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could somebody please tell me what hell is growing on the side of my house? | _url_0_ my roommate pointed this out to me tonight and i'm not sure what it is. i tried googling a slew of words trying to describe it, but no luck. i'd like to know what the hell it is and what to do with it. should i just let it be and keep on truckin, or do a controlled burn (joking?) and destroy the thing before it destroys me. the only thing i do know about it is that it creeps me the hell out. edit to be more precise: this picture is sideways so they are technically growing out from a wall. the surface it's growing on is the siding of my house. i live in southern mississippi. they are about the size of a half dollar and the smaller ones are around the size of a quarter. sorry for the original post being so vague! i didn't even think to include region. | the region would probably help with identification. region, and orientation (are they growing "up" from the ground or "down" from the roof?). | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/TmdYI.jpg"
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what keeps the atoms in my finger from mixing with those in the keys of my keyboard? and why doesn't this effect apply when i press two broken halves together really hard? | because you are not pushing hard enough. when you say 'mix,' what you really mean to say is 'bond.' it's the valence electrons that determine how readily elements will bond with each other, and most everyday things (like fingers and piano keys and eggs) are already quite happy where they are bound. why? because their current bonds are stable. unstable things don't last- they spit out their extra energy and they are replaced by stable things. so why do you need to push harder? that will make your interface hotter, and hence there will be more energy available for forming the bonds you want (technically, you would be breaking the bonds in the two things you want to fuse by melting it, and then when the liquid in between cools off the liquid mass freezes to form a single bound object). that's why you can't just put two pieces of metal next to each other and expect them to stay there- you've got to hit them with a blow torch. let's look at this question in reverse. what happened when humpty dumpty fell on his ass? why couldn't the king's men put him back together? because the chemical bonds in him were broken, and the energy that was there was lost to heat and the cracking sound and a million other little vibrations. bottom line: that shit is now disordered, and entropy has increased. how do you decrease entropy locally, or reorder something- like a broken egg shell? you'd need to apply a lot of ordered energy to get the bonds back to the way they were; more energy than you initially lost to entropy, in fact. so to put humpty dumpty back together, you have to break two more humpties to get the energy you need. fun fact: eventually the universe will run out of usable energy, and on that day everything everywhere will be shit out of luck. ([perhaps you'd like to read some asimov while we're on this topic.](_url_0_)) tldr: at no point in the nursery rhyme does it say humpty dumpty was an egg. | 84 | [] | [] | [
"http://filer.case.edu/dts8/thelastq.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding"
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|
in reference to a fox trot comic, what would be some candidates for universal time/distance/weight units of measurement? | in a fox trot comic i saw on the front page maybe a month ago, the kid was jokingly talking about the issues of us using an earth year as a unit of reference of time, and also for distance, as in a light-year. so it made me think, are there some sort of intergalactic/universal phenomena that would be able to be used as a universal standard for measurement, either of distance, time, or weight? | second can be calculated by the frequency of radiation of a certain isotope of cesium once you do that, you can calculate the meter based on the distance light travels in one second. last i checked, kilogram was the only si base unit that we don't have a universal definition for. it's "the weight of this chunk of metal we have here". the rest of the units can be recreated elsewhere in the universe by observing certain phenomenon. article with more detail: _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_SI_definitions"
] | [
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what would air pressure be like in a tunnel drilled through earth? | if we drilled a tunnel/pipeline through earths core, what would the dynamics of air pressure in the tunnel be like? my assumption would be that if it was connected to the atmosphere, the pressure should quickly get to the point where gases would turn into a supercritical fluid, and most of the tunnel would get filled with fluid nitrogen and oxygen, but on the other hand gravity will start to reduce at some point as well, so that might not be correct. | this was calculated by mario berberan-santos in [this paper](_url_0_). he found that the pressure would approach 200,000 atmospheres as the tunnel reached towards the center of the planet. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.tecnico.ulisboa.pt/berberan/data/136.pdf"
] | [
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what are some recent changes in science we may have missed out on from taking courses 10,20 etc. years ago? | one of the fields that have advanced the most in the last 20 years is **cosmology:** cobe was early 90's and wmap was early 00's. these first proper looks at the cmbr gave leaps forwards in the understanding of the early universe the anisotropies in the cmbr were amazing new science. although a bit before 20 years, 20 years ago it would have been unlikely you'd have been taught about dark matter as it was only in the 80's that dark matter was formulated as a possible explanation of galactic rotation curves. supernova studies (1998) gave us the startling discovery of the expansion of the universe. this forced the idea of dark energy upon cosmology. the hubble deep field and ultra deep field surprised cosmologists with the huge number of galaxies at high redshift in tiny portions of the sky. this really improved the understanding of the universe and they were only taken in 95 and 04. really, in general, cosmology was not a science 20-30 years ago and now it has exploded into a huge deal. you'd have missed the entire subject taught today if you went to college 20 years ago. quasars (agn) were misunderstood before the 80's. other compact objects neutron stars in particular were much less understood. **some other astronomy:** these things may not feel as fundamental as physics but if you take a class on any of these subjects the brunt of what you would be taught was discovered by these missions. solar physics is, of course, close to my heart. the fact that solar, as with a huge amount of astronomy, relies on satellites to take the largest share of data gathering means that a huge amount has been learned in the last 20 years. skylab was the first time we had ever looked at the sun properly with x-ray and it was in the late 70's. as a result most of what we know about the corona and chromosphere has come since then. rhessi, stereo, ace, yosokoh, hinode, ulysses goes, trace, soho, sorce, coronas, sdo... all of these solar satellites launched in the last 20-25 years and each one told us huge amounts about flares, internal sun structure, the solar wind, the corona, the chromosphere, the magnetic structure, the solar cycle, space weather... beyond the sun we have learnt so much about our neighbouring planets (and their moons) than you would have been taught 20 years ago. mars was the most visited before then and even then basically consisted of some poor quality soviet probes, the mariner and the viking probes. mars surveyor, pathfinder, odyssey, express, all the rovers... came in the last 20 years. the majority of what we know about mars came from these. the same is true about the rest of the planets, even more so normally. most planets hadn't been visited, pioneer probes and voyager did some flybys of the outer planets but it wasn't till the likes of cassini-huygens (for saturn/titan) and galileo (for jupiter), both late 90's, that we got a proper look at those planets. away from space missions the increase in computing power of recent times has helped astronomy research. simulations have allowed a deeper understanding of galaxy/star formation that although the principles were known was less well studied 20+ years ago. gamma ray bursts are incredible events that, although first detected in the 60's, were not even close to being explained until the last decade. **fundamental laws(particle/relativity/qauntum):** when we get to these kind of things we are drifting from what i am expert on. what i can say about particle physics is that: it hasn't changed much. although new particle colliders in the last 20-30 years have given great results and discoveries the majority of our understanding of the fundamental forces was laid down in the standard model in the mid 70's and it was really (aside from some important predictions) a combination of qcd/electroweak/etc theories that were an additional 10-20 years old by that point. that being said, it is not unlikely if you did particle physics in the 80's then you wouldn't be taught it the same as you are now. education is notorious for lagging behind research. the same kind of thing goes for relativity/more general qm, these theories were already 50+ years old 20 years ago and would likely be taught the same theoretically. practically though the big advance in gr is gravitational waves as well as the combination with cosmology to study the big bang. the only evidence for gravitational waves wasn't around until the 80's and would be unlikely to be taught. nowadays it is an important field. quantum mechanics has seen the rise of quantum computing as a real field along with science such as entanglement, encryption being areas that would have seen no teaching 20+ years ago. **elsewhere:** when you go to things like solid state/material sciences. youa re too far out of my wheelhouse but things like carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, bec, superconductors, superfluids all this cool stuff is has seen amazing understanding and demonstration in the last 20-30 years that you wouldn't have seen before. i also stuck very strongly to astronomy with some physics but i can guarantee there have been huge advances in other fields, genetics, computing, immunology, climate science, oceanology...every field will have so much more to teach people at school now than just 20 years ago. **final word:** the bad thing is that teaching seems to change so so slowly. universities keep up but schools teach the same old stuff even when we are faced with new discoveries however... ...the good thing is that schools tend to mostly teach the basics. we have known the basics of physics for around about 100 years and although it would be nice for schools to brush on this cool, new stuff the science you have to learn for exams will have changed by very little. perhaps what has changed the most is the teaching itself, the way it's taught rather than what's taught. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/",
"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/everyday-tech/lithium-ion-battery.htm"
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|
why are some animal droppings always in such uniform shapes and sizes? | why do animals, for example a rabbit have such uniform shaped and sized droppings? they look like raisins. do they have a cookie cutter in their bums? | in the colon there are band-like structures called taenia and out-pouchings of the colon called haustra. there are varying numbers of taenia along the length of the bowel and also between species. as liquid is absorbed from the colon the faeces begins to take shape and the number and size of the taenia and haustra have an influence on this. it isn't all down to taenia and haustra - the diet of the animal plays an important role too. if you eat a lot of cellulose you are predisposed toward firmer, pellet-like stools. if you think of horses, they are a species designed to graze poor-quality pastures for a large part of the day, but often required by us to eat small quantities of highly digestible carbohydrate-based diets. on the mostly fibre diets (without other pathology) their stools should be well formed and pebble-like. on rich carby diets or when turned out on lush pasture (water and sugar) they lose all ability to form nice pellet stools and develop diarrhoea. last, but not least the sphincter function gets to place the final artistic flourish on a stool. if you are disturbed mid poop, you may get a few walnut whips. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are these things in the arctic? | i noticed them on google maps a while ago but was never really sure what they are. they're like tons of little lakes/ponds. here's a picture for reference or you can just look at the northern coast of alaska and russia. _url_0_ | all the following information can be found in either *[permafrost: a guide to frozen ground in transition](_url_1_)* by neil davis or in *[land of extremes: a natural history of the arctic north slope of alaska](_url_7_)* by alex huryn and john hobbie. these are [thermokarst](_url_2_) lakes and are an ubiquitous [permafrost](_url_4_) feature found all across the arctic tundra along with [pingos](_url_6_), [palsas](_url_9_), [ice wedges](_url_3_), [poygonal ground](_url_8_), and beaded streams. these thermokarst lakes are often termed oriented lakes since most seem to be found elongated 90 degrees to the prevailing wind. they are quite shallow, never exceeding 3 m. those less than 2 m freeze to the bottom every year. they also reduce the thickness of permafrost around and beneath them ( in bare [tundra](_url_0_) near point barrow, permafrost can be as much as 400 m thick whereas under these lakes it may only be 60 m ). since these lakes are often associated with poylygonal ground, it is thought they originate with these structures. ice wedge polygons often form raised relief, which with the extremely flat tundra prevents drainage. water tends to stay as it doesn't evaporate very efficiently due to cold temperatures, low sun angle, and short summers despite most of the arctic receiving less than 300 mm of precipitation per year. consequently, these polygons form small shallow ponds. if there is enough relief, these ponds may connect and form beaded streams. otherwise, they remain disjoint. it is thought from these small polygonal ponds, these thermokarst lakes form. wind blowing across the surface may promote preferential erosion on one side of the small pond, growing and elongating it. this erosion removes the thin active layer (the thin layer of earth that that thaws every summer) insulating the permafrost below. this removal of insulation promotes thawing of the permafrost at the borders of the pond, allowing the pond to continue eroding its banks and melting more permafrost. the pond deepens, widens, and subsides linking up nearby polygonal ponds and forming a basin, allowing it to capture more water and continue growing each summer. they can become quite large such as [teshekpuk lake.](_url_5_) these lakes rarely host fish. they typically host grasses and a small selection benthic inverbrates. they make great summer habitat for migrating birds and of course mosquitos. | 23 | [] | [
"http://gyazo.com/dcd0c3272fc4b6515fcfc8fe44199201"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundra",
"http://www.amazon.com/Permafrost-guide-Frozen-Ground-Transition/dp/1889963194/ref=sr_1_sc_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1413683376&sr=8-1-spell&keywords=permafrost+a+land+in+transition",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermokarst",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_wedge",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teshekpuk_Lake",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingo",
"http://www.amazon.com/Land-Extremes-Natural-History-Arctic/dp/1602231818/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1413683200&sr=8-1&keywords=alaska+north+slope+natural+history",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterned_ground",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsa"
] | [
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what would happen if i would swim in acetone? | some guy at work put both his hands in acetone to wash of some vinylester today. made me wonder how dangerous that is, and how quick i would die if i were submerged in it up to the neck. | everyone has been focusing on the toxicity of acetone, and stating that as long as it isn't ingested, you would be fine. however, a pretty major aspect of this theoretical "acetone pool" that people are missing are the density and viscosity properties of acetone. acetone is less dense and less viscous than water, and would be much, much more difficult to swim in. also, acetone has a pretty high vapor pressure, and you would be breathing in tons of fumes of it while you were swimming (even at room temperature), making you very light-headed. so yes, you would be fine swimming in it for a short while, as long as you could keep your head afloat, which i imagine would be very difficult unless you are a very strong swimmer. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetone#Safety"
] | [
