VdOUFAj9&sig=WEzf-Mn0kliv1A1ksWTYoT0ZKnM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs67nH5-vPAhWBPz4KHQkfAdkQ6AEIQTAG#v=onepage&q=heart%20arrhythmia%20autonomic%20%22brain%20death%22&f=false"
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if you touch a live wire at a rate equals to the line frequency (i.e. 50 hz) such that the touching is synchronizeed with zero crossings, will you be conducting electricity? | if you have an load and you connect it to ac for very brief periods of time during which the voltage across the leads is zero, no current will flow. your body would not be able to achieve that type of precision of movement, but an electrical component like an igbt or mosfet could. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
electric fencing woes | i have an electric fence used to keep livestock. the bottom of three wires is connected to a cut-off switch i can use to prevent a short in the event snow or vegetation touches the wire. my problem is that when the bottom wire is disconnected at the cut-off switch, it is still charged albeit at a lower voltage. i have two low impedance energizers that operate by periodically charging the fencing. when an animal touches the fence, current flows through their body, through the ground to the grounding rods connected to the energizer thereby completing the circuit. when i use the 10kv energizer, the voltage on the disconnected wire reads ~3kv. when i use the 3kv energizer, the voltage on the disconnected wire read ~600v. my limited electrical knowledge leads me to believe that when the energizer pulses, a magnetic field is generated perpendicular to the axis of current flow and when the pulse ends, the field collapses and induces voltage on the adjacent wires. questions: could the magnetic field be large enough to induce voltage on an adjacent fence wire over 12 inches away? i have a gate with two 14 gauge insulated copper wires buried underground in conduit. one wire connects the top two fence wires across the gap while the other connects the bottom fence wire. even though the wires are insulated with relatively thick pvc, could this be where the induction occurs? i know the wires are engineered to carry 120v ac but i thought they would be suitable for this purpose as the current flow is very low unless something touches the fence. am i completely wrong and it's something else? | a changing magnetic field can induce a voltage on a wire, but i don't think that is your problem. it sounds like you need to somehow discharge the fence when it becomes disconnected at the cut off switch. when the bottom wire is disconnected from the energizer, what is it electrically connected to? it should be connected to ground. if it is just floating you will get some intermediate voltage like you described. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does "weak force violates parity" mean? | by this i mean, what exactly does it do, and why is it a big deal. and as another question: since it's really the electroweak force, does electromagnetism break pairty too? | first of all, let me explain spin. particles have an intrinsic spin (it's analogous to the earth rotating around its axis, though in this case nothing is actually rotating). you can describe this spin by the direction its axis points. for particles like electrons, we say they're "right-handed" if the spin points in the same direction as their momentum and "left handed" if the spin points in the opposite direction. for forces that conserve parity, like the strong and electromagnetic force, the parity doesn't matter. if you look at a strong interaction in a mirror (so that left-handed particles look like right-handed, and vice-versa), it will look exactly the same as if you observed it without the mirror. but this isn't true for the weak force. the w bosons that transmit the weak force only act on left-handed particles (and right-handed antiparticles). suppose you have a beta decay in which an electron and an anti-neutrino are produced from the decay of a neutron. that anti-neutrino will always be right-handed, and the electron will always be left-handed. this isn't just limited to beta decays, though. it happens for all weak interactions. macroscopically, this can be seen in effects like tip_ty describes. the electromagnetic force doesn't violate parity. electroweak unification involves describing the photon and z boson as a mixing of two other particles. but the photon interacts with both left and right handed particles. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would temperature affect the duration and frequency of water rippling? | for example does warm water (lets just say 100°f) ripple longer or at a different frequency than cold water( maybe around 60°f)? i am genuinely curious if thermodynamics plays a big role in this or not. | water's viscosity drops as you increase the temperature so if you dropped identical stones into a very cold water tank vs a very warm tank it would ripple for longer in the warm tank because less of the stone's energy would be lost in the movement of less viscous water. _url_0_ | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://docs.engineeringtoolbox.com/documents/596/water_dynamic_viscosity.png",
"physicsforum.com",
"https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/waves-and-how-temperature-affects-their-velocity-in-water.677157/"
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stupid physics question | i don't know why i can't resolve this in my head. imagine you have a frictionless surface, in a vacuum, and you have some little ball in there. you provide some force to it, 1 joule worth of energy, and the ball is now rolling at 1 m/s. you then apply the same force perpendicular to this direction, and the ball is traveling 1 m/s in this direction as well. the total speed then, is ~1.4 m/s. now imagine you have second stationary ball, that you apply 1.4 joules of energy to. it travels at 1.4 m/s. but given the same final kinetic energy of the two balls, but different energy invested in them and no friction, where did the extra energy go? | you seem to be confusing three related quantities: * [force](_url_4_) is a rate of change of [momentum](_url_0_) over time, measured in kg m / s^2 . it's how hard you push something. * [impulse](_url_3_) is a before-and-after change in momentum, measured in kg m / s . it's how hard you hit something. * [work](_url_5_) is a change in energy, measured in kg m^2 / s^2 (joules). it's how much [energy](_url_2_) you give to something. this would seem to be a pedantic complaint, since it's clear what you mean for the first ball. but for the second ball, this doesn't follow: the problem is that [speed](_url_1_) is proportional to momentum, but not to energy. instead, speed is proportional to the square root of energy. so there are two cases, neither of which is paradoxical: * if you do 1.4 times the work on the ball, it will travel sqrt(1.4) = ~1.2 times as quickly. so the second ball travels at 1.2 m/s. * if you hit it with 1.4 times the impulse, it will travel 1.4 times as quickly. in order to do that, though, you'll have to do twice as much work. edit: added wikipedia links. edit^2 : as eefred, points out, these aren't good general definitions of the quantities. they're simply helpful distinctions that apply to the present problem. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_\\(physics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_\\(physics\\)"
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] |
what happened to this mountain? | in [this](_url_1_) picture on the left side there is a mountain peak that seems to be cut right in half. what could have caused this giant rock to split like that and where did the piece that broke off go? this is from _url_0_ | what you're looking at is half dome in yosemite national park in california. the geologic name for this is an arête and forms due to glacial processes. the orientation of this image is kind of an optical illusion. looking at it from [a different angle](_url_0_), you can see that it's more of a linear ridge than a "half dome". these form when you have two adjacent glaciers on either side of the ridge moving past the rock and eroding the material away. the intense erosional capacity of glaciers slices through the rock and forms a ridge known as an arête. if this happens on three sides you get something called a horn, which is how the [matterhorn](_url_1_) in the swiss alps formed. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/EarthPorn/comments/3mq5ky/the_valley_yosemite_national_park_7622x1837/",
"https://farm8.staticflickr.com/7546/15746287858_ce9525732c_o.jpg"
] | [
"https://adventuresofacouchsurfer.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/img_9936-half-dome.jpg",
"http://images.summitpost.org/original/361237.JPG"
] | [
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i added sodium carbonate and bicarbonate to boiling water at roughly its solubility point at 100c then mixed it with soap... can someone help a layperson understand something unexpected? | i filled a 5 gallon pot to roughly 85% with tap water. the pot had a bit of **limescale** that probably had some iron in it because it was orange. it was taking a long time to get boiling (of course) so i mixed 6236.89g of **sodium carbonate** and 3620g of **sodium bicarbonate** in and waited for it to boil. i was trying to get close to the solubility of both in boiling water. i was a bit under the amount of water but i figured the water would get above 100c anyways. i mixed it with roughly a half gallon of castille soap and kept mixing until it was cooler. it seemed stable at first but when i woke up it was this strange kind of gel. what happened? am i going to die if i wash my clothes with this strange gelatinous mixture? it gets my clothes pretty damn clean with only small amounts but i'm worried that something i don't understand happened with the limescale or something. it is limescale from someone else's water. i bought that pot at a second hand store. | when you make your own detergent it can often "gelify". a gel detergent is no different than a liquid detergent, but it can be a bit irritating to handle. a way to avoid this is to use borax, like [this](_url_0_). hope it helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ehow.com/how_10076033_make-own-laundry-detergent-doesnt-gel.html"
] | [
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how do i determine if a peptide will be a-helical or a b-sheet just by looking at the primary structure? | hi so i am trying to teach myself some biochem before the semester starts and was wondering how i would determine if a sequence of aas is more likely to form an a-helix or b-sheet just by looking at the primary sequence? | if what you mean is being able to look at a given sequence predict "by eye" whether it will form a helix or sheet, you're going to have a difficult time. there's just too many variables at play to be able to come up with any solid, simple rules. however there are quite a bit of software methods that have been written to tackle this problem, by attempting to take all these variables into account, and/or comparing the sequence to sequences whose structure is known. [link to wiki page listing some such programs](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_protein_structure_prediction_software#Secondary_structure_prediction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_helix#Table_of_standard_amino_acid_alpha-helical_propensities"
] | [
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means of energy storage research | is there any research going into being able to utilize and store energy in a much more efficient way then merely turning turbines with water/steam? say, for nuclear fusion/fission is there any way we're developing/trying to figure out of storing the energy in a better way than just using all of its heat to get turbines turned? | there is a ton of research on the subject. photovoltaic systems don't utilize mechanical energy to create electricity. batteries typically use chemical energy as storage. wikipedia has a nice list of currently used energy transformations. fission reactors still rely on turbines. one of the biggest results of fission is heat, so it makes sense to use it. however, research is constantly being done to improve efficiency. * _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_transformation"
