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why is the center cube of a menger sponge removed? | wouldn't removing the center cubes of each side leave another floating menger sponge in the middle, albeit 1/27 the volume of the original (after the first iteration)? if so, would there be infinite sponges in each complete model, theoretically? | **building fractals** if you want do draw pretty fractals, you can basically choose any subset of the 27 cubes you create as a "model", and iterate the procedure of the menger sponge. after you take the procedure to the limit, this gives a great deal of objects, some of which are nice fractals, some of which are just 'boring' lines of planes. a bit of counting shows that the minkowski dimension (the 'fractal dimension') will be log(n)/log(3), where n is the number of cubes you keep in your pattern. **what about the "standard" menger sponge** however, not all mathematics is about drawing cool fractals, and the menger sponge is somehow special and was invented for other topological (non-fractal) qualities. it appears when mathematicians were thinking about what kinds of continuous curves (drawn on the paper or 3-d space as the image of the unit segment without lifting the pen) can actually exist: * (1) menger already knew there is such object as the peano curve [check that out if you like fractal stuff and don't know about it], that fills the whole plane/space. since we already know those kinds of curves, he was interested in curves that do not exhibit this property (even locally). but menger was still interested on building "thick" curves, that were not what you'd expect, (to challenge intuition i guess?) so he imposed another condition: * (2) if you have a 'normal' curve [read 'simple curve' if you are familiar with the term] in the plane and remove a point from it, you have 'cut' your curve [read 'the curve has two connected components near the point']. if you do the same to the peano curve, since the image of the peano curve is a plane, removing a point from the plane doesn't "break it in two". so menger sutied the curves that where not-so-thick in the sense described in (1) but where somehow 'sticky' in the sense we described in (2). and what he proved is that, in some sense, there is only one! of such curves, and that it can be represented by his sponge. what he proved is that any other curve with such properties is in fact only a continuous transformation (homeomorphism) of this one. while i don't know how to prove that your version of the menger sponge doesn't have this property, i would not be very surprised if it did (and in this case it would be nothing but a continuous deformation of the original one). in any case, the importance of the 'original' sponge is more historical and in the fact that it somehow easily showcases this universal property in the proof (such as with 'cantor' sets, you can build thousands of variations of them, but from the topological sense, they are all the same, and we just keep the 'remove 1/3rd' for historical/simplicity reasons). | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what luminosity saturates the cones of the human retina? | i am writing code for a physically-based lighting system for a computer game. everything is easy until the very last step: the conversion from the radiant flux entering the eye (in watt) to a number between 0 and 1. there must me a critical irradiance above which the human iris cannot contract anymore, leading to saturating the cones. this is the value that i wish to map to 1. all my light sources are broadband (sun, torches, and reflections thereof) so i do not need high spectral resolution. i also assume a linear response of the cones (up to saturation) since the brain is sort of correcting for the non-linearities anyway. i ignore scotopic vision and the automatic white-balance done by the brain, at least for now. i thought this page was promising _url_0_ , i will try to solve it for the steady state and invert it to find phi for a diameter of 3 mm (the minimum). but maybe i'll get it wrong, or it's not really how this equation works, so i'd love to hear what you might know. i am after an order of magnitude, not super specific numbers. i accept answers in watt, candela, lumen, horse power or plank units, anything! edit: solving the equation from the wikipedia page in the steady state gives me 320 lumen for a 3mm pupil diameter. is it sort of correct? | optometrist here. photoreceptor bleaching and the pupillary light reflex, while linked obviously, are different parts of the visual system in that the first is a cellular and photochemical reaction, while the latter is one of the parasympathetic nervous system. " there must be a critical irradiance above which the human iris cannot contract anymore, leading to saturating the cones..." is a bit like saying, "there must be a certain amount of wind blowing into a room before the door gets blown shut and 100% of people inside are affected by the gust". so, they are related but very loosely. do you really need to affect 100% of those people inside (all the cones) to have the closed door (maximum pupil constriction)? the answer is definitely not! i assume you are more interested in affecting the pupil reaction rather than worrying about photopigment bleaching. literally everybody's eyes are different, and pupil reactions can differ even between two normal eyes of the same person. not to mention reaction times differ as well. my suggestion is that you set 1 to an arbitrary "bright" value. general residential lighting is between 50 to 100 lux, an average public room like a hotel corridor is between 100 to 200 lux. the light used in a clothes fitting area and in eye surgeries are 1000 to 2000 lux and if you're sitting in the dentist's chair you're probably experiencing between 5000 to 10,000 lux. the eye is very adaptable. hope that gives you an idea! | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupillary_light_reflex"
] | [
"http://www.cvrl.org/database/text/intros/introbleaches.htm"
] | [
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] |
can an electrical current tool have the same effect as the waterjet tool (in cutting through steel)? | [electical discharge machining](_url_0_) uses a charged wire held close to a grounded workpiece to generate a constant stream of sparks that slowly etches away the metal. [electrochemical machining](_url_1_) can be thought of as "reverse electroplating" where you use a source of electricity and a working fluid to remove metal from a workpiece. both of these are used typically because you need to machine something exotic that would either dull or foul a typical cutting tool. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_discharge_machining",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_machining",
"http://www.harrisproductsgroup.com/en/Products/Alloys/Welding/Maintenance-and-Repair/Cut-Rod.aspx",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting"
] | [
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] |
|
question about existence and uniqueness (math) | i am simply trying to understand the general concept of existence and uniqueness in reference to the picard-lindeloef theory, and how lipschitz continuity implies existence and uniqueness in this regard. i just need a little bit of a layman's terms explanation of how all this fits together. any help is appreciated. specifically, why does the continuity of the first differential, and partial with respect to y mean existence and uniqueness? | are you asking for a proof of the picard-lindelöf theorem? the [wikipedia article](_url_1_) provides both a sketch of the proof and a full proof. it's basically an application of the [banach fixed-point theorem](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banach_fixed_point_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picard%E2%80%93Lindel%C3%B6f_theorem"
] | [
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lets say we dig two 5 feet diameter holes. their edges are 5 feel apart. how deep would we need to dig to the holds to meet? | assuming we are on a perfect sphere. the holes are 10 feet center to center. the edges will touch at 5 feet center to center. this will occur at halfway to the center of the sphere. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you resuscitate a drowning bug? | at least with certain types of insects like a fly, experiments have been done to take the nearly drowned fly and wrap it in a salt coated napkin or cloth. the salt in the cloth will draw water out of the insects breathing tubes and allow oxygen/co2 to resume normal gas exchange. this won't work if the insect has died from lack of oxygen. here is a rather informal explanation of the experiment: _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.darylscience.com/Demos/DeadFly.html"
] | [
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|
has anyone seen the documentary "food matters"? i'm interested in hearing what people have to say about it. | if it sounds sensationalist, it probably is. ill watch it and post my thoughts on it. what are some of their claims? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why did the copenhagen interpretation "win"? | it appears to be treated almost as a foregone conclusion that the copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is the best way to proceed. but (as an *absolute* layman) it seems to me like de-broglie bohm/pilot wave theory should...at the very least not be such an underdog. my understanding is that there's no experimental data ruling out either interpretation yet, right? the only reason i have this opinion (if you could even call it that) is that i feel like occam's razor says you have to go with any theory that preserves determinism. i mean at some point everything devolves into philosophy, so we have to rest on a few assumptions (that an objective reality exists, etc) to get anything done. determinism is a huge one of those assumptions. i guess my question then is: what is the implication of pilot wave theory that we regard as even more troublesome than the death of determinism? | interpretations of quantum mechanics aren't predictive models that can be tested by experiment (at least, ones that haven't already been ruled out experimentally). they are ways of thinking about things that are confusing, in more human terms. different people will benefit from thinking about something in a different way. some people would prefer to think about a wavefunction collapsing while others would prefer to think about universes branching off or a wave guiding a particle around. the thing people don't like about debroglie-bohm is that it is nonlocal and violates special relativity, which is more bothersome to many physicists than loss of determinism. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2013/01/17/the-most-embarrassing-graph-in-modern-physics/"
] | [
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what happens to the energy when someone runs into a wall and the wall dosnt move? | like the title says, what happens when someone like me runs into a brick wall, because the wall dosnt move, but the energy is put into the wall. where does the energy go since, it has to go somewhere, but its not enough energy to be converted into mass. | why do you think the energy is put into the wall? it may not move, you on the other hand, will bounce off of it rather painfully. that bounce is not free energy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the speed limit for a vactrain (a hypothetical maglev in a vacuumed tunnel)? | with hypothetically no friction, what's the limiting factor on its speed? [wikipedia](_url_0_) lists that it could reach speeds 6,400-8,000 km/hr, but what's stopping it from going faster? is that estimate just because it's including practicality such as material strength and deceleration? or is there actually a physical limit in the way a maglev accelerates? | the quality of the vacuum is usually the limiting thing. that is there will be some friction. if it doesn't need to bend it can go pretty fast. particle accelerators are pretty similar and there strongly relativistic speeds are possible. with bigger objects high speeds start to make less sense just from energy usage stand point. presumably you want to start from rest and then end in rest. if your start and end locations are within earth there is only about 8 light seconds to travel. does it really makes sense to double the energy use to go half the time if the time is already 30 minutes? then there is the issue that humans don't like high gs so that the acceleration and decceleration time need to be taken into account. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vactrain"
] | [] | [
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does rifting most commonly/always occur at triple junctions? if so, why? | e.g. east african rift, and wiki on rifting seems to suggest triple junctions are present, and maybe one arm fails. specifically, why triple junction? why doesn't it just split open along a line? or into 4 or more radial branches? why 3? | i'm not aware of anything that specifically argues you need a triple junction to initiate rifting, but my work is more on the other end of the spectrum (smashing continents together is so much cooler imo). i do know that generally the process of rift initiation is a vibrant research topic, but i've never come across anything that suggests you require a triple junction to start rifting. my slightly educated guess is that this gets more at the [stability of particular types of triple junctions](_url_0_). rift-rift-rift junctions are stable so they can last a while, where as some other configurations involving rifts are not as stable. the wikipedia article does a somewhat half-assed job of discussing this, but if you have access to articles behind paywalls, you should check out the old, but in my opinion truly elegant discussion of this by mckenzie and morgan in [nature](_url_2_). in general thinking about the evolution of triple junctions on a spherical surface is such a cool problem, makes we want to start drawing stability diagrams right now! in terms of other geometries, we generally don't see many boundaries greater than three. there are a few, but mostly what we see are divisions between two plates or triple junctions. certain quadruple-junctions have been to shown to be theoretically stable as argued by this [other nature](_url_1_) paper. they suggest that ridge-ridge-ridge-ridge junctions are stable, but only if they are completely orthogonal to each other. edit: i'm continuing to second guess myself, but i think what i remember is that while rift-rift-rift junctions are stable from a velocity standpoint, what we tend to see that in the case of continued rifting that eventually one of these rift arms will die creating a feature sometimes called an aulacogen (like the east african rift). it's less that rifting requires a triple junction, and more that if it happens at a triple junction, one will eventually fail. does that make sense? | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_junction_stability",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v277/n5693/abs/277201a0.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v224/n5215/abs/224125a0.html"