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what if the parameters were different? | i've often heard that if certain physical in the universe were different, life would not exist. for example, if the strong nuclear force was stronger, hydrogen wouldn't form, however if it were weaker, only hydrogen would form. i'm wondering if in a universe where these constants were sufficiently different, would there be any structures that would have formed, but aren't able to in a universe with our constants. | it's hard to know, but some works done by stenger and adams indicated that varying the four fundamental constants allowed stars to exist in approximately 25% of the parameters that they tried. the real problem is that considering "fine tuning" through the subtly distorted lens of the anthropic principle is basically tautological. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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askscience ama series: i am dr. saad omer and i'm here to talk about vaccines and the diseases they prevent. ask me anything! | with vaccine preventable disease outbreaks making headlines around the world, we would like to welcome dr. saad b. omer for an ama to answer any questions on vaccines and the diseases they prevent. dr. saad b. omer (_url_0_) is the william h. foege chair in global health and professor of global health, epidemiology & pediatrics at emory university, schools of public health and medicine. he has conducted studies in the united states, guatemala, kenya, uganda, ethiopia, india, pakistan, bangladesh, south africa, and australia. dr omer's research portfolio includes clinical trials to estimate efficacy of maternal and/or infant influenza, pertussis, polio, measles and pneumococcal vaccines and trials to evaluate drug regimens to reduce mother-to-child transmission of hiv. moreover, he has conducted several studies on interventions to increase immunization coverage and demand. dr omer's work has been cited in global and country-specific policy recommendations and has informed clinical practice and health legislation in several countries. he has directly mentored over 100 junior faculty, clinical and research post-doctoral fellows, and phd and other graduate students. dr. omer has published more than 225 papers in peer reviewed journals including the new england journal of medicine, jama, the lancet, british medical journal, pediatrics, american journal of public health, and science. moreover, he has written op-eds for publications such as the new york times, politico, and the washington post. dr. omer will begin answering questions at 4:30pm est and come find him on twitter ([@saadomer3](_url_1_)) after! --- the ama has concluded. from dr. omer: > thanks everyone. i really enjoyed interacting with you. i know there are many questions i wasn't able to get to. however, i'd would be happy to continue the conversation in coming days over twitter - a medium i use more frequently. my handle is @saadomer3. > p.s. sorry for the typos (i'm sure there're many). i am a bad proofreader; particularly in a hurry. | what's the best way to approach an anti-vaxxer with young children (when the topic comes up)? is there a method of coversation that doctors have found to be the most effective into convincing them to get their kids properly vaccinated? or has facebook ruined any ability to have a factual, evidence-based conversation with parents. | 548 | [] | [
"www.saadomer.org",
"https://twitter.com/saadomer3"
] | [
"https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000388",
"https://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/vaccination/effectiveness-studies.htm",
"https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1006736",
"https://www.who.int/blueprint/priority-diseases/en/",
"https://twitter.com/saadomer3",
"http://www.tetyanaobukhanych.com",
"https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/5/7/17314716/lyme-disease-vaccine-history-effectiveness",
"http://www.vaclib.org/legal/cdcpatents.htm"
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why are there both on-center and off-center receptive fields in the retina & lgn? | center-surround receptive fields are useful for detecting changes in luminance across the visual field, but i would think just one organization (i.e. *either* excitatory-center inhibitory-surround *or* inhibitory-center excitatory-surround) would do the trick. what is the point of having both organizations? is it redundant coding? i have read some places that the two organizations are because you want to be able to detect a dark object on a lighter background or a light object on a darker background, but again, i can see this done by the same organization. in an on-centre cell, a dark spot would decrease firing, and a light spot would increase firing. done, and done. i need another example to help me figure this out. thanks in advance... :) | the reason is basically that baseline firing rate for post-retinal neurons is close to zero. in cortex, baseline *is* zero. so, a zero-contrast stimulus gives you zero firing rate. that means there's no room in the response range to represent both positive and negative polarity stimuli. even if it were possible, it would make for some strange encoding, which might not square with visual experience. we see dark and bright contrasts as qualitatively opposite things, not as different points on a continuum. the fact that they are encoded by separate populations of neurons helps to make sense of that.. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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inhowfar are fluid dynamics length scale independent? | there must obviously be some lower limit in the microscopic regime, but what are the smallest/largest dimensions where typical fluid/statistical physics concepts like viscosity and pressure make sense? specifically, i've been wondering about convection and laminar flow in confined geometries of ~1 nm, and was wondering whether these phenomena actually exist on microscopic scales. i don't have time for a literature research right now, so i figured i'll try asking here. my background is third year doctoral student in a condensed matter physics department, so if you feel like equations or scientific articles help answer this, feel free to throw them at me. | there's a whole field of research looking at nanoconfined water and the transition between atomistic and collective behaviour. i can tell you that the fluid-like properties continue down below 10-nanometers, where nanopore systems are routinely used for [experiments with dna](_url_0_) and also [liquid helium](_url_2_). [this simulation](_url_1_) puts the transition at about a nanometer. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physics.upenn.edu/drndicgroup/merchant_nl_2010.pdf",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10404-011-0772-y/fulltext.html",
"http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.254501"
] | [
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] |
how is the cmb used to calculate the hubble constant? | since you don’t have an answer yet, i’ll start you off with the [lambda-cdm model](_url_0_). this model is the best fitting model used to explain the observed [polarization](_url_1_) in the cosmic microwave background, as well as the other properties of the large scale of the universe. as i understand it, you can use the other parameters of this model to approximate lambda, the cosmological constant. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background#Polarization"
] | [
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|
how do out breaks start? | i know that ebola has been around and is not some new disease but how did it suddenly become big news? was there someone who was carrying it but not showing symptoms and than it was passed on or has it been around and is now only big news because it has gotten to america? | to answer each question individually: 1) yes, the disease has been around for awhile. normally, it sparks up in a small village where it kills a few people then fizzles out because it typically kills faster than it spreads. the reason it has become big news is that it is currently devastating western africa, with it spreading much worse than usual and having killed about 4,000 people. now, we have the few cases in the us, and it's causing a panic among the us citizens. 2) under our current knowledge of how ebola works, a person can get infected with the disease but can be asympomatic (not showing any symptoms at all) from 2-21 days after infection. they will not pass it on until symptoms start appearing, but the time between symptoms starting and getting to a quarantined area to be treated can lead to passing on the disease without necessarily knowing. in addition, health care workers don't typically work under the level of infection control required to contain something like ebola. as such, mistakes will be made and contamination will occur while people figure out how to properly contain it. i personally believe we have nothing to worry about in the us. our infection control is pretty damn great, and despite the hiccups so far, we'll get the us situation figured out. it's like riding a bike after years of not riding. we'll make mistakes and fall a bit, but we'll pick ourselves up quickly and remember how to not fall. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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questions about extremophiles and xenobiology. | about extremeophiles, did they evolve after life evolved on this planet, or were they the progenitors? i thought the obvious answer to this would be they evolved after since they seem to be specialized in terms of proteins and enzymes able to handle extreme conditions but i wanted to ask this question (without doing the research beforehand) to test out the askscience forum and see how responses develop. contingent on the "correct" answer to this question, the followup: if extremophiles indeed evolved first, then would that answer support the existence of life on venus? we talk about mars a lot, but i haven't heard venus getting any exposure in terms of this. the planet is super hot (~465 c), co2 and sulfuric acid atmo, intense pressure at surface, no liquid water on the planet due to the heat, and lots of volcanoes. my initial take would be to say the combination of all these factors would not be conducive to life since even extremophiles only deal with one or two extreme factors. however, i ask the people who would probably know more about this, what is the current opinion? in follow up to that question (not science related but relevant to the question to give nonscience people a chance to add some flair in addition to a researched response), has there been any speculation/science fiction stories stipulating a civilization that evolved on an originally verdant venus which (following the overused post-apocalyptic themes you see in movies nowadays) destroyed itself and rendered the planet no longer supportive of life (or was destroyed by factors they could not control) and in the effort to perpetuate life, sent probes to earth to start life here instead? | the surface of venus (the upper clouds are a different story) is far beyond the tolerance of any type of extremophile. the co2 and sulfuric acid and the pressure aren't insurmountable problems, but the lack of water is. all extremophiles need liquid water to function, even if they can survive without it in a dormant state they need it to reproduce. i really have no idea if some form of life could survive in 465c water kept liquid by high pressure. no earth life could, but that condition doesn't exist on earth so there's been no need to evolve to deal with it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus#Global_resurfacing_event",
"www.venusian.us.com"
] | [
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as someone who just fell victim to a nutshot... i just want to know why the testicles are so goddamn sensitive. | it didn't occur to me to ask until now, but what is the scientific reason behind the excruciating pain men endure when their giblets are roughed up? | i feel like all the posts on pain being incentive to protect them, though valid speculation, are exactly that: speculation. don't invoke cause without reason. the reason could be completely unrelated to protection, i could invoke any adaptation i can think of and say it's the cause. maybe their is a pleiotropic effect acting, maybe it's because your testes were actually ovaries before sex determination took place. if a solid scientific explanation (ie tested empirically) is not available or you haven't looked for one then i feel that speculation is not an appropriate substitute. i did search for some examples and [the only paper i could find](_url_0_) was a proposed *hypothesis* for pain during scrotal "insults". it appears like only hypotheses exist on this subject and, though they are logical, they are at this point just adaptationist stories. edit: tl;dr: scientists, it's ok to say "i don't know". i await downvotes. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep07517526.pdf"
] | [
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architects or engineers of reddit, mathematically, how can you tell if a structure will be stable? | are there a set of equations that are used to determine how much force is applied an how much force certain parts of the structure can take? | yes, there are equations used to figure out how strong a structure is. at a fundamental level, the discipline of determining how materials respond to applied force is called *continuum mechanics*. continuum mechanics is a very broad discipline that takes the fundamental laws that govern the motion of bodies (e.g. newton's laws and conservation laws) and apply them to general materials - continuum mechanics approaches can be used to model fluids as well as solids, for example. but solid mechanics is what you're after - the branch of continuum mechanics that deals with the general behavior of solids. a constitutive law is what provides the relationship between stresses (forces applied) and strains (material deformation). in general, this constitutive law is quite complicated. for solids in the elastic range, (small deformations, which is what you design your building to undergo - in general, if your bridge or skyscraper sees plastic [permanent] deformation, something's gone horribly wrong), under the linear assumption (i.e. stress is proportional to strain) there can be as many as 21 different constants that describe how the strain changes with the stress (or the stress changes with the strain). in very simple cases, under simple applied loads, however, you can reduce everything down to something that might be familiar to you: analogous to hooke's law (f = -kx), & sigma; = e & epsilon;. but a fully continuum mechanics approach is impractical in general to take for a structure (indeed, it's inapplicable to a structure, since the structure isn't one continuous piece). what happens is that these constitutive relations that describe how stress and strain interact are applied to each component of the building in much-simplified forms under various assumptions. bending stress is given by & sigma; = -my/i; torsional stress is given by & tau; = t & rho;/j; tensile or compressive stress is given by & sigma; = f/a, and all these stresses are combined (typically using a formula to generate what's called the "von mises stress") to see whether the structure can support the loads required without "yielding" (experiencing plastic deformation). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a person be trained to become an inertial navigation system him/herself? | since our body has very sensitive and accurate motion-sensing mechanisms. so after being trained, can we become inertial navigation system ourselves, with the accuracy nearly identical to those used on commercial airliners? thanks. | all dead-reckoning navigation systems are subject to accumulating enormous error over time. humans are extremely susceptible to this. a human measuring/quantifying acceleration and deceleration and duration for long periods of time would have next to no chance of being useful (unless they memorized a sequence of accelerations for repeatable trips). now, our sensitive balancing mechanisms are tied to the one grand calibrating force: gravity. we never accumulate balancing errors because balancing is not a dead-reckoning system, we always have the force of gravity to tell us which way is down. so... no. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do gyro's work? | im a naval officer trying to expand my horizon on how exactly gyros work in the setting of navigation. i really want to understand the basics of how we take a spinning rotor and turn it into true bearing. if possible, i have more specific questions afterward, but i'd like to start with the basics. | i'm not familiar with exactly which type of gyro is used by your vessels, but older gyros mostly act on the principle that a rotating mass has something called angular momentum. due to the conservation of angular momentum, if you apply a force to the rotating mass to try to rotate to along another axis, it undergoes what is known as gyroscopic precession and starts rotating perpendicular to your applied force. just search for videos showing gyroscopic precession to better visualise this. this effect works in such a way that if you place two rotating gyroscopes perpendicular to each other and mounted on the same structure (so that one can not tilt independently from the other), you get an overall structure that resists rotation on one axis. this axis if designated to be the horizontal axis, can allow a navigations system to specify a specific heading. when the ship rotates and points somewhere else, the gyro continues pointing to the original heading as it resists any sort of rotation along the horizontal axis. this allows for computer systems to adjust the vessel's control surfaces to turn back to the specified heading. on older ships without computers, the gyros are massive and mounted directly on the hull, essentially turning the whole ship into part of the gyro structure and causing it to resist rotation. newer gyros use lasers or other electrical effects without actual moving parts but at this point, they do not operate on the gyroscopic effect i mentioned but instead just detect rotation which a computer processes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does our subconscious constantly run certain "subroutines" (for lack of a better word)? | my office is two doors down from my supervisor's. i've noticed that, while at work, my brain subconsciously listens for him to say my name in conversations with others and i start actively listening to what's being said after my name is mentioned. i think this is probably the case with our names outside of this situation but this was where it became very obvious to me that i was constantly (and unknowingly) listening for it. are there certain situations or conditions that our subconscious brains are always watching out for that we're not consciously aware of? if so, how many have been discovered? | yes, it is constantly carrying out check-ups of your surrounding, and associative memory is always on the go, deducing what is happening. type 1 process are automatic and involve no cognitive strain. you should read daniel kahneman's 'thinking, fast and slow' for superb insight into all of this. you will really enjoy it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i'm a bit confused about the recent data from cern that everyone is talking about. | i understand that this is simply what the raw data shows, but for the purposes of this post let's assume that the neutrinos were, in fact, travelling faster than light. the way i understand the currently accepted theory no particle can accelerate to or above the speed of light. however, a particle can travel faster than light if it has since its creation, and in this case in cannot slow to a speed below the speed of light. so i'm from my point of view this does not break special relativity (is this the correct theory? it certainly is being thrown around a lot). would these neutrinos not "simply" be the hypothesized [tachyons](_url_0_)? from reading the wikipedia article on tachyons it seems that the ability of neutrinos to function as tachyons has been theorized as early as 1985, so i don't really understand why everyone is losing their shit. | a tachyon is not a specific particle but simply a placeholder name for any hypothetical particle that can travel at speeds greater than c. special relativity categorically forbids particles from travelling at speeds greater than c, be they accelerated or spawned with superluminal velocities. tachyons had been theorized, yes, but it is one thing to theorize and a completely different thing to accept such theories as effective models of reality when 60 years of research and [verification of qed](_url_0_) has been carried out to such obscene degrees of accuracy. this is why the paper published by cern-opera makes no attempt at theoretical or phenomenological interpretation of their result. given the evidence we have, it is likely that their result is an anomaly. if however, accelerator data from around the world matched their results, people might begin to *consider* theories supporting superluminal velocities. that a team of scientists from cern, after months of experimentation are so reluctant to refute current theories based on their results is a measure of the massive wall of evidence/sheer accuracy of the currently accepted standard model that they have to surmount. | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_tests_of_QED"