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i understand newton's third law but i still can't really wrap my head around how helicopters work. help? | the rotors push air down, like a big fan. in order to push air down they have to generate a force pointing downward on the air. according the newton's law that means that the air must generate a force pointing upward on the rotors, and bam. flight. it's not as simple as a fan, but the end result is the same. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the marginal cost of another curiosity rover? | what would it cost to launch a second duplicate mission now that all the logistics and planning is done? in other words how much of that $2.5b is supplies and labor, not r & d/planning. | the figure given in this [article](_url_0_) in *nature* is that it would be about $500 million less to repeat the mission, which would put the cost at about us$ 2 billion. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/mars-rover-sizes-up-the-field-1.11128"
] | [
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can large objects still have wave like properties? | i've learned about the de broglie wavelength in school and have been thinking. if a tennis ball was moving impossibly slow to the point where its de broglie wavelength was large enough for it to barely pass through something like two charged poles of metal (one negative, one positive, as if going between protons and electron in an atom) would the ball diffract and would its path alter at all or not? | the largest (most complex) objects for which diffraction has been shown (as of 1999) is buckminsterfullerene (aka buckyballs, aka c-60 clusters): "wave–particle duality of c60 molecules", markus arndt, olaf nairz, julian vos-andreae, claudia keller, gerbrand van der zouw & anton zeilinger, [nature 401, 680-682 (14 october 1999); doi:10.1038/44348](_url_1_). this [website](_url_0_) explains it for those without access to the journal. this is generally considered to be near the transition from a pure quantum object to one where decoherence has led to a transition to the classical regime. you may find objects within perhaps an order of magnitude of this size that will display quantum coherence, but nowhere near the tennis ball you mention. i'm not up to date with the literature on this, if someone has a more recent or significantly more complex example, please post. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.univie.ac.at/qfp/research/matterwave/c60/",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v401/n6754/abs/401680a0.html"
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what are some diseases that are caused by the endo membrane system? | i-cell disease is the only one i know of right now, and i don't even really understand that. an explanation of this disease names of others would be much appreciated. | i-cell disease explanation: your cells dispose of many things in membrane-bound compartments called [lysosomes](_url_1_). among other targets they can destroy things taken up from outside the cell via endocytosis or phagocytosis and can fuse with internal compartments like mitochondria to perform autophagy. they work because they are filled with enzymes that can break down cellular components: lipases to destroy lipids, proteases to destroy proteins, nucleases to break down dna/rna. these enzymes only work in the lysosomes because they have a very low ph due to h+ pumps that acidify the compartment. the enzymes only work in that environment. to get trafficked to the lysosome, proteins get a special signal, mannose-6-phosphate, a phosphorylated sugar residue, that directs them to the lysosome. in i-cell disease, the enzyme that adds m6p to proteins doesn't function, so lysosomal enzymes don't get the signal necessary and sufficient for their correct targeting. the enzyme get exported outside the cell and end up in the blood stream. luckily because they need a very acidic environment, they don't go around digesting the body. however, lysosomes don't function correctly, and build up deposits of undigested waste. these form what are called inclusions, thus i-cell disease, because of the inclusion bodies. a search on pubmed will find some endoplasmic reticulum storage disease literature ([example](_url_0_)). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/95/17/9909.abstract",
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Lysosome",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysosomal_storage_disease"
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how closely related are the cilia in your respiratory tract to hairs on your skin? | this came up in my emt class, and i couldn't find a definitive answer online or in my anatomy book. the brief descriptions that i was able to find of cilia is 'hair-like' projections in your respiratory tract. what that means, i have no idea. cheers! | they are "hair-like" in that they have a similar morphology but that is really where the similarity ends. cilia are cellular projections covered in the cell's plasma membrane made somewhat rigid (and mobile) by internal dyenin and nexin protein bundles. cilia are a cell surface organelle of eukaryotic cells. hair is a keratin-protein excretion of hair follicles. follicles excrete large ordered bundles of α-keratin, although anchored at a root hair, it is regarded as a "dead" material and is not the extension of nor part of a living cell. also worth noting that hair fibres are a couple of orders of magnitude large than most cilia. both structures also serve utterly different purposes. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are gallbladder removals possible? | it's my understanding that the gallbladder stores bile to be sent to the large intestine. it's also my understanding that gallbladder removals are a perfectly valid procedure in the medical world. wouldn't that disrupt the digestive process? do they somehow get the liver to pump bile directly into the large intestine? | _url_0_ the cystic duct(from the gall bladder) and the common hepatic duct (formed from the left and right hepatic ducts from the liver) form the common bile duct, which then receives the pancreatic duct and enters the duodenum. thus when one receives a cholecystectomy, bile function is still maintained via the common hepatic and the common bile duct. essentially you are removing the storage capacity of bile, but not interrupting production nor delivery. interestingly, there is a complication known as [postcholecystectomy syndrome](_url_1_) , which is believed to be due to an interruption in bile flow, but is poorly understood | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://health.rush.edu/HealthInformation/graphics/images/en/19261.jpg",
"http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/192761-overview"
] | [
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when one suffer with gallstones why the whole gallbladder is removed rather than just remove the stones and "sand" through a tiny cut? | 1) presumably the conditions that made the person likely to have gallstones makes them likely to continue making them 2) this person would have to undergo multiple procedures, and there are often worsening risks every time surgery is completed. for example, worsening adhesions or scarring that make surgery more difficult. 3) gallstones don't always only cause pain. they can work themselves down the biliary tract and clog the duct that allows the pancreas to drain its enzymes resulting in pancreatitis. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
(quantum mechanics) has there been any experimental observation of "beats" in photon or electron interference? | by beats, i am drawing in an analogy with sound waves, where nearly equal frequencies can interfere to give rise to periodically varying amplitudes. is there anything analogous in quantum particles? i am thinking something like the usual electron defraction experiment, where one path provides a minute acceleration to change its momentum (with a corresponding change in de broglie frequency). does this necessarily destroy all interference, or does the interference pattern now become time-varying? can that be measured? | beat frequencies are highly relevant in magnetic resonance (both nuclear and electronic), where there's a beat between some inherent frequency and an applied oscillating magnetic field. check out the rabi cycle: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabi_cycle"
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] |
can a lock be picked by resonance? | first of all, i'm horrible in physics so i'm sorry if this is a very stupid question. but if you hit the internal resonance of something, it shakes, right? could a device be made that can emit a frequency you can control and fine tune to cause the pins in a lock to shake and just wait for them to all pop up as you're turning the pick to keep the pins up? | in theory i would say yes. your main problem is going to get them to stay in place once they've shaken to the shearing point. some electric lock picks actually work in a similar way, except they physically bounce the pins in order to reach the correct shearing point. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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models of black hole genesis | mathematically, is there a limiting process which results in a black hole? if so, what does it look like? i'm sure all actual details of formation would be obscured by the supernova itself, but if there's a transformation from normal space to the schwartzchild metric, if gravitationally an exploding star can be simplified to some smooth process, i'm curious to know what that looks like and how the event horizon forms. | *s* < 2*πkre*/ℏ*c* it's called the bekenstein limit, after jakob bekenstein. the symbols are *s* for entropy, *r* for the radius of a three-spherical volume containing that entropy, *e* for the total energy contained within that volume, ℏ for the angular planck constant, *k* for the boltzmann constant, *c* for *c* and *π* for *π*. in english, it says that there's an upper limit on the amount of entropy that can be contained in a given region of space. all regions of spacetime satisfy this equality; there are no exceptions. in the limit where that less-than sign becomes an equals sign, you get a black hole with area *a* = *s*. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there such a thing as a magnetic singularity? | considering that a gravitational singularity will establish based upon accumulated mass, and that the strength of electromagnetic attraction is orders of magnitude higher than gravity, is there possibility of generating a "magnetic singularity" utilizing electromagnetic materials at a smaller mass/density than non-em matter? does the possibility of a "magnetic singularity" even exist, and if so what would the properties be? | it depends what you mean by that. if you mean something that has such a strong magnetic field that no magnetic object could ever escape even if it were moving near the speed of light, maybe, but it can't be engineered. light would still escape, because light isn't magnetic. there may also be issues with the electromagnetic vacuum that i'm neglecting (e.g. particles being created in the field that weaken it). if you mean something that acts as a point-source of magnetic field, this is called a magnetic monopole, and they are not known to exist but if they did that would be extremely interesting. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i know someone who has a placenta encapsulation business. she claims a woman taking the pills of her powdered placenta will reduce the risk of post-partum depression, and many other ailments. is this possible? | apparently many animals eat their placentas as well, which makes it "natural." the whole thing seems really scammy to me, but i am willing to be educated. | possible yes, [mild to moderate depression tends to](_url_0_) [have good response rates to placebos](_url_2_) , in this study although this is [much less potent in major depression](_url_4_) [postpartum depression, like most depression, and in fact most illnesses that are graded as such, tends to be mild to moderate, rather than severe of major](_url_3_) and as such would be expected to have strong responses to placebo. so many people may benefit from it. the other benefit is that placenta is mostly protein so it would just be digested like protein powder. so it is unlikely to transmit disease or do anything weird. to the person, you know, except making them that weird person who takes placenta pills. of course, if someone has depression of any sort, the best thing to do is go to your doctor. not take weird herbal/natural remedies. almost all mammals eat the placenta [but humans across cultures](_url_1_) do not. of note, mammals also occasionaly eat their young and their poop. so i wouldn't take too much health advice from your local hyenna. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleID=175694",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03670244.2010.524106",