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what does eating another human do to the human body? | a friend and i came up with this question over lunch. | so then, based on everything we know about prion diseases, is a zombie apocalypse medically/biologically possible, no matter how rare the circumstances would be? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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kitchen question: paprika vs. pepper, why do they act differently on water? | last time i submitted this, it got caught by spam. retry! i'm always a fan of "neat science stuff you can see in your home" so i was curious yesterday, when making dinner, i put pepper and paprika into some stew water. the pepper, when sprinkled into the water, came together in a "black-hole-in-my-stew" way: all to one point and then they sink. the paprika, on the other hand, hit the water and spread out in a "piranha-in-the-lake-nope-nope-nope" way: hitting the water and spreading out along the surface with only a few sinking. so why does this happen? i assume it has to do with different particulate sizes and individual surface tension, but i'm not really sure. are the paprikas spreading out on the water because they're smaller, lighter, or smoother than the pepper? all of the above? | the only thing i can think about is that paprika (apparently) contains saponins which are surfactants (decrease the surface tension of water). i would expect similar reactions as when you put something like a sprinkling of pepper in water and then dip a dish soap (surfactant) covered finger into the middle and the pepper all goes to the borders of the bowl ("piranha-in-the-lake-nope-nope-nope" way? hahaha) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the closed room and a refrigerator example function when the rf is grounded within the room? (is mass added via electrons?) | complete speculation here that i was pondering while in the car, i was wondering if you could help me answer it: assume we are working with the classically closed room and a refrigerator problem. main assumptions: electrically insulated room thermally insulated room mass temperature relationship holds, yet changes resulting from it are accounted for sub assumptions: electron input from outside the system, yet ground is within the system. steady state (mostly in relation to electron balances) question: would the mass within the room increase? or would the generator powering the refrigerator fail to turn due to a gradient working against the depleted electrons? and would the input wire form a sub-balanced-system in which two sides are electron opposed (charged electrons on one side, depleted ones on the other), and would the motor turn in these conditions? and what happens when i start relaxing some of these assumptions | the "generator" will not work as no current will flow through it. if you ground it inside the room instead of to the earth you will not have a complete circuit and no current will flow. if the fridge is grounded to earth, no. if it is grounded in the room again, no. either no electrons flow into the room, or an equal number flow into and out of the room. (see (_url_0_)) electrons do not gain or lose charge. you seem to misunderstand the way a circuit works. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff's_circuit_laws"
] | [
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if a person is blindfolded and told to walk in a straight line, is there a preference for which direction they will turn? | and is that direction correlated with the handedness of the walker? | in fact, there is a natural tendency to people to walk in circles when either blindfolded or walking with sight but without any constant landmarks or indicators (such as the sun or the moon). with some sort of guide, however, people will tend to walk in straight lines (if they intend to). here's a [2009 study](_url_0_) which discusses the experiment. this experiment noted that there was no consistent direction of turning for the blindfolded experiments: "we also failed to find a correlation with functional asymmetries such as handedness or footedness" | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982209014791#gr3"
] | [
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has lamarckian evolution been completely disproved? | i've always thought the experiments, cited in basic science classes, that refuted lamarckian evolution were flawed. epigenetics point to the possibility of at least something vaguely lamarckian, is it possible or does any respected scientists believe that darwinian evolution could be influenced even minutely by lamarckian principles? | the problem is with the mechanics of reproduction. there is no mechanism for the body to 'edit' the dna of egg or sperm in order to transmit the acquired adaptations to the next generation. of course we now know the role of dna, etc., which was not the case when lamarckism was in its heyday. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a man immune to electricity? a hoax, right? | _url_0_ summary: this video details a man from serbia that can withstand up to 600 volts of electricity and suffer no ill effects. he can also store and generate electricity with his body. my question: he says that he never sweats and he believes that is the reason he can withstand electric shock. while it sounds nice, my bs meter is going off the charts here. am i being duped, or is this for real? thanks guys! jrb | like most weird things and paranormal abilities, i suspect that this will not stand up to controlled, reproducible, scientific testing. most of the stuff after 2:10 i've done. the steel rod+alcohol demo is a particular bit of chicanery -- you could do that by wearing socks, rubbing them on a woollen rug and then shocking a bit of cotton soaked with alcohol. the reason it has to be attached to the steel is to provide a path for the current to flow. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pY745NxZwsY&NR=1&feature=fvwpA"
] | [] | [
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is perception required in the study of information theory? | i am having a hard time understand information theory. i have come across it in some of my computer science and ee courses, but it is always somewhat glossed over or simply stated as a fact. (this signal carries this much information) my question is this: do we need some sort of intelligence to have information theory mean anything or can information be quantified physically without invoking a being perceiving something. in reading the wikipedia article i found this statement: > suppose one transmits 1000 bits (0s and 1s). if these bits are known ahead of transmission (to be a certain value with absolute probability), logic dictates that no information has been transmitted. if, however, each is equally and independently likely to be 0 or 1, 1000 bits (in the information theoretic sense) have been transmitted. this seems to imply there needs to be some conscious being that is receiving the information (if the bits are *known* ahead of transmission) any general information on information theory would also be appreciated. edit: related question: how did hawking demonstrate that black holes do not destroy information? | entropy is, at it's heart, a probabilistic concept, associated with a space of possible outcomes and the probability of each outcome. the set of probabilities depends on how much information is provided. in the example you talk about above, the probability distribution is trivial for the case where you know the bits beforehand, and its uniform over all possible messages for the second case i.e. all possible messages are equally probable. mathematically, entropy is something that you assign to a probability distribution. things like consciousness and people saying that information is inherently physical arises in how that probability distribution is built up. it doesn't have to be a 'conscious' being per se, it would as well be two computers. 'consciousness' is a very vague term that gets thrown around a lot and it doesn't have any rigorously defined meaning imo (something on the lines of a turing test perhaps ?), but some ai researched might be along shortly to answer this. if you had a whole bunch of dice and you had an egg carton with numbered slots, and there were dice placed in each slot with some side facing up, and the observer (be it a human or a computer with a camera and some funky vision algorithm) : * if all dice had the same number on all 6 sides, the entropy associated with that system is zero, because you can with a probability of 1, predict what the contents are going to look like when the box is opened. * if the dice were all regular dice with the numebr 1-6 on them, there are 6^n possible combinations, in an egg carton with 12 eggs, and without you knowing anything about the process of dice placement, or a programmer having input no info into the computer's algorithm, the entropy is log(6^n). that was very vague, you might not want to take it too seriously :| | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if radio frequencies are nonionizing, how do plasma etchers create a plasma with them? | basically, plasma cutters and etchers create plasma by having high static voltages. it's not exactly the same thing, but you can break a stick by shaking it or by pulling at both ends. you might have to shake a stick really fast to break it, but that doesn't mean that you have to pull really fast to break it. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain why the roche limit doesnt rip things in half when we send them to the moon or mars? | it seems like everything would get ripped in half at some point, but that seems crazy. | the roche limit applies only to bodies held together by their *own gravity* that are then pulled apart by tidal forces. the objects that we can transport are relatively small in mass, and are not being held together principally by their own gravitation. instead, chemical bonds and intermolecular forces (thus electromagnetism, not gravity) are holding together any spacecraft we send. in comparing the magnitude of the forces applied from gravitation to the strengths of the chemical bonds holding together, gravitation is many orders of magnitude weaker. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would it feel like to skydive through a cloud? | obviously this would differ by the type of cloud, but what would be the consequences of skydiving through one? would it be hot, cold, painful, turbulent, would one come out drenched? | it doesn't feel didn't. maybe a tiny bit misty but that's it. clouds are generally just like fog. the wind conditions inside a cloud aren't any different than outside, they just give you a visual representation of the conditions around. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do advil/tylenol work? | tl;dr: these are two different drugs that work in similar ways to inhibit the production of molecules made during the inflammation process. research still needs to be done to figure out exactly what pathways these drugs interact with. when your body encounters an injurious agent (hypoxia, radiation, chemicals, physical injury) it stimulates inflammation in order to heal. these drugs work on different mechanisms within this inflammation pathway. advil is the brand name for ibuprofen (the actual drug). this drug primarily works by inhibiting an enzyme class known as cox. these enzymes turn fatty acids into prostaglandins. prostaglandins are an important part of healing but can also produce pain. acetaminophen (paracetamol) works to inhibit the activity of cox enzymes in a similar way but it may be more specific for one of the cox enzymes. to be honest, research has yet to find out exactly how these drugs work. the body is so complex and has so many reaction cascades that it may take a while to sort out every effect these drugs, and their metabolites have. edit: acetaminophen also acts in the cns to block reuptake of the neurotransmitter (anandimide). by blocking reuptake of this nt on it swamps the recieving celll effectively desensitizing it to pain reception. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i need help identifying this disorder. | i knew a girl in high school who's body basically stopped developing past age 7 or so. she seemed to be on the same thinking level as the rest of us, so it was just her body. it certainly wasn't dwarfism or midgetism because she told us what it was once. if you need more info, i might be able to provide you with some from my terrible memory. thank you, /askscience! **edit:** i didn't realize how many growth conditions there are, i'm sorry for my vagueness. | there are many things that could cause stunted growth. if you have more information that might be helpful, but i'm not confident that an accurate call can be made here. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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cmbr dipole versus special relativity? | the cmbr dipole indicates a direction that the milky way galaxy is moving (which happens to be a path into the great attractor). the intensity of the blueshift indicates a motion of 600 km/sec. but what is the milky way moving 600 km/sec in relation to? if the answer is that it is **the absolute velocity of the milky way through space itself** , then certain conceptual tenets of special relativity would be violated. in particular, there would be an experiment that you could perform to establish a preferred stationary reference frame --- the existence of which is explicitly forbidden by sr. what is the straightforward 'academic' explanation for why the cmbr dipole cannot be utilized to "break" sr in this way? hoping for friendlier answers and less hostility. thanks. | this is not an absolute velocity. it is 600 km/hr with respect to the unique local reference frame in which the cmb is *isotropic* (i.e., is the same in all directions). velocity is always relative. nothing about relativity is violated. also, relativity does not say "a preferred reference frame does not exist". there are plenty of scenarios in which there is a preferred reference frame, and the cmb frame in cosmology is one such example. what relativity roughly says is that physics is the same in all locally inertial frames. so in that sense the cmb frame is not preferred. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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people who are fit have a lower resting heartrate than people who are out of shape. doesn't the brain regulate your heartrate though? how does your brain know if you're in shape or not? | i may be basing this on the faulty assumption that the brain and nervous system works just like a pacemaker. | the body has a feedback system that increases or decreases heart rate according to how much oxygen your body needs. athletic training increases the amount of blood that can be delivered to the muscles with each heartbeat. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do seagulls 'dance' when looking for grub? | as zaggynl suggests, the acoustic effect of the paddling is what's causing the worms to come to the surface - and it's not just gulls who do it. people do it as well, drumming the soil to collect worms for bait (called 'grunting'!). however, the reason the worms come up isn't quite clear. again as zaggynl points out one of the hypotheses is it sounds like rain. another possibility is it also sounds like burrowing predators (e.g. moles). and, in fact, both sounds occur at roughly the same frequency. a recent study, though, suggests that it's actually an escape response to burrowing moles, and neither rain nor saturation of the soil distressed worms enough for them to leave (catania (2008) plos one 3). so, at least in some instances, the birds are actually mimicking a *subterranean* predator, driving the worms up to what they believe is safety, but is in fact their doom! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
"where" did the neutrinos go prior to inflation? (question spurred by 13-apr cosmos) | neil degrasse tyson talked about how neutrinos were unhindered by even extremely dense matter on [this past sunday's episode](_url_0_). as an example he said that the neutrinos that came as a result of a supernova initiation escaped from [sn 1987a](_url_1_) actually hit earth and triggered the [super-kamiokande neutrino detector](_url_3_) several hours before any em radiation made it. not because neutrinos were traveling faster than light, but because they weren't hindered the way photons are by the incredibly dense matter of a star (especially in the core of a near-death star). dr. tyson then went on to talk about how shortly after the big bang, while photons would've been having trouble navigating all the... proto-matter?... before it collapsed into atoms that photons can ignore, neutrinos probably wouldn't have been (as) hindered. if that's the case, were neutrinos "piling up" at the edge of spacetime until the [recently-probably-confirmed inflation](_url_2_) happened? was there just enough spacetime for them to never hit a "wall?" was there just so much more spacetime than in existence by the time the big bang "stuff" started making neutrinos that they wouldn't hit the "edge?" | note that while neutrinos decoupled much earlier than photons, meaning that the neutrino background would have been created much earlier than the microwave background, the neutrino decoupling still took place well *after* inflation. if the universe is, as seems likely, infinite, then they would obviouisly just continue streaming forever. what isn't necessarily so obvious is that this would be true even if the universe is finite, because, even in a finite universe, our best-fit models predict that there is no edge; space just wraps back around on itself like a three-dimensional version of a sphere. thus, even if the neutrinos could somehow outrun expansion (which, to be honest, they couldn't), they would just continue on past the point where they started without much interruption. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.cosmosontv.com/watch/222974531915",