] | [
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when archeologists are looking for paleolithic/ neolithic artifacts how can they be sure what they’ve found is an ace head for example, rather than a triangular rock? | i see examples of stone age artifacts like axe blades, arrowheads, etc but they just look like triangular rocks. how can an archeologist tell what is a stone age flint tool and what is a naturally occurring object? | there's artificial patterns on the rock from where it was sharpened, some of them are shapped so that they can be mounted on something, and they are often found with other signs of prehistoric life/other tools/on the right layer to be from that time period | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the bubble within a spirit level to have its perticular shape? | [deleted] | there's several factors at play here. the spirit level is made out of a plastic tube, a low viscosity liquid (usually an alcohol or water in cheaper levels) and air. you have to consider the interfaces between these three components and the cohesive forces between each to understand why the bubble is the shape it is. the bubble is spherical because the interface between the liquid and the plastic and the cohesive force between the liquid is more thermodynamically stable than the interface between the air and the plastic. the air would form a perfect sphere as its minimum energy state, but because air is more buoyant than the liquid it is pushed to the surface of the tube where it is deformed into an ellipsoid. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could someone help explain pk in relation to making a certain ph solution? | i'm a microbiology lab tech with limited chemistry experience. i was just asked to do this. make four solutions, ph 5, ph 6, ph 7, and ph 8 with 100mm ( for all of these) mes (ph5, this one is fine), mes pk6, mopso pk7, and epps pk8. i need about 20ml of each final solution and don't really understand how the pk relates to ph and how that affects making a solution of certain ph. i understand what the acid dissociation constant is, for example something with a pk of 6 has a buffering range of around 5.1 to 7.9 (is that right?) so would i just make 20ml of a 100mm pk6 solution, ph check it and then adjust with glacial acetic acid? is that correct? | the effective ph range of a buffer is approximately +/- 1 ph unit of the pka. if you go outside this range your buffer will be more sensitive to changes in ph. to adjust the ph using a ph meter add a weak or dilute acid if you want the ph to lower (i usually use 1n or 0.1n hcl), or add a base (i use 0.1n or 1n naoh) if you want to increase the ph. be careful, the more concentratated your buffer, the more acid or base you will have to use to change the ph. this can throw off your volume and buffer concentration. use appropriately concentrated acid or base. you could also use the henderson/hasslebalch equation to find out the relative proportion of conjugate acid and base to add to acheive the desired ph. ph = pka + log [a]/[ha]. for a definition of pka, it is the ph at which there are equal concentrations of conjugate acid and base in solution. at this point log 1=0 and the equation simplifies to ph = pka | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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tidal chart analysis - what data can be optained? | in a tidal chart there are things that are obvious, spring/neap tides, semi-diurnal, tidal range etc, but what other information can be obtained? i found perigee/apogee dates from a website, but other than that i was wondering if there are other physical properties that can be obtained from just a chart? is there a reason beyond perigee/apogee that the tidal range differs between the spring/neap cycles? example chart here: [imgur](_url_0_) | i'm not a hydrographer, but i am a sailor and make regular use of tide prediction charts. i'm not sure that your question is asking the right thing - you can't really obtain any physical properties from a tidal chart, only what the tide height is expected to be at a particular time. even then, it isn't guaranteed to be completely accurate since prevailing weather conditions can affect it. prolonged winds towards the location and very low atmospheric pressure can increase the tide height quite significantly. much of the damage done in new york recently was due to this effect. winds blowing away or very high pressure can cause the height to be lower than predicted. the components that go into making a tide prediction are called tidal harmonics. some of these are defined astronomically, but geographic circumstances are very influential as well. a tide station in a river estuary will be quite different to one on a straight open coastline. the shape of the coastline and the shape of the seabed are both important. as an example, here are the tide predictions for lowestoft on the east coast of england and sudbrook in wales, which is far up the severn estuary. they represent the extremes of tidal range in the uk: [lowestoft](_url_1_) [sudbrook](_url_0_) and here is a more unusual graph showing the double low and high tides near the headland of portland: [portland](_url_3_) different hydrographic agencies calculate tides with different methods, and can use in the order of 20-30 different constants. the noaa have quite a good page describing what is involved: [noaa](_url_2_) | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/obfYN"
] | [
"http://easytide.ukho.gov.uk/EasyTide/EasyTide/ShowPrediction.aspx?PortID=0517&PredictionLength=4&DaylightSavingOffset=0&PrinterFriendly=True&HeightUnits=0&GraphSize=7",
"http://easytide.ukho.gov.uk/EasyTide/EasyTide/ShowPrediction.aspx?PortID=0141&PredictionLength=4&DaylightSavingOffset=0&PrinterFriendly=True&HeightUnits=0&GraphSize=7",
"http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/restles1.html#Intro",
"http://easytide.ukho.gov.uk/EasyTide/EasyTide/ShowPrediction.aspx?PortID=0033&PredictionLength=4&DaylightSavingOffset=0&PrinterFriendly=True&HeightUnits=0&GraphSize=7"
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why is it that we use adenosine for svt and a cardioversion for a-fib? both are essentially a reset button. one pharmacological the other electrical. | let me explain some of the terminology you are using i.e. adenosine, dc cardioversion (dccv), and svt because it may help to clear up some things. **adenosine:** it works by completely blocking the av node. the half life is extremely short (about 8-10 seconds) but during that time, you have complete closure of the av node meaning no signal gets through to the ventricles. **dccv:** this is when you send a timed shock to the heart to attempt to re-introduce the native pacing of the heart e.g. sinus node pacing. **svt:** this is a broad category of arrhythmias. any rhythm that is *cardioversion* cardioversion is a little simpler to explain because the indications are a little more black and white (but not all the time). generally speaking, there are 3 reasons you would use dccv for afib. * a patient is in rapid afib and is unstable meaning their blood pressure is tanking. you need to stop the rapid afib immediately to restore blood flow to the body. * a patient has tried medical therapy for afib (beta blocks, calcium channel blockers, amiodarone, etc) and still remains in afib with or without symptoms. it is reasonable to try dccv to see if you can stop the afib because long standing afib has its own complications. * you have a patient with new onset afib who is relatively healthy. it is reasonable to try dccv to stop the afib in an attempt to save the patient from lifelong medications for afib. an important thing to note is that dccv can be used for more than just afib. if you have any svt, you can use dccv to try to stop the svt. this is done as a last resort option either because the patient is extremely symptomatic from the svt or their blood pressure is tanking. *adenosine* adenosine has a diagnostic purpose and a therapeutic purpose. one thing to understand is that adenosine is not pharmacologic cardioversion (medications used for phamacologic cardioversion are class 1c, iii, and 1b typically). the goal of adenosine is to block an electrical pathway. let's say that you have a patient who suddenly jumps up to a heart rate of 170s. you look at the continuous ecg and the patient is in svt. the issue is that it is beating so fast that you have a hard time differentiating which type of svt it is. this is a good time to use adenosine. because it will block the av node, what you will see on your ecg is no ventricular beats (qrs complexes). this allows you to see what rhythm is running through the atria. often times this will elucidate what rhythm they are actually in. the good news is that adenosine can actually treat certain svts. if you have a re-entrant circuit like avrt or avnrt or if you have rhythms like a-tach, most of the time adenosine will terminate them. now, if the svt was afib or aflutter or mat, the adenosine would do nothing. as mentioned above, if you have a patient in an svt and they are unstable or very symptomatic, you can move forward with dccv as an emergent measure. hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.apls.org.au/sites/default/files/uploadedfiles/Supraventricular%20tachycardia%20%28SVT%29%20management.pdf",
"https://www.aafp.org/afp/1998/0801/p471.html"
] | [
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|
does the brain have a central bus on which all of its sections communicate? | i know the brain is not that well understood, but do we know how all of the different parts of the brain communicate? if the brain was a network, would it be set up as a star topology? bus topology? something different altogether? | i think you're looking for the [thalamus](_url_0_), which is more like star topology i guess? it receives input from most of the sensory systems (including touch/pain via connections from the spine) and processes and sends signals to the cerebral cortex. it also has important connections to the hippocampus, which is involved in memory. the thalamus has a function in wakefulness / sleep/wake cycle. it's heavily connected to the basal ganglia which is involved in learning, emotion, and a bunch of other stuff. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus",
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Brain_connectivity#Modes_of_Brain_Connectivity"
] | [
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pressure from photons on the earth... | does the pressure from photons from the sun exert enough force on earth to change the earths orbit? what effects does the pressure from the photons have on our planet or anything else in the solar system? edit: spelling. | the radiation pressure from the sun would be the average intensity (about 1400 w/m^2 ) divided by the speed of light. this is about 4 micropascals. while this is higher than the pressure of gas in outer space, it is still an extremely tiny pressure. acting on the entire earth, this is equivalent of about 450 million pounds of force, which seems like a lot on a human scale, but consider that the gravitational attraction between the earth and the sun is about eight billion trillion pounds. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poynting-Robertson_effect"
] | [
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] |
how does degreaser (soap, purple power, engine stuff) degrease? | is there a difference between engine grease and kitchen grease that degreasers can tell? what physically makes them break up grease? what makes some degreasers work better than others? | put simply, water and oil don't mix. you get a molecule where half of it will mix with water, and the other half will mix with oil. when you apply soap to something, it sticks to the oil. then when you rinse, it also attaches to the water and washes away. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_dodecyl_sulfate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion"
] | [
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female carriers of hemophilia | this question is based off of a 10th grade biology class, so i don't know if all the information is correct. hemophilia is on the x chromosome, so a woman can be a carrier by have one chromosome with hemophilia and one without, but she wouldn't experience the symptoms. later in the year, we were told that in each cell, one of the x chromosomes is chosen randomly. if this is true, why wouldn't the woman be semi-hemophiliac? | hemophilia, like other recessive diseases, is avoided if you have just a single working copy of a gene to counteract the diseased copy. this isn't to say that being a carrier of a recessive disease doesn't carry some phenotype---carriers of sickle cell anemia don't have blood cells that survive well at high altitudes or, importantly, after infection with plasmodium. if x inactivation is random in each cell, then a hemophilia carrier would still have enough clotting factor in the blood to avoid the disease. however, skewed x inactivation, if strong enough and biased toward the diseased gene copy, could certainly [lead to female carriers with hemophilia](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17342157"
] | [
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are there any animals who stay strictly in the air? | i was thinking, there are (obviously) animals who are always on land, and some that are always in the water. are there some that are always in the air? | the closest there is to an animal that spends their entire life in the air is probably the alpine swift. they have recently been found to spend upwards of 200 days in a row airborne and only land at their breeding ground. they eat, sleep, and drink all while airborne. nature paper: _url_1_ but probably easier to read the wikipedia article: _url_0_ i suppose that, theoretically, creatures like bacteria could spend longer airborne but i'm not aware of any studies done (they'd be very hard to track individually unless we find some type of bacteria that spends its whole life cycle airborne) | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_swift",
"http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/131008/ncomms3554/full/ncomms3554.html"
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what is still? | when people study time travel they always reference the movement of the earth in the solar system and the solar systems movement in the galaxy but how do we know what is or isn’t moving, since the only reference points we have are other objects? the iss is orbiting earth, which is orbiting the sun, which is part of material that is orbiting a theoretical supermassive black hole in space. anytime we move in a ship or suit we state out movement speed in metered per second usually. these speeds are all relative to other celestial bodies though. such as moving 1000 kilometers per hour away from earth. when floating in space, no matter the speed, without anything moving past us, wouldn’t we theoretically think we were sitting still? additionally, is there some kind of test to tell if matter has any directional force of if it is completely still? if all of this is a thing, what is it called? | you're on the right track! it is *only* possible to give speeds relative to other objects. there is no universal idea of "still" - only "still relative to x". this is one of the fundamental ideas of relativity. in fact, your last comment is one of the original inspirations for special relativity - there's no possible experiment to distinguish between being "stationary", and moving in a straight line at a constant velocity. just a small point though - although there is a supermassive black hole at the centre of the milky way, and it is huge compared to a typical star, it still only makes up a tiny fraction of the mass of the milky way. it's about a million times the mass of our sun, but the galaxy has about two hundred *billion* stars, plus the dark matter which has even more mass. so even though it's in the centre of the galaxy, we really orbit within the total gravitational field of all the stars and gas and dark matter of the galaxy, and the supermassive black hole is just a small addition to this. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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there's a common condition colloquially known as "hypoglycemia," which doesn't actually meet the medical definition of hypoglycemia. what is it really? | there are lots of people who suffer a very specific set of symptoms after a given interval of time from the last meal. typically: irritability, extreme fatigue, shakiness, dizziness, inability to concentrate, loss of muscle strength, etc. most people who have this problem describe it as "hypoglycemia." but true hypoglycemia has other symptoms, such as seizures, which aren't included. so what is actually going on? is there any research on this condition? is there a name for it? | there is in fact a name for this: [idiopathic postprandial syndrome](_url_0_. the syndrome was first described in the 1980s to distinguish between patients with true hypoglycaemia and those suffering only the symptoms you describe. the word "idiopathic" means "of unknown cause", so i can't give you an answer as to what causes the symptoms. as far as i'm aware, there isn't any real research going on into it; it's not exactly a serious pathology, and there's no obvious profit for companies in finding out what's going on and curing it. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoglycemia_(common_usage)"