"http://www.neurology.org/content/57/3/489.short",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/95/3/498/",
"http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/287/14/1840.short"
] | [
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is it better to have a healthy cardiovascular system/body in general when bleeding out? | i was thinking, someone who is older or with a weaker heart etc should bleed out slower, which seems to make me think they would survive for longer. is this true? or is there something which a healthier body does which can counteract (maybe the effects of hypovolemic shock aren't as bad or something) the effects of exsanguination? | _url_0_ not necessarily the cardio-vascular system, but for the whole body, more muscles give the body a lot more of reserves to repair damage. while this doesn't mean that you won't bleed to death if you are stabbed and left to bleed out, it does increase your survival rate significantly if you get the same treatment and response than someone overweight or skinny | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ajcn.org/content/84/3/475.full.pdf+html"
] | [
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] |
how do we know what is happening inside the lhc? | what type of detectors are used and how do they work? | you probably can't do better than to take a look at what cern, the facility where lhc is located, has to say. start [here](_url_0_) and explore the links. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://home.web.cern.ch/topics/large-hadron-collider"
] | [
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how do pineal gland secretions affect the body? | what in the pineal gland causes our perception of reality to distort so drastically? how often is it activated? why is it only activated during dreams and death (and the use of dmt)? | the pineal glad is primarily associated with the production of a neurochemical called melatonin. darkness signals the production and release of melatonin, whilst light stops it. melatonin has primarily been studied in the context of regulating entrainment to the 24 hour sleep/wake cycle, but there has been other hypothesised functions of melatonin including being involved in other sleep related phenomena such as dreaming, and memory. there is no scientific evidence to suggest that the pineal gland is activated only during dreaming, or at/near death. there also no evidence to suggest that activation of pineal gland causes distortion of reality. the relationship between dmt and the pineal gland is a personal hypothesis of rick strassman however even he notes that these are not supported by empirical evidence. dmt is structurally similar to melatonin, serotonin and other chemicals in the tryptamine family. it is true that it has been found naturally in the body, but it is metabolised very quickly so it might be difficult to study in the context of dmt's pharmacological action. the primary mechanism of dmt is still largely unknown although it is likely to be via similar mechanisms to other psychedelics compounds in the tryptamine family such as psilocin. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did we evolve a central nervous system? | evolutionary biologists of reddit: after very briefly studying how neurons work, i am astounded by the sheer complexity of the whole system, and it's almost inconceivable to me how single celled organisms were able to evolve into something so specified and complex. are there any theories to how it happened? did one day a nerve-less worm just pop into existence with a single nerve or what? | well it's a little unfair to compare what we have now, to what we had back then. evolution is a beautiful wonderful process, but it works with what it has. today it has an entire arsenal at it's side, and the complexity to compete means no simple systems can take hold any more. evolution back then, it didn't have much to work with. it kind of just tried anything, and had some very ill effects. to understand why a central nervous system would have selective pressures to evolve, simply meaning an organism with any semblance of a nervous system will have a benefit to survival. at the base level, a nervous system comes from action potentials. so imagine two organisms, and one has a mutation so at a specific temperature a potential is reached, sending a signal(not in the way signals work now, change of chemistry) which tells a cell to move away from the potential increase. that organism will not go towards a hot source and be killed, or a cold source and be killed, but the first organism will die much faster by not having this action penitential built in. now these would not be like neurons, simply an area where heat may change chemistry, which causes a cell to contract and move in a certain direction, but they are the first step. going forward, you will eventually hit stages for temperature sensing, pressure sensing, light sensitive cells(which will eventually become eyes), and you will have an organism which is a miss-mash of all these individual systems. going forward, a benefit would be those systems becoming interconnected, using less resources. more benefits would be mutations allowing neuron clusters to grow, which allows some decision making. go a couple more steps and you have a full central nervous system and a brain. i know it's not very detailed, but that is essentially the why. it was more suited, and helped organisms survive more. so it evolved. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems"
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why do proton pump inhibitors (ppis) take up to 4 days to work? | additionally, say you were on one ppi for 14 days and at the end of that 14 days, you switched to a different ppi, would it be another 1-4 days before it worked again, or would it continue the effect of the previous medication? | because ppis can only disable the stomach cells that are actively secreting acid, and not all cells are secreting at any given time. therefore, for full effect, you have to keep taking the drug until most of the cells are disabled. after a few days, you reach equilibrium; at this point, the rate at which new cells capable of secreting acid are popping up is about the same as the rate at which ppis are able to inhibit the cells, so the total amount of inhibited cells stays the same. if you discontinue a ppi (without introducing a new one), then it takes a few days for acid secretion to return to normal. if you introduce a new ppi immediately after discontinuing the old one, then the new ppi will act on the newly secreting cells, and — assuming that the old and the new ppi are equally effective, which is generally true — it will be able to keep up with them. the net effect will be that the new will continue the effect, without having to start from scratch. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much strength/force and human bones/tendons/skin bear? | [reading this paper recently about nanofiber muscle](_url_0_), it got me thinking about straining other parts of the body. | it really depends on the specific bone/ligament/tendon, as the structure and composition of these vary depending upon location and function. these structures are also very anisotropic (different properties in different directions), due to the structure. the problem with the nanofiber muscle will be in its attachement site to the bone. in the body this is a gradual transition from muscle, to ligament to calcified ligament to bone. this prevents a stress concentration at the insertion site. with the nanofiber muscle, there would be an absence of this gradual change so some sort of reinforcement would be needed. for bone you're looking at about[1][2]: * 200 mpa longitudinal compression. * 130 mpa longitudinal tension * 130 mpa transverse compression * 53 mpa transverse tension * 65 mpa in shear ligaments and tendons are only loaded in tension, and their behaviour in failure is typically due to the failure of individual collagen fibres in the structure, but are also dependent on how the fibres are arranged. typically for large tendons, think achilles tendon, the failure load has been measured at 1189n[3]. the medial collateral ligament in the knee exhibits a failure load around 500-800n[4]. these failure loads are highly dependant upon the applied strain rate and load behaviour, due to the viscoelastic nature of the tissues. hope this helped. [1] vanvbuskirk, w. c. and ashman, r. b., the elastic moduli of bone, in mechanical properties of bone , joint asme-asce applied mechanics, fluids engineering and bioengineering conference, boulder, co, 1981. [2] donald t. reilly, albert h. burstein, the elastic and ultimate properties of compact bone tissue, journal of biomechanics, volume 8, issue 6, 1975, pages 393-396,in9-in11,397-405, issn 0021-9290, 10.1016/0021-9290(75)90075-5. [3]louis-ugbo, j., leeson, b. and hutton, w. c. (2004), tensile properties of fresh human calcaneal (achilles) tendons. clin. anat., 17: 30–35. doi: 10.1002/ca.10126 [4]james r. robinson, anthony mj. bull, andrew a. amis, structural properties of the medial collateral ligament complex of the human knee, journal of biomechanics, volume 38, issue 5, may 2005, pages 1067-1074, issn 0021-9290, 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.05.034. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6109/928.abstract?sid=783bb5a3-1ec4-4353-8cf1-ae3ea5d6990d"
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if teardrops contain antibacterial lysozymes, would crying/applying tears to a wound actually be beneficial? | [source related to the question](_url_0_) i would imagine there to be better topical antibiotics like bacitracin, but in a pinch would tears actually do the trick? | probably not, in all honesty. it's possible that a small tiny wound like a paper cut could benefit from the amount of lysozyme, but any large wound would not. lysozyme in your tears is one of many important proteins in your eye system. you're better off using soap and water. your eye prevents infection largely because the physical acts of blinking prevents bacteria from remaining on the surface of the eye for very long, stopping the organisms from colonizing. that article is interesting, and i like where the scientists are going. but, microbiologists have known for a long time how lysozyme works - catalyzing hydrolysis of the peptidoglycan layer (we use it in our lab to lyse cells for dna preps). what these scientists did is actually measure the physics and physical activity behind the reaction, monitoring conformational changes, etc. they're looking bigger picture than bacterial proteins. it's in science not because they know that lysozyme lyses cells (hence the name) but because of the amount of work and time they put in tethering the protein to a chip and measuring time scales, motion, and dynamics. it's a very elegant study. tl;dr - lysozyme has a great bacterial lysis ability, but the amount in your tears isn't enough to really kill off bacteria in a wound. we use 25 microliters of a 10mg/ml concentration to lyse cells in the lab and we have to add it to a lysing solution to aid the enzyme. a wound would require a much higher level to actually protect against harmful microbes. use warm soap and water. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120119143332.htm"