"http://www.aavso.org/vsots_sn1987a",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/14/140317-big-bang-gravitational-waves-inflation-science-space/",
"http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/sk/index-e.html"
] | [] | [
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is "now" the same for everyone and everything in the galaxy? | i understand relativity, i understand that the faster you go, the slower time goes for you (or, the faster time goes for everyone else, since it would appear time was going the same speed for yourself). but is "now" the same for everyone? maybe the rate of change of now is faster or slower, but do people/things/space lemmings all operate on the exact same "now"? | no. a famous thought experiment illustrates this: imagine person a is on a moving train. he sends out two light signal from the middle of the train, one backwards and one forwards. since the distances to the front and the back are equal, and light moves at a constant speed, the light pulses reach the front and back of the train simultaneously. however, person b stands on a platform. to him, the light going forwards has to travel longer, since the train will have moved forward by the time it reaches end point. similarly, the light traveling backwards has a shorter distance to travel. since the speed of light is constant also for b, the light has to reach the back of the train *before* it reaches the front. so the exact "now" when the light hits the front and back of the train, are simultaneous for a, but not for b. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are startrek replicators scientifically feasible? | a mechanism for precisely delivering a wide variety of atoms into a chemical bond from a distance extremely quickly, while isolating unwanted reactions and not damaging anything in the process. this technology is probably even more challenging than the computers, because on the surface all the computer needs to do is remember the structure of the original object (detecting these original qualities is also a necessary hurdle). while it doesn't include any steps which are necessarily scientifically impossible, it is so far outside the realm of any technology we can even begin to see existing that it is effectively impossible. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how, and where do you find promethium? | there are two possible sources for natural promethium: rare decays of natural europium-151 (producing promethium-147), and uranium (various isotopes). humans typically synthesize it from uranium or neodymium if/when we need it. (from wikipedia, which has all this stuff) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[biology] explain to me the lotka–volterra equation. | hello redditors of /r/askscience, i'm currently struggling with the lotka-volterra equation. i have to create a simulation of it with the program consideo and therefore have to understand the equation. but the explanation isn't that simple to understand and other explanations, for example by local colleges aren't that simple either :( so i thought that you guys and girls of /r/askscience may be smart enough to explain the lotka-volterra equation to me. thanks in advance, /u/s22l1g11. | intuitively, it is very simple. lots of foxes mean rabbits have a bad year. the foxes eventually eat all of their food supply, leading to extreme shortage of food, leading to a nearly total fox die-off. the few surviving rabbits multiply out of control, eventually causing a fox boom due to the temporary surplus of food... it is an oscillation produced by the delay in matching population to the current environment and is applicable to a wide variety of systems where one group is dependent upon prey and population size cannot instantly adjust. the equation has some relevance to why stock markets keep going up and down too, giving a new meaning to the phrase wall street wolf. mathematically, it is a differential equation. the derivative (dx/dt and dy/dt) is the rate of change of population vs time. the rate of change of rabbit population is equal to the rate of growth (a constant) of rabbits times the population minus the rate at which wolves kill rabbits (another constant) times the population of wolves times the population of rabbits. the rate of change of the population of wolves is equal to minus the rate at which wolves starve times the population of wolves plus the rate at which wolves increase in numbers when food is available times the population of wolves times the population of rabbits. [wolfram alpha](_url_0_) is a really helpful reference for this. if you want actual numbers to plug into your model you'll need to dig up a paper and there are several to choose from in the sources section on wikipedia. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Lotka-VolterraEquations.html",
"http://biology.stackexchange.com/"
] | [
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what was the hold up with wireless electricity? | there are a couple of start-ups just now talking about various takes on "wireless electricity"; i don't mean the cellphone charging mats by the way. i recently saw a clip on youtube of one guy from mit powering a tv from 6 feet away. why didn't we have this before? i'm sure the implementation is quite complicated and what not but the physics of electricity and magnetism haven't really changed in 200 years. isn't this essentially an alternating magnetic field generator? i'd imagine it's designed such that the first (or the first few) harmonics only form in a particular way so that you don't inject currents in every conductor in the room. | the pros and cons of a implementable wireless electricity system are way out of whack. you end up making great sacrifices for the generally trivial ability to not plug something in. it's something that presents big problems at every level. magnetic coupling right off the bat is inherently inefficient at any distance more than a few inches. it also requires very very fine tuning that takes into account distance, direction, and antenna orientation. if any one of these parameters changes, the efficiency *rapidly* drops off. this is why wireless electricity designs are all made for powering static (usually)nearby objects. in that tv demo, the guy doesn't walk around with the tv on, he puts it on a stand a few feet directly in front of the power antenna. you can see with the cell phone demo how narrow the power field is too. this is seriously nothing new or impressive, the effect has been known as long as electricity has been. what you end up with is a system that needs a big 1500w antenna to power a 200w tv across the room. both the tv and the antenna must be finely tuned for your specific setup, and you cannot move the tv or the antenna around much. it would also cost an arm and a leg for the precision equipment needed. all this because you didn't want to run one wire to plug it in. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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we all used to eats boogers: what effect could/did that have? | we all used to eat them... did that have a positive effect or a negative one? also, what, specifically, are boogers made of that made them appealing? | unfortunately i can't find the study, but a while ago (2-3 years ago) i ran across an article suggesting that eating boogers was a pseudo-vaccination, killing whatever got caught and allowing the inert form to be ingested to create antibodies. however, due to the levels of pollution in most places, it's probably not too healthy. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
whаt раrts оf thе brаіn аrе mоst usеd whеn lеаrnіng gоlf? | іn mу оріnіоn іt wоuld bе thе сеrеbеllum, whісh wоuld bе usеd tо сооrdіnаtе уоur swіng аnd thе mоtоr соrtех fоr thе рrесіsе mоvеmеnts nееdеd whеn swіngіng thе сlub аnd strіkіng thе bаll, аs wеll аs thе mоvеmеnts thе bоdу mаkеs durіng thе swіng аrе thеsе twо thе mоst іmроrtаnt аrеаs оf thе brаіn usеd whеn lеаrnіng gоlf, оr іs thеrе аnуthіng еlsе? | no complex activity can be said to involve just one or two parts of the brain. i can think of ways to activate essentially every major brain system during a golf lesson. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&q=brain+activity+when+learning+golf&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C5&as_sdtp="
] | [
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whу іs саrtіlаgе sо slоw tо rераіr? | соuld іt bе duе tо сhоdnrосуtе рrоlfіеrаtіоn bеіng lоw, оr mаtrіх sуnthеsіs bеіng lоw, оr іs іt sоmеthіng еlsе whісh іs саusіng іt tо hеаl sо slоwlу? | the easiest way to explain it is that yes, matrix synthesis is little to nonexistent. however, a more correct answer is that matrix synthesis is so few and far between because of the structure (or lack of structures) in the cartilage matrix. first lets talk about what makes up cartilages: cartilages are made up of a lot of extracellular matrix, glycosaminoglycans and proteins. these all function in a passive way, they are created during development by chondrocytes and then function without much need of maintenance and grow at a very slow rate. because of the low cell population, slow growth rate and hopefully little to no damage, cartilage is avascular, meaning there are no blood vessels running through it. this means that any nutrients, o2 or waste must passively diffuse from outside the cartilage, through it and to the chondrocytes (or vice versa for waste). diffusion is quite slow, especially compared to a tissue that has active blood supply (think muscles or bones) this leads the chondrocytes to function very slowly compared to other cell types (osteocytes or myocytes) and cartilage repair to take what seems like forever. sidebar: there is a theory that cartilage repair could be much faster if the chondrocytes had access to a constant stream of nutrients, o2 etc. and this is the basis for the new type of acl surgery that was approved: _url_0_ tldr: because cartilage lacks blood vessels source: medical student | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.themichelicenter.com/revolutionizing-the-acl-surgery/"
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water in its liquid state is nearly incompressible. but what will a great enough force do to the water? | assuming we have a piston with an infinite amount of power, pressing water in a cylinder that can stand an infinite level of pressure. if we slowly start applying pressure, what will happen to the water inside the cylinder as the pressure goes up towards infinity? | it will freeze. look up the phase diagram for water. you'll find that as pressure rises, it will tend to form a solid. i'd link it for you but i am on my phone. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does small-angle approximation work the way it does in physics? | the taylor expansion of sin(x) about x = 0 is sin(x) ~ x - x^(3)/3! + x^(5)/5! + ... the small angle approximation is just taking the first non-zero term. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what happens in regions of space where opposing ergosperes overlap? | let's say we had two rotating black holes rotating in the same direction. if they were close to each other, the ergospheres would overlap. in the overlapping region, we have a paradox. an object in that region would be locally exceeding the speed of light regardless of its motion. standing still would violate both ergospheres. but moving with either one would violate the other. granted there might be some tidal forces, but that is just an engineering problem. imagine your (hopefully unmanned) space probe is made of very strong nonobtanium. | as i understand it, when two black holes are proximate enough to each other, their ergospheres merge into a single ergosphere corresponding to the joint system of two black holes -- as is also the case for event horizons. you'd never have two independent ergospheres overlapping; you'd have one ergosphere with an odd, complicated shape that will depend on the angular momenta of the black holes, and whether they are aligned or anti-aligned. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will someone please explain why these are formed? | _url_0_ all that i know about these is that it is in a bay area on lake michigan after there was a snow storm. they are not rocks that have been coated in ice as they can float and move when a wave hits them. thank you for the help | they're just chunks of previously formed surface ice that have been broken up and weathered through wave action at the shore. _url_0_ | 19 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/lHh24.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=63QOaNji1QQ",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation"
] | [
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what is orthogonal frequency hopping? | i've read a few things but i can't seem to differentiate the hopping vs the fdma portion. | when you transmit a signal with any modulation technique on a sinusoidal carrier signal, it spreads out around the carrier sine wave. so say you put a 20 khz audio signal on an 1000 khz radio channel, best case is that transmission would have intensity between 990 khz and 1010 khz, as 20 khz bandwidth. less ideal modulation could spread out any amount, emitting intensity potentially of infinite bandwidth. so say you're transmitting a little square pulse signal, which a digital signal would be comprised of. what does this spread out like across the frequency spectrum? it turns out it's a sinc fucntion, or sin(x)/x. it looks like [this.](_url_1_). it's a sine wave, but trails off as you move outwards. so if you put a little rectangular pulse onto a 1 mhz signal, it will broadcast a large spike at 1 mhz, and then trail off a a decreasing wave as you move outside. how fast? that depends on how long your rectangular pulse is. if it's really fast, it spreads out way more and uses more frequencies. if it's really long, it collects into a nice spike right near the carrier with little intensity outside of that. so what does any of this have to do with orthogonal frequency multiplexing? say we chose a rectangular pulse length, or symbol, and a number of carrier frequencues we want to transmit on very carefully. carefully so that they our carrier frequency spacing, δf, was inversely related to our rectangular pulse length, t, by a whole integer, k. δf = k/t. well, we get [this](_url_0_). each seperate channel is packed right next to each other (k=1 in this case), and there is definitely some noticable interference between them. normally this wouldn't work for regular frequency division multiplexing, you'd need to space them more so they die off more and the interference goes to almost zero. like fm radio for example, which spaces radio stations way further than the minimum 20 khz (audio) bandwidth needed. however, this careful spacing means you're seeing positive and negative amplitude interference from the neighboring signals all stacked up nicely. so nicely in fact, that they cancel out and your left with very little actual interference even though the channels are tightly packed. this is where the name orthogonal comes from. orthogonal in geometric terms is also called perpendicular, but for signals it means two seperate signals that are isolated from each other much like perpendicular dimensions. mathematically, it means if you mutiply them and integrate (sum) over time, you get zero. equivalent to dot producting two geometric vectors to see if they have any projection on each other, and getting zero if they are perpendicular. this is used in other modulation techniques as well too. quadrature amplitude modulation (qam) for example uses the fact sine and cosine (the same frequency but shifted in phase by half a cycle) are orthogonal, so you can put two signals on the same channel at the same time, doubling your bandwidth efficiency. the hopping part is just rapidly changing between orthogonal carriers. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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what is different about scavengers/carion eaters that allows them to disregard what our senses tell us is not safe to eat? | we can tell by the smell, taste and sight that something shouldn't be eaten. if we try to ignore it, our body can impose a gagging to try and prevent us from eating it. so what is different between a scavenger and us? do they lack taste buds? surely rotten meat will taste like rotten meat to us or to a crow or rat. is there a brain wiring that changes the taste of rotten meat to something divine to them? or am i maybe over thinking this and scavengers just choke it down to survive? the smell of decay draws them to it, i get that, but can they really think it smells 'tasty'? | so i'm not sure if their subjective experience goes like, "mmmmmm freshly rotted meat, delicious" but i can tell you that their sensory perception and central nervous system have evolved to make the smell of carrion appealing, even appetizing. there is a reward system in most vertebrate brains that builds an anticipatory response to the perception of food, specific to each species. this anticipatory response drives the organism to the food (chemotaxis) and eventually to ingest it. once the anticipation is satiated, there is usually a release of a "reward chemical" (usually dopamine), which we know is correlated with a good feeling. interestingly, taste buds in cats have been studied. i believe that our normal response to eating sugary substances is similar to a cat's response to eating meaty substances. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does plasmodium invade hepatocytes via kupffer cells? | if liver sinusoids are fenestrated, i.e. full of holes, why does the parasite not just go straight through those holes? | kupffer cells are not an absolute requirement for invasion of the hepatocyte, but they are preferred because the parasite can recognize proteoglycans on the surface of the cells to which they can attach. also, by passing through the kupffer cells, the parasites can directly inhibit the immune response via their surface circumsporozoite proteins. there is also speculation that plasmodium's ancestors originally colonized the kupffer cells and only later did they evolve to invade the hepatocyte. [source](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2006.00777.x/abstract"
