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do the upper and lower limits of the visible light range vary between individuals? if so, what effect would that have on the way different people perceive coloured surfaces? | in a similar way that the audible frequency range varies slightly from person to person, does the range of visible em radiation have different upper and lower limits for different individuals? if so, does a person who can see light < 390nm and > 750nm observe a slightly different colour when looking upon a coloured surface than someone with lesser visible light range? i wonder how far into the infrared/ultraviolet wavelengths some people or indeed animals could perceive visually with a corresponding "colour". | human color vision is based on our eyes' possessing three different types of color receptors (called cones). all three types are to some extent responsive to all light within the visible spectrum, but all three have a peak responsiveness to a specific frequency and a normally-distributed range of responsiveness to all other frequencies ~~(see [this](_url_0_), although note that these graphs are usually not drawn connecting with the x-axis, since the responsiveness actually just becomes infinitesimally small rather than truly zero)~~ ([see this](_url_1_)). the responsiveness of cones to particular frequencies is a function of the molecular structure of the cones themselves, which don't vary much between individuals. so there isn't really any way for an individual to perceive a broader range of light frequencies than what is covered by the three types of cone. some people will certainly have a higher proportion of blue and red cones (and more of them overall), which might help them better detect colors at the edges of the spectrum, but the differences would be slight. to see substantially outside the current visible spectrum, we would have to evolve new cones that respond to light at these different frequencies. this isn't theoretically impossible: reindeer, for example, possess cones that respond to some light in the ultraviolet range. by the way, the literal answer to your question is "yes", because the existence of color-blindness means there is variation among people as to the range of light they can perceive. however, this range variation is less than you might think; red-green color blindness is the most common form, resulting from the defectiveness (or complete absence) of the red-detecting cones. however, the green-detecting cones will still respond to light up (down) to the wavelength (frequency) limit, so it doesn't mean that people with this form of color blindness cannot detect light at the high end. | 2 | []
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weapons-grade lasers- who is responsible for keeping them out of the hands of the public? | back in 1986, my physics (high school) teacher demonstrated a laser in class, and a few of the more devoted students were invited to experiment with it. i, being a teenage boy, wanted to get my hands on a star trek-style weapon. my teach said "the government" was keeping the really powerful lasers out of reach of the public. i couldn't argue with that logic. 32 years of globalism later, and with mini-lasers available at convenience stores, i still wonder how "the government" keeps deadly lasers out of reach of the "bad guys". | your physics teacher should know better. it's physics keeping really powerful lasers out of reach of the public. namely, to be really damaging to humans, you need hundreds of kilowatts to megawatts of laser energy. sure, you can [pop balloons or instantly blind someone](_url_0_) with less than one watt, but your enemy probably won't hold still for a hour while the laser gives him a light tan. if you want to use a megawatt laser, you've got to either generate or be able to store all that energy. no storage or generation technology we know of would yield a megawatt laser handgun. significant miniaturization might make a laser *tank* feasible. | 20 | []
| []
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|
is there a way to convert revolutions/unit to distance/time? | for instance could something like a pulsar have the speed of its spin converted to mph? can something spin fast than the speed of light? edit: i probably should have used the word "rotation" instead. im tired, sorry | yes. you can easily convert between the [angular velocity](_url_2_) and a linear velocity if you know the radius of the object. the [fastest spinning pulsar](_url_0_) is moving at approximately 24% of the speed of light at the equator. nothing can spin faster than the speed of light because nothing can travel faster than light. in reality, if an object spins too fast it overcome gravity and will break apart and so the upper limit is a bit less than the speed of light. there are a lot of [theoretical considerations](_url_1_) that go into it beyond simple gravity treatments and while we can theoretically find pulsars above 1000 hz spin frequency ( < 1ms spin period), we have not found a sub-millisecond pulsar yet. | 5 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_J1748-2446ad",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/0704.0799v3.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"
]
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|
what is the difference between a disruption and a deformity when it comes to birth defects? | no one has been able to explain the fundamental difference - both are damage to healthy tissue as far as i can tell. | this is how i think of it. a deformation is when a structure forms normally but then something happens to change that structure. an example might be talipes due to premature rupture of membranes - the limb is compressed and changes shape as a result. a disruption occurs when a normal developmental process is disrupted by some event - for example a vascular accident causing a limb anomaly. this means that there is overlap between the two concepts, but they are not exactly the same. a disruption event could cause a deformation, but if it happens early enough in development it could cause a malformation instead - i.e. the affected structure does not develop normally in the first place. | 2 | []
| []
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|
how many decimal places do rocket scientists/aerospace engineers round to? | i read that rounding pi to something like the 14th decimal place can calculate the circumference of the universe to within the range of an atom. i used to think there would be ridicules decimal places associated with space but now i'm not so sure. | the needed number of decimals depends deeply on the context; there is no 'magic number' of fewest necessary digits. you tell me what we're doing, and i'll get you within epsilon of the accuracy you need. | 8 | []
| []
| [
"http://freelanceastrophysicist.com/2011/07/big-numbers-and-really-big-numbers/"
]
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|
[spoilers] in the end of the bourne identity, jason bourne jumps from the top floor of a building using a person to cushion his fall (video inside), is this survivable? | from the video, it seems he's on the 4th floor, giving an approximate fall height of 12 to 14 metres. assuming no initial vertical momentum initially, his final velocity upon reaching the ground would be around 15ms^-1 (neglecting effects of air resistance). matt damon's mass varies between 190 -195lbs which converts to about 90kg (assuming he bulked up slightly for the bourne films). i'm unsure about his stopping distance, nor am i well versed on the average compression distance of a human corpse.. | 2 | []