] | [] | [
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how does a competitive eater body process such large quantities of sugar or sodium? | i was watching [matt stonie](_url_0_) on youtube and i was amazed at how much he was able to eat but was questioning how can his body function with such a large influx of sugar or sodium. i know the recommend amount of sugar a day is like 40g and sodium's 2,500mg but he took 225g of sugar in one sitting and 6,000mg of sodium in another video. how doe's his body process this and is he likely for an increase chance of future diseases. | they dont. lots of the time they end up puking it up before it starts being digested. for example, the amount of protein involved with a record-breaking consumption of say, raw eggs, actually provokes an emetic response from the stomach. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/user/MegatoadStonie/videos"
] | [] | [
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how to read peak ground acceleration maps? | we had a very minor earthquake today. i didn't feel it, but started to look at all the data that was gathered out of curiosity. can someone please help me understand how to read [these maps?](_url_0_) | as the name implies, these are maps of the maximum acceleration experienced in an area during a given earthquake, but instead of giving absolute values of acceleration, these are commonly reported as either '%g' or just 'g' where g is the gravitational acceleration on earths surface (9.8 m/s^2). so in the case of this map, since things are given in %g, the 1 contour means that any area along that contour line experienced a peak acceleration that is 1% of the gravitational acceleration on earth, so 0.098 m/s^2. the presence of that % symbol is pretty important, because something on a contour line of 1 in the %g scale is pretty minor shaking (likely not perceptible) where as a 1 contour of 1g would be quite strong shaking. as described in the [wikipedia page for peak ground acceleration](_url_0_) this is an important quantity to measure or calculate because this has the most direct application in understanding seismic risk for particular structures (i.e. buildings are engineered to be stable up to some threshold peak ground acceleration). the little table on the bottom below those maps is a product of the usgs that is an empirical relationship between measured peak ground accelerations and [modified mercalli intensities](_url_1_). a description of that relation can be [found here](_url_2_). | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.pnsn.org/shakemaps/61123512#acceleration"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_ground_acceleration",
"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/mercalli.php",
"http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/shakemap/background.php#intmaps"
] | [
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why do ectotherms hunt prey in a way that prevents them from heating their body? | i was watching [this veritasium video](_url_0_) and he states that cold-blooded animal's body temperatures are regulated by their surroundings and so they only use short bursts of energy when hunting prey. wouldn't a lower body temperature allow an ectotherm to hunt more actively for longer, giving them both a heated, regulated body and a meal? i feel as though there is a simple answer to this that is running past my head. | well you kinda made the point in your question, "a lower body temperature...heated, regulated body". they save a lot of energy allowing the environment to establish their body temperature, a constant body temperature no matter how low requires energy to maintain, and that would indeed *force* them to hunt more. instead they let the environment take care of body temperature saving them energy and meaning they don't have to constantly be on the hunt, a large meal every week or so is more than enough. basically by being an ectotherm they don't have to be as active, simply because they don't expend so much energy maintaining body temperature. | 2 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/myh94hpFmJY?t=8m12s"
] | [] | [
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] |
how was it known from the ligo experiments that the blackholes are spinning? | this year we had a major [breakthrough announcement](_url_1_) of the detection of the gravitational waves - from the data received by the two ligo of two colliding blackholes. in layman language, the observatories are l-shaped and use very precise lasers to measure the phase difference between the reflected and incident wave, caused due to the gravitational waves from this massive collision. the phase difference (or path difference) is many orders less than the radius of the proton - a measurement so small that it is equivalent to measuring size of a football against the background size of milky way galaxy. clearly, it is a major achievement for humans and would open gates to more astounding space-time events. however, how, just with the phase difference data, were scientists able to infer whether one of the blackholes was spinning, what masses they had, the approximate speed at which the collision took place, the spinning speed of the new formed blackholes - (did we get that too?) and that the event took place 1.3 billion years ago? how could we infer all that just from such a small amount of data - running the experiment for the first time without any prior callibration? do the ligos have special probes for that? what is the nature of those probes? what is the nature of data that we are now looking for? and what kind of steps are being taken now to increase the sensitivity of those probes to observe events of that nature? fortunately, there have been [more observations](_url_0_) of colliding blackholes. but how does having different mass for the blackholes (and therefore different frequency of the graviational wave) help identify them? also, doesn't the gravitational wave, which is a energy wave moving at speed of light, dissipate energy with the space-time distance it travels? | the gravitational wave pattern is sensitive to all these informations. by performing general relativity simulations with various values for these parameters (masses, spins, impact parameter, redshift, w/e...) you can predict the shape of the gw signal as a function of them. then, since the ligo signal was measured very well (lots of data points) it can be fit to these predictions to extract estimates for these parameters. this is very schematic / simplified but that's the general idea. | 15 | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gravitational-wave-observatory-finds-more-colliding-black-holes/",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gravitational-waves-discovered-from-colliding-black-holes1/"
] | [] | [
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what is the relationship between biological nucleus and chemical nucleus? | in biology, i learned that the nucleus is the controller of cell functions, with a nucleolus at its center. in chemistry, the professors make it sound like the nucleus is a dense region of protons and neutrons, with a shell of electrons orbiting it. how do the two images/concepts of the nucleus in these different sciences relate? together, do they form the ideal nucleus? or can they only be viewed separately, depending on what science you are in? | the dictionary definition of a nucleus is the central and most important part of an object. both biologists and chemists decided to use this term (in reference to the general meaning), but they refer to entirely different things. the atomic nucleus (as you stated) is the central part of an atom and is composed of protons and neutrons. the cellular nucleus is an organelle in cells which contains most of the cell's dna (whether you'd call it the most central/important can be debated, but it certainly is essential). the cellular nucleus is composed of many atoms each of which have an atomic nucleus. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why am i allowed to bring an inflated basketball onto an airplane? | i was almost sure that they would not permit me to bring it as a carry on. pressurized gas has the potential to be incredibly dangerous, no? what i am implying is that if someone had poor intentions, they could fill a basketball with a more dangerous kind of gas. im not sure if all of these would remain gaseous under the pressure of a basketball, but methane, chlorine, etc come to mind. would these kinds of gases be detected or are there really no gases that could be used in a threatening way? | whether you should be allowed to bring an inflated basketball onboard is a question of policy, not science. a pressurized vessel _can_ be dangerous, but since the pressure drop in a cabin is not significant, and the fact that the hazard of a popping basketball still isn't that great, the overall risk is minimal. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how much earth is required to be a suitable ground? | after seeing a repost of an electrical load being grounded to a bag of rocks and dirt with a ground sticker on the bag i'm assuming as a joke, i'm wondering how big of a bag of soil would be needed for a suitable ground to withstand a nominal voltage of let's say 120v at a 15 amp peak. | it's not the dirt that matters, it's that it forms a good conductive path to everything else that might come in contact with your device. so a bag of dirt is useless unless the humans you're trying to protect are also standing on the bag of dirt. and if they are, it really matters how wet (and therefore conductive) the dirt is. and whether they're barefoot or wearing thick shoes. and it doesn't have to be dirt, a thin mesh screen would work great so long as people are standing on it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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lung compliance and hysteresis in humans: the lungs are hookean for inspiration and non-hookean for expiration? | so it looks like that lungs follow hookean relationships on inspiration, but on expiration have a non-hookean "stress relaxation" response at total lung capacity (causing a plateau in the hysteresis curve). what exactly causes this plateau and the stress relaxation? thanks! | i'm not strong on elasticity physics, but i know that lungs are not considered to follow normal elastic body rules because of [alveolar recruitment during inspiration](_url_2_). essentially, as the lung fills with air it reaches a point at which internal volume decreases due to stretching of the surface area in alveoli that are filling. this is why respiratory therapists [measure compliance as an approximation of elasticity](_url_0_). [this review](_url_1_) may help you out more, although you'll have to translate it from spanish in your browser. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=R3WK8XyAHYgC&pg=PA460&lpg=PA460&dq=hooke's+law+respiration&source=bl&ots=weeu3MlSwi&sig=lidSZB_UbZy0Twp3wqtD1-wcO64&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v59RUeHRNqnb4AOgioCwCQ&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=hooke's%20law%20respiration&f=false",
"http://www.hh.um.es/pdf/Vol_19/19_1/Escolar-19-159-166-2004.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZwzCRZcuTvY"
] | [