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the 2012 doomsday predictions are clearly hokey. but how true is what they say about the aztec/mayan calendars? | i'm interested in what is actually known about the mesoamerican models of time and how these are connected to their system of beliefs. problem is that this information has been so convoluted by 2012 propheciers that it's hard to distinguish actual research from handwavery and falsehoods. what do we actually know about these civilisations and their appreciation of time? edit: ~~not particularly scientific, i concede. but~~ there isn't an active "askhistory" subreddit so i don't really know where else to direct this question. | this isn't really a science question, but... december 21, 2012 is just the beginning of a new baktun, which is a cycle in their calendar. one baktun is 144,000 days, or 394.52 years. the calendar doesn't end or anything. it's just a new cycle. so to put it in modern-day terms, it would be like people saying the world's ending on january 1, 2500 or something. _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar#Long_Count"
] | [
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what happens to ballons that are let go? do they fly into space or do they reach an equillibrium altitude? | they'll go up until the atmospheric pressure is low enough for the balloon to expand and pop. the remnants fall back to earth. i'm not sure how far they go up on average (depends on the balloon obviously) but they certainly don't reach "space." | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
transfer of information: is there a limit on an object's "rigidity"? | this is a thought experiment that i need a physicist to help me with. if i were to make rod which went from the earth to say a space station, and this rod were perfectly "rigid" i.e. absolutely non-compressible, then would hitting one end cause the other to move instantaneously? this would be impossible of course due to the transfer of information having a limit at the speed of light. couple questions: what am i trying to describe when i say rigidity? is there a metric for this already? an if so, is it somehow limited in relationship to the speed of light? thanks! | the mechanical deformation would propagate along the rod at the speed of sound of the material it's composed of. just like you suggest, this value will be related to a measure of rigidity, or stiffness of the material. for this specific scenario, assuming the deformation is along the axis of the rod, then the expression for the speed of sound will be (y/p)^1/2, where y is young's modulus and p is the density. for more information, the [wikipedia article](_url_0_) on the topic is pretty good. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_sound#Non-gaseous_media"
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understanding the wow! signal: why does 1420 mhz point to an artificial source? | wikipedia (robert krulwich, npr, may 29, 2010) states "[...] the frequency 1420 is significant for seti searchers because, it is reasoned, hydrogen is the most common element in the universe, and hydrogen resonates at about 1420 mhz, thus extraterrestrials might use that frequency on which to transmit a strong signal." why would aliens choose this frequency if it is so closely related to a natural resonation? for drawing attention, wouldn't it make more sense to transmit a signal in a frequency that does not or rarely occur in nature? edit: thank you ktoff and tliff for the reasoning. so i assume when you are scanning / listening in the eletrocmagnetic spectrum you have to pick a frequency / frequency range. in case of the wow! signal the received frequencies were 1420.356 mhz (j. d. kraus) and 1420.4556 mhz (j. r. ehman). follow up questions: - how wide is the range seti is (was?) listening? - what is the significance of the hydrogen frequency over others? percentage-wise in the case for seti listening. | the wow signal was not *on* the hydrogen line but near it. of course the mere frequency could also occur in nature. however, anybody making astronomic observations in the electromagnetic spectrum will be looking at the hydrogen line anyways. so if you send it in that band, you have a high chance of being detected by someone who is looking. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
am i doing this right? _url_0_ will this setup allow me to properly see the transit of venus on the dawn of 6th of june (where i am), projected on the paper? | i don't have a solar filter, but i can use all the other techniques, including projecting an image of the sun onto a flat surface, which i am planning to do, which i am testing. _url_0_ am i doing it right? when it happens, will i be able to see it on the paper? i am just trying to be sure that i will not screw something up, since it will last only about an hour and a half for me, and i have just this one chance to see it. edit: my telescope specifications: _url_1_ | i've got a newtonian reflection telescope and i can perfectly project the sun on my wall or a piece of paper and see the sunspots, so i don't see why it won't work with your refraction telescope. but maybe holding the paper a bit farther away could help. | 2 | [
"http://imgur.com/a/7EG9B"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/7EG9B",
"http://pastebin.com/muzvY7df"
] | [] | [
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if i sat in a computer chair with a freely rotating seat on the north or south pole, after 12 hours would i be looking the exact oppsite direction as i started? | assuming no to almost no friction in the rotating part of the chair of course... | at the moment you put the chair there, you are already rotating (because you stand steadfastly on the rotating earth) and thus the chair in your hands is already rotating. similarly, when you sit down your body is already rotating and the chair's seat plane is already rotating. so even if the is no further friction between you and the ground, you will keep rotating in perfect synchronicity with the earth due to conservation of momentum. thus you will always look in the same direction (relative to the earth, that is - relative to the stars, you will of course have turned 180 degrees like everything else on earth). there might be other effects from the way the surrounding air moves (basically wind, etc.) that i am not sure about right now, though. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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please help me understand the concept of simultaneity. is there such a thing as a universal "now," or is it strictly dependent upon specific relative locations agreeing upon a "now"? | or maybe it's something else. to put it into a hypothetical: i just sneezed on planet a. suppose that intelligent beings similar to ourselves also possess the ability to sneeze on some other planet, planet b, in some other galaxy. did i and one of those beings just sneeze simultaneously? from what i gather, we may, if we are aware of each other's existence, calculate that the events occurred simultaneously, but someone on a third planet (c) in a third galaxy would correctly disagree, stating that i sneezed before the other. a being on a fourth planet (d) in a fourth galaxy would disagree again, stating that b sneezed before a. i still don't fully "get" relativity, but this much i can comprehend, all based on distance and relative positions. but correct me there if i'm wrong. it's just that i have this gut feeling that there is a universal "now," that all sorts of events, perhaps an infinite number of "events" are occurring right "now" across the universe. is it just that we cannot ever *know* for certain which events occur simultaneously with the events occurring on earth, but that certain events elsewhere are indeed occurring simultaneously with earth? | when trying to understand relativity, remember that *where you are* isn't as important as *how you're moving*, or, more accurately, how everything you're observing is moving. [here's a popular illustration of relative simultaneity](_url_2_) involving blinking lights (or, in this case, lightning strikes) on a train. to get a deeper understanding of this and other elements of relativity, you should familiarize yourself with [space-time diagrams](_url_0_). in such a diagram, space (ie. position) is on the horizontal axis and time is on the vertical axis. so something sitting still follows a vertical path, and something moving follows a diagonal path. the bigger the angle from vertical, the faster the thing is moving, up to an angle of 45^o which corresponds to the speed of light. points on these diagrams are called *events*. they describe one particular place and time. higher events happen later than lower ones. you can think of horizontal lines as "slices of simultaneity." every event that falls on the same horizontal line happens at the same time. now notice the blue axes on the [diagram](_url_1_) on the wikipedia page. these represent a moving reference frame (relative to the black axes). notice that not only is the time axis angled (representing a nonzero velocity), but the space axis is also angled. this shows that this moving observer will have different "slices of simultaneity," so they will see different events as simultaneous. edit: so to answer your question, no, there is no universal "now." each observer has his or her own "now," although two observers moving at the same velocity (same speed *and* direction) will have the same "now" since they will be in the same *reference frame.* | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime_diagram",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minkowski_diagram_-_asymmetric.svg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wteiuxyqtoM",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladder_paradox"
] | [
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how does a directional ac meter know which direction power is transmitted? | how does a directional ac meter know which direction power is transmitted? voltage and current are always flowing back and forth. what element does the meter look at to determine power flow direction? | any electromagnetic field setup has what is known as a poynting vector, **s**. **s** = **e** x **h**, where **e** is the electric field and **h** is the magnetic field. note they are all vectors and that is not a multiplication, but cross product. **s** is the amount and direction of power flow. this works from everything from a dc circuit, radio antenna, to fibre optic cable. so to find the power flow, you find the poynting vector. more simplistically, though from the same basic principle in a different form, what a power meter actually does, it finds voltage and current. **s** = **e** x **h** looks a lot like p = vi, and voltage has a lot to do with electric fields and current a lot to do with magnetic fields. voltage and current magnitude alone will only give you the apparent power, but what a power meter actually does is measure their phases too. if we start with just a resistive load, it's pretty easy to explain. when voltage is at its maximum we'll call this 0 degrees. 360 degrees would be a full cycle later, and -360 degrees a full cycle earlier. if current is at its maximum at the same time as voltage, we say current is leading/lagging by 0 degrees, or not at all. this means we know power is going forwards. forwards being the direction of the little arrow on your ct. if current is at it negative maximum when voltage is at its max, it's lagging (or leading) by 180 degrees, and we know power is going backwards. now with capacitance or inductance, it gets a little more complicated. these both shift the current out of phase with the voltage, and give rise to imaginary or reactive power. that being power that just cycles back and forth between generator and capacitors or inductors, but is goes nowhere. inductance will cause the current to lag the voltage, capacitance will cause it to lead the voltage. pure capacitance will make the current go to -90 degrees, or 90 degrees lead, or current ahead of the voltage by a quarter cycle. pure inductance will make it go to 90 degrees, or 90 degrees lag, or behind by a quarter cycle. so if the current is from -90 to 0 degrees, you have a leading (capacitive load) with power going forwards. if from 0 to 90 degrees you have a lagging (inductive) load with power going forwards. 90 to 180 degrees you have the flip (+180) of -90 to 0, so leading load with power going backwards. -90 to -180 degrees you have lagging load with power going backwards. 90 or -90 degrees you have no power flowing either way, just reactive power cycling back and forth. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are proteins often described as behaving like anions in cell membrane physiology? | i know there is a question of the permeability of the membrane (e.g. proteins not passing through membranes), but why are proteins often described as anions in physiology textbooks. | i'm not sure what you are specifically referring to. i haven't noticed this phrasing before. it would help if you could give a quote from a text book or a specific example. in general though, some of the amino acids that make up proteins are charged, some positive, some negative. additionally there are post translational modifications such as the addition of a phosphate that can add a negative charge onto a protein. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you break a spaghetti strand how can the whip back effect that causes the second break be stronger than the force used to cause the initial? break | i know i'm not supposed to post a url, but i found [this video (skip to 3:45)](_url_0_) that explains this phenomenon much better than i could even attempt to. basically, when the initial break happens, kinetic rotational energy flings the noodle outward, but further down the noodle that rotational energy is going the opposite way than the potential energy still stored in the noodle. the result is a violent secondary break. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ADD7QlQoFFI"
] | [
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|