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difference between ancylostomiasis and strongyloidiasis? | these parasites seem pretty much the same except for strongyloides auto infection. is there really a strong difference between them? | i'm more familiar with strongy because we see it more around here. the main difference is that ancylostoma (hookworm) attaches to the mucosa and feeds on blood. thus hookworm infection leads generally to blood loss and anemia. strongy burrows through the mucosal wall and this doesn't lead to much blood loss but can lead to infection (the hyperinfection syndrome). additionally, as you note, strongy can autoinfect. this is because hookworm eggs hatch into infectious larvae only after passed in stool. strongy hatches in the intestine and thus the adult worms can reinfect from both the mucosa of the intestine or from the perianal region. [here's an old school citation](_url_0_). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1180108"
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] |
is "planet cracking" feasible? | i've been playing the dead space games and watching the movies and i was wondering if planet cracking was feasible, can someone explain? | the earth has a gravitational binding energy of 2 * 10^(32)j, which is 1/50th of all of the radiation the sun emits in one year. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy",
"http://qntm.org/destroy"
] | [
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why can't we increase the length of a meter by .06922855%? | since a meter is defined as 1/299,792,458, what is to stop us from extending the length of a meter so it is an even 300 million? | to begin with, there are the practical issues that come with redefining such a central unit of measurement. * every ruler, tape measure and yardstick is now suddenly inaccurate. * all physical constants involving dimensions of length will have their values changed, invalidating a lot of textbooks and software. * probably fifty other things i can't recall. now, let's get more theoretical. the meter is *not* defined as 1/299792458. it is defined as the distance that light travels in 1/299792458 of a second. this is quite different from 1/299792458 the number. it may seem like a silly distinction to make, but this difference between quantities of different dimensions (and no dimensions) is very deep and important. the length “2 m” has no relation whatsoever with the number 2. i could define a new unit k = m/4, and now “2 m” would be “8 k”. these two are equal, of course, and the first one has as little to do with 8 as the second has to do with 2, or both of them with 17.23, just to pick a number. so, mathematically, there is no genuine reason to prefer one unit over another. the numbers change, but the quantities do not. in fact, in most modeling work all the dimensional quantities are scaled anyway. by this, i mean that instead of operating with a length measure *l* you can define *l* = *ws*, where *w* is some “typical” or “characteristic” length inherent in the problem you are trying to solve, and *s* is a dimensionless number. now, you can do all your work using *s* instead, which is a dimensionless number, and whose numerical value will never depend on any unit. (in essense, what we are doing here is defining problem-specific units.) even considering this, the number 299792458 (which is the speed of light in meters per second) essentially never comes into play with anyone who works with meters. it's just not important. nothing would become significantly easier if it were 3 × 10^(8). it will only ever be some numerical constant in your software, mixed in with all the others that you can't ever hope to turn into round numbers because you don't have the degrees of freedom to do it. (there are more physical constants of significance than there are units you can redefine, so you cannot fix them all, anyway.) you could of course redefine the second instead, but that would invalidate all the clocks, which would perhaps be even more expensive to fix. and i presume there's some interest in keeping the number of seconds per day to be a nice, round number. that said, if i were to design a civilization from scratch, i would have chosen a rounder number. final note: if you change the number 299792458 to 3 × 10^(8), the meter becomes *shorter*, not longer. final final note: theoretical physicists often like to work in [natural units](_url_0_), which is in a certain sense the scaled units characteristic to the universe itself. here, the speed of light is 1, so light travels one “meter” per “second” (although they aren't meters or seconds any longer). this is your idea taken to its logical conclusion. | 36 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_units"
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plastic balls were recently used to provide shade to water reservoirs in california, i have a question about that. | [source](_url_0_) i am assuming that the purpose of providing shade is to prevent heat that would cause a chemical reaction? i am unfamiliar with *light* causing a checmical reaction when it is not doing so by bringing heat into the equation. i am no scientist but i remember that white reflects more light and thus would cause less heat transference? can anyone explain why they chose black balls or why black balls are better in this specific situation? thanks | photosynthesis is a great example of this! having spotted that they were talking about bromine and chlorine in this, i suspect it's a process similar to cfcs destroying ozone in the upper atmosphere. it's fairly easy to kick out a bromine or chlorine atom from quite a lot of molecules that contain them with uv light. the released atom is then highly reactive - in the case of humans, this can cause cancer as mentioned in the article, and in the upper atmosphere, they act to break up ozone molecules (which lets more uv through which releases more chlorine and bromine...). the article seems to imply there's a lot of chlorine/bromine containing chemicals in the water (although in a safe form) that are being broken down by the uv light. the material of the balls was probably chosen on their reflectivity/absorption in the uv, rather than the visible - so the colour they appear to us isn't really related to their job. | 3 | [] | [
"http://worldsamazinginformation.blogspot.com/2011/12/400000-black-balls-save-los-angeles.html"
] | [] | [
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why do some seagulls have messy feathers small necks and are very aggressive? | sorry if the title is confusing it's just i always see the occasional 'alpha' looking seagulls. that's wider than others shorter with small necks and have messy feathers. also they always sqwuack at the innocent ones trying to get a piece of the pie. | are you sure you are not looking at juvenile seagulls? they look like [this](_url_0_), but it varies depending on the species. they will spend most of their time squawking at others (probably their parents) because they are trying to be fed. the messy feathers could be the remainder of their downy chick feathers. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://gb.fotolibra.com/images/previews/461682-juvenile-seagull.jpeg"
] | [
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expansion of the subreddit rules on ama's | hello all! we are expanding our rules to better encompass amas. our amas are something we’ve been growing over the last few months and expect to keep growing in coming months and years. we want to make sure we have guidelines set out for those specific posts, and have updated the rules to include amas. [here are the updated rules list for the subreddit](_url_0_) if you have any questions please feel free to ask them here. | i totally understand why this rule exists. it would really suck to be an ama guest if all the questions got answered before you got to them. however, what about after the ama guest has finished? could others weigh in on the questions that are left over? | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/rules"
] | [] | [
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during sprint events, mainly 200m, does place of start (on the edge, in the middle, inside) matters for a runner? | _url_0_, that's what i mean. don't know how to categorize it, physics are closest i think. | no, that's called a staggered start. it takes into account the fact that runners on the outside would travel more distance than the runners on the inside of the track. to accommodate this, we stagger the starting places. everyone runs the same distance. | 7 | [] | [
"http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/3/34/Run-a-200M-Dash-Step-3Bullet2.jpg/670px-Run-a-200M-Dash-Step-3Bullet2.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/07/the-speed-of-sound-is-too-slow-for-olympic-athletes/260413/"
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how big must a blood clot get to be clinically significant? | how often do medical professionals treat blood clots in single vessels if they happen to show up on ct scans for example? | generally all clots inside a vessel will get treated, one way or another. we don't want bits of them breaking loose and travelling to other parts of the body. but the level of clinical significance depends more on the location of the clot than on size. inside a coronary artery, supplying the heart, a clot 2mm wide can be enough to plug the vessel and stop blood flow. that situation is a myocardial infarction, what most people call a heart attack, and it receives immediate, aggressive intervention to restore blood flow. most often a special team will run a catheter into that artery and physically remove the clot. in a larger vessel, for instance in the largest veins of the leg, a clot three or four times as large might still leave the vessel partway open. as long as blood flow is not blocked and there's no immediate danger that the clot will migrate, physicians will tend to treat less aggressively. they will order anti-clotting drugs and monitor the patient carefully. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is diffusion ion specific? | this is something i've wondered for a long time, and a question to which several professors in biochemistry / physiology / biophysics haven't really been able to give me a clear answer: take for example a neuron. within its cytoplasm there is a high potassium concentration, and outside a high sodium concentration, these two being separated by a semipermeable membrane. if the voltage gated sodium channels open, sodium flows in. how much flows in (not taking channel-closing mechanisms into account), is governed by the equilibrium between the electrical forces and sodium concentration differences, but not potassium concentrations, as far as i understand. but why not? potassium and sodium are both cations, and size wise they aren't that different either. sure, their hydrate shell is quite different, but even with molecules like lithium and potassium, which are similar enough even to pass through the same "specific" channel, i was told that diffusion of either ion is completely independent. for me, this seems completely illogical, and so far nobody i've asked have had an answer, so here's to hoping that one of you guys might. edit (answer to platypuskeeper): alright, i'm sorry for the late answer, i had a neuroanatomy exam to take care of so i didn't have time to deal with this until now. there are some interesting stuff said here, but i'm pretty sure none of the answers really answer my question. perhaps i phrased it a bit unclearly. it seems that the whole "ion specific" part kinda got muddled up with ion channel specificity, which is not what my question was about. i thought neurons would be a good hypothetical model to illustrate my point, but it seems it just made it more diffuse, so here is a clearer hypothetical model: imagine you have a substance a and a substance b, separated by a impermeable membrane. the concentration of a and b is the same, and they are both cations of similiar size and maybe hydrate shell as well (say potassium and lithium, or potassium and sodium, even though their hydrate shell is kinda different). now open a b specific channel. b diffuses through it and reaches equilibrium after time x. flowing through the channel at a rate of y. now, do the same thing again, but raise the concentration of a two fold. according to my chemistry teacher, the time for b to reach equilibrium is still x, still flowing at rate y, it is independent of the concentration of a. so my question is...why? diffusion of b is extremely affected by b concentration, but according to my professors, completely independent of a concentration. why is it like this? why can't b reach equilibrium with a, if they're so similiar? i hope that makes it clearer. | well, because the ion channels _are_ specific. size-wise the difference is big enough - a k^+ channel has [four square-ish 'cages' on top of each other](_url_0_) (aside: unlike that picture, in reality all four of them won't normally be occupied by ions at the same time). there are 'boxes' with 8 oxygen atoms from the peptide backbone pointing towards the center. the channel protein is pretty tightly bound here, and these 'cages' are not very flexible. they have _just_ the right size that a k^+ ion can sit in the middle of one and coordinate to all 8 oxygen atoms at the corners, but a na^+ ion can _not_, it only coordinates to about 3-4 of them. so it requires more energy to take a sodium ion out of solution and put it in the cage (and move it between cages) than it does for a potassium ion. the end result here is that sodium ions cannot diffuse freely through the channel. in chemistry-speak, crossing the membrane may be thermodynamically favored, but they're 'kinetically hindered' from doing so, because they don't have the energy required to pass through the channel. if two different ions can pass through the same channel, then it's not independent. (on the other hand, you don't have a lot of lithium ions around) it's worth noting that the difference in energy that's purely due to concentration differences alone is quite small. the main driving forces here are the voltage differences. (so if you have the same na/k concentrations on both sides of a membrane, the potential across it is a lot smaller than if you have a difference in the total charge) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/images/1k4c.gif",
"http://jgp.rupress.org/content/59/6/637.abstract",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bio3u/why_is_diffusion_ion_specific/c975epc",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bio3u/why_is_diffusion_ion_specific/c974pah",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1bio3u/why_is_diffusion_ion_specific/c9745dz"
] | [
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how could tachyons theoretically be used to send a message back in time? | let's say that alice and bob are in separate space ships that are heading in opposite directions at a large percentage of the speed of light. after 10 seconds (in her reference frame) alice sends a message to bob via tachyons and it instantly arrives at bob's ship, due to time dilation only 5 seconds have passed for bob. he then sends the message back to alice's ship via tachyons and it arrives instantly at alice's ship, but due to time dilation only 2.5 seconds have passed for alice. the message she sent arrives 7.5 seconds before sent it. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyonic_antitelephone",
"http://www.theculture.org/rich/sharpblue/archives/000089.html"
] | [
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|