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what is the viability of personal spacecraft? | and what things would such a craft need to account for short trips in space, say to the moon? | it doesn't sound realistic. the most obvious issue is cost. it takes a lot of fuel to launch into orbit, much more to achieve a lunar trajectory. that's why rockets are so big compared to the tiny spacecraft. having a personal one would be too expensive. then we have the problem of safety and reliability. rockets can explode if they fail to take off, or in mid-flight. human-rated launchers have an escape tower that can detach the spacecraft from the exploding rocket in case of emergency, but in any case, there's a whole team of engineers taking care of everything before and during a launch. no way to do this with a personal spacecraft, so the risk of failure is too high. the plan of a trajectory must be really careful. the delta-v you need to reach the moon is quite approximate to escape speed, so a small error can send you into deep space. or, you could get into a trajectory that goes straight to the moon instead of an orbit around it, so it'd be extremely difficult to slow down in time for a smooth landing or choose an appropriate landing site. solar radiation is relatively easy to shield against and it only happens during an event. but there is a whole team on the ground watching solar activity carefully that can predict it like an hour or two before the particles reach us. if they catch you unprepared while strolling on the surface of the moon without the protection of your spacecraft it could deliver a very high dose. in extra-vehicular activities usually two astronauts are sent together, so that in case something goes wrong with an eva suit the other can help him. going alone is too risky. upon return, you have a very small range of angles for atmospheric entry. too steep, you burn up and your heat shield is not enough to protect you. too shallow, you don't reach the densest layers of the atmosphere and you may even not slow down to below escape speed (at least in the apollo missions, return trajectories were hyperbolic), then you could be sent into deep space forever and this time without enough fuel to perform any corrections or come back. you'd eventually die from the lack of oxygen, food, or water, or from the accumulation of carbon dioxide. *if* (very hypothetically) we ever reduce the launch costs enough for lunar tourism to be affordable, expect it to have a large organization behind it. but so far we don't have any propulsion technologies to launch into space at a reasonable cost. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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as far as i know, a-keratins are found only in the skin, nails and hair, yet collagen is everywhere in connective tissue throughout the body. why isn't keratin really used in any structures inside the body? | why are there not keratinocytes producing keratin structures within the body? seems a pretty good building material for connective tissues yet it's only used on the exterior. why is this? | it boils down to the physical properties of each structural protein. collagen is able to form flexible matrices that provide a great anchoring system for multiple collagen binding proteins and is quite a good base for tissues and cells. additionally, collagen can impart some polarity to a matrix due to the structure of the protein [a stereotypical collagen matrix with accessory collagen binding proteins](_url_1_). keratin, on the other hand forms a rather rigid, non-polarized matrix that takes on a very defined pattern that imparts high strength to the structure it is forming [keratin monomers and subsequent polymer](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/4Kt8f.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/TPFuY.jpg"
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when someone has a broken bone, sometimes we put metal plates in, other times we do not. what's the criteria for this decision? | do we always place metal plates for compound fractures or other very severe fractures? | it really depends on the break or fracture. typically, plates/pins/screws are used when the bones are likely to move or be displaced before they can knit, or when the bone isn't likely to knit within an acceptable time limit. the other time hardware is used, is when bone has been destroyed or there are way too many breaks or fractures, and isn't likely to grow back adequately. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
physics is the same no matter what time direction you are going in, is there an exception? | here is the article i read. ( _url_0_ ) | [t-symmetry](_url_8_) is when physics is unaffected by the direction of time. t-violation is when it's different. the most familiar, everyday example of t-violation is [entropy](_url_3_) (a measure of the 'disorder' of a thermodynamic system), which must always increase as per [the 2nd law of thermodynamics](_url_6_). on a quantum level, it's only in the last few years that [t-violation has been directly observed](_url_10_) in the [weak interaction](_url_2_). however, t-violation has been indirectly inferred for over 50 years with the observation of cp-violation, which is when physics (in this case just the weak interaction) disobeys the combination of [charge](_url_7_) (c, replacing particle with antiparticle) and [parity](_url_5_) (p, reversing space) symmetries. note that the weak interaction also violates c and p individually. under the hypothesis that the combined symmetry of [cpt](_url_0_) is always conserved, [cp-violation](_url_0_) implies t-violation. further reading: wikipedia articles: _url_1_ _url_3__%28arrow_of_time%29 a thing i wrote: _url_9_ | 12 | [] | [
"http://www.iflscience.com/physics/there-parallel-universe-thats-moving-backwards-time"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPT_symmetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interaction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_%28arrow_of_time%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_%28physics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-symmetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry",
"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_C8NJNxwF5ybGdfTlUwQmRSckk/view",
"http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.211801"
] | [
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what propels electricity? | i've wondered this for a very long time and have never gotten an answer. if i take a 100 foot length of copper wire and sent a charge through it, what keeps it going all the way down the wire? | electric potential differences. basically, a high potential wants to move towards a low potential. if there wasn't something with a lower charge on the other end of your 100ft wire, then the charge wouldn't be "sent" down the wire. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is meant by "an excitation of the quantum field"? | fundamental particles are often described as "excitations in the quantum field" - summoned out of the fundamental "particleness" that exists everywhere (as demonstrated by henry from minutephysics: _url_0_). what exactly does this mean? why is it significant? what's the connection to wave-particle duality? this is often treated with a lot of hand-waving - what's actually going on here? | a quantum field is a field that exists everywhere. picture just everywhere in the universe is a number displaying the amplitude of the field at that point. so if we disturb the field, we create a bunch of numbers in the field. this disturbance propagates as a wave through the field. these fields are subject to the rules of quantum mechanics which basically tells us that these disturbances can only come in particular shapes, sizes and amounts. these particularly shaped disturbances are what we call particles. we never actually have little balls of matter like you hear in layman terms, you always just have these little bundles of oscillating quantum field. the connection to wave particle duality is due to the fact that we are looking at waves traveling in fields. quantum mechanics requiring discrete bundles tells us that things are particle-like being that we can never have a 1/3rd of a particle or 5/4ths, only situations with one particle in and one particle out, for example. | 8 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fxeb3Pc4PA4"
] | [] | [
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could i have some information on alternate climates? | i was wondering what kinds of climates could exist on earth if the equator were exactly parallel to the earth's movement around the sun (i.e., if the sun were always directly above the equator) and at various angles aside from its current angle, including ninety degrees from the equator (i.e., if a planet with an earth-like atmosphere and chemical makeup had a rotation opposite its revolution around the sun). have there been any scientific works that explored how this would influence climate and such? also, is a "hybrid" planet possible? one which is earth-like in some areas but has different gases and such in others? could oceans made up of other liquids than water exist on the same planet as a water ocean? i know this is several questions, and hope i'm not breaking any rules or annoying anyone. | i think what you're asking here is something more like, "what would the climates be like on earth if there were no axial tilt?" in which case, there would be a lesser amount of temperature variation throughout the year (spring/fall equinox type of weather, minus the oscillations in orbit), which would result in more higher amounts of glaciation in high elevations, and high latitudes, of course ignoring anthropogenic heat/pollutant release into the atmosphere. luckily for us, our planet only oscillates its axial tilt from between 22.5 and 24.5 degrees. life on earth would be much different than today if it had a rotation similar to say, uranus (close to 90 degrees, spinning on its side). because of global air circulations combined with pressure gradients, coriolis force (induced by axial rotation), and uneven insolation distribution, there aren't big differences in atmospheric chemistry on a planet due to temperature. this is usually uniform. high winds would likely be experienced on a planet, for example, where temperature differences are high over small distances (say a planet is shrouded in shadow for 6 months then emerges into the sunlight for 6 months). planets with well-established atmospheres also have developed circulations (generally speaking), and thus have temperature gradients due to uneven heating (beam spread/beam depletion factors). this goes for all planets with an atmosphere, of course excluding those with runaway greenhouse effects, e.g. venus (always hot, everywhere, and at all times). as for your ocean question, that's not my area of expertise, so i won't go into that. also, i don't think you're annoying. these questions aren't too uncommon, and they're good questions at that. if you need any further clarification from me, please let me know. i'll be happy to answer your questions to the best of my ability. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to add a hole to a wind instrument that transposes the rest of the pitches by an interval other than an octave? | it is possible and has been done, as the register key on clarinet raises the pitch by a twelfth (c - > g an octave higher). under certain fingerings, it can also raise the pitch a half step (a - > bb). there is a study on the mechanisms of the register key [here](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://journals.jps.jp/doi/abs/10.7566/JPSJ.83.124003"
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|
the science behind speed reading apps? | apps like _url_0_ and focus - speed reading claim that you can triple your wpm reading speed by using their platform, i am interested in the science behind it, they both seem to highlight a specific character in a word by the color red. i am assuming that this character is similar to next character in the next word? are there any scientific papers on this matter? | the technique behind it is that your eyes have to change focus when you read from left to right. when you remove that eye motion, your eyes can stay in the same focus. also the red letter is the focus letter, if you look at that letter you are able to see the complete word in your peripheral vision, this turns in to 'guess reading'. where you only look at some of the letters and recognize the rest of the word. example of guess reading: waht is worng with the senetnce if you filp the leters? | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.spritz.com"
] | [] | [