an inquiry about marijuana. | marijuana leaves thc metabolites in your blood which have no psychological effect but can be used to determine whether you used it recently. how long it takes to clear your system depends heavily on how much you consume. if you smoke a joint a day for two weeks, it will take over a month to clear. if you have one joint, it will take much less time. but as someone else just posted, the urologist is not concerned with doing drug tests on you. unless you're on parole or anticipate having to take a drug test for an employer, you should be fine. a quick note: use marijuana responsibly! make sure you're with people you trust and that don't need to do anything important or drive anywhere, as you will be a giggling mess your first time. also, if you're smoking with people who do it more often, do not even attempt to smoke as much as they do; thc builds a (relatively short-lasting) tolerance, so they need more to get equally intoxicated. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we actually measure a volt? | a volt is defined as joule/coulomb, meaning that a battery of 1 v will be able to deliver 1 joule of energy to 1 coulomb of charge. my question is, how do we actually measure this? if we connect a voltmeter to a 1v battery, how do we actually know that it is delivering 1j of energy to 1 coulomb, as per the definition of volt? | voltages are really measured as differences, and any given voltage is easily known with respect to some common reference or standard voltage since two nearly equivalent voltage sources can be compared with great precision. in the early days, standard electrochemical cells , such as the [weston cell](_url_3_) served as laboratory voltage references, producing a reliable 1.018...volts. that voltage has to ultimately be tied to the si volt. its possible to produce electrostatic forces using arrangements of electrodes at fixed voltages, so if the force can be measured, then in principle the voltage difference between the electrodes can be derived. this can in effect be used to realize an [si volt](_url_0_). a similar principle applies to currents, as was the case in the so-called [ampere balance](_url_4_). these days we rely on the [josephson effect](_url_2_) to produce very accurately known dc voltages which are proportional to a microwave frequency. the effect can be made to add by summing arrays 100s or 1000s of josephson junctions in series, producing 1 volt standards or even 10 volt [electrical standards](_url_1_). those standards are as accurate as our knowledge of the [josephson constant k_j=2e/h](_url_5_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=6312665&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fxpls%2Fabs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D6312665",
"http://www.ascinc.org/asc2012/wp-content/uploads/file/2SEA-03-Kautz.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephson_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weston_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_balance",
"http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?kjos"
] | [
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] |
would it be possible to independently determine what 1 volt is without a frame of reference? | i was thinking about all those 'you get sent back into the past with your phone and...' posts, and making a simple water wheel powered generator is easy enough to recharge it, relatively speaking, but how would you regulate it to +5v dc? i did a quick glance of wikipedia and it seems to not be something that can even be easily approximated, like 'one mississippi' for a second. so, basically, how would you be able to verify the voltage of a generator without a frame of reference since the volt was historically defined comparatively? on an unrelated note, i like how the automod removes posts without a question mark, then the timer prevents you from resubmitting it after you are notified | i would suggest looking into how we build circuits that take a variable dc level and convert it to a sometimes very accurate stable, different dc level. [voltage references](_url_0_) to start. [bandgap voltage references](_url_3_) [ohm's law](_url_2_) was formulated in 1827. [properties of a diode discovered in 1873](_url_1_). just pointing people in the direction of a diode could bump things almost 50 years. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.linear.com/products/voltage_references",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#History",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandgap_voltage_reference",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_battery#First_practical_batteries",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ewQkE8t0xgQ"
] | [
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why is the cmb cold spot more significant than other cold spots? | looking at images of the cmb, i can see many cold regions of the universe. some of them even appear larger than the one we know as "the cold spot". are the colors visually misleading of the numbers they represent? | despite it's name the cold spot isn't unusual because of it's temperature. what makes it unusual is it's shape, it happens to be quite cold in the centre but it is surrounded by a region with a positive temperature. it's this profile which matches a [mexican hat wavelet](_url_0_). the cold spot was found because vielva was searching the newly released wmap data for signatures of non-gaussian features, the particular method he used was a mexican hat wavelet. [you can see in figure 3 of this paper](_url_1_) a cmb map from wmap beside the same map which has had this mexican hat wavelet applied, now you can see why the cold spot stands out. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_hat_wavelet",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1008.3051.pdf"
] | [
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] |
how do anglerfish prevent tissue rejection when males are grafted to females? | inspired by this [post:](_url_1_) and [this video](_url_0_). i don't know much about fish immunity, but i presume it is similar to humans; how do they get round the issue of graft rejection. why is the immune system not activated by the foreign mhc etc? | it's not useful to think of anglerfish males not as fusing into the female and becoming part of the female anatomy but it is better to think of it as males transforming their morphology to become [better parasites] (_url_0_) and needing to fuse to the skin to take advantage. the males don't actually "die" in the sense of that they get absorbed into the female and become a new structure, they actually just force themselves onto the females large body cavity and the female tissue covers him up. the testis of the male take up a gigantic portion of the body so that once "fusion" occurs the body degenerates and energy is diverted to reproductive maintenance, thus the transformation. the male will still rely on the female for nutrition via blood transport to them for sustenance. these males will be ready for fertilization of eggs once the females are ready to spawn. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Anglerfish#p00dhhdq",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/161hcu/creatures_from_the_mariana_trench/"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v256/n5512/abs/256038a0.html"
] | [
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effect of obstacles such as wood and glass on radio waves | i conducted an experiment to find which obstacle affect most on radio waves. i used 3 obstacles: wood,cement brick and glass. i placed these obstacles between a remote control car and its remote and measured the time car takes to complete a particular distance. my results showed that wood showed most interference and glass followed while brick showed the least. i want to know the reason y wood showed the most interference??? | i'm confused about your experiment. the car's speed should not have much to do with the signal it is receiving, unless it is just not receiving a signal at all and isn't moving forward. where the obstacles the same thickness? were they the same in every dimension? if not, then your experiment is invalid for that reason. then, as i said above, the car's speed is not likely a good indicator of signal strength/quality unless the car is actually starting and stopping or not moving at all. the dimensions, especially the thickness and height of the obstacles compared to the amplitude and wavelength of the radio signal would be a factor in interfering with the signal. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in relation to a /r/adviceanimals post, how do we know the sun made its 18 revolution around the galaxy? | well, we know the sun is 4.5 billion years old. by carefully studying the motions of nearby stars, we know that the disk of stars in our galaxy, which the sun is a part of, [orbits at roughly 220km/s](_url_0_). and we've also measured to distance to the center of the galaxy to be about 25,000 light years. [plugging it all in](_url_1_) gives you 18-20 orbits around the galaxy. all of these numbers are very uncertain though, and tracing our sun's exact path backward even half an orbit is impossible at this point. we're just assuming that the sun was formed in the disk and has been orbiting the center of the galaxy at roughly the same speed and distance for it's entire life. we don't know that for sure though. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/Academics/Astr222/Galaxy/Kinematics/galrotcurve.gif",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=4.5Gyr+%2F+%288.5kpc*2*pi+%2F+%28220+km%2Fs%29%29"
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|
why is there controversy about the linear no threshold (lnt) model in relation to radiation damage? | i can't say i fully understand the lnt model in itself either, wikipedia says that "dose levels and rates" are not taken into consideration, but the summation of the dose is used. what is a dose level? | a dose rate is just something like rem/hr or sieverts/hr. the dose is in rem or sieverts (which is a measure of biological damage caused by radiation--rem is used in the us and sieverts in the rest of the world). the idea with lnt is that any dose is harmful in a linear fashion. so all you have to care about is the dose itself. thus, 2 millisieverts is twice as bad as 1 millisievert and working in a constant radiation field that gives you 1 millisievert per year for 30 years is just as bad as an acute 30 millisievert dose. the controversy is over whether it is actually linear and cumulative over a lifetime and whether very low doses are actually harmful. the data isn't great, but the upper boundary for high acute doses appears to be linear (data gained from atomic bomb survivors). from a conceptual level this makes sense: if cancer is simply a probability of a cell's dna being garbled in a certain fashion by radiation, then each event* can be treated as an individual probability of causing that type of damage. then all you have to do is add them up\*\*. the counter-conceptual argument is that radiation could instead of causing a mutation, instead kill a cell or prevent it from dividing, which can have a beneficial effect on damaged or even cancerous cells (it would weed out the weak). if this is true, then a high dose would naturally be dangerous, but lower doses could be beneficial. it is tough to say how right or wrong this is without data, so the safest way to proceed right now is to assume that even low levels of radiation are harmful. \* by 'event' i mean some type of radiation that hits the body, with proper weighting factors for how much damage it would cause (inhaling alpha-emitters vs low energy gammas vs high energy gammas vs neutrons vs ingested beta-emitters, etc.). \*\* a mathematically smart reader might see an error here in the adding of probabilities, but i should note that the probabilities are always very small so direct adding isn't going to cause any problems. edit: deleted a little conjecturing by myself on the effect of different dose rates. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=7aYr34WJ_ko#t=700"
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requirements for liquid phase? | for the condensed matter people here: i just started working at a university materials lab, and the pi asked me a seemingly simple question which i have no idea how to answer: "what are the two requirements for a liquid phase to occur?" i vaguely recall something to do with differences in gibbs free energy, but that's it. anyone able to help me out on this? | this sounds like a tangential reference to the van der waals equation of state. if you have attractive intermolecular forces and finite molecular sizes, it is sufficient. recall that in an ideal gas, no phase transition is possible. you must have some sort of interaction in your system for a phase transition to take place. the key is that the equations of state have to be at least cubic functions of say, the molar volume. the cubic function is the easiest to deal with, and happily the vdw equation of state satisfies it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does raindrop arrivals within 1 square cm constitute a poisson process? | i was listening to the rain last night and realized that the sound it makes sounds a lot like white noise, and that got me wondering about the statistical distribution of raindrop arrival times. are they independent or correlated in some way, and over what timescales? | **short answer:** yes, we can assume that they follow a poisson distribution **long answer:** the number of drops impacting at any moment on the ground surface (or passing throw any other surface) is independent of earlier impacts and they don't influence in any way the future impacts. although we can think that the drop formation inside one plane surface in the clouds before precipitation is not a pure poisson process because every drop aggregates the moisture surrounding it, difficulting later drop formation. but clouds are a dynamic system, and we are oversimplifying the drop-formation model whith this assumtion. for further reading i recommended this paper: [*a stochastic raindrop time distribution model*](_url_0_) (j. lavergnat and p. gole, centre d’etude des environnements terrestre et plane taires, velizy, france) ametsoc 1997 | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&ved=0CDUQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.ametsoc.org%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1175%2F1520-0450\\(1998\\)037%253C0805%253AASRTDM%253E2.0.CO%253B2&ei=Xqi_UN7-LISHhQf5n4FY&usg=AFQjCNHMFZvJ0xl7B1qo83fgaTYPmEAUcg&sig2=SlkHBIUHxuzQ3MIPeMIL_A",
"http://asadl.org/jasa/resource/1/jasman/v79/i4/p972_s1?isAuthorized=no"
] | [
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a few questions that came up while playing with a rubber band. | so i had a little time to kill, and so i stretched a rubber band taut around my laptop and started plucking at it. some questions that came up: 1. increasing the length of the vibrating part by holding the band at a further location makes the sound a deeper pitch. why? 2. increasing the length of the vibrating part by stretching the rubber band makes the pitch rise by a relatively small amount. why? 3. when the band is vibrating, we perceive it as a blur. but is this our brain's doing, or our eyes'? do our eyes not have the temporal resolution to follow the motion of the band, or is the brain just perceiving the very fast motion as a blur? thanks a lot!!! | let's talk quickly about what determines pitch. the pitch of the sound wave is determined by its frequency, which is set by the number of times per second that the object producing it (the rubber band) wiggles up and down. now, the wiggling of the rubber band itself is set by two things: the wavelength of the wiggles and the wave speed in the rubber band. the wavelength is basically how long a wave has to be to "fit perfectly" into the amount of rubber band available to wiggle. this means that the wavelength is basically the length of the wiggling part of the rubber band (over 2 for the fundamental frequency, but that's not important). the speed of waves in the rubber band is set by the band's density (a property of the material it's made out of) and the tension in the band. higher tension makes the wave travel faster. also, you should know that pitch goes up if wavelength goes down and pitch also goes up if the wave speed goes up. 1) you have kept the tension in the band the same while increasing the length. this means you haven't changed the wave speed, but increased the wavelength, so the pitch goes down. 2) you have increased both the tension (edit: and decreased the density) and the length. increasing the tension (edit: and decreasing the density) should increase the pitch, and increasing the length should decrease the pitch, so it's a question of which effect is bigger. it turns out that for your rubber band, the effect of tension was bigger. this may not be true for all rubber bands at all points in their stretch. 3) not my field, so i'm going to have to leave this one for someone else. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrating_string"
] | [
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what is the finite-structure constant? | why it's so important in physics? also, is there a quote by richard feyman about it? | the fine structure constant is a dimensionless coupling constant for the electromagnetic force. it appears in the theory of quantum electrodynamics , the quantum field theory governing the interaction of charged particles and photons. you can read [a nice introduction here](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/alpha.html"