could somebody give me some insight on the numbers / calculations on the popular cloud in a bottle experiment? | here's what i understand, pressure is pumped into a bottle filled saturated with ethanol gas. the molecules of the gas get compressed and once the pressure is released the molecules move apart and the resulting drop in temperature causes the ethanol to condense thus forming the cloud. how would one quantitively explain this? i.e. using an equation such as: δg = δg° + rtlnq also, is my explanation even remotely close to the right answer? | δg = δh - tδs so t = (δh - δg) / δs increase in δs, entropy (disorder) by the gas molecules expanding causes a fall in temperature. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can we can have motion relative to the cmb if it is observed from all directions? | i just got put in my place by trying to call bullshit on someone who was saying we can measure our velocity relative to the cosmic microwave background. apparently this is an actual thing. can someone explain this please? how can the cmb rest frame exist if cmb photons are observed from all directions? | cmb photons are observed from all directions but not all with the same energy. to be more precise: there exist, well, at least one frame where the cmb is seen as an isotropic blackbody spectrum (meaning the temperature does not depend on the direction). that's obvious or calling the cmbr "isotropic" would not make sense. your claim is that an observer moving relative to this frame does not see anything different, and is unable to determine his motion wrt this preferential frame. this is wrong because the relative speed between you and the cmb frame implies the photons coming straight ahead get blueshifted, the ones behind redshifted. (you can explicity see this as the effect of the lorentz transformation on the photon's 4-momentum). there is this cute property about the planckian / blackbody spectrum: if you multiply all the frequencies by a constant, it is still a blackbody spectrum, but at a different temperature. so the cmb ahead of you is warmer and behind you colder. in detail you have a **dipole** anisotropy due exclusively to your relative motion to the "cmb frame". it's a pretty small effect unless you're moving at relativistic speed. earth's speed is around 400 km/s plus an annual term. this gives a smallish (order of the mk) but very measurable dipole anisotropy in the cmbr that allows us to measure the above speed and direction. finally, when people talk about the anisotropies of the cmbr, they mean the remaining anisotropy after subtracting this mk dipole; the remaining fluctuations are of the order of the μk and have cosmological relevance. | 54 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any clear science indicating why some people procrastinate more than others? | and, bonus question, why some people are punctual and others aren't? are the two questions related, as it seems they should be at first blush? | unfortunately questions of why the differences are going to be difficult for any of us to answer. individual differences can be seen as a combination of the following: genes, current biology, learning history, current perceived context. at this point in psychology we accept that there is a 1:1 relationship between the brain and behavior and that both influence one another. so you might get an answer in here that responds with what's going on in the brain (neural transmitters, pathways, etc). you might also get someone in here like me that says a history of not coming into contact with punishment after procrastinating will exhibit the behavior more frequently than someone who doesn't. on that same train of thought, a person who never procrastinates could get a tbi and start procrastinating or a person who always procrastinates might come in contact with consequences that shape their behavior. that is to say, you question is broad enough to not get a clear answer that's satisfactory. if you want i'd be happy to attempt to give you a detailed answer from a behavior side of things (specifically from a behavior analytic standpoint). let me know. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_aversion"
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what are the length scales involved in degeneracy pressure? | in discussions about degeneracy pressure and the pauli exclusion principle, it is common for people to talk about fermions that are "close together" not being able to occupy the same quantum state. what is close together? i guess since it is maybe more accurate to say that exclusion principle really says that the wave function of fermions is anti-symmetric, maybe the question should be at what point is a system too large to specify a wave function? the example that i'm trying to better understand is the white dwarf or neutron star example. certainly these are large systems from a quantum perspective. is it that within the star, there can exist a single wave function that describes all of the, say, electrons, and therefore no 2 electrons in that star can occupy the same quantum state? | degeneracy pressure becomes important when there is significant overlap between the spatial wavefunctions of the individual fermions. under these conditions, we call the system a *degenerate fermi gas*. the degeneracy temperature is kt*_deg_* ~ ~~h~~n^(2/3)/m, where n is the number density n/v. fermi gases you'd typically think of tend to be *well-below* their degeneracy temperatures, so you can effectively treat them like fermi gases at t = 0. one example would be electrons in a conductor. even at absolute zero, you have conduction electrons near the fermi energy which can be moving at upwards of 10^(4) m/s on average. that really throws a wrench into the idea of "motion stopping" at absolute zero. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigner–Seitz_radius",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigner_crystal"
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what makes something a good insulator? | if you are talking about electricity, it is the lack of free electrons in the material that make it a good insulator. here is a good place to start, wiki reference here: _url_2_ edit:: for sound, look here: _url_0_ for thermal insulation, look here:: _url_1_ just a few to get you started. hope this helps. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_insulation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_insulation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_%28electrical%29"
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|
i was once told that any liquid that isn't water is digested differently to it. how true is this? | for example, is a cup of tea which is mostly water detected as a completly different liquid and digested and broken down differently? or would this cup of tea be split into it constitutinal parts and then digested as normal? i have a feeling that it's the second one but i would like a concrete answer. thanks! | what kind of liquid do you mean? most if not all liquid we drink is made of water, so do you mean like the difference between juice and plain water? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes blood or body fluids (out of the body), contagious/biohazardous. | it may be a stupid question but it is genuine. we do not get infected will potential deadly illnesses by our own blood (when it is in our body). as soon as it leaves our body, it is considered as contagious or hazardous. is it because, viruses and diseases (from the environment) starts living and multiplying in the blood? ! assuming the person who lost the blood, does not have hept. c, aids or any kind of diseases that can be transmitted through body fluids or blood. so a healthy and clean person. to organise my questions: 1. what makes blood or body fluids out of the body (of a healthy clean person) hazardous? 2. where does that "hazardous stuff" come from. i assume from the environment. (meaning that the blood/body fluids stimulates the diseases and potential infections). so basically, why does blood or body fluids make it worse? 3. does quantity matter (quantity of blood or body fluids). 3.1when my nose bleeds and i absorb it with some toilet paper. does that count as hazardous? 3.2. when i get a paper cut and it bleeds a little bit. is it considered hazardous if i lick it? what if someone else lick it (hypothetical ofc. :p) and what about blood stains? thanks in advance, i appreciate every effort. | 1) generally it isn't. the problem is you usually don't know if a bleeding person is healthy and clean. 2) usually inside people. clean spilled blood isn't any more dangerous than a spaghetti sauce or something. 3) not really. 3.1) not to you, and if you aren't host to blood born illness not particularly to anyone else. if it rotted it would still be nasty. 3.2) no problems, go ahead. but if your hand is dirty then don't like it regardless of the blood being safe. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biohazard#Levels_of_biohazard",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cytomegalovirus"
] | [
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i've read that certain sharks will kill their siblings before birth. what purpose does this behavior serve, and isn't it a waste of resources for the mother? | remembered this from an animal behavior course: _url_0_ i'm pretty sure this is obligate siblicide. the surviving shark will typically be the stronger of its siblings and will have gained resources. you can think of it as way to have more biological diversity. instead of just producing one individual progeny with only one combination of genetics which may or may not be optimal, you can have multiple progeny with different combinations and then just have them duke it out so that the most genetically fit individual will survive. a key assumption here is that the survivor will typically perform better than its deceased siblings would. the wikipedia article also mentions that this type of behavior may actually be counterproductive for the mother. (it may reduce or impair her reproductive fitness) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siblicide"
] | [
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|
this site claims to have a reactionless drive -- one that doesn't conserve energy or momentum. where's their error? | [their website](_url_0_) includes information on [principles of operation](_url_0_/principles-of-operation), their [experimental design](_url_0_/design), [test results](_url_0_/experimental-results), etc. since it's pretty safe to assume that there's an error in the analysis, does anyone see it? | their error is in not producing a physical drive and submitting it for testing to prove their claims. in the world of proposed systems that violate conservation of momentum and/or energy, the name of the game is "put up or shut up." i'm not about to sink large amounts of time reading their purposefully dense technical descriptions to find an error in a system we know can't exist. | 42 | [] | [
"http://www.cannae.com",
"http://www.cannae.com/experimental-results",
"http://www.cannae.com/design",
"http://www.cannae.com/principles-of-operation"
] | [] | [
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how does an interventional radiologist 'steer'? | when a doctor is performing an endovascular procedure, how do they steer? do they just move forward until they wind up where they need to be? | there's thing thing they use called a guidewire. basically think of a long stiff wire approximately a 1/3 of an inch in diameter. they usually come in lengths of 180cm (~70 inches) or longer. the whole thing is a stiff wire except the last 2-3 inches which is pretty floppy (technical term, for real). doctors usually gain access and put in the guidewire first. let's say the doc needs to put in a stent right after the 3 branches come off the aorta. they actually usually gain access in the big artery in the leg (femoral). they make a small incision, put this thing called an introducer sheath which is basically a tube you can put other stuff in (like catheters, stents, balloons, etc) that won't let blood gush out non stop cuz it's got a one-way valve on the end and then they put the guidewire in. they can see the guidewire on the fluoroscopy machine cuz it's metal and they basically just inch it up till they get where they need to be. the floppy tip helps move it into smaller arteries when needed and since it's a stiff wire when the doc twists the bottom part that's sticking out of that valve outside the body, it twists the whole wire the exact same amount. let me know if that doesn't make sense or you would like more detail. just in case: i'm a biomedical engineer that designs some of these devices for interventional radiologists. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a term for the measurement of how much force is necessary to break a string while plucking? | what i mean is this: if i'm plucking a guitar string (for example), is there a measurement or term for the maximum amount of force the string will endure? or is this just just a function of tensile or ultimate tensile strength? | i can't recall a specific term but the closest equivalent would probably be the "fracture point", which is past the ultimate tensile strength, beyond the uts the material significantly deforms and ultimately fails at the fracture point. for acoustic guitars at least, the strings are under a surprising amount of tension, upwards of ~500n and the forces involved in restoring equilibrium after the string has been deflected puts the ends of the string on the bridge and headstock under a lot of stress. they will break due to metal fatigue steadily compromising its tensile strength and to a lesser degree, corrosion. but to answer your question, my best guess is the fracture point. :p | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any reason why crops should produce more "potent" yields during sunnier/hotter periods? | i am referring here to the fact that my mum's chilli plants seem to yield hotter/spicier chillis during high summer (she lives in spain), as do her cannabis plants produce stronger stuff. also i have been told that a particularly hot year (2003 for example) may yield particularly good wine. the production of sugars through photosynthesis may go some way to explaining the latter example, but is there any way increased sunlight could lead to higher concentrations of capcaicin/thc? if so how does this happen, or, if not, then how? | the hotter is its, the more the plant will [transpire](_url_0_), depleting its reserves of water in its cells and in the soil. in drought conditions the plant will prioritize water usage to maintain things like [turgor pressure](_url_3_) at the expense of things like fruit weight. this results in a smaller fruit (due to overall slower growth) with greater than normal [secondary metabolites](_url_1_)(because the plant can't dilute them) such as thc, capsaicin, or the [flavanoids](_url_2_) which make up a good wine. also, your mom grows weed? your mom is awesome. happy holidays! | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpiration",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_metabolites",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavinoid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turgor_pressure"
] | [
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question about semen/proteins | sorry for the juvenile post, but i am genuinely curious about why this happens. so i've noticed that when i take a piss after ejaculation, my piss tends to be more 'frothy' with the presence of bubbles that linger for a lot longer than usual. i figured this is just the last remnants of semen that are in the water. well, last night i left a bowl of cottage cheese in the sink and when i came back this morning i noticed the exact same sort of bubbles/froth sitting on the water surface for almost a half day. what property of proteins creates this phenomenon? | do you happen to suffer any of the symptoms of [retrograde ejaculation](_url_0_)? here's a [wiki link](_url_1_) to the composition of human semen. although i can't possibly come up with the mechanism you ask for, from that list, mucus struck my eye as a culprit. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002261/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semen#Composition_of_human_semen"
] | [
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if i took a picture of a sunrise over the ocean and a sunset over the ocean, is there anyway for someone else to tell which picture is which? | not for certain, but you can often make a good guess. over the course of the day, the sun heats the air and evaporates water, creating clouds and fine suspended water droplets. the humidity, and droplets scatter blue light, making the sunlight that reaches your eyes redder. at night, the water condenses and the air dries and clears. so sunsets tend to be redder and cloudier, sunrises more yellow and clear. but there's enough variation in daily weather that it's not a sure thing. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is our sense of time affected by the rate of chemical reactions? | so if our biological chemical reactions occurred as quickly as nitroglycerin breaks down into gases, would our perception of time be different? | it is much more complicated than that, and is a very active area of research. a professor at my school, david eagleman, studies this stuff. he's a complete badass, check him out: _url_0_ edit: one of his famous experiments involves using magnetic energy to slow the propagation of some signals in the brain, and if done properly it can make you think cause and effect are reversed in some special circumstances. he also dropped grad students from a tall structure with a quickly-blinking watch to see if the fear of death would help them see what the watch was displaying. they couldn't. many biological reactions happen just as fast or faster than nitroglycerin degradation. something like time perception that involves consciousness must by definition be related to higher-order neural networks in the brain. | 40 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Eagleman"
] | [
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] |
a staple of novels, film, and television, undersea laboratories and military bases, why don't we have undersea laboratories all around the oceans? (serious.) | i watched the film [the abyss](_url_1_) again recently, and it got me wondering. are we technologically capable of building small [iss]( _url_0_) size stations under water? if so, what prohibits us, is it far too expensive an undertaking? | it's technically possible, noaa has the [aquarius underwater laboratory](_url_0_) which is used for providing a place for saturation divers to acclimate to high pressures for several days at a time. but it is relatively expensive for what you get out of it because of the associated costs of all the requirements for housing humans safely. rovs (remotely operated vehicles) and auvs (autonomous underwater vehicles) are getting more advanced and capable every year. on a practical basis for most jobs it is almost always cheaper to use the robots. additionally, there is a maximum depth for human divers, robotic vehicles can be strengthened to dive to full ocean depth. i get kinda mad when i watch those types of movies because they always make the undersea habitats look relatively spacious and inviting. in real life they are [cramped](_url_1_), [spartan](_url_3_) and [damp](_url_2_). they don't strike me as comfortable places to live. submarines are the closest analog to the iss - a self-contained habitat capable of being submerged for months at a time (in the case of nuclear powered ones). but submarines are also very costly. for strategic military purposes it apparently worth the expense (at least that is what our leaders have decided) but there is a reason there are no private or tourist submarines other than small craft for day-use in shallow water. the situation is actually not that different from space. from a scientific perspective, we could do all the space experiments and measurements with robotic satellites at a fraction of the cost of human missions. however there is enough public support to pay the expense of human space missions because of the added glamor, inspiration, and educational aspects. if the public were as excited about ocean exploration as they are about space exploration, there would plausibly be more permanently manned undersea laboratory and news reports on tv every time a new one was deployed or when aquanauts returned from long missions. | 111 | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?ie=UTF-8&client=ms-android-hms-tmobile-us&source=android-browser&q=the+abyss#q=international+space+station",