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is it possible for an organism not to mutate? | i understand that evolution in theory is what made us be here, but is it possible that at some point, that the structure of an organism could remain the same for all the time, without any mutations? and are any examples of this that exist? **edit: thank you very much for all your answers!** | first, understand that mutations don't cause evolution, but rather, contribute to it because beneficial mutations are passed through the generations. mutations are random and heritable, those with more favorable mutations will survive to pass them on to their offspring. if you're asking whether it's possible for an organism's dna to remain absolutely 100% unchanged from generation to generation indefinitely then no, it's not realistically possible. this is due to the fact that mutation isn't the only thing responsible for alterations in the genetic makeup of an organism. generally, the rate of mutations occurring during dna replication, transcription and translation is lower in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes. if you were to take the organism that's least likely to mutate and observe it's dna from generation to generation, you'd find that there is a vast amount of variation which occurs through gene recombination and secondary mechanisms of variation (i.e. transduction/conjugation in bacteria) anyways, even before you factor in random mutation that contributes to additional variation in prokaryotic reproduction. eurkaryotes have even more complex mechanisms of variation during meiosis (i.e. independent assortment, crossing over, etc.) this is independent of outside factors which can cause mutation as well, like radiation. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jbc.org/content/279/17/16895.full",
"http://i.imgur.com/cSZLTID.png",
"https://youtu.be/DRBREvFL19g?t=19m48s"
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since the big bang, the universe has been complexifying. (plasma > atoms > molecules > elements > stars > planets > biology > neurobiology > culture). does science not formally recognize this? is it untrue? | so i understand that while the universe is entropic, but in our case in our own sample size of 1, it seems that nature is ever complexifying. the universe seems to be a novelty conserving engine. the human neocortex is the most complex thing in the universe, as far as we know. is this simply off limits for science to talk about? is it because we only have a sample size of 1? why isn't it recognized? thanks for any input. | what you aren't considering is that this is a consequence, not a mechanism. science is more concerned with why & how than what. and the why and how of what you are noting is fairly simple to explain: heat and entropy. the universe is slowly cooling as it disperses. as it cools, the energy required to keep particles separate disappears - and thus the weaker forces take over and form new molecules and atoms. and the more it cools, the more other forces take over - eventually there isn't enough heat to keep anything apart, and we see that energy captured in stars, etc. keep in mind that big-bang is estimated at trillions of degrees (which we have [accomplished ourselves.](_url_0_) ) so no, it isn't something that would require formal study. as an understanding of the mechanisms involved lead to the answer regardless. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.geek.com/articles/geek-cetera/scientists-break-temperature-record-hitting-7-2-trillion-degrees-2012073/"
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how does normal force work? | so i started my physics course a couple of months ago and we are currently working on newton's laws. i have no trouble with most things but i do not understand how normal force works. i have learned that if a book is at rest on a table it will apply force (mg) to the table, and this i understand fully. what i do not understand is how the table can apply force back? in theory, if there were no gravity and the book had no weight, would the normal force make the book float above the table? thanks for answering. | the normal force is due to electrostatic forces. a book and table are electrically neutral so there is no attraction or repulsion between them. when you place the book on too if the table, the book and table become very close, and the electrons in the table repel the electrons in the book, providing the upward normal force. it's actually a bit more complicated than this (pauli exclusion principle) but that's the gist - normal force is due to electrostatic forces between molecules. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between a tumor-infiltrating and a cytotoxic lymphocyte? | i understand both are created in response to tumor cells, but not the difference between them and how they differ in relation to adopted cell transfer as a form of immunotherapy. | cytotoxic lymphocytes are a broad class of lymphocytes that target cells producing abnormal antigens, be they cancerous, viral, or otherwise recognized as "not self" by their receptors. their job is to induce apoptosis in the cells to prevent further spread of whatever is detected as wrong. tumor infiltrating lymphocytes are a subclass of cytotoxic lymphocytes that have infiltrated a tumor due to recognizing its antigens as not self. this is usually in response to some changes in the epigenetics of the tumor cells that cause a reversion to producing antigens normally present in the fetus but not adults. these antigens are often used as tumor markers for blood tests to detect certain kinds of cancers. tils are mostly used to help predict disease course and offer a prognosis. if they are present en masse, your body is responding to the tumor's presence, giving you a better prognosis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what prevents a chimera's immune system from rejecting organs that developed from the other cell? | what prevents a chimera's immune system from rejecting organs that developed from the other cell? is it simply that any chimeras that are _too_ genetically distinct don't form viable embryos, or does the immune system acclimate? | i'll refer you to [an earlier comment](_url_0_why_doesnt_the_immune_system_of_a_chimera_animal/c87x13s) on this same topic, because i think the explanation is smashing. i'd also like to emphasize looking further into the role of regulatory t-cells if this kind of research is of interest to you, because they're still a mysterious power in the human immune system. for the sake of transparency, [here's](_url_0_) the entire discussion. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/17qcw4/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/17qcw4/why_doesnt_the_immune_system_of_a_chimera_animal/c87x13s"
] | [
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is it possible to target different parts of the same muscle through exercise? | in the fitness world, including forums and the like, there are a lot of guys recommending specific routines and exercises to target, say, the upper/lower pecs. then, a lot of people appears saying that it is not possible since both are the same muscle (pectoralis major). then, in comes yet another group of people stating that, even though it's the same muscle, you can train its different heads. and others saying that muscles are formed by fibres and they can develop independently depending on where the exercise focuses. all of this, accompanied by large amounts of anecdotal evidence ("of course you can i started doing incline and my upper pecs exploded!", "if you only do flat bench your pecs will look like breasts!"). but no one ever provides evidence to support any of their claims. so, what the actual scientific answer? can muscles be trained in different ways to achieve different developments, or is all hypertrophy going to produce the same final result? | i'm not necessarily sure if you would need a study or journal article to "prove" this concept since it's rudimentary biomechanics: as our joint positioning changes in relation to a load, the influence and demand of the musculoskeletal system varies. for example, the chest has two heads: the clavicular and sternocostal head. the clavicular head flexes the upper arm (humerus) and the sternoclavicular head extends the humerus. the same varying functions of muscular heads can be said for the triceps or the biceps, for example. and while all heads of the muscle can be engaged to perform its function, the demands placed upon particular areas of the body or a particular movement result in the appropriate adaptations (said principle). the other people over at /r/advancedfitness might have a reference that's a bit more detailed. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does an induction coil have to be spherical or simply oval in nature? | i think induction cooking is very cool, as it is extremely fast and powerful. the insides of a "burner" look like this: _url_0_ if that was in a more oval shape, would it work the same? i ask because its not always convenient to have a circular shape over a rectangular cooking surface. | not really. any shape will still produce a magnetic field, and the whole point is to create a changing magnetic field, which induces current in the pan, and since the pan has resistance, that energy is dissipated as heat. i don't see why it wouldn't work the same. i mean, it might change very slightly, just due to the flux of the magnetic field, but overall it should be good enough. i'm not quite sure what you mean about the circular shape and rectangular cooking surface though, the actual coil in the element ('burner') is circular already. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/UmTExn2"
] | [] | [
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why is fadh formed in the krebs cycle, instead of more nadh? | so, after learning about the stages of cellular respiration, i was wondering about the uses of fadh. it makes less atp per molecule, so why is it made during the cycle instead of more nadh? if applicable, what applications does it have in comparison? | bio teacher here... my answer to this question is in regards to total energy and energy from the redox reaction that produces this fadh2. the reaction that creates it produces electrons that do not have as much energy as the electrons produced in reactions involving nadh. without that extra energy, nadh cannot be formed, therefore using another electron carrier (fadh) that yeilds a lower amount of total energy (less atp). | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are a-frames used so widely? | and, what are the strenghts and weasknesses of an a-frame? | i think you need to clarify what you mean by "used so widely." do you mean in house construction or just everyday life? the big advantages of an a-frame are that it's simple, cheap, and relatively effective. i can't say what the major disadvantages would be without digging out my statics book, but i would guess that its shape limits the type of structures it can be used in, and there may be other frames that are require less material to achieve the same strength. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does rising steam from a power plant or factory appear to be relatively still from a distance, but when viewed up close it appears chaotic and quick moving? is there a name for this effect? | from a distance you're only viewing the largest features of the smoke cloud. up close, you're viewing much smaller, faster moving features of that cloud. due to the fractal nature of such an object these features are different sized but similar looking. next time approach the cloud but be mindful to focus only on the largest features of the cloud. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://i4.minus.com/ibnMrtrdrhqIZx.jpg"
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|