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koh vs naoh in toxicity in culture media | hi all, i've been trying to control the ph of my bacterial culture media by setting up a buffer. all in all, i think it doesn't really matter which base i choose for the application i'm doing. the price and slight difference in pka is not a problem for the scale i'm working on. **my question is:** one of my co-worker told me that koh is preferred in small scale fermentors because "**potassium ion is less toxic than sodium ion**". i can't seem to find any source except md50 numbers on rats and this [slide \(from uodublin, page 45\)](_url_0_). this really piqued my interest (call it academic procrastination), and so i wonder if there's any biochemical or practical explanation to this statement. thank you. | here's a total guess: na+ and k+ levels are regulated by the cell and the na/k atpase is one of the primary pumps responsible for it. if you increase the sodium ion concentration in the cell's immediate environment, you make it thermodynamically more difficult for na to be pumped out of the cell since the sodium concentration outside is already much higher than inside. on the other hand, increasing k concentration outside makes it easier for the pump to function, since potassium is more concentrated in the cell. maybe adding too much na+ to the solution prevents the cell from maintaining appropriate concentrations, and sodium is therefore more toxic. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBcQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucd.ie%2Findmicro%2Fdamien%2FLecture%252013.ppt&ei=2ORaTsqTD8TPmAXk0bi8DA&usg=AFQjCNF23l-9cz2ZoyPQRP98wxTq-TVZ9A&sig2=0Y2yTaasIin8sN7AGQ6UDw"
] | [] | [
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how does rabies "travel along nerves"? | i've found some description that rabies travel upstream along a nerve using axoplasmic transport. but this mystifies me (chemist here). what is the "encoding" that allows the viruses to be carried along the microtubules? (can this be used for targetted delivery across the bbb?) and once it's at the end of the track (so to speak), how does it get to the next cell, the next cell being one closer to the cns? bonus related question 1: how does it then selectively concentrate itself back into saliva glands? bonus related question 2: since the virus can use all sorts of mammals as host, is it correct that the specific mechanism for identifying cargo for axoplasmic transport is conserved in dogs and bats and monkeys and men? | i'm a biochemist in an unrelated field, but your question piqued my interest, so i went to pubmed while i am waiting on the autoclave. maybe these can add to the discussion before someone more familiar with rabies sees this thread. i found a really interesting recent paper about using part of the virus to deliver drugs to the cns. *targeted delivery of proteins into the central nervous system mediated by rabies virus glycoprotein-derived peptide.* fu a, wang y, zhan l, zhou r. source school of pharmaceutical sciences, southwest university, tian sheng road, beibei district, chongqing, 400716, china, [email protected]. purpose: delivery of therapeutic proteins across the blood-brain barrier (bbb) is severely limited by their size and biochemical properties. here we showed that a 39-amino acid peptide derived from the rabies virus glycoprotein (rdp) was exploited as an efficient protein carrier for brain-targeting delivery. methods: three proteins with different molecular weight and pi, β-galactosidase (β-gal), luciferase (luc) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (bdnf), were fused to rdp and intravenously injected into the mice respectively. the slices of different tissues with x-gal staining were used to examine whether rdp could deliver β-gal targeted into the cns. the time-course relationship of rdp-luc was studied to confirm the transport efficiency of rdp. the neuroprotective function of rdp-bdnf was examined in mouse experimental stroke to explore the pharmacological effect of rdp fusion protein. results: the results showed that the fusion proteins rapidly and specific entered the nerve cells in 15 min, and the t(1/2) was about 1 hr. furthermore, rdp-bdnf fusion protein showed the neuroprotective properties in mouse experimental stroke including reduction of stroke volume and neural deficit. conclusions: rdp provides an effective approach for the targeted delivery of biological active proteins into the central nervous system. also, some of the proteins involved in the retrograde transport: can be transported via retrograde axoplasmic flow from the peripheral inoculation site via peripheral nerves to the cns. an interaction between p and dynein motor protein via the lc8 binding motif and g protein (in case of whole virion) is required for the transport mechanism. which mechanism dominates is controversial. the precise steps for g-mediated transport are not known, but neurotrophin p75 ntr may be a factor. g protein can specifically bind to p75 ntr, and ligand p75 ntr complexes are internalized via clathrin-coated pits into early endosomes. they then can move in a retrograde manner. *(rabies. hemachudha t, wacharapluesadee s, laothamatas j, wilde h. curr neurol neurosci rep. 2006 nov;6(6):460-8. review.)* receptors involved. *j neurovirol. 2005 feb;11(1):82-7. rabies virus receptors. lafon m. source unité de neuroimmunologie virale, département de neuroscience, institut pasteur, 75724 paris cedex 15, france. [email protected]* abstract > there is convincing in vitro evidence that the muscular form of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nachr), the neuronal cell adhesion molecule (ncam), and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75ntr) bind rabies virus and/or facilitate rabies virus entry into cells. other components of the cell membrane, such as gangliosides, may also participate in the entry of rabies virus. however, little is known of the role of these molecules in vivo. this review proposes a speculative model that accounts for the role of these different molecules in entry and trafficking of rabies virus into the nervous system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are current us incarceration rates equal to or similar to stalinist russia's? | a sociologist, nicholas chistakis, made this claim in a joe rogan podcast and i am wondering how someone could even figure that out? i imagine that countless people were imprisoned without any documentation during stalin's reign. how would anyone even know the true numbers? | give the massive number of people subject to judicial and extra judicial murder, capital punishment under stalin from people just shot in forests by the thousands, starved in their local area or shipped in gulags and dead within a year christakis’ claim is specious in my view. he is ignoring the bigger picture of a) stalin and the soviet’s outright killing of people that they would have otherwise imprisoned and b) the very short time people were imprisioned for given the very high death rates in soviet prisons and prison camps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i heard an old saying tonight, and it got me thinking. how much force would it take to suck a golf ball through a garden hose? | i just looked up some numbers and a hose has an interior diameter of 3/4 inch, a golf ball has a diameter of no less than 1.68 inches, and the balls density is .65 ounces per cubic inch (not sure if that matters). edit: i'm also assuming a temp of 70°f. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the most recent, and/or most precise measurement that we know of for the precession of mars' rotational axis? | this is actually a really difficult calculation. currently it's thought that the precession period of mars is somewhere around 178,000 years, which comes out to a precession rate of about 7.2 arc-seconds per year (where 1 degree = 3600 arc-seconds). however, this is by no means regular, and fluctuates wildly with time. unlike earth, mars has no big moon to regulate and normalize precession cycles, and thus the sun and jupiter are the strongest influences to exert tidal torque on the planet. in the short term, we can see this effect on mars looks very different from earth's. [here's the instantaneous precession rate of earth over 1 year](_url_2_) - all those very short period variations are caused by each time the moon is out of the plane of earth's equator, because that's the only time that tidal torque is significant. if you count, there's a little more than 26 of them, corresponding to the ~13.3 sidereal orbits the moon takes around earth every year. on top of this, the instantaneous precession is modulated over a twice-yearly period by the sun - this corresponds to each solstice, when the sun is located far outside the earth's equatorial plane. between those two effects, though, it's pretty regular over the long term, [only varying slightly from our average 25,700 year cycle](_url_3_). on the other hand, [here's mars' instantaneous precession rate over 10 years](_url_4_). with no big moon, the only regular period in the cycle is the sun's angle to mars' equatorial plane. however, there are also some weird bumps and dips in there, modulated largely by the irregularity of jupiter's position relative to mars (and to a lesser extent, earth, saturn, and the other planets). over the long-term of a million years, that irregularity can lead to [much greater fluctuations in the precession period](_url_0_). moreover, this fluctuating precession period can lead to a weird spin-orbit resonance, as the period of mars' inclination period is also in this range. when these two periods couple, you can get some pretty intense effects that drive the system in non-periodic, chaotic ways to produce [very sudden large shifts in the amplitude of obliquity](_url_1_), with the axial tilt of mars varying anywhere between zero degrees and 60 degrees over the past tens of millions of years. **tl;dr**: currently about 178,000 years, but that can vary wildly over time. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/JDiyA1c.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/xOReoiF.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/zHxMjnh.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/dQgOGbW.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/djLPWBw.gif"
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|
is their good evidence that aspirin is effective against heart disease? | today, much advertising and opinion seems to assume that low-dose aspirin protects against heart disease. my (amateur) knowledge (gained from reading) is that there is little hard evidence that aspirin protects against heart disease, possibly excepting those who have already had a heart attack. some years ago, new scientist had a special edition where cutting-edge researchers talked about their own field. a part of that was that each scientist nominated something in their own field that should be wider known. in this issue, every cancer researcher said that they take low-dose aspirin every day, because it has been experimentally shown to protect against colo-rectal cancer. in the ads, you never hear about this aspect of aspirin, only the "unproven" heart effects. experts, what's the situation here? | does low-dose (typically 81 mg) aspirin *protect against* heart disease, or does it *possibly help prevent* heart attack? semantics makes a big difference. heart disease, otherwise known as cardiovascular disease, is an umbrella term used to describe a pathological system of blood vessels (arteries and veins) in the body, typically secondary to lifestyle practices such as unhealthy diet, insufficient exercise, and smoking. most commonly, heart disease is associated with the buildup of atherosclerotic plaques and lesions within arteries. these plaques can narrow artery lumens as well as crack and fissure, resulting in blockages and decreased perfusion to tissues. when this happens in a coronary artery on the heart), it's called a myocardial infarction, or heart attack. the only way to prevent *heart disease* per se, though, is through proper diet and exercise. heart attacks are merely a symptom of heart disease. there is evidence that the anti-platelet activity of aspirin can help prevent heart attacks, as well as prevent progression of ischemic stroke. this is because aspirin prevents platelets from clumping together, which would normally make the blood more viscous and presumably more likely to occlude blood vessels that are already narrowed with fatty, atherosclerotic plaques. aspirin has other mechanisms of action, as well, though. it is an nsaid (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug), which means it has anti-inflammatory properties. my understanding is that the theory behind why aspirin use may be associated with lower rates of cancer, particularly colon cancer, is because of this anti-inflammatory property of aspirin. colorectal cancers are well-known to be related to various lifestyle factors, particularly diet, and those who consume the most fiber, cruciferous vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and other fiber- and phytonutrient-rich foods seem to have the lowest risk. my guess is that the reason for this is twofold: 1. the protective effect of fiber; and 2. the anti-inflammatory effect of phytonutrients in plant foods. many chronic diseases thrive in high-inflammatory conditions, and cancer is no exception. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does salinity of the soil/earth change as you move inland from sea? | i will be conducting an experiment for school, and i would like to know how the soil salinity changes as you move inland. the island this will be conducted on has coastal dunes along a sea. thanks! | i can't really speak to the soil's salt content, but in the saturated layer, salt water can [work its way inland and upwards](_url_1_) in the water table, this can be affected by lowering of the water table which is often caused by pumping out water from wells. because saline water is denser it forms a wedge under the freshwater water table and when the freshwater is diminished locally the seawater compensates for the volume missing. this is mostly affecting water being drawn up from a deep well, not surface deposits, but it is important to know that the water table often changes depth with time, changing the depth of any intrusion. as for the salt content of soil which has been flushed with salt water and dried or otherwise, the salt content will depend on the amount of salt which has been caught in pore water which has not evaporated or that which has precipitated onto the dry soil pore surface. my recommendation to get a more solid answer would be to do a literature search for any studies which are close to what you are trying to research. an article may have theory for you to start from and analysis of real world data. edit: [just found this](_url_0_) which may be a good starting point for understanding how salts can be adsorbed to soils | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_adsorption_ratio",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion"
] | [
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why don't same touching metal surfaces fuse to each other? | if two metal surfaces are made of exact material and not corroded or masked in any way, when we make the two surfaces touch, why don't they just bond into one piece? do we need to break a force like surface tension before they can bond? | they do. it is called cold welding. what usually prevents a good bond is oxides and roughness of the surfaces. at the nanoscale the oxide layers act as if different materials are in contact. say iron and iron oxide or aluminum and aluminum oxide. also, even polished surfaces are like rough mountain ranges at the nanoscale. so the area of actual contact can be small. _url_0_ some electron micro-graphs. _url_1_ | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding",
"http://www.nature.com/article-assets/npg/micronano/2015/micronano201540/images_hires/m685/micronano201540-f2.jpg"