"https://www.google.com/search?ie=UTF-8&client=ms-android-hms-tmobile-us&source=android-browser&q=the+abyss"
] | [
"http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/diving/aquarius/aquarius.html",
"http://media.treehugger.com/assets/images/2012/07/aquarius-4.jpg.492x0_q85_crop-smart.jpg",
"http://media2.s-nbcnews.com/j/msnbc/Components/Photos/050720/050720_aquarius_bcol_10a.grid-6x2.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/Inside_Aquarius.jpg"
] | [
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do you, as scientists, consider psychology a valid science? | psychology is absolutely a science, although the field is somewhat divided. there are some less than scientific ideas and methods however, but they are increasingly becoming more peripheral. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is my uncle a genius? | well i'll tell you right now that the premise of that first paper has been covered in the first week of every special relativity course for the better part of a century. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do biologists and doctors define "healthy"? | i was wondering how different lifestyles and activities and diets are deemed "healthier" than others. what factors into whether or not a person is healthy? is it their bmi, their calorie intake, their potential to reproduce, the amount of toxins in your body, or other factors? are the factors different for different animals or is there a broader definition? | [health](_url_0_) a healthier diet or lifestyle would be one that promotes health more than another. please note that health, defined by the world health orginization (who), is more than just the absence of disease. the who defines health as "a state of complete **physical, mental, and social** well-being." | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health"
] | [
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what would happen if i compressed a spring and then welded the coils together? | would the resulting cylinder have the same "springiness," or would i simply be left with a tube of coiled metal? | it depends how you weld it. if you welded something to the spring that essentially "held" the spring in its compressed state, then the spring would have its "springyness". if you melted the coils and welded the spring together that way, the spring would have virtually no "springyness" left. when you compress a spring, the material that makes up the spring is stressed. this stress forms because the bonds that make up the mollecular structure of the spring are slightly stretched or compressed (and they try to go back to their neutral state, which is what happens if you stop holding the spring). when you heat the metal to the point of meltin, mollecules are freer to move, and bonds break and reform. when the bonds break, the stress they hold is released. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the theoretical lower-limit on the volume of space required for consciousness to arise? | to give you a general idea of the space used by your brain for all of the interesting processes that make us conscious imagine a stack of six business cards; this is about the thickness of the human neocortex. now imagine a cloth dinner napkin; this is about the area of the neocortex if it were 'peeled off' of the rest of the brain. as for the *required* volume or number of neurons, we don't understand the brain well enough to give a definite answer right now. we do know that people can lead mostly normal lives after having lost large regions of their brain such as after a [hemispherectomy](_url_1_). generally, it's thought this is possible due to the neocortex's ability to specialize almost any region for almost any task given it happens at an early enough age and sometimes even later in life. for an interesting read, check out [on intelligence](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.onintelligence.org/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherectomy"
] | [
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|
how is corruption and other conflicts of interest prevented/dealt with in important regulatory agencies like the fda, usda, etc.? | i was watching [this](_url_0_) episode of healthcare triage about the process a new drug goes through before it can be approved. i'm not one to follow conspiracies or woo, but i've heard the whole "the cure for cancer is being withheld from the public because money" argument a few times (i'm sure we all have). i know that argument is shit, but it made me wonder, in reality, how things like corrupted individuals and moneyed interests are dealt with in important regulatory agencies? edit: this is my first post so if i used the wrong flair or anything let me know. | well, it's obviously illegal to just straight up take money from people to do things. we try to combat the less-direct forms of corruption by making it illegal to accept gifts of non-trivial value (coffee and a donut is ok, but a meal at a restaurant is not) and, if you have any authority to influence the award of contracts/any authority to regulate, making it illegal to work for any company you dealt with in a professional capacity for two years after your federal job ends. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WUsO6PH_O54"
] | [] | [
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my girlfriend lost a pill-case full of pills in her car for a few years. when we found it, the pills had grown "crystals." what happened? (picture) | my girlfriend lost a pill-case a good 3-4 years ago, and we found it under her car seat this morning. we live in georgia, so it sat through heat waves, deep freezes, extreme humidity and extreme dryness. i don't know exactly what was in it, but a good bet is ibuprofen, zantac/pepcid, and maybe some multi-vitamins. we were pretty horrified when we opened it, because, well... it was gross. but more interestingly, whatever pills were on the bottom melted and formed some sort of crystal-like structures. here is a picture. _url_0_ so, what happened there? is it some sort of mold/bacteria or something? thanks. i was rather fascinated. | the volatile components have cyclically sublimed and re-crystallized due to external temperature change, with crystals growing larger at each cycle. the acicular (needle-like) crystals look like salicylic acid. | 32 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/qTgwb.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
are deus ex-esque augmentations viable in the near or possibly far future? | either mechanical augmentations or the nano-augmentations, to be honest. are those neat things actually doable? i mean, some of them are obviously a bit ridiculous, but things like vision augmentation, increased strength, things like that? | mechanical, absolutely. the nanobot stuff is a bit far fetched though. you can start here if you want: _url_1_ also this: _url_2_ also this: _url_3_ and this guy's work _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin_Warwick",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_exoskeleton",
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5348458.stm",
"http://www.ric.org/research/accomplishments/Bionic.aspx"
] | [
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how do genetics show invasion took place in history? | quite often i see genetic changes in populations viewed as invasion etc can you differentiate using genetics between a population that is undergoing invasion compared to say becoming multi-ethnic/cultural? or is more than genetic evidence required to make this conclusion? thanks for any help | yes. for example, if most of the old y-chromosome lineages suddenly disappear and are replaced by lineages from another region, it's likely that invaders came in and killed off most of the men (or at least prevented them from reproducing). | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do children get emotionally attached to inanimate toys and objects, such as a security blanket? | i remember when i was a very young child, i used to have a security blanket that i remember having such a deep connection to, and i would never leave the house without it. whenever i work with young children, they love to tell me about their own "blankeys" and named stuffed toys that they would feel impossible to live without. why is this? the child is usually smart enough to know that the object isn't sentient (although they often role-play that the object has sentience, especially if it resembles a person or animal like a doll or stuffed bear), but separation from the object is like separation from a friend or family member. furthermore, i've heard of some parents who try to prevent their children from developing these attachments. they'll scold the child from carrying the toy around the house or get rid of the toy when the child isn't looking. it can cause distress in the child at the moment, but does it promote better mental health in the child to let them have the object or take it away from them? | scolding seems the wrong path. i was able to dig up some studies specifically on the use of security blankets and it doesn't seem like they are associated with negative qualities such as fearfulness [cite](_url_0_). early work on attachment makes a clear case that infants can form attachments with objects/people who are soft/warm/pleasant to touch. it doesn't seem surprising that this might persist in older children. in rare cases where the attachment is clearly detrimental, removing the object is probably treating the effect and not the cause. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/ccp/55/6/825/"
] | [
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how can you call a de-extinct passenger pigeon with substitute band-tailed-pigeon dna a passenger pigeon? | i was reading this times article. _url_0_ they mention that they don't actually have the genome of the passenger pigeon, so they plan to use the dna from a band-tailed-pigeon as a template. being generous and assuming that the resulting animal is mostly passenger pigeon but still has band-tail-pigeon pieces. how can it be called a passenger pigeon, why wouldn't it be considered a species unto itself? | closely related species have almost the same dna. most of the sequence differences between species are not adaptive and have little or no phenotypic effect - see the [neutral](_url_0_) and [nearly neutral](_url_1_) theories of molecular evolution. secondly, they are using the band-tailed genome as a scaffold to order the genome, not necessarily to replace chunks. the sequenced dna is in short chunks and must be put into order using the overlaps, but if there are not enough overlapping pieces than you need a different edition of the book to order to the pages. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/magazine/the-mammoth-cometh.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearly_neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution"
] | [
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] |
[earth science]what is this odd artifact that my younger brother found? | there's a geologist with 30 years experience in oil exploration in my building. she suggested a "calcareous or silica ion concretion." but she's stumped as to what that strange line of symmetry could be from. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would i be able to store a lightening strike (or at least some of it) by having a long metal pole, some wiring and a lot of car batteries? | lightening seems to generate a fair bit of electricity. could i harness it by storing it in some kind of (large) battery? | no, but it would certainly make for an explosive (and potentially deadly) science project! while we technically have the technology to harness energy from lightning using a large array of giant capacitors and batteries, it wouldn't be very practical to do so for several reasons - 1) thunderstorms do not occur every single day, 2) lightning is an extremely random event, and it is impossible to accurately predict where it will strike next, and 3) a bolt of lightning, while spectacular and powerful, [doesn't really contain as much energy as you'd like to believe](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.weatherimagery.com/blog/harnessing-lightning-power/",
"http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Lightning_Power"
] | [
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lake eutrophication: how does it happen? what happens when it does happen? how can we prevent/fix it? | it's like too much of a good thing. algae is generally fairly good for water bodies. they usually sit at the bottom of the food chain for that ecosystem and in turn help feed everything. but if they bloom too profusely, they can choke out a lake. we see an emergence of cyanobacteria (casually speaking, actually even in science, we call these all algal blooms, although they may be bacteria as well as algae) which produce toxins and/or the blooms eat up all the oxygen, usually as a secondary effect when the die off of the plants/algae bloom are eaten up by bacteria. the factors can be complicated. simply put, it's an abundance of nutrients. but the contextual factors may matter. for example, a direct cause may be use of fertilizers nearby than run off into the lake. but a secondary cause may be a low water-year that results in less flow and just less water flushing out of the water body that year. as for prevention, sometimes they're natural. many water bodies bloom most years naturally. however the intensity of these blooms may certainly be aggravated by anthropogenic causes (like aforementioned fertilizers and bad runoff management or less directly through climate change). for now, at least in ca, one project i am directly involved in is simply gathering the data through active sampling and satellite observations, to at least be able to hopefully predict, in some way, the onset and intensity of these blooms. there's not a lot we can control right now, but at least we can have better warning systems in place for recreational users and fishers to these lakes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what should i learn to learn magnetohydrodynamics? | i'd recommend taking every electricity and magnetism class offered by a college physics department. a few classes in fluid mechanics would also probably help (often offered in aerospace engineering departments, sometimes in physics) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what causes oribtal resonance? | orbitals don't resonate, resonance forms resonate. nothing causes it, because it's not a physical thing. it's just a way of describing a real physical thing. e.g. benzene has _one_ ground state. it's not actually moving back and forth betwen the two classical [kekulé structures](_url_0_). but you can view the actual structure as a mixture (or quantum superposition) of these two fictional states, and also model it that way mathematically (in the formalism of valence bond theory) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Benzene_resonance_structures.png"
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|