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|
do anger management classes have an evidence base? | in other words are they a science based psychological intervention or a form of psydo medicine? | it really depends on what the specifics of "anger management" entail. cognitive behavioral therapy is a form of evidence based practice that can be used to address issues involved in patients that are having difficulty with anger. it just really depends on who is leading such a course/group and what approach they are taking it from. the term "anger management" is loosely defined and does not necessarily fall into any one specific area of practice. | 3 | []
| []
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|
if a conjoined twin get sick, do they both get sick? | **yes!** or at least they will both ***feel*** sick. this is because the "run-down" feeling of being sick is the result of a molecule called "interferon" (ifn) circulating through the blood, produced by the body to fight infection. i actually just wrote [a super-detailed comment about ifn in another askscience thread](_url_1_) if you want a more extensive explanation. but since conjoined twins often have shared blood flow, the ifn produced by the sick twin will pass into the non-sick twin and cause them both to feel ill. **this shared blood-flow, consequently, would probably lead to them both *getting* sick as well, since many infectious diseases are also passed through the blood.** this shared blood flow also poses a problem in separation surgeries, where dosages and administration of anesthesia before and after separation become very complex! (sources: [1](_url_4_) [2](_url_7_) [3](_url_6_) [4](_url_0_)) --- incidentally, this is also related to one of the most ghastly experiments i know about in biology that's still performed today. in immunology, one of the most central questions is whether or not a cell circulates in the blood, or lives in the tissues. and the most well-respected experiment to test this is called "[parabiosis](_url_2_)" in mice. parabiosis is where two genetically near-identical (inbred) mice are put under with anesthesia and then artificially "conjoined" such that they share blood flow and continuous skin tissues. the most common use of this in immunology (it's also used occasionally in dermatology and hematology and other fields where similar questions arise) is to take mouse a that has a certain protein on the surface of certain cells (called ly5.1 or cd45.1) and check a few days after conjoining to see if these proteins are found on the cells in the blood of mouse b. if so, then that cell is said to "circulate." the experimenters then introduce different conditions and see if they can remove or enhance the circulation. another use is to test so-called "aging" factors, by stitching together a young and an old mouse and evaluating how much improved the older mouse is. the ethics of this are very complicated and usually the mice are kept under or drugged up to reduce suffering. but overall the procedure is tolerated well... i used to do these procedures in an undergraduate research lab years ago, and i only saw one terrible case, where the anesthesia wasn't enough and one mouse attacked its conjoined twin and nearly killed it. it's a very stressful experience for them as you can imagine... i hope one day soon we will develop a way to test this better and parabiosis will become a thing of the past. something we grimace at in textbooks... (further reading on parabiosis for the curious: [1](_url_9_) [2](_url_5_) [3](_url_3_) [4](_url_8_)) | 6 | []
| []
| [
"https://www.surgjournal.com/article/S0039-6060\\(97\\)90117-3/abstract",
"https://old.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/bsugp1/why_do_we_treat_pyrexia_with_paracetamol_when_it/eosjxi7/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabiosis#Parabiotic_experiments",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4082987/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5125191/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5662775/",
"https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/240083",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10968028",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022202X19313454",
"https://www.jove.com/video/50556/parabiosis-in-mice-a-detailed-protocol"
]
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|
|
if you had three minutes in weightlessness what would you do with it? [x-post from /r/askreddit] | i'd probably want to suck water out of the air with a straw, or throw a paper air plane. maybe some cool physics, such as putting two rotating objects together and seeing how their angular momentum adds, or bringing a geiger counter and seeing how the earth's atmosphere effects its counting rate. i'm an astrophysicist so something like this would really be my piece of cake. i ask this question because i'm competing in a competition to win a sub-orbital trip to space. i'm currently in the top four most popular entries in my region, which probably means that i'll make it to the judges panel. i'm hoping that if / when i get interviewed, i have a really cool way to spend my time in space and sway the judges into choosing me to go on to the international finals. ps, if you want more information on the competition (and to vote for me / see my application) clicking [here](_url_0_) will take you to my bio and give me your vote (it's literally that simple). best / top voted experiment suggested here gets done in space! | would a camera be able to be mounted by a window, pointed at the sky, and we could watch as the image becomes clearly with decrease light blockage? | 2 | []
| [
"http://bit.ly/GPCxYN"
]
| []
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|
the capacitor in a buck converter? | why is there a capacitor in a buck converter? it seems as though it is just being charged by the inductor and not really contributing to powering the load. | it is 'just being charged by the inductor'. however, it's being charged by the inductor at the right points in the cycle to eliminate the ripple that occurs from the constant charge/discharge cycle. in the absence of the capacitor, you'd get a sawtooth wave instead of a steady dc voltage. | 2 | []
| []
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|
how solid is the science behind the 5 second rule? i.e. how quickly can bacteria transfer from one object to another? | if there is some kind of germ in small crumb of yesterday's food on the floor and it sticks to whatever you dropped, it will be on there instantly. so it's pretty much crap. if you clean your floor on a regular basis and take the usual precautions when handling raw meat it should be safe to eat stuff that dropped. just rinse it off it it looks dirty. as far as i know most common germs fear your digestive tract more then you fear them. | 3 | []
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|
|