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i was watching a program about marine life and they mentioned that "a sea urchin is brainless like many other species on the reef". what does it have instead of a brain and how does this work? | one of the defining features of *echinodermata* (the phylum that sea urchins belong to) is radial symmetry. this makes cephalisation a difficult task from an evolutionary perspective as your body development requires symmetry. echinoderms do not feature a brain, but they do have a nervous system consisting of a ring of nerves surrounding the mouth, this ring branches out in a radially symmetric pattern under the vascular system. this nervous system allows them to be aware of surroundings. i'm not exactly sure how nervous systems *work* without a brain, perhaps an invertebrate specialist could comment on that. [this article suggests](_url_0_) that it might be possible they use their nervous system as a brain in an unconventional way as they seem to be capable of some quite sophisticated sensory behaviour. | 755 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livescience.com/5970-body-sea-urchin-big-eye.html",
"http://youtu.be/6UNouB1w51g"
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|
how true is tesla's earthquake machine story? | it's plausible. he used some very high power levels in some of his experiments and i've had my apartment shaken by construction equipment operated a block away. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you lose the sense of proprioception like you can lose your more well-known senses? | if you are drunk you are losing sense of proprioception, next to your sense of balance as well obviously. also if you take alot of vitamin b6. there are alot more diseases. older people tend to have bad proprioception as well. a basic test of proprioception is standing still upright and closing your eyes. people without proprioception will fall over. this is called the test of romberg. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how many x are estimated to be left after x amount of years? | i'm not sure if this is the right place for this - but i'm wondering if there's an algorithm that estimates the rate of loss for consumer products over time. i have an item that they made 2000 of in the year 1933. i'm trying to estimate how many are left. not for any real reason - just for my own curiosity. data is available for cars by way of registrations - but cars are more volatile than many other consumer goods - and they can have long lapses in registration. does anyone have any idea where to start on this? | i think this question is too general to get a good answer. "consumer products" don't just diminish at a fixed rate. cars are not only more volatile than some products, they are significantly less volatile than others. some things wear out and gets thrown in the trash. some things go out of style and gets discarded. other things are valuable from the start and people take very good care of them. if you are talking about 2000 shoes from 1933 almost none of them will be left. if you are talking about expensive gold watches, almost all of them will be remaining. the general algorithm for loss may be exponential decay. if you know 1% of the items gets lost every year you can calculate the remaining fraction as 0.99^number_of_years usually the hard part is to know the loss rate. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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random question about the rate fluid flowing from a container | so this random(silly) question came up while a bunch of friends were shotgunning beers. we know that fluid will flow from a closed container(can) quicker if there is a second hole to allow air to replace the liquid that is exiting the container(can), just like shotgunning a beer. the debate that followed was that if the container had a second hole that was bigger, it would allow air to flow in quicker, hence allowing liquid to exit the container quicker. i'm pretty sure there a bunch of variables in this situation like the size of the exit hole would cause the rate of flow to change as well, but in the most dumbed down version, would the size of top hole(the hole that allows air into the container) change the rate at which the liquid exits? | yes, imagine the smallest hole possible to let air in the top. this clearly will let air in at a reduced rate, so then scale the hole up a little bigger and the air flows faster, equilibrating the pressure faster, letting the beer out faster. not sure on a maximum size of the hole but the effect will be most pronounced when compared to a very small hole. hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the tactics used by gang-stalkers, real or imagined, work so well? | people who say they are a target of gang-stalking claim that people around them are constantly watching them, following them, and preforming seemingly mundane actions to psychologically wear down and control their target. actions may include wearing the same colored shirt as the target, whistling within earshot of the target, setting off car alarms, tailgating and so on and so forth. the idea is that all these things are done over and over again in order to psychologically damage and emotionally harass the target. even if it is just paranoia on the part of the "target" it seems odd that someone parking where you put your trash would cause a sense of being attacked. my question, even if gang-stalking was real, would it actually work? would something as simple as whistling in your yard when your neighbor was home, or leaving trash on their yard eventually condition someone to suffer great amounts of stress? if it does, why does it work? it seems like even if these things were done intentionally and with malice they could be shrugged off as kind of annoying, but the victims feel a very real sense of danger. | the commenters here are focusing on how much this sounds like paranoid delusion, and they're somewhat right, but in fact it does happen. [here's an article](_url_0_) describing a book revealing how russia's security service (the former kgb) uses these so-called "gaslighting" techniques on foreign embassy officials to, as you said, psychologically wear down their targets. so clearly it's effective, or thought to be so by people whose job it is to know. as for why i'd only be speculating, but i was just the other day reading stories from multiple people who'd had minor possessions stolen. they said the worst part was the sense of violation they felt, not the material value of the lost goods. to a one they were themselves shocked at how powerful the psychological effect was, making it hard to sleep for months afterward. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/sep/23/russia-targeting-western-diplomats"
] | [
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when people say the golgi apparatus "packages proteins," what do they mean? | what is it being "packaged" in? why do the proteins have to be packaged? | it modifies proteins created by ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum. it adds specific carbohydrates and phosphates to the proteins that act as destination markers. these markers indicate where the protein is intended to go. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what different human characteristics correllate to a higher life expectancy? | such as being tall vs short, blood type, gender, life style, diet, where you live etc. | it's mostly diet plus exercise until you hit very old age. for the diet side it's mostly how much you eat if you're eating sanely (and most of that is the level of methionine in your diet, plus some debatable contribution for dietary ages): _url_6_ _url_1_ _url_0_ for the exercise: _url_2_ and of course exposure to a burden of infectious disease. lots of infectious disease in your history? then your future life expectancy is lower. aging is damage, and disease causes a burden of damage that you will carry forward. _url_5_ _url_3_ once you hit very old age, then genetic factors start to become more significant - but there seem to be few common ones, and studies have found all sorts of correlations between genetic differences that exist only in specific populations: _url_14_ blood type, no, not: _url_7_ _url_13_ gender, yes, women live longer, and there are a million debates over why - it is illustrative of the difficulty of peeling apart the various contrbutions to longevity that this question cannot be answered definitively at this time: _url_9_ _url_10_ tall versus short - it is a running joke that the future belongs to short women. growth hormone is important in determining pace of aging, and more of it is not a good thing. you might also look at ames dwarf mice and their closest equivalent in humans, laron dwarfism: _url_8_ _url_11_ life style: don't get fat. don't get sedentary. surgery to remove visceral fat in mice extends life, as an example of the direct cost of central fat tissue - which may be due to chronic inflammation more than other items: _url_12_ where you live - if discounting wealth and availability of medical services, then no. unless there is more lithium in the water, perhaps based on some studies, but generally no, or the effects are very small. the nonsense about blue zones and other areas where people just live longer is all nonsense. _url_15_ -------------- the most important contribution to eventual longevity, however, is medical science. if it is significantly better in the future, then you will live considerably longer than people in old age now. see the sens foundation project, for example, as an example of what we know can be achieved with a little more capability in biotechnology: _url_4_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2012/01/on-the-impact-of-ages-in-the-diet.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/01/methionine-restriction-as-the-cause-of-calorie-restriction-benefits.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2012/05/the-power-of-moderate-exercise.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/05/applying-reliability-theory-to-aging.php",
"http://www.sens.org/sens-research/research-themes",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2005/04/the-other-half.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2001/11/calorie-restriction-explained.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2011/07/arguing-against-a-correlation-between-blood-type-and-aging.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2005/09/height-and-long-1.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/06/gender-longevity-differences-another-few-theories-for-the-pile.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/12/debating-disposable-soma-and-gender-longevity-differences.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2011/02/on-laron-syndrome-in-ecuador.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2008/03/lose-the-visceral-fat.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/12/blood-type-b-draws-the-short-straw-or-maybe-it-doesnt.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2010/06/there-will-be-ten-thousand-subtle-gene-variants-of-human-longevity.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2011/02/lithium-mortality-rates-and-longevity.php"
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can your fluid intelligence be increased/manipulated at all, or is it all genetic? | what i’m really asking is, if i can increase my crystallized intelligence as far as possible (i.e. gaining new knowledge and information) and store that information in combination with the other gathered information, would it affect my long-term fluid intelligence? some people tell me that it would result in similar effects to studying for a test, where your fluidity would only increase in the short-term and only for what you’ve learned, but i’m not sure. i need the facts. | there is a good book called "the neuroscience of intelligence by richard j haier that gives an answer. the way he puts it is that your intelligence is determined 80%by the environment and teaching, and 20% by your genetics when you are a child. by the time you reach age 18 or so, it reverses and becomes 80% genetic and 20% environment. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if you laid out the hair from a person's head end to end, how far would it go? | roughly 100,000 hairs at 10cm each equals 10,000m or about six and a quarter miles. adjust for longer or shorter hair as required. light haired people tend to have more, finer hairs. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if i were somehow able to expand my rib cage, would i be able to take deeper breaths? | as a man with a small frame, i always wonder if i'm at a disadvantage to my larger framed brethren. anyone have any insight on this? p.s. i'm not going to attempt to expand my ribcage; that was a hypothetical question. | boyle's law states that "at constant temperature, the product of an ideal gas's pressure and volume is always constant." so, if you were to expand your ribcage, the volume of your chest cavity is bigger. that means that there is lower pressure inside the chest cavity. that's how you breathe: the pressure in the atmosphere is higher than in your chest cavity, so air rushed into your lungs to equalize the pressure. so, for your question: it is the change in volume of the chest cavity when you breathe that determines how much air you can breathe in. it is not the absolute size of your rib cage that matters. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
could someone give me a source for, or an explanation of, some details in the definition of the kármán line? | the atmosphere decreases in density with increased altitude. to compensate for the decreasing density, an aircraft has to fly faster at high altitudes to maintain a constant lift. the [kármán line](_url_0_) – commonly seen as the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space (also known as just _space_) – is defined as the altitude at which an aircraft, in order to generate enough lift to support its own weight, must fly so fast that it actually reaches the orbital velocity of that altitude. __to arrive at a well-defined number, such as the conventional 100 km, further assumptions about the aircraft (its weight and ability to generate lift) seems to be necessary. what are those?__ is there an original publication by von kármán i could look at, or could someone here fill in the details from memory? | after some brief googling i haven't seen exactly how they chose specific numbers, but highly likely like this: referencing that lift equation, weight of the aircraft has to equal lift, so w = 1/2 rho v^2 s cl where s is the wing area. w/s is a common term in aircraft design called "wing loading". high altitude aircraft are going to have very low wing loading - the helios high altitude craft has like 0.8 lb/ft^2, compared to around 150 for an airliner. you can choose that w/s at a fixed point, and choose your cl to be something reasonable (say 1) and from there determine the solution of the equation where the velocity is equal to the orbital velocity at a given altitude (density). so yes, you do have 2 free parameters (w/s and cl) but they both are pretty well constrained by realistic aircraft design, and they probably just said "oh that's pretty close to 100km, let's just use that as a nice round number". | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n_line"
] | [] | [
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] |
how massive can something get before collapsing into a spheroid? | it appears that a rigid body must be around ~600 miles in diameter before hydrostatic forces mold it into a sphere, but it depends on how rigid or liquid it is when it forms. if it's all liquid when it forms, it'll always form a sphere, but can be deformed after by impact and gravitational warping. _url_0_ | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2017/08/the-diameter-of-spherical-bodies"
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|
could aral sea be rescued or restored to it's pre-60's condition? | in this topic _url_0_ i wondered that if it would be still possible to rescue the aral sea? as we know the inlets were changed by the irrigation systems mainly for cotton. if the people who still depend on the irrigation would be paid off and the changes to the inlets reverted would that work? is there too much damage already? i know the cost would be huge. | if all the water diversion projects ceased, the sea would slowly start to fill with water again, but it would probably take several decades to return to it's former size. there is certainly no guarantee that the ecosystems would ever recover to their former state. once habitats are lost, restoration of the physical environment doesn't necessarily mean that the plants and animals will still be around to return. one caveat would be climate change. all closed [endorheic](_url_0_) basins, such as the aral sea, are sensitive to the total rainfall on the watershed. i'm not familiar with the specific predictions for this region, but in general, it is anticipated that climate change will shift precipitation patterns, making some places drier and others wetter. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/2arf9l/til_the_aral_sea_has_shrunk_8090_since_the_60s_it/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_basin"