is there a way to calculate how much torque would be required to bend steel? | more specifically, if you had a metal support bracket similar to [this](_url_0_) but the dimensions were 1/4"x 2" x 10" (on the supported section.) is there some formula i can use to calculate what kind of load it can hold? | there are ways to calculate but might not be completely trivial. where and how are you going to use it? support brackets cant carry that much of a load and is often used to keep things in place rather than holding up a structure on its own. but again, this depends on where and how you want to use it, but the answer will probably be surprisingly little, i could do a quick estimate when i get home. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.lulusoso.com/upload/20110820/steel_bracket_corner_bracket_steel_angle.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how do the drills used for oil mining deal with torque? | i saw something about drilling for oil here the other day and i just can't really get it out of my head. when companies are drilling incredibly deep there must be some serious force applied to the drill bit? between the downward forces on the drill as well as the friction from the rock how does it work? i just imagine them sheering off every time they get to about 1000 feet. | watch "oil drill animation" on youtube _url_0_ generally speaking, the teeth of the drill bit are driven by forced liquid called "mud" (which also acts as a preventative to keep the reservoir pressure from shooting out of the ground - higher pressures require more dense mud). the drill string (pipe) is suspended by the derrick (roughly) to prevent all the weight of all the pipe to be exerted on the drill bit. drillers keep a constant watch on "weight on bit" / rate of penetration (among many other things to watch out for to prevent a blowout). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/fl8L4qSqSqE",
"http://petrowiki.org/PDC_bit_design",
"http://petrowiki.org/Drill_bit_hydraulics"
] | [
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if surface tension didn't exist...could you pour a stream of single molecules from a cylindrical container? | thought of this while waking up this morning. in theory, would this be possible? | i don't believe merely getting rid of surface tension would be enough. you'd need to also need to get rid of adhesion, so that the molecules would not be pulled towards the cylinder. surface tension is a result of cohesion, which in turn is a result of polarity, and adhesion is also a result of polarity. so in practice the only way to remove the effects of surface tension would be to have a non-polar fluid flowing down cylinder of non-polar material, this would also remove the effects of adhesion. the other question that needs to be answered is what force will push/pull a single molecule down the cylinder. within an atmosphere gravity won't be a sufficient force, as temperature gradients will push the molecule every which way, in a vacuum, maybe. but the descent will be slow and the molecule will ricochet down the cylinder and emerge in with some velocity at a random angle out the other end confined only by the diameter of the cylinder. a much more effective method to push the molecule down the cylinder would be with a electromagnetic field, this allows for much greater control, and at this point you've just described a particle accelerator. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do reverse dimples create the same effect as dimples? | i thought of this question while watching the episode of mythbusters where they dimpled a car for better mpg. first question is whether reverse dimples create the same effect as regular dimples. as a follow up to that if it is the same effect, would it have a stronger or weaker effect? | yes reverse dimples **should** have the a similar effect as dimples (improve the aerodynamic drag on the car), but it would be very difficult to answer this question quantitatively without an experiment (computational calculation might yield some insight, but it wouldn't be 100% accurate). basically, dimples cause the flow near the surface of the car to become turbulent. turbulence will rob some energy from the main flow and dissipate it quicker, but it will cause the flow to remain attached to the car longer (delaying separation and lowering pressure drag). different shapes will cause different amounts of turbulence, and will cause the turbulence to have different qualities (such as how isotropic the turbulence is and the fluctuation strength vs physical size). this means that different shaped dimples will effect the flowfield differently. i wouldn't be able to tell you how the performance of two dimple shapes would differ because of how complex turbulence actually is. even computational models (while they can be tuned to work very well for some geometries) are gross simplifications and can run into problems when being used on novel geometries. overall: yes, putting bumps on a car's surface would likely reduce it's drag. however, predicting how much reduction (and even trying to compare the reduction to that of dimples) would require computer model for estimation, but an experiment to verify it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[physics] how far can the human visual system semi-accurately detect range via only parallax? | it seems like a lot of how we detect object range is based on visual queues like relative sizes and angles, but if we eliminate these things, how good is our visual system at using parallax to detect range? | according to [this study](_url_0_), 97.3% of subjects could detect a difference in depth at 2.3 minutes of arc or smaller. & #x200b; converting that to degrees, we get 0.0383333 degrees. if we now consider a right triangle with one leg of 65mm (typical distance between pupils in a human), one angle of 90 deg, and another angle of 0.0383333deg, the distance of the longest leg comes out to 97.15 meters. & #x200b; so, it sounds like right around 100 meters is the point where our stero vision alone can no longer help us judge depth. of course, there are other cues available to us, which is why we're able to see that a distant street sign is closer than the horizon. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00419.x"
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how would the result of einsteins light experiment change if it was rotated? | we all know einsteins experiment with "jack & jill" where light bounces between a light source and a mirror. [example.](_url_0_) my question is this: if the whole apparatus in both inertial frames was rotated 90 degree. and now the mirror is perpendicular to the constant velocity vector. would that effect the results? why and why not? thank you in advance. | the result would be the same, but it's more difficult to analyze. when the mirrors are separated along the motion, you need to deal with length contraction, which doesn't affect transverse lengths. | 5 | [] | [
"http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/lightclock.swf"
] | [] | [
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trying to find out the number of species in certain protist taxa... | it's pretty hard to find information on some of this stuff. specifically, -how many cercozoan species have been discovered? within cercozoa, how many chlorarachiniophyte species are there? - hacrobians? within that group cryptomonads, haptophytes? thanks | dude protist taxonomy is fucked right now, it's like every institution wants to use their own taxa/clades/phylogeny. it's an asshole professor that would test you on this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if your core body temperature was raised by 1 degree, by what percentage would your bmr raise? | i've asked this before but it wasn't answered. reposting because it was upvoted so i assume it's the right place to ask. | in physiology/biochemistry there's a ballpark that for every 10 degree rise in temp the reaction rate doubles. given its a very approximate ballpark and organism physiology is much more complicated than this. but the approximate answer would be 2^(1/10)=1.07=7% increase. however, google tells me that for ever 0.5c increase in temperature the bmr increases by 7%, so a 1 degree c increase would mean 14% increase in bmr (but i cant find a reputable source). addendum: in this article from 1935 a 1 degree fahrenheit increase in body temp. increased metabolic rate by 7%, and therefore one degree celsius = 13% increase _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.lww.com/amjmedsci/Citation/1935/10000/Metabolic_Rates_in_Therapeutic_Fever.8.aspx"
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what is the uncertainty of a calculated value when i know the uncertainty of the measured values going into it? | i've got the equation f = (c-b)/c. i know the uncertainty in c to be x and the uncertainty in b to be y. what is the uncertainty in f? thanks guys | if you have some function y(x*_1_*,x*_2_*,...,x*_n_*), where the x*_i_* are random variables with associated errors, you can approximate the error in y using a taylor series expansion. this is typically referred to as *propagation of error*. to lowest order, the variance in y is given by: `[; \sigma_{y}^2 \approx \sum_{ij} \frac{\partial y}{\partial x_i} \frac{\partial y}{\partial x_j} v_{ij} ;]`, where v*_ij_* is the covariance matrix and the partial derivatives are evaluated at the *means* of all x*_i_*. if you're studying uncorrelated random variables, the covariance matrix takes a simple form: `[; v_{ij} = \sigma^{2}_{i}\ \delta_{ij} ;]`, so the double sum above simplifies to: `[; \sigma_{y}^2 \approx \sum_{i} \big(\frac{\partial y}{\partial x_i}\big)^2 \sigma^{2}_{i} ;]`. in your case, you've got f(c,b) = 1 - (b/c). so you'd just evaluate: `[; \sigma_{f}^2 \approx \big(\frac{\partial f}{\partial c}\big)^2 \sigma^{2}_{c} + \big(\frac{\partial f}{\partial b}\big)^2 \sigma^{2}_{b} ;]`. so you just have to take two partial derivatives, then plug in your means and uncertainties in c and b, and you'll get an approximate value for the uncertainty in f. all of this assumed that a first-order taylor series expansion is valid, so that should be kept in mind. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is it about the cells in our stomach lining that allows them to avoid being damaged by our stomach acid? | basically, how does our stomach acid not cause us problems or even eventually seep into our abdominal cavity? | what is different about the cells in the stomach that stops them being attacked by acid? nothing, or nothing much. your stomach is much more than just a dumb bag filled with digestive juices and acid. your stomach is an organ filled with sensors and and control mechanisms, and it is connected to a network of "brain cells" aka neurons called the enteric nervous system, with the sole goal of making sure your digestion works smoothly. there is also a complex collection of hormones and paracrine factors (aka short range hormones) making sure things are functioning properly. in your stomach lining, there are cells that sense acid, and they communicate to cells that release the hormone gastrin. gastrin tells a specific class of cells in your stomach to release acid. no gastrin, no acid. if the stomach starts getting to acidic, then gastrin release is turned down, turning down the acid release. but the contents of the stomach are still very acidic, and they're still full of enzymes whose job it is to chew up proteins. so how does the stomach protect itself from that? with alkaline mucous. there are cells in the stomach that secrete mucous and bicarbonate ions, basically constantly. as acid diffuses into the mucous, it reacts with the biocarbonate ions, and is nutralized, and then that "layer" of mucous is washed away into the contents of the stomach. and this process just runs constantly, like a conveyer belt: mucous being secreted, moving out towards the contents of the stomach, reacting with the acid, and then falling off into the contents of the stomach. if the mucous isn't being secreted fast enough, then the acid will start to difuse all the way to the stomach lining, which is when the cells sense the acid, and send signals that control the rate of acid secretion, mucous secretion and bicarbonate secretion. these kind of feedback loops are found throughout the body. the gastrointestinal system is full of them. | 43 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if mar's normal temperature is -81 f (61 c) - how would a manned mission work? | [deleted] | temperatures at the amundsen–scott south pole station can get that low. temperatures on the exterior surfaces of the international space station can as well. it comes down to just using heating and cooling systems and lots of insulation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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were grassmann numbers invented for the theory of supersymmetry, or was it around much before the theory was ever thought of? | i've been searching online for an answer with google and reading some wiki pages, but can't really figure it out. this is just a curiosity. i've been studying some supersymmetry on my own, and can't figure out if the math behind it was just thought up of to help out the theory, or if the math had already been around before supersymmetry became an idea. thank you in advanced for any input. also, if anyone has any good book recommendations for the mathematics of supersymmetry (or grassmann algebra), let me know. it will be appreciated. | no, they have a much broader context in math and geometry. in general, they form an [exterior algebra](_url_0_) which were initially invented by grassmann, who died in the 1800s, long before supersymmetry was a thing. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_algebra"