will biopsies ever go away? | i ask this because i currently work in a pathology lab, and diagnosing patients using traditional techniques just seems so time consuming. taking a patients biopsy, fixing the tissue, putting it on a slide, treating the slide, and reading the slide can take well over a week in some cases, only to find (on occasion) inconclusive results! do you see technologies that are developing replacing traditional histology? what about technologies like qpcr/digital pcr/digital pathology? | difficult to say. as genotyping becomes better and our understanding of genetic mutations in conditions such as cancer develop, there may come a time when genotype could diagnose cancer rather than histological examination. however in my opinion i don't think you can replace histology. cancer diagnosis and grading is dependant on complex features such as tissue architecture, as i'm sure you know more than me, that can't be replaced by genetic testing. gene testing definitely has a place in informing management and diagnosis but i doubt it will replace histology altogether. checking tumour margins after resection for example could only be achieved with histological examination. | 3 | []
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|
thermoplastic elastomer (tpe) - best way to disinfect while prolonging its lifespan? | a little tmi, but this question is about a tpe menstrual cup (meluna). i know it's a girl thing, but i am asking about the tpe material. company recommends disinfecting it in boiling water for 3 minutes; also to avoid uv exposure which could make it porous. can i use isopropyl alcohol for disinfection instead? how about hydrogen peroxide? vinegar? can it really last for 5 to 10 years, and not stiffen? | if properly taken care of, then some tpes can last for that time span without significant degradation. vinegar is [not effective against staph aureus](_url_1_), a very common bacteria found on the skin. peroxide will almost certainly degrade the tpe, although you may not immediately notice the effects with h2o2 in household concentrations. it's not clear from the datasheets which meluna links as to exactly what the material's ("tm-4-med") chemical compatibility is, especially since this designation doesn't exactly match the manufacturer's codes. this is *probably* the [tmxmed](_url_0_) material, but there's no guarantee of that. it's worth noting that some of the materials in this series specify a resistance to isopropanol - however, tmxmed does not. in addition, 'thermoplastic elastomer' is a *massive* category of materials in its own right, so it's hard to present any conclusions beyond this without better information. it's probably best to stick to boiling water for disinfection. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.me-luna.eu/WebRoot/Store21/Shops/63898218/MediaGallery/THERMOLAST_M_englisch.pdf",
"http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/Disinfection_Sterilization/3_3inactivBioAgents.html"
]
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|
is this a safe environment for frogs? (sorry if this is in the wrong subreddit. i'm really worried about these little guys) | so my aunt wanted me to buy these things called hippity hoppities for her kids for christmas. essentially, they are little tanks of water, kind of like fish bowls, with two little frogs in each. here's a picture: _url_0_ my concern is how do they breathe? though they're tiny, i'm pretty sure these are adult frogs. i know they can absorb oxygen through their skin, but how do these frogs survive if they have no way to sit where there is air? i've been watching them, and they swim up to the surface, get air, float back down, then come back up for air. they have to keep repeating this over and over. what do they do when they sleep? should i add a rock or something that breaks the surface and allows them to sit above the water? i don't know much about frogs, and i am genuinely concerned for these little frogs. **edit: thanks for the info! i'll make sure to upgrade their accommodations asap.** | it's not the breathing rate you have to worry about in these guys (they naturally do that same sort of behavior in the wild) it's maintaining the water quality in a small container. they are fully aquatic so they don't need anything to pull out onto. | 5 | []
| [
"http://chipchick.chipchick.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/frong.jpg"
]
| [
"http://aquaticfrogs.tripod.com/id13.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenopus"
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|
how do scientists measure extreme depth without sending in people/robots? | assuming that a person had access to equipment and resources, how would they measure the depth of a hole? is there a limit to how deep people/drones/robots could travel into it safely? how would you measure how deep it was long past that point? | i'd send a sound wave down and measure when the echo came back. know the speed of sound, depth = echo time * speed of sound / 2. 2 for down and back. sos = 340 m/s. you could probably measure the echo to somewhere around a millisecond, so accuracy on the order of a meter. _url_0_ | 10 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_sounding"
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|
can a prince rupert's drop be made without the long tail? | price rupert's drops are a form of tempered glass in more or less the shape of a tadpole with a long tail, made by dropping melted glass into water. the bulbous end of the drop is incredibly strong and can withstand direct hammering. however, a minor scratch or break in the long tail will cause the entire drop to explode into glass fragments. the drop gets its strength through how it cools - the outside cools first, forming the shape, followed by the inside, in the process creating massive tensile and compressive stresses. wikipedia: _url_1_ video of shatter at 100,000 fps: _url_0_ my question: as the tail is quite sensitive and will cause the entire drop to explode, is it possible to make one of these without the tail? | molten glass is extremely sticky, and can only ''drip'' off things unless cooled significantly before broken off itself. very hot (but not quite molten) glass can be quickly submerged, ''tempering'' it to exhibit the strong qualities similar to that in the bulb of the ''rupert's drop'' | 2 | []
| [
"http://youtu.be/xe-f4gokRBs?t=2m30s",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_Drop"
]
| []
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|
can the amygdala affect your work ethic and laziness? | i watched a video where daniel goleman about his coined term "amygdala hijack" and he also mentioned where a tube the length of a neuron was cut while performing surgery and the man couldn't do his job because his sense of what was important or not was gone. | this is not amygdala-related, but work ethic-related, (via the anterior insula). you may find it interesting. [dopamine impacts willingness to work](_url_0_) | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120501182755.htm"
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|
if i, somehow, had a snapshot of the position and momentum of all the particles on earth at a past date and i could play it back, would the world behave exactly the same? | no. for two reasons: 1) you cannot know the exact position and momentum of a particle at the same time. that is due to the inherent uncertainty between these values. just to be clear: this is not a matter of limited measurements. those two values are not defined beyond a certain point of precision. 2) even if you could know all boundary conditions exactly (which you can't) quantum mechanical processes are inherently probabilistic. thus, even if you **could** manage to reproduce a system exactly (which, again, is impossible) this system would **still** not behave the same way it did the first time. | 12 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell's_theorem"
]
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|