] | [
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when i stretch a piece of cling-wrap apart into two pieces, they seem to attract each as if electrically charged. why is that? | i'm assuming the pieces of stretched cling-wrap become charged, since this phenomenon doesn't occur when the cling-wrap is carefully sliced. at a molecular level, what is happening to charge the plastic wrap when it is stretched apart like that? | the polymer chains are dragging across each other and causing friction and the build up of static electricity; much the same way it does when you rub a balloon on your head and it electrically attracts your hair. cling wrap is designed to stick to things by static electricity (which is why it doesn't stick to wet surfaces), it is light, thin and a poor conductor of electricity, an ideal material for static cling. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we use step down transformers for arc welding? | i can't seem to understand why a step down transformer would be more effective at welding than say a step up transformer. i know that joule heating is ri^2 which is equal to vi which is proportional to the power. in a transformer, isn't the power being held the same no matter what? if the power is the same, why does it matter how the transformer transforms the energy? | the reason is a combination of resistance and available power. you're absolutely correct that power is current squared times resistance or voltage squared over resistance, but think about the resistance of what you're welding - it's highly conductive, and you have a large contact area (the ground clamp, that is), so we're talking a few ohms at worst. if i apply a large voltage to that, according to v=ir, it will attempt to pass a large current as well, which means either i've got a huge voltage and a huge current (which means waaaaay too much power) or, far more likely, i'll hit the current limit on my power supply and the voltage will drop anyway. since the resistance is small, though, we don't need much voltage to overcome the resistance of the surface being welded, and can pass a huge current with a comparatively small voltage, which step-down transformers are perfect for obtaining. the precise opposite logic is used when doing high-voltage power lines - there, we want to dissipate the least amount of power, so we jack the voltage up to several kilovolts at very low currents. hope this is useful. best way i've found to think about it is try to think through the consequences of what would happen if you did use a high-voltage power supply. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does every thinkable shape have a centroid? | no matter how random its outline, does every single closed shape have a centroid? or are there shapes thinkable that have got no point on which they could balance on the tip of a pencil? and, second question, is there a way to prove this? | mathematically, the definition for a centroid will fail for a set of infinite or zero measure, or if the set is nonmeasurable. if the set has finite positive measure it might still fail to exist if the integral ∫ *x* d*x* over the given set diverges. that might conceivably happen for some sets of infinite diameter but finite measure. i'm not sure if you consider nonmeasurable sets to be “thinkable.“ they are certainly not constructable. so long as the set has finite diameter and positive measure, it will definitely have a centroid. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much magnetic flux density does a headphone generate? | and would it's static field affect the human brain. | mri magnet generates around 1.5 tesla. 1 tesla = 10,000 gauss a particle passing through a magnetic field of 1 tesla at 1 meter per second carrying a charge of 1 coulomb experiences a force of 1 newton. small neodymium magnet = 0.2 tesla largest headphone magnet by beyerdynamic = 1.2 tesla 50 tesla begins to damage organic cells. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/61679/effects-of-a-very-large-magnetic-field-on-the-human-body"
] | [
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would the way dexter (from the tv series) covers up his murder scenes (from the actual site of murder to the disposal of bodies in the ocean) be constantly elusive to actual police forensics or are there some flaws in how he does it? (in terms of dna, blood spatter etc.) | in case anyone wants to answer, but isn't sure of the specifics. off the top of my head dexter does this: 1. surprises victim in a secluded area (sometimes more secluded than other times) and injects them with something that immediately knocks them out. he loads them into the trunk of his suv 2. brings his victim into an already prepped 'kill room'. he's already covered everything in the room in plastic sheets (except for some photographs of the victim's victims and such that he uses to taunt his victim basically). he's been doing this for years and years and he's a blood spatter analyst by day, so we assume that he's very good at covering the room, right? 3. he cuts their face to obtain a drop of blood that he keeps as a trophy. then, he stabs them in the chest once to kill them. 4. he chops the body up into pieces and puts those pieces into several different trashbags. then, he disposes of the body in the ocean. in later seasons, he modifies this to disposing of the bodies along some current in the ocean (as i understood it) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's the story with that sinking feeling in your stomach when bad things happen? | _url_0_ > but if it is an inappropriate reaction, for example because you cannot fight or flee (for example after a car accident) or because there is nothing to fight with or flee from - this automatic reaction is rather useless. still, we have it because of the other situations where it is useful. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mal3k/what_is_happening_to_my_body_when_i_have_a/"
] | [
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|
how do water based migratory animals make it thru the dead zone in the gulf of mexico to spawn up in the mississippi river | i thought the dead zone was huge and lacked oxygen. mainly asking about the american eel. _url_0_ i think sturgeon also do this | the wikipedia article mentions that it is "caused by 'excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in **bottom and near-bottom water**.'" one could suppose that this means that water closer to the surface has higher levels of oxygen and thus any fish that can reach those depths could survive. i'm sure there is a more complex answer but i'll defer to the marine biologists. until then i hope this in some way helps your search for answers. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.roughfish.com/~roughfis/species/48"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/ycIicYJ,Da6wSIn,gCkVxhj,XRajSv7,SxvDVIl,v5vcFOJ,4ZOiRRi,0x1UVDE,6NbU44N,2BKif9I#0"
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] |
how will cassini survive?? | so cassini's about to plunge into one of enceladus' ice plumes at 19,000 miles an hour. my question is... how will it survive that? are the particles of ice that small?? because if they're any bigger than a grain of sand, cassini's done for, no? | cassini is nearing the end of its mission and higher risk maneuvers are becoming slightly more acceptable. for example, it will fly through a gap in the ring system to get closer observations of some shepherd moons. there is a significant chance that it won't survive that but it will be almost out of fuel at that point so not much science will be lost if the probe doesn't make it. i listened to a really great podcast by one of the mission scientists a few days ago. [link here](_url_0_) and it's episode 13. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.listentospacepod.com/episodes/"
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] |
"adaptogens" seem to confer significant health benefits with no obvious drawbacks. really? how? why? | i read a couple of papers about [adaptogens](_url_2_). some seem to improve certain aspects of physical and mental performance in placebo-controlled double-blind trials even in young healthy subjects, with no apparent side effects (for example: [1](_url_1_), [2](_url_0_)). this seems weird, because if there was a simple biochemical adjustment through which we could obtain a "free" fitness benefit, presumably evolution by natural selection would have ensured that our bodies already work that way. i am aware that that there are several reasons why evolution may not find the "optimal solution" (local maxima in the fitness landscape, sudden changes in the environment, etc), but i can't wrap my head around how a plant extract could have an apparently purely positive effect on health. | i'm not entirely sure what you are asking. as you have noted, there are a large number of reasons evolution may not have made this modifications. it isn't really reasonable to ask why something (obviously beneficial) hasn't been evolved - it just hasn't. as for the purely positive effect on health, there isn't some balance of good and bad effects that must be maintained. side effects aren't always due to the main action of the drug. instead they are a result of a lack of specificity - the drug does action a and action b. action a helps you, action b gives you a horrible headache. it isn't so difficult to imagine compounds that are specific enough to only be beneficial. and, of course, maybe we just haven't found the side effects of any of these adaptogens yet. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944711300800781",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944711300800550",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptogen"
] | [] | [
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how effective is data mining used to predict decision that a person will make? | at the end of the day the output of data mining is used to describe something for a given set of conditions. so yes you can in my opinion. the general answer though is how well it performs, which is another story. before i begin, i classify a prediction method as any process that can be used to try to determine an outcome. ranges from the simple generalized linear mixed models to complex decision forests. these guys can get fractal, where the prediction method outputs are really inputs to other prediction methods. a predictor is an attribute that you are measuring of the data that you are trying to predict an outcome of. now on to the question. it depends upon a couple of things. 1. what is the cost of being wrong and how wrong can you be and still be right? it just really depends upon how often that prediction is right, for a given value of right. i know that sounds like a cop out, but this is really necessary to understand. if you have a model that consistently predicts that 30 people will buy something, and the actual observed average (or expectation) is 29, is that close enough to be considered "right?" quite frankly, the only real answer to that question is how much does it cost you to be wrong. basically, if 29 people come in to the store to buy gum and you predicted 30, then the opportunity cost of a pack of gum that you stocked for and didnt sell was something like a $1.00. not a real loss and that is probably close enough for you to make informed business decisions using your algorithms. now on the other hand, if you predicted 30 aircraft carriers would be bought and only sold 29, you just lost $10billion dollars, much more painful, and your prediction is probably not worth making a business decision on even though you were off by only 1 again. 2. how good are the methods you using to make a prediction or decision? the second issue to understand is the quality of prediction models/algorithms/funny jokes. if you have bad prediction models it doesn't matter how good of a data set that you have, at the end of the day the things you are using to predict with don't really correspond with the data and with that your veracity goes away. a great example of this is a simple prediction: sky color = pink all time. if you only have a prediction method that makes a prediction of the sky being pink by visually checking the sky only at dawn, then of course you are going to say the sky is pink. flawed predictor method, really good data set. 3. what kind of data are you trying to predict with? the third issue is what kind of historic data that you have. if you have historic data that is noisier than you can handle, full of lies, or changes faster than your prediction models adapt, then the data is no good. no history = no data mining. so to answer your question, yes, you can make prediction about a person using data mining techniques, provided that 2 and 3 line up, and for 1 you have a suitable tolerance whose cost for error (and by that i mean distance the predicted value is from the actual value) is well within the expected reward range for being close enough. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[physics] why is it that raindrops on a window seem to prefer following the trails of their fallen comrades? | it's to do with the molecules on the droplets' edges wanting to reduce their energies. a molecule in the middle of the droplet gets pulled on by all of the molecules around it with an equal force as they're all the same, whereas on the droplet edge a moleculesis also getting pulled on by the surface molecules, who will exert a force of a different magnitude. this creates an imbalance and causes those molecules to sit in a higher energy state. as such, the droplet will follow the path that surrounds these molecules with water instead of exposing them to the surface, therefore reducing the energy of the molecules at the edge, and as a consequence the energy of the droplet as a whole. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension"
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|
does controlled attention represent a transformation of energy? if so, what does it turn into? | i've been teaching myself about the various types of attention (controlled, stimulus driven and arousal) but was wondering how this worked from the basis of energy transformation. i know the brain is tremendously power-hungry, and also read that a chess grandmaster can burn through a significant number calories during a match just by thinking. i presume this is is from chemical energy such as glucose, but what does it become? electrical energy? another form of chemical energy as represented by new brain cells? as a follow-up, when one obsesses over, say, a particular topic, and thinks about it for day after day for months, does this result in "growing an idea" as represented by a set of synaptic connections? what does this mean when meditating on an external object or agent, like a pop star? does this energy become stronger synaptic bonds that influence future thinking patterns or ways of processing incoming sensory information? please excuse my naiveté in these matters. *edit: removing that calorie estimate for chess-masters that seemed a bit excessive. * | do you have any sources for the 5,000-7,000 calorie during a chess match? i am very skeptical that it is even remotely accurate. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/02/science/02qna.html"
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multi-dimensional effects on isomerization | i'm doing research into photo-isomerization, and a couple journals talk about how the speed of tautomerization is effected by multi-dimentional effects. is anyone familiar with the concept? | i'm not sure, but i would also like to know the answer to this question. if this is the case, it might have to do with the symmetry groups, especially that of the frontier orbitals. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when to eat when doing exercise | it depends on the amount of exercise. if you run a marathon (3-4 hours), you need food (or drink with calories) before and during the exercise. if you run a 5k (20-25 minutes), you normally have enough energy stored for the exercise and can replenish by eating afterwards. afterwards, healthy food is important, plus a little extra for the calorie deficit (if necessary). you need calories for energy during the exercise, and the muscle repair and development comes after exercise. it usually takes quite a bit of exercise to require food during the exercise. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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