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to boil water, use a tall and narrow pot; use a short and wide pot? | my wife was watching a tv show and i noticed a "tip", if that is what you want to call it. it said to use a tall and narrow pot with a lid to boil water more quickly and use less energy than a short and wide pot with lid. i thought that because the wider pot had more surface area in contact with the burner it would boil more quickly. this is assuming all things are equal other than the the size of the pot. | i think the answer could depend on the assumptions you make. if the pot is large enough to cover the heating element in both cases, and the heating element puts out the same amount of power, then it's possible a narrow pot would boil faster. the primary method of heat loss in a boiling pot of water is evaporation from the surface (as compared to heat loss to air from the sides of the pot). if you have a pot with a smaller water surface area, then you'll have less evaporation and it could possibly boil faster. again, this is going to depend on a lot of variables like the conductivity of the pot material, the exact aspect ratios you are comparing, the heating element power, the ambient temperature, etc. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does prune juice or prunes relieve constipation in the human body? | i tried googling this answer, but didn't have a satisfactory scientific reason why prune juice and prunes relieve constipation. i read that sorbitol is high in prune juice and prunes which might be the substance that encourages bowel movements, but i don't know why. any medical experts in gastroenterology or digestion know? | the high sorbitol content is indeed what causes it. sorbitol is a sugar alcohol, and thus osmotically draws a large volume of water into the large intestine as it is passed through the body. it is not absorbed well, and metabolizes slowly, allowing for the laxative effects to occur. there [may be other reason's prunes are so effective](_url_1_) such as their high phenolic compound content. specifically this mechanism of action eludes me at present. [more support for sorbitol here](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7663066",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/20014091091814"
] | [
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does a graviton "shadow" exist? | for instance, if the moon is "hidden" behind the earth from the sun, should there exist a graviton shadow? does the earth intercept gravitons that would have otherwise interacted with the moon (which would, i presume, have at least some effect on the moon's orbit)? if this does in fact occur, are there laws that balance out this issue? if gravitons are "virtual particles", does that somewhat account for this? edit: clarity | well, we haven't discovered gravitons (yet?). we also don't have a quantum theory of gravity. if you're asking whether the gravitational pull on the moon from the sun becomes weaker when the earth goes between them, the answer would be no. such a thing would have an observable effect on the orbit of the moon (which you are correct on), but we haven't observed it. the superposition principle in classical gravity seems to hold. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Sage%27s_theory_of_gravitation"
] | [
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] |
calling all marine biologists for a bizarro fish id. it's stumped everyone at the aquarium i work at. | _url_0_ here are some photos of it. it's about 10cm long and was found at the mouth of a creek at 35ppt, swimming eratically (spiralling) in townsville (tropical north queensland, australia). none of the people at the aquarium i work at have ever seen anything like this. any ideas are welcome. edit: looks like we have a correct id - caragobius rubristriatus (red eel goby). interestingly, the distribution for this species is from northwestern australia to the gulf of carpentaria, and this specimen was found on the northeast coast. curious and curiouser! | its been a while since i took ichthyology, but it looks a bit like a red eel goby to me. though the scales are kind of throwing me off. | 103 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/axW46"
] | [
"http://www.reefcentral.com/forums/showthread.php?t=1094250"
] | [
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could something like the voight-kampf test from blade runner be used to diagnose psychopaths? | specifically, could you measure a persons pupil dilation in response to distressing pictures to get an idea of their level of empathy? | there already is such a test. check out "the psychopath test" for a very fun read into how it was developed and how it is used (and how it may or may not be accurate). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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light bulb experts please explain!! | the filament in an incandescent light bulb is made from tungsten, right? and the melting point of tungsten is around 3700 k. according to this [this](_url_0_) the spectrum of an incandescent light bulb peaks at ~640 nm. assuming the tungsten filament resembles a black body, that means that the tungsten is reaching a temperature of like 4700k! well above its melting point. how it this possible? the spectrum above i found online. i also measured the spectrum myself and came up with a similar result. are they both wrong? or does tungsten filament not emit a spectrum reminiscent of a black body? but wait! accoring to [ge's website](_url_1_) the incandescent spectrum closely resembles that of a black body??? what am i missing here? | the spectrum that you've posted may or may not be from a light bulb -- but i can tell you that it certainly is not that of a black body. black body curves tend to [look like this.](_url_0_) if you know for sure that something is behaving as a black body you can use the peak intensity wavelength to compute the temperature, but in this case since it's not behaving as a black body that will not be sufficient. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www1.assumption.edu/users/bniece/spectra/HiResolution/Wg.pdf",
"http://www.gelighting.com/na/business_lighting/spectral_power_distribution_curves/pop_curves.htm?1"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_body.svg"
] | [
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is it possible for an anion to exist in solution without a cation and vice versa ? | yes, this is actually the basis for bioelectricity used in our nervous systemand muscles. our cells actively seperate ions to create electric and chemical gradients that can be used to power other reactions (typically transport accros the membrane). the inside and outside of the cell are separate solutions seperated by a membrane. if there is a difference between total charges (cations-anions) inside and out then a voltage difference is created. in extreme cases like electric eels these voltages can be added in series to potentially deadly levels. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C1CP21803D",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvated_electron"
] | [
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|
what stops us from being able to see susy particles if we are able to see standard particles just fine? | as far as my understanding goes we are completely able to see standard particles. what is stopping us from seeing susy particles (being that they do exist?)? is it an equation we have yet to discover? or am i just completely misunderstanding supersymmetry? | susy, if it exists in nature, is what is known as a broken symmetry. exact susy would, as you probably know, give exact copies of all standard model (sm) particles but with spin differing by one half. we don't see this though, which means, if it exists at all, susy must be broken by some effect. the result is that the susy partners must be much heavier than the sm equivalent - current constraints mean that they must be ~1tev or heavier. a caveat of this is that we don't expect them to be much heavier than say ~10tev, because at higher masses the symmetry is less appealing. this is because a big draw of susy is that it fixes the hierarchy problem - this basically refers to a problem with the mass of the higgs boson and it's higher order corrections. for slightly broken susy, the superpartners more or less fix the problem with the higgs mass. however if the susy partners are really really heavy then the problem isn't fixed at all... this would make susy less appealing. that said, if we saw a stupidly heavy susy particle at any energy it would be interesting, it just means there is less motivation to believe they exist. tl;dr - susy particles must be heavy, which means they don't interact as much with the sm particles, so we can't detect them easily. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is lumosity a legitimate way to improve the flexibility of your brain? and how scientific is it, really? | self explanatory. i just want to know if i'm really exercising my brain. i definitely don't use it as a substitute for books and such, but i can't help but wonder if i'm wasting my time. | there are popular studies that show that playing brain age doesn't make you smarter but makes you better at playing brain age. i'd be very surprised if this game produced different results. as a starting point, check this: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://kotaku.com/5520975/yet-another-study-brain-training-games-dont-improve-intelligence"
] | [
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are there actual cognitive benefits of lumosity? | i just saw a youtube advertisement for the site "_url_0_." in the ad, they claim that simple puzzles available on the site can improve neuroplasticity, increasing processing speed and working memory. my first reaction to this was that this is either: (1). no different than any other puzzle, like a crossword (2). no different than any other challenging computer game, like starcraft (3). increasing proficiency on specific tests, but not necessarily making you smarter they have a lot of impressive institutional partners on their website, but i can't seem to find clinical data that i am used to seeing for most medical products or services. is lumosity exploiting the fact that they don't have to have clinical trials for their service in order to sell snake oil? | the neurological benefits of tasks such as the "dual n-back" are fairly well supported. whether or not the costs of joining a commercial website are worthwhile to an individual is not really within the realms of science without a comparative study between those who use it, those who use freeware, those who don't use anything, the chance that one would use a system after having invested money in it, and of course the value of the improved neurological function. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.lumosity.com/"
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-0.23787513375282288,
-0.3179558217525482,
-0.020845621824264526,
0.49843376874923706,
0.7636059522628784,
0.8204163312911987,
-0.9129717946052551,
0.021352097392082214,
0.13439437747001648,
0.4257577657699585,
0.36398056149482727,
-1.2354018688201904,
0.45022112131118774,
0.7141583561897278,
-1.1487842798233032,
1.0542881488800049,
0.8721145987510681
] |
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