where does the funding for all the fundamental physics research come from? | hence, who is investing and what economic payoffs are expected from e.g. cern, black hole imaging, etc. ? | funding for scientific projects is a pretty complicated thing. it depends on the scale of the project, and who is involved (universities, national laboratories, private companies, etc.). in the u.s., we have the major funding agencies like the national science foundation, and the department of energy. these agencies award grants of various sizes, for individual scientists or projects. the process is basically that you write a technical proposal about what you want to do and why it’s important, and you try to convince one of these agencies to give you lots of money in order to complete some project. it may be that you need to design a new detector in order to run a campaign of experiments. so you need to convince the agency that this detector is necessary and that they should pay for it. you’ll address the science impact of the new detector, and probably give at least one or two options of how it could be funded (a “preferred” option, and maybe a stripped down, cheaper version as a backup, which won’t have as high of an impact, but will cost less). you usually also leave open the possibility of upgrades. so maybe you’ll ask for money for a “phase 1” of the project, and contingent on its success, you may later ask for more money for an upgraded “phase 2”. this is just a particular example of how things are done in my field. obviously this is different than developing something like the lhc or the hubble telescope. | 12 | []
| []
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|
are building materials stronger when underwater? | can a column of material (marble, concrete, wood, take your pick) support more building if the whole building is underwater? can the column support less if earth had no atmosphere? | this is in fact true. it's due to [bouyancy](_url_0_). namely the support has to exert a force on the building which is slightly smaller than the (true) weight of the object. the difference is proportional to the medium density (ρ) and the volume of the building. due to newton's third law - the building exerts equal and opposite force on the support. imagine your 'building' a wooden block with thin iron rods as a support. if the wooden block was initially submerged, it would rise to the surface. now it's obvious that support of such a structure under water, wouldn't have any load at all. & #x200b; air behaves as a fluid and as such also exerts a bouyant force on the object\*. if you were to weigh yourself in vacuum, the scale would point a bit higher than here. the density of human body is about the density of water (1000 kg/m^(3)). density of air is \~1 kg/m^(3). hence, in space you would weigh \~0.1% more than here on earth. \*slight caveat: not all fluids exert a bouyant force. the force is due to the pressure gradient (in vertical direction, on earth). body submerged in water, in 0g environment, wouldn't measure bouyant force. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy"
]
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|
why don't we see headlines like "new constellation discovered"? | constellations are not physical objects. in modern astronomy, constellations are regions of the sky defined so as to make communication and labeling more efficient. the entire sky has been broken down into these defined regions, so there is no area left to define. whenever we discovery a new star, galaxy, or planet, it exists somewhere in the sky, so it exists in one of the already defined regions. it's like taking a piece of paper and splitting it into four regions called "top", "bottom", "left side", and "right side". you can't discover new regions to your paper because you have already made definitions that span your entire sheet of paper. any new discover you make on your paper (ah, a spider!) will sit in one of the already defined regions. as another example, the continental united states is divided into 48 states. you can't discover new us states, because the land is already all allocated to different states. you could create a new state by redefining state boundaries, but that would not be a scientific discovery. state boundaries are not physical. there is not a dotted line in the desert separating arizona from nevada. similarly, constellations are not physical. historically, the constellations represented pictures that people invented by connecting stars that were near each other in the sky. this type of constellation is also non-physical and is therefore not open for discovery. (you could of course invent what ever pictures in your head you want when looking at stars, but those aren't science discoveries.) | 14 | []
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|
|
so i have been seeing more news this year about scientists trying to bring back the mammoth and i was wondering... | would it ever be possible to clone any kind of dinosaur in the same way? this is probably a stupid question but it's something that i've been wondering.. [mammoth](_url_0_) | it is somewhat lke jurrasic park you need a good sample of dna and a suitable host womb to use our currently available cloning technology. we do have preserved mamoth dna and elephants. we don't have either for reptiles. but the same process could conceivably be used. | 2 | []
| [
"http://www.treehugger.com/natural-sciences/scientists-close-reviving-wooly-mammoths-extinction.html"
]
| []
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|
[earth and planetary sciences] & [physics] - why in this video of calbuco erupting, is it so quiet? one would think it'd be ...earth shatteringly loud. | [here's the video.](_url_0_) it seems remarkably quiet. why is this? shouldn't it be a lot louder? | sound travels at only 340 meters per second. the volcano was too far for sound to get to the camera. the eruption happens at 29 seconds in the video and there is no sound heard till 41 seconds. this means that the guy filming was at least 4 kilometers from the volcano and most likely he was much farther out. | 17 | []
| [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1DmiIdyyuD8"
]
| []
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|
is this rainbow plane in google earth a result of the doppler effect? | found this in google earth while tracing my drive on the 101 [rainbow plane](_url_0_) (coordinates on image). why is the effect observed in the satellite imagery? does it have anything to do with the varying speed of different colored light being captured during the exposure time? additionally, why does the foremost outline of the plane appear to be absent of all color and moderately transparent? | it has nothing to do with the doppler effect. it seems that this particular camera takes the colour image by first taking a picture with a blue filter, then a picture with a green filter, then a picture with a red filter, and then puts them together. however, the plane moved during the taking of these 3 pictures, so when you put them back together it doesn't line up correctly. most modern cameras nowadays can capture the red, green, and blue at the same time since the image sensor has all three kinds of colours. the camera in that google earth image probably took three exposures to enable more resolution or sensitivity. interestingly, at the dawn of colour photography (~1910), photographers such as sergei prokudin-gorskii also used three separate exposures, [such as in this picture](_url_1_) and in [this picture](_url_0_). in the latter picture, you can also see similar artifacts in the smoke and in one of the moving boats. | 10 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/ILrop.jpg"