what is it like to work at a particle accelerator lab? | asking physicists and programmers specifically, but anybody can answer. what is your average workday like? do you enjoy it? is everyday something new, or do you repeat the same things hoping to notice something new, or do you mostly retest old experiments? what's the job market like? i've seen postings for research positions that only last 2 years, is that common and is it easy to find new job openings after the 2 years expire? do you need a doctorate? if so, what's the schooling like? is it hard? enjoyable? physicists: do you get to use the accelerator most days, or is it a lot of crunching numbers and theory? is it a lot of waiting for things to happen, or do you get to actively experiment and try new things? programmers: do you get to program the actual accelerator, or do you program databases and various housekeeping programs? can you actively participate in research, or are you just there do program what needs to be programmed? do you feel like a scientist, or another tool for the scientists to use? asking because i plan on going to college for computer science, but also love particle/quantum physics. | except when experiments are being set up/running, i spend most of my time at my desk. lots of programming, some hands-on work as well. very much. there are periods of monotony and periods where every day is something completely different. it's a nice balance between the two. not great. what do you mean by "research position"? like post-docs? they're not supposed to last very long. to continue on in academia, yes. very hard, but very rewarding if you actually like what you're studying. the accelerators are running 24/7, except for scheduled maintenance shutdowns, and when unexpected issues come up. that being said, you're not going to be involved with all of the experiments that run at the facility. in my case, probably once or twice per year am i directly involved in the experiment that's running. the rest of the time is spent analyzing data from the previous experiment, or preparing for the next. it's both. but when you're not running your experiment, it's not like you just sit around twiddling your thumbs and waiting for beam time. there is plenty of work to be done even when the experiment is not running. when the experiment is running, it's a week or two of high stress, little sleep, and solving problems on the fly. most of my programming is for data analysis. there are people whose main job is to manage the data acquisition systems for the entire laboratory. so for them, it's closer to the latter. the users are free to supply all their own code if they want. then obviously once the data has been collected, it's completely up to the user as to what they do with it. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have a six week old daughter. what is she thinking about? | i've read that she responds to the sound of familiar voices, but is there any thought process going on at this stage? | *look up the book "enriching the brain" by eric jensen it's basically about how the brain develops from birth to maturity. it's written in biological terms, but geared toward the regular person. though i do not know if it answers your exact question, it has a plethora of information that can guide you as to what parts of the young brain are developing/flexing/flourishing at certain periods in time, and environmental effects. * at this stage your child is just soakin gup every sound/sight/smell/sensation and creating a "map" of what the world is so that later in development she can start using her "map" to make more sense of things. in my opinion, start teaching them as if they understand already, ex: how to keep rhythm on a table, or simply expose them to as much as possible. even though they do not respond as if they are learning....they are retaining everything that comes their way, saving it in their "map" and keeping it so that later on in life they will have access to the information to apply to various scenarios. i'm only a "scientist in training" but i am super interested in the brain and learning potential. in my mind almost every child has chance to be genius in some aspect or another, it's just a matter of starting them on certain subjects super young, and not burning them out on it when they get older. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong is bone conduction? could a human, somehow surviving in a vacuum, hear himself or herself speak? | if so, how would it sound? would words even be intelligible? assume that, aside from not dying, the human is otherwise unaffected by the vacuum and that the vocal chords and other mechanisms of speech are working properly, despite the lack of atmosphere. | well, seeing as there actually are headsets which use bone conduction to transmit sound directly into the top of the skull, thereby reaching the middle and inner ear directly, bypassing the eardrum; these are used by emergency teams and soldiers in conjunction with larynx-microphones, making clear communication possible, regardless of surrounding noise levels. also, there's a medical test in which a tuning fork is struck dully not sharply (such as against a soft object, instead of a hard one) and then placed onto the skull behind the ear. it's surprising how well the otherwise almost inaudible vibration of the tuning fork is transmitted. the skull's conductivity can also be easily demonstrated by plugging your ears and making a vocal sound. so in conclusion i'd say i'm almost certain the person in your scenario would be able to hear themselves. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain michaelis-menten kinetics to me? i know the formulas, but im having trouble understanding them intuitively. | please assume i am retarded, because i know there is something i'm missing that will make everything "click", probably something elementary. of particular help would be something that can incorporate some of the derivation, like wikipedia did here: _url_1_ wikipedia would have worked for me, but i don't know what k1, k-1 and k2 are. i know they are rate constants, but for what? edit: i specifically need help understanding how the four "ordinary differential equations" (in the wiki link) can be used to derive the next equation, which is this: _url_0_ edit2: rupert1920 pointed out this great website that explains the derivation: _url_2_ | think about things bouncing around. imagine a box with a fan in it. put 20 balls in ithe box. now imagine a basket to one side just the right size for the balls. turn on the fan. the balls jump around randomly. at some point a ball will fall into the basket. this will happen at a given rate which will depends on how many balls there are and how many baskets there are. this rate is known as k1. a ball in the basket won't stay there forever, either. it will rest a while, but eventually the fan will blow it out of the basket. this also happens at a given rate. this rate is known as k-1. now imagine this basket is capable of converting the ball into a cube. it takes it a moment to do this. so the ball must sit in the basket for a given amount of time, which will be dictated by the ratio of k1 to k-1. once it does get converted, it will get knocked out of the basket by the fan at a given rate. this rate is known as k2. i hope that helps a bit. | 7 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/1/f/b1f7f1c4ec7cb89eeb497ea9ddbe2300.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics#Derivation",
"http://www.bgu.ac.il/~aflaloc/BioHTML/Goodies/DeriveMMEqn.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics#Model"
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if you were to make a hole all the way through to the mantle, what would happen? | lets assume you have a magic heat-proof drill of a ludicrously powerful shaped charge or laser or something that will make a hole, say, a couple of meters wide straight down all the way through the crust where i am in the uk. would you get an instant volcano? would the results be different if it were under the ocean, where the crust is thinner (or have i got that backwards?). i suspect the planet doesn't just deflate like a balloon... | what happens when you drill a hole in the ice on a lake? the water below the ice rises up through the hole to just below the top. this is because the ice is floating on the water, so the water below the ice is under pressure and is forced up the hole until the weight of the water column is equal to the weight of the ice around it. same if you managed to drill through the crust. the exact results depend on how you're keeping the hole open and how dense the crustal rock is compared to the magma below. you could also get some interesting behavior as dissolved gases are released (interesting as in being close would not be a good plan). | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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finding a break in a long wire without cutting said wire (electric dog fence). | i have an electric dog fence. the way it works is we have a 300 foot loop of wire that goes around our yard. each end of the wire is attached to a transmitter that sends a low level fm signal through the wire. the dogs wear a collar unit that includes a receiver and a shock unit. when the dogs get close enough to the wire to receive a signal they get a warning sound and then a shock. the transmitter has an alarm which signals when the loop is not complete. the alarm has been going off steadily. is there some way anyone can think of to find a break in the wire without cutting or stripping the wire at any point? the wire is buried in places and attached to a physical fence in others so it would really be helpful to find the break without disturbing the wire. | i am an electrical engineer. electric fences us am radio signals to work. get yourself a hand held am radio, hold it next to the wire as it comes out of the controller. tune it till you hear a noise obviously from the wire. no noise? i bet the controller is dead. once you get the noise, tape the radio to the end of a stick. use it like a metal detector. follow the noise and therefore the wire, until the noise stops. when the noise stops, you have found the break. the hardest part is finding a am radio. i saw my brother do this. he is a mechanical engineer. even though he figured it out and i didn't, i am still smarter than him. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the feeling of "freefall"? | i had this question arise the other day on the flight back from colombia: what is the neurological origin of the gut and body feeling that one experiences with sudden drops (such as during plane turbulence or on a roller coaster)? and one more question: if this is related to a downward acceleration as a physical phenomenon- why do we not feel the same effect when accelerating foreward or backwards? [edit]: thanks for the responses everyone! so it seems that the sensation is a combination of both the cochlear inability to detect position during free fall and the g forces on the abdominal organs. | a basic answer [here, in a previous comment] (_url_0_). to sum up, you have two otolith organs in each ear; they're sensitive to linear acceleration. the utricle senses linear acceleration in the horizontal/transverse plane around the head (left, right, forward, backward); the saccule senses vertical (top to bottom of the head) acceleration (up, down). so long as you're upright, the saccule is sensing gravity, but the utricle might be silent (if you're upright and still). if you lie down, the saccule might stop signaling, but the utricle will start sensing gravity instead. when you're in freefall, the utricle and the saccule are unable to sense gravity, since your entire body is accelerating in tandem. this is where the weird feeling comes from - it's your perception of the absence of gravity. the fact that you feel it in your body, or your 'gut', is interesting, but as far as we know it's a referred sensation, and a pretty reasonable one. there's no reason the brain would need to represent gravity as coming in through your ears... | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/225drh/whats_happening_in_your_body_when_you_feel_that/cgjrqgg"
] | [
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when you're bleeding significantly, does your heart-rate quicken, slow down, or stay the same? | quickens. your hr rises to compensate for a loss of blood volume. cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume. this equation can be helpful in thinking of how this happens. the cardiac output is the amount of blood that your heart can pump per minute. heart rate is self-explanatory and stroke volume is the volume of blood that's ejected by the left ventricle during a contraction. if you lose loads of blood, then stroke volume falls, so in order to maintain cardiac output, the heart rate rises. the exact mechanisms of this occuring are complex with input from the nervous system and the adrenal glands. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do any predators attack even if their stomachs are full? | i don't mean if they're threatened or provoked - do any kill and save their food for later, or do any overeat? would you be reasonably safe near a full tiger? | a good many predators will eat large amounts at one time and go long periods between meals. however, much of prey drive is triggered by the movement patterns associated with the prey. if you can twitch just like an insect, the frogs will try to eat you, even if already stuffed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there any non-star goldilocks zones? | you always hear of goldilocks zones in relation to stars, what other potential sources of energy could possibly create "goldilocks zones" other than stars? are there any other long enough lived energy sources that could be conducive to the evolution of life? | i believe there is a pretty broad acceptance that one potentially important locus for extraterrestrial life would be in hydrothermal vent systems on water worlds. looking at our own solar system, we have such systems on earth along the mid-ocean ridges and localised hotspots. but we also know they exist [under the thick ice crust of enceladus](_url_0_) and we strongly suspect they might also be present on other ice moons such as europa and ganymede. those ice moons might be the likeliest remaining sites in our solar system for the discovery of hypothetical extraterrestrial life. what is sobering about these environments is that they their biospheres do not depend of visible light. they are either driven by radioactive decay/magmatic cooling (as on earth) or by tidal forcing (jovian and saturnian moons), and completely decoupled of where they occur in relation to the sun. however, whatever might emerge from such biospheres would be marine. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v519/n7542/full/nature14262.html"
] | [
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a few questions about radioactivity and the periodic chart | why is it that not all radioactive elements are manmade, but all manmade elements are radioactive? also, why are the heaviest elements the radioactive ones? | first questions are quite easy, as they don't go too deep into physics. radioactive elements have characteristic time, over which half of initial atoms decay - half-life. the more radioactive element, the shorter its half-life. after some enough half-lifes, there won't be any detectable amount of radioactive elements left. now naturally occurring elements heavier than beryllium were all made inside stars at some time. if elements were stable, outside of extreme conditions, they remained and could still be found in nature after enormous time since production. radioactive elements decayed, less radioactive elements decayed more slowly, so we can still find decent amount of them naturally after billions of years after they were produced. more radioactive ones decayed quickly, so finding them in nature billions of years after production is practically impossible. now the relation between element weight and radioactivity: here's a simplified idea why heaviest elements get more radioactive. radioactivity happens when unstable nucleus changes in some way - lowers its vibrational energy, shoots away some particles or splits into several smaller nuclei. main forces at work here are residual strong nuclear force (i'll just call it nuclear force in this post) and electromagnetic force. weak interaction also comes into play, restricting neutrons from being a perfect nuclear glue. all protons have the same electrical charge (with same sign), thus they repel each other by electromagnetic force. **energy** of electromagnetic interaction is inversely proportional to distance, so protons still feel each other over longer distances. nuclear force is attractive, but the energy of nuclear interactions falls off exponentially with distance, so it's quite a good analogy to imagine that only nearby nucleons (protons or neutrons) attract each other via nuclear force. nucleon just behind the nearest feels enormously weaker nuclear force. liquid drop model of atomic nucleus is based on this short range property of nuclear force. if you have just 2 protons they already repel each other so strongly that nuclear force can't compensate. if you add a neutron - it has no charge, so it won't attract or repel electromagnetically, but it will interact by nuclear force and add additional binding, allowing for stable nuclei with several protons. so all nuclei with more than 1 proton need some neutrons to remain stable. but now there is a catch - neutron is more massive than proton, so if left alone (just adding other neutrons won't change much), it will disintegrate via weak interactions into proton, electron and electron anti-neutrino. when neutrons are bound with protons, mass distribution changes, and neutrons may remain stable in nuclei. now we can start imagining what happens when our nucleus gets larger (ignoring some additional factors). in a smaller nuclei, almost all nucleons interact with each other via nuclear force, keeping protons together and stopping neutrons from decaying. as nuclei get larger, nuclear forces can keep only small parts of nucleus together, while electromagnetic repulsion tries to rip nucleus apart. adding more neutrons may not help, as without nearby protons, the neutrons will be unstable. eventually, with large enough nucleus, either there won't be enough neutrons to compensate for repulsion, but adding more, will make them unstable, due to their decay into protons. there are additional factors, impacting stability, related to energy levels in nucleus and configuration of nucleons, like shells, leading to *magic numbers* of stability, which lead to deviations from principle - more massive = less stable/less stable isotopes. thus there is technetium, which has no stable isotopes, while elements around it are stable. that's why the island of stability is expected, as there are possible more stable configurations in some heavier elements. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_stability"
] | [