]
| [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Sergei_Mikhailovich_Prokudin-Gorskii_-_General_view_of_the_city_of_Perm_from_Gorodskie_Gorki_%281910%29.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rgb-compose-Alim_Khan.jpg"
]
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|
i have a question about how the brain "chooses" to operate based on what you are doing. | based on my limited understanding of how the brain operates, i am under the impression that certain areas of the brain become more active depending on the activity you are engaging in, e.g. socializing, drawing, writing. if that is the case, is it possible that your brain is "incentivized" to use one portion of the brain more exclusively than another if there is the potential for reward or for punishment? like, lets say you are playing a competitive game involving pattern recognition. a game like "set". when you recognize a pattern, thereby winning that round, you are rewarded with the feeling of accomplishment and pleasure that comes with winning something. would the brain somehow recognize this and then increase activity the parts of the brain that aide in pattern recognition? thanks for any insight on this. | your first premise is correct. it's described as "localization of function". however, the answer to your question, as far as i understand it, is (generally) no. from a moment to moment basis, the brain can essentially be thought of as hard wired. that is, visual information flows to the visual areas of cortex, not because of the potential for a perceived reward, but simply because, that is where the wires go. also, it is pretty well established that rewards alter the brain is wired up, but probably on a much smaller scale that the macroscopic activation of whole brain regions (at least on the moment to moment, minute to minute basis). and probably just involves strengthening little connections (synapses) that already exist). to add more detail, there are certainly modifications to how the brain behaves when there is the potential for a reward. we don't need to understand neuroscience to see this. if a rat is trained to pressed a lever when a bell goes for a food reward, it will learn that. it wont press the lever all the time, but 99% of the time, when the bell is sounding. hence, the same visual stimuli (the room with the lever) produces two different behaviours depending on the expectation for a reward. now, we could argue about does the rat really "expect" the reward, or has it been conditions to respond because of prior experience. but that is a bit outside the scope of this post. so, to sum up: different parts of the brain are activated by different tasks. this is due to the way the brain is wired up. rewards can change how the brain is wired up, but probably only on a small scale (though this is debatable over the long term). perception of rewards changes neural activity. | 2 | []
| []
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|
gravitation potential | out of curiosity, i was wondering what the physical meaning of the integration of the gravitation potential would be. by gravitation potential i mean [phi = -g*m/r](_url_0_) (click for nice latex format) i was making a numerical solution tutorial matlab script yesterday and the thought popped into my head, "what would the volume enclosed by the gravitation potential well *mean*?" [here's a figure of the solution](_url_1_) | hi, a potential by itself carries no physical *meaning*. the value of a potential at a fixed point is not a physical thing, it depends on what we decide is our reference point. it is the potential **difference** between two space points that is meaningful. and, related, the differential of the potential is meaningful (it is the force). notice how you can add a constant to phi, and all the physical laws, and the meaningful values would still come out the same. but taking the integral with or without this constant, would not be the same, so therefore the integral is likely nothing meaningful. you could argue "ok, so what about the integral with no extra added constant?" but you cannot demand that, because - physically - the potential with and without an extra constant are the exact same thing. your phi scales with 1/r, but if you integrate it over volume, it scales with r^2 and blows up as you integrate it out till infinity. this should give you a hint that it probably is nothing meaningful. | 2 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/nIpbQ",
"http://imgur.com/cm2v1"
]
| []
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|
statics question | i'm taking statics and mechanics of materials and had a conceptual question that my professor didn't answer confidently. (new prof.) anyway if you had say a cube in space and pushed it perpendicular to one side by the corner, would it experience translational motion and a moment or just translation motion? | a static force applied eccentric to the center of mass (c.m.) of an initially stationary cube in space would result in rotation and translation. in terms of statics, think about the "penalty" of "moving" the force *from* the corner over *to* the c.m., where this "penalty" is the moment. as a terrestrial analogy, try pushing a ballon at an eccentric location. | 8 | []
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|
how can we measure the speed with which the milly way rotates if we are part of it? what’s our reference frame? | we can measure the velocity of all the other stars and compare it to the center of the galaxy to express everything relative to the center. | 6 | []
| []
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|
|
i'm watching the red bull stratos event. would the same method this man is using to get, as they say, to the "edge of space" work to get astronauts up in space? why or why not? | the ascent does seem to have a few drawbacks; it's slow and they have to be patient until the wind conditions are just right. however, as far as i can tell it's probably cheaper than what nasa does. i don't know if it would work to get someone up to a space station or launch a satellite or something, but if it did that would be neat. | not really. the thing about getting into orbit is that you have to get moving very, very fast. getting to high altitude is actually the easy part. an object in low earth orbit has to get to 17,500 mph (28,000 km/h). in other words, it has to add 30 megajoules per kilogram of energy to itself from its stationary position on the earth (actually, a little less, but that's not important now) for the speed portion. the height portion (getting to about 400 km, where the space station is) only requires about 4 megajoules per kilogram (also a little less on that one, but it's close enough). so you can see just getting to altitude won't quite cut it - you'll still need a rocket to get you up to speed. the second reason why it won't really work, helium balloons can only really get up to about 170,000 ft (50,000 m) or so (and that's the record). above that, the air is too thin, and the helium won't provide any buoyancy. using hydrogen may get you a little higher, but not by enough to make a huge difference. 50 km is 50 km below the commonly defined edge of space. getting to that altitude only saves you about 500 kilojoules per kilogram (0.5 mj/kg) on your energy needs - not all that much. that's not to say people haven't tried something similar. orbital sciences's pegasus rocket uses an airplane to give it a height and speed boost, but it's only used for small payloads. i believe i've heard of some suborbital rocket launches using balloons to give the rockets a boost, but i can't quite find anything about that right now. the biggest problem is that you don't really get that much of a boost while adding complexity. furthermore, you really limit your abort options prior to launch (once the balloon starts rising, your rocket won't be coming back safely to the ground. it's either going into space, or, if it has a problem, it's crashing back to earth. for ground-launched rockets or even plane-launched rockets, if you detect a problem before launch, you can abort the launch a fix the problem). | 10 | []
| []
| []
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|
after one year of translation, is the earth back at the exact same spot as one year ago? | the new year caused me to think that. we know that one year is the time the earth takes to make a complete loop around the sun. so, is it back at the same spot it was one year ago? | in the reference frame of the sun, it is very close to being in the same spot, but not exactly due to the gravitational influences of the other planets. in the reference frame of the galaxy, it has moved about 6 billion kilometers as the sun makes its orbit. in the reference frame of the earth, it is in the same place. | 10 | []
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|
atomic theories, what's *actually* wrong with thomson's plum pudding? | i actually don't understand this. of course, nowadays we can use simple physics, but during the early 20th century, how did we do this? was it simply since rutherford disproved it? was there any more reasons back then? | as far as i am aware, historically, it was the gold foil experiment that led to the rejection of the plum pudding model in favor of rutherford's model. | 8 | []
| []
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|
what causes some mentally ill people to see things that are not there? | does the brain create these objects and people? | often times with schizophrenia (the specific mental illness i assume you're referring to) auditory and tactile hallucinations are far more common than visual hallucination. full visual hallucination is generally speaking more uncommon. visual hallucination more often involves seeing small unidentifiable objects in the air or on surfaces, if it happens at all. the exact causes of hallucination in general are not exactly clear. the general consensus is that there are a number of factors that can contribute to this symptom. one of the leading factors (though not proven to be directly correlated) is an overstimulation of the dopamine systems in the brain. this correlation was found by discovering that chronic users of dopamine agonist drugs (meth, cocaine) would occasionally display symptoms similar to those of schizophrenia. those symptoms would subside after the drugs left the patients' system. essentially, hallucination is caused by false stimulation of the sensory systems of the brain, forcing the brain to interpret these false signals, creating the hallucination. hope this helps. edit: links _url_2_ _url_1_ _url_0_ | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis"
]
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|
why is north korea depleted in foodstuff? | the country is cold and mountainous, they over-farmed what land they had by the 1980's, they spend up to 1/3 of their national budget on their military, and their political leaders believed bulldozing the entire country's vegetation to make room for more crops would be a good idea (it wasn't, rain eroded a large portion of their newer farms). what they lack the most is good management. this is a pretty good article: _url_0_ | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2012/03/north_korea_nuclear_deal_why_does_the_hermit_kingdom_suffer_so_many_famines_.html"
]
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|
|
how does blood clotting occur internally, let's say you have a cut on an organ? would a scab form like how a scab forms when you get a cut externally? | and assuming a scab does form what happens when it falls off? | when you get a cut, which is damage to your veins/capillaries etc, whether it's on your skin or inside you, the same process essentially occurs. i've simplified a lot of this down because i don't know the steps in great detail and it isn't overly important, but here is an [image](_url_0_) from wikipedia showing what i mean; there is a whole cascade of events that happens and it starts pretty much straight away when you get a cut. when your blood vessels get damaged they expose the underlying tissue and cells. platelets, a type of cell in your blood, stick onto this underlying tissue and become 'stickier'; they join onto other platelets more easily. this forms a group of platelets over the wound. at the same time, there is a cascade of "factor" changes; these are proteins in your blood which go through a series of reactions to convert prothrombin to thrombin, which 'amplifies' the cascade by converting factors which are involved at the start, beginning the process all over again. this means that from an initial small amount of protein changes you can very quickly have a large amount of thrombin being produced. whilst this cycle can start itself over again it will eventually stop. thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin which is important for forming a blood clot. blood clots are formed from the fibrin and the platelets, and this blood clot is called a "thrombus". they form normally and is what stops you from bleeding out when you get a cut on your skin. so internally you wouldn't get a scab which would fall off, you would get a "thrombus"; it's very similar to a scab but there is not a hard outer layer. in the body normally, blood clots break down. you'll often get damage to your blood vessels, and blood clots form in response, and then will be broken back down and the cycle repeats whenever you get injured. this is a process called "fibrinolysis", and is again a normal part of the healing process. so, to sum up, 'scabs' in the body would be blood clots that form in response to damage. they don't fall off like external scabs but would be broken down eventually. interestingly, when blood clots don't break down properly, or form and get dislodged, they can cause health problems such as pulmonary embolism, where they get trapped in blood vessels in the lungs, or strokes, where they get trapped in blood vessels in the brain. it's important to note that blood clots don't necessarily form from damage to blood vessels, but they do in response to damage. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Coagulation_in_vivo.png"
]
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|
how do you calculate a flux integral through a möbius strip? | or is it possible, at least? | i'm not an expert in differential geometry although i believe the mathematics does not make sense since one of the fundamental assumptions made in deriving classical vector/tensor calculus is orientability. for example, stokes theorem assumes an orientable manifold of which the mobius strip does not satisfy. since we will have problems about normal vectors it doesn't make too much sense to talk about integrating vector fields. basically we construct the mathematics explicitly to eliminate such examples. i looked in a few of my diff geo books (smooth manifolds and topological manifolds by lee) but they didn't suggest anything. however, [this mathoverflow thread](_url_0_) seems to suggest you can relax the orientability condition, specifically this [citations provided](_url_1_) discusses stokes theorem where one replaces the forms with densities. however this is from a book on algebraic topology in a chapter on de rham theory which goes way beyond my level of understanding. i dunno how to compute anything with it so i couldn't give you an answer that way. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://mathoverflow.net/questions/27037/greens-formula-for-nonorientable-manifolds",
"http://books.google.ca/books?id=S6Ve0KXyDj8C&pg=PA86&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false"
]
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|
is there a layer of steam around europa's core? | my current understanding (based largely on wikipedia) is that europa is mostly water. the crust, to an unknown depth, is solid ice, followed by a mantle layer of liquid water and a hot iron core. what would the transition from the water mantle to the iron core look like? specifically would the heat of the core be enough to generate an insulating layer of steam (the leidenfrost effect)? | the internal structure of europa is not well understood, but there is certainly not a layer of steam between the water and the iron core for a couple reasons. 1) water vapor is less dense than liquid water, so it would rise above the liquid. 2) the physical state of the water depends on both temperature *and* pressure. the core is likely hot, but the high pressure under the weight of the ocean forces the water molecules close enough so that it would be a liquid or solid at the base of the ocean. another of jupiter's moons, ganymede, is thought to have [ice v](_url_0_) at the base of its ocean. | 8 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_V",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/EuropaInterior1.jpg"
]
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|
why are geysers so punctual? | how is it possible that geysers like the strkkur geyser and old faithful can be so punctual, when volcanoes can't? | the heat energy which causes the water to overboil and erupt from the ground is fairly constant in those locations. on top of this the chambers which fill with water are refilled at a fairly constant rate. so. after each eruption, punctual geysers refill at a very regular rate, and the heat from the ground is able to boil that quantity of water at a similarly constant rate. not all geysers are punctual and it is fairly uncommon that they do erupt with regularity | 3 | []
| []
| []
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|
how does dextrorotation work? | according to wikipedia, a chiral molecule can somehow rotate plane polarized light. it seems to me that this is impossible if the molecules are in solution, as every orientation is represented approximately equally. please help! eli5 for bonus points. | to the best of my knowledge, no one has actually been able to explain the exact mechanism of how this phenomenon works, although it definitely does occur. we are not able to predict which enantiomer will be levorotatory and which will be dextrarotatory and can only determine it experimentally. | 2 | []
| []
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|
how does the time to submergence differ between a sinking object with a hole at the bottom and one with a hole at the side? | assuming: * both objects are identical cylindrical cups with the only difference being the position of the one hole. * both holes are of the same diameter. [i drew a diagram to better illustrate my question.](_url_0_) also, what is the math/physics behind this called? | think of it this way. (assuming both cups are on the same planet, with the same water level, with the same atmospheric pressure, and same water) in the first diagram, the one with the hole in the bottom, has water on both sides of the empty cup that needs to push down on the water below it to gil the cup from the bottom. in the second diagram, the one with the hole on the side, has water on both sides, too, but the water only needs to fall in the cup with little resistance from the water. but, with my current knowledge, i do am not sure because with a multitude of variables i probably am not accounting for or ones that i have assumed wrong, i am not sure. the first cup also has more pressure(weight, force with gravity as the acceleration) due to the amount of water on the sides to push the water through the bottom hole. the second cup needs less of a force because instead of having the water that goes through the side go against gravity, it goes with it while it is falling down and to the right. tldr; i don't know. this is just an educated guess which i am still sitting on the fence on. | 3 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/N5sY5cX.png"
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|
what field of physics does the er=epr conjecture fall under? | as no department at my local university seems to believe that it is in their area of expertise. | quantum gravity, and to some extent string theory. it's one piece of what i would call a geometry-information duality program. you can certainly group it together with all research on black hole complementarity, holography (aka ads/cft), and isolated cool new things with similar ideas behind like that quantum error correcting code stuff from a couple of years back. | 7 | []
| []
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|
why do simple words like "me", "sun", "water" etc'... vary between languages? | i'm probably looking at it in a limited time span. but i cannot comprehend how such simple words change over time. i mean we all share common ancestry. different languages should have common core vocabulary. | it is generally the case that different languages share a common core vocabulary, *assuming that they're related*. they're not identical because sound changes are completely regular and exceptionless throughout a language, though they are generally more resistant to being replaced by entirely new words. first, let's talk about sound changes. english, like all germanic languages, shows a chain of sound changes known as grimm's law where old \*p \*t \*k became /f θ x/^(1), old \*b \*d \*g became /p t k/, and old \*bʰ \*dʰ \*gʰ became /b d g/. these sound changes happened everywhere. we see them in words like *fish* and *father*, (cf. latin *piscis* and *pater*), *three* and *foot* (latin *tri* and *pes*, *pedes*), *hound* and *what* (latin *canis* and *quod*) and [a great many others](_url_0_). the point is, wherever grimm's law *could* operate, it *did*. this includes even words that we might think would be resistant to sound change, like pronouns. most english speakers don't use it anymore, but grimm's law is also evident in the pronoun *thou* (latin *tu*). intuitive or not, simple words aren't resistant to *sound change*. they are, however, generally more resistant to *lexical replacement*, where a word gets shoved out by another. pronouns, lower numerals, and nouns for body parts and features of the natural world are often good places to look for related words: for instance, per buck's *a dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal indo-european languages*, the words for ['night'](_url_2_) in ancient and modern greek, latin, italian, french, spanish, romanian, welsh, breton, gothic, old norse, danish, swedish, old, middle, and modern english, dutch, old, middle, and modern high german, lithuanian, latvian, old church slavonic, bosnian-serbian-croatian, czech, polish, and russian all come from a single source. contrast this with a much less basic word like ['purse'](_url_1_), where among about 30 languages there are perhaps a dozen totally unrelated forms. ^(1) /θ/ as in *three*, /x/ as in german *bach*. | 18 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%27s_law#Examples",
"https://i.imgur.com/E6lAcGZ.png",
"https://i.imgur.com/n2ndmWa.png"
]
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|
some fossils and modern bird skeletons have what appears to be an "eye bone" what is this? | for example: _url_0_ | i think the bone you are referring to is called a [sclerotic ring](_url_0_). its found in many animals, both extinct and extant except mammals and crocodiles. for instance, the [swordfish](_url_1_) has one. its main function is supporting the eye, or keeping it from deforming. the bone, or fused bones are part of the eye itself, its inside the eye - it is not a protective covering. for instance, with swordfish i learned it keeps the eye from deforming when they swim really fast. | 6 | []
| [
"http://skullsunlimited.com/userfiles/image/variants_large_3672.jpg"
]
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerotic_ring",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordfish",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/334/6063/1641.2.full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerotic_ring"
]
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|
can mount rushmore support another head? | in [popular fiction](_url_0_), faces have been added to mount rushmore. is this even possible? is there enough rock on the mountain to support such an endeavor? also, what is the risk to the existing faces? | nothing more than a civil engineer here, but from a cursory look, i would hazard a few answers. a quick view of the site shows considerable rock face to the left and right of the existing faces, and i can find no mention of separation/split lines in the granite which would seem to indicate no issues. in fact, much more extensive sculpture was initially planned (the presidents were to be done down to the waist) and it was abandoned due to budget issues, not any limitations of the mountain. this would indicate the rock face is very stable and provide more evidence. (it doesn't prove that another face could be supported, but it doesn't disprove it either.) visually, this [picture](_url_0_) would seem to indicate room for several more heads. the same risk with any sculpture, that a fissure/split/separation could occur in the main body of the rock and spread to the existing faces. but from everything i can read about the granite at the site, this would seem to not be an issue. i welcome anyone with more specific knowledge, but from the information readily available, i see nothing to indicate mount rushmore could not support another head. | 22 | []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Rushmore_in_popular_culture#Replacement_or_destruction_of_the_existing_faces"
]
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mt._Rushmore_Early_Morning.jpg"
]
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|
is there a liquid that a person could walk on the surface of? | to be simple, yes. all liquids are divided into two categories: newtonian and non-newtonian liquids. [non-newtonian fluids](_url_0_) flow in a very strange way compared to standard liquids, such as water. in fact, by mixing cornstarch and water at a certain ratio, you can create a non-newtonian liquid in your own home! [here is a neat video showing the properties.](_url_1_) | 29 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMvxYuZpDpk",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUikSN1lRuU"
]
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|
|
does the mercator projection scale problema make us seem to go more distance in a map closer to the poles and less distance closer the ecuator? | so i was wondering if, for example, while using a navigation app, like google maps, you seem to move faster on the map depending on your latitude because of the mercator projection messing with the scales. thanks in advance! | yes, more or less. google maps uses a modified mercator projection so distances will be distorted by a factor of 1/cos(latitude). a mile in green bay, wi would appear about 1.41 times as long as a mile at the equator. | 3 | []
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|
why are erythrocytes smaller in iron deficiency anemia? | i do get that iron deficiency causes a decreased hemoglobin synthesis. but why isn't iron deficiency anemia just a normocystic hypochromic anemia? | great question! it actually has to do with how erythrocytes mature and divide. during hematopoiesis precursor cells respond to erythropoetin to change gene expression and differentiate into the erythrocyte cell line. signals for cell division are governed by the nucleus, while signals for maturation are governed by the cytoplasm. reticulocytes are the final nucleated precursor in the differentiation of rbcs; fully mature rbcs don't have a nucleus. in the case of iron deficiency anemia (ida), the rate of hemoglobin production cannot keep pace with the protein production of the nucleus, and nuclear-cytoplasmic dyssynchrony/asynchrony occurs. therefore, the cells are dividing early with respect to maturation/growth and end up smaller than they should be. this is the same reason you get megaloblasts in folate deficiency, because the folate is necessary for dna synthesis and the cells divide late with respect to maturation/growth. | 2 | []
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|
what science related podcasts do you recommend? | i like listening to general science based podcasts on my commute, but can't seem to find any more good ones on itunes. i really like skeptiod, but have listened to the entire back catalog. i also like science fantastic with micheo kaku, but they are only clips on itunes. any recommendations? | [this week in virology](_url_0_). it's a podcast by a virology professor with a few other co-hosts, including a science writer, other professors, and special guests. the discussion is much more in depth then a radiolab-type podcast and might be initially daunting for a layperson, but they make a real effort to make the material accessible without sacrificing detail - if you hang in there you'll end up knowing more about the cutting edge of virology then you ever thought possible. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.twiv.tv/",
"Nature.com"
]
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|
do you guys listen to any science podcasts ? | radiolab is an amazing one. all the podcasts are online at _url_0_. they talk about many different interesting science topics, but what's great about the show is that they (1) talk about things that actually have something to do with life, (2) cover the subject in-depth and thoroughly, and (3) explain it very non-technically even though they directly interview experts in the field and so on. if you are looking for a starting point, my favorite one is probably words (which is about what language really is and how it affects the brain). | 2 | []
| []
| [
"www.radiolab.org"
]
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|
|
2 astronauts are following the same orbital path. can one intercept the other with a single burn? | say that they are travelling around the earth in the exact same orbit after an unexplained accident. one astronaut is about 5 minutes ahead. the trailing astronaut has a rocket motor with limited uses and wants to rescue the other astronaut. is it possible to intercept using only a single impulse from the rocket? | intercept