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how unsustainable is the us debt? is default inevitable? | the u.s. federal debt is not necessarily unsustainable, and default is certainly not inevitable. at least in the short to medium term, a technical u.s. default on at least some or all of its obligations is a plausible scenario. but this would be caused by political gamesmanship -- a game of chicken in congress -- rather than by any lack of a practical ability on the part of the government to raise the funds necessary to pay. in the long term, or when talking about a default being forced by underlying conditions, it's usually helpful to relate the debt to the size of the economy overall. on [this wikipedia page](_url_0_), you can get a basic idea of how the us compares to other countries when it comes to how much debt is carried relative to gdp. this is important to think about because the economy at large is the source of the tax revenue that will be used to pay off debt as it comes due. in the case of the u.s., you might also consider the public debt separately to the intra-governmental debt. a significant portion of what is owed takes the form of ious that congress promises to special funds that are still part of the federal government. even if you include those, however, the u.s. federal debt-to-gdp ratio still isn't world-beating or anything. over the long term, what's important is that the debt, with the interest payments, grows at a rate that is slower than the growth rate of the economy. say your gdp for the year is $100, and you have to spend $5 on debt maintenance. you've got to levy a 5% tax on economic activity to pay for it. 20 years later, your debt maintenance requirements are up to $8. you might say "oh no, the debt just keeps growing forever, so we'll have to default eventually!" but if the economy in 20 years is worth $200, you can keep making your higher debt payments but actually *cut* taxes. you only have to tax your economy at 4% to deal with debt in this case. one big advantage for the us right now is low interest rates. as long as the us dollar is the global reserve currency, and as long as us institutions and economic foundations have the trust of investors, the federal government will continue to be able to borrow money cheaply. this means that even modest economic growth, aided by returns on investment using the money we borrow for things like education and infrastructure, will allow us to comfortably pay it back. it is unclear, though, how long some of these special circumstances, especially the dollar as the reserve currency, will last (and therefore for how long there will be such a constant demand for us bonds). one other advantage the us has, at least at a federal level, is relatively low taxes at the moment, especially given the huge accumulation of cash at the very top right now. the very lopsided income inequality is of course bad for the economy and society in general. but it does mean that if things start going not so great, there is actually quite a bit of room for maneuver in terms of raising taxes without causing a ton of pain. if you want to find a real looming debt crisis in the united states, it's probably easier to look at local and state government rather than the federal government. here, you're talking about huge pension obligations, over-dependence on inter-governmental revenue transfers, and a slew of other structural problems. especially if the day comes when congress has to both tighten its belt and also hog more of the available tax revenue for itself to pay for federal debt, it's other public bond issuers that may be especially squeezed. but even if things go relatively smoothly in terms of federal tax levels and ability to pay off us treasury bonds, there are still going to be a lot of other government entities in the us in deep trouble. assuming that borrowing costs do go up for the us treasury and that economic growth over the coming decades is sluggish, default would likely still be more a political choice than a fiscal necessity. there are a *lot* of cookie jars that could be reached into if america were suddenly genuinely desperate for cash. but there are also very strong political forces in us politics that would rather see a default than support any new taxation *no matter what*. so the downgrading of us bonds, to the extent that it has occurred recently, isn't necessarily about analyzing the fundamentals of the american economy and seeing it as basically unable to carry the debt burden. it is more about pricing in some additional political risk that congress might fail to pay its bills even if it would not require any truly heroic effort to do so. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_public_debt"
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|
how did scientists reach the conclusion that in the beginning there was the strong electroweak force and then the electroweak force? | it seems pretty far-fetched to me to claim that 3/4 of the basic forces in nature were once the same thing. can someone explain what lead to this discovery? | while this has not been demonstrated, it is not a far-fetched claim. at a general level, the history of physics has been one in which fields previously distinct wind up being unified under a common framework (e.g., newton's brought orbits, tides, and projectile motion under one tent; maxwell's equations unified electricity and magnetism with optics). but more specifically, the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces are all described by the same kind of mathematical structure. this basic structure uses 3 by 3 matrices for the strong force; 2 by 2 matrices for the weak force; and a number (or 1 by 1 matrix) for electromagnetism. this common mathematical structure asks for an explanation. one natural explanation is that the common structure arises because all three are aspects of one unified force, and so it would not be simply an accident that they look mathematically so similar. about forty years ago, georgi and glashow showed, in fact, that it was possible to construct a mathematical theory that would start with a common force that would split into these three observed forces. in fact, there are many such models, all using the same basic idea (embedding the various matrices i described above into one larger matrix). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are our insides sterile? | in high school biology we learned that our insides (the "topological" insides, not the body cavities) are free from microbes, except during acute infections. but most people pick up a few chronic infections during their lives, and all sorts of weird bacteria are found on prosthetic implants that are removed for revision. is it more correct to view our insides as a system where we live more or less in balance with a host of microbes, than a sterile system that only contains of "our" cells? if so, is there any research using modern sequencing technology to see what kinds of microbes live inside of us (similar to the human microbiome project)? | molecular biologist/microbiologist here. the blood and tissue of a body are sterile, and the immune system does well at keeping it that way. cavities are not, as you observed. as for prosthetic implants harboring bacteria: no surgery is perfectly sterile, and several individual bacteria may be introduced into the body. in principle, the immune system will take care of these, and if not, the post-op antibiotics should do the trick. surfaces of a prosthesis, however, are not usually in areas flush with blood, so access to that spot by the immune system or antibiotics carried in the blood will be restricted. an individual microbe may not trigger an immune response because it does not produce (enough of) an agonist of the immune system, such as flagellin or violate the sanctity of the cytoplasm (dan portnoy's definition of a pathogen there). so, if the bacteria divides and the number that stick close to the prosthesis surface doesn't trigger the immune response, they could form a biofilm there. biofilms are very useful at keeping the immune system at bay; bacteria that leave the biofilm will likely get destroyed quickly by the immune system. as long as the biofilm colony and the number that leave the colony is small, there may not be a noticeable inflammation beyond that of what would be expected from a major surgical procedure like a hip replacement, and as long as the bacteria do not get into the blood stream and evade the immune system, sepsis will not be observed. it is not more correct to view our insides as a system in balance, unless that balance is completely in favor of the host. yes, there are a number of projects that look at the various microbiomes, such as that of the gut, vagina, and bladder epithelium. i cannot think of one that looks at what lives in the blood or tissue, since the number of bacteria that can be recovered from that tissue in healthy individuals ranges from zero to very low (and not enough to do any analysis). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the thermodynamic arrow of time imply the psychological arrow of time? | hawking, and others, have said that the second law of thermodynamics creates an arrow of time. and that the arrow of time we perceive is determined by this law. how is that the case? why can't we use the reversibility of physical laws to send a message into the past? i know that everybody agrees we can't, but i don't see how this is implied from the second law of thermodynamics. as entropy increases, information decreases. therefore there is more information in the past than in the future. this should mean that all the information from the future is also in the past. wouldn't that make it easier to send a message back than forward? i'm missing something here... | making any sort of record, whether it's a memory or an external one like a note, is a thermodynamically irreversible process. that is, it involves an increase in entropy. there is more information *about the past* in the past. the second law of thermodynamics (as applied to information theory) says that *for a given system*, the information about *the initial state of that system* decreases over time. this is known as [shannon entropy](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_(information_theory)"
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how close to gw150914 (the black hole merger) would i have to be to feel the gravitational waves on my body? | i asked this question in the megathread, but it was buried, so i'm trying again here. how close would i have to be to the gw150914 event (the black hole merger) to feel the effect of the gravitational waves on my body? | tl;dr you might just barely be able to hear it at a distance of 1 au, the distance between the earth and the sun. i suspect the place in the body you'd be most likely to sense the gravitational wave would be the eardrum, which is sensitive to vibrations as small as [10^(-11) meters](_url_1_). the human eardrum is about [10^(-4) meters](_url_0_) thick. so the eardrum would appear to be sensitive to distortions of about 1 part in 10^(7). now the event observed distorted the ligo detectors by 1 part in 10^(21), at a distance of 1.3 billion light years. furthermore, the strain in a material produced by a gravitational waves goes as 1/distance the wave has traveled. this means that if we were as far from the black hole system as the earth is from the sun (i.e., at a distance of 1 au), the distortion would be about 1 part in 10^(7). i don't think you'd feel this in your body generally, but this is just at the threshold of what you might notice in your ear, and the frequencies generated by this event, which were from around 35 to 250 hz, are in the human hearing range, so you might have heard the chirp -- but you'd have to be paying attention, as it lasted about 1/5 of a second. edit: typo fixed ("must" -- > "most"). | 45 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/tympanic-membrane",
"http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys4830/phys4830_fa01/lab/n1120.htm"
] | [
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is it possible to get a pavlovian response from a known placebo? | let's say i had a certain type of candy each time i took a caffeine tablet, and never had it besides. would the 101st time i had some of that candy be effective if i didn't take a caffeine tablet to go with it, or would the fact that i was the one who initiated the pavlovian response disable the placebo effect? | i'm on the fence with this. there's research showing that you can condition a placebo response in some cases (_url_0_) but not others (_url_1_). there's a separate arm of research looking at what could be called open label placebos (see link in the other comment) that shows preliminary promising results. but i wouldn't be comfortable linking the two together and saying that it's possible, especially on an effect that neither of the research arms have addressed (i.e. caffeine). tl;dr - you can get a conditioned placebo response, you can get a 'known' placebo response, but you may or may not be able to combine the two. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12468450",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15885259",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2010/dec/22/placebo-effect-patients-sham-drug"
] | [
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] |
is there a physical limit to how fast something can travel in water? | yes, but it depends on a lot of things, primarily including the shape of the object and how much propulsive force it has. for a smooth-shaped object with little propulsive force moving through still water, [stokes drag](_url_0_) applies and can be used to find the terminal velocity of the object. at higher speeds or with more blunt objects, complex shock dynamics come into play, as water is mostly incompressible. moving through turbulent water will also add even more complexity to the problem. if you want to move an object *really* fast underwater, you can use a technique called [supercavitation](_url_1_), which effectively surrounds the object in a giant bubble. (although this is arguably no longer traveling in water.) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes%27_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercavitation"
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|
what is the most energetically dense structure in biology? | what structure among plants, animals, bacteria, or fungi holds the most chemical energy for its volume? how does this differ on the organelle/cell/tissue level? (for example, if mitochondria is the densest intracellular structure, maybe animal fat cells are the densest cellular structure. or plant tubers like potatoes are the most energetically dense macroscopic tissue. this is just a guess, i'm not claiming this is the case.) | i'm gonna guess... humans. animal fat is (one of?) the most energetically dense biomaterials there is, and according to this thread (_url_0_) we humans might have the highest percentage of it. making (some of us) the most energy-dense structures in biology! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/fatlogic/comments/365gy6/earths_record_of_highest_body_fat_percentage/"
] | [
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] |
how did houston communicate with the astronauts on the moon? | [usb](_url_0_). but not the adapter type. radio waves - the general method of communication in space for basically everything (laser links are a very recent development). by changing the amplitude or (better) the frequency of the radio waves you emit many times per second you can transmit information. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_S-band"
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] |
|
how are seconds an si unit? | from the til currently on the front page, the second comes from a base-60 system, which is inconsistent with the base-10 si units of meters, grams, liters, etc. | the seconds-minutes-hours system is base 60. seconds on their own can be lumped into units of whatever base you like. if you're working in pure si, you're going to be talking about kiloseconds or teraseconds, not hours and days and years. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes 'now' special? what makes the now we are currently experiencing different to any other now? | according to relativity and the block universe concept, the future already exists and as far as i can tell there is no physical way to distinguish this particular now from any other one. so how do we do it? is now a purely psychological construction? does the question even make sense? | according to the relativity of simultaneity, your "now" is different from the "now" observed from someone else's reference frame. however, your two "now"s observed in the same reference frame can be differentiated because of your light cone. at two different points in time, you have two separate light cones that determine the events that can influence you and the events that you can influence. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does bile synthesized in the liver enter the gall bladder? | i apologize if this is the wrong area for this question. i've been looking at diagrams of the biliary tree but cannot find one where it depicts exactly how bile enters the gall bladder. from all the diagrams, it seems there is no connection between the liver and gall bladder except for via the cystic duct-common duct connection. any input is greatly appreciated. | bile is produced by the hepatocytes and secreted into these little thin channels called bile canaliculi, it is located within the hepatic plate. you should know that blood travels in the opposite direction of bile in the liver, and this allows them to never 'mix' together. these channels are drained at the periphery of each lobule by bile ducts - so it basically drains from the liver from the bile ducts - > hepatic ducts - > cystic ducts- > neck of the sphincter valve at the neck of the gall bladder. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when i was younger, i placed an ice cube in a pot of very hot oil. at first nothing happened, but when i nudged the pot, the oil exploded violently. what exactly happened? | initially the water around the ice melts and becomes cold water. this sinks below the ice to the bottom. then at some point the water at the bottom will have heated up enough to boil and will do so violently from below the oil. it may be that your pot was so clean that the water had no impurities to boil off of and got super heated. the nudge would have given it a start and caused a lot of it to flash boil at once causing the explosion. i hope you were not looking into the pan at that point.... | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does a larger mass in a spring-mass system make for a bigger amplitude? | the question is in the title, and i'd like to know what formula's come into play. | first, look at a horizontal system--one where gravity plays no part. assuming your initial position and your spring are the same, using a larger mass won't yield a larger amplitude. it will, however, lengthen the period; it's tougher for the spring to accelerate the larger mass, so everything takes longer. [increasing the value of *m* results in a decrease in the time-multiplier inside the cosine](_url_0_), and since the multiplier is basically the frequency (in radians) of the oscillations, this means your frequency goes down and your period lengthens. the other option is a vertical system (mass hanging down from a spring), where gravity comes into play. if you start it above the equilibrium position, the mass will fall; using a larger mass means a larger potential energy, which means the spring must absorb more energy ("stretch more") before it can turn the system around. so in this case, a larger mass does result in a larger amplitude. but consider a vertical system where you start *below* the equilibrium point. this time, using a heavier mass results in a smaller amplitude, because the spring cannot hoist it as high before gravity pulls down more strongly than the spring (as it shortens) pulls up. so the effect on amplitude depends on what kind of system and initial conditions you use. i haven't considered vertical systems with the spring below the mass, so that might be good for you to take a stab at. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator#Spring.2Fmass_system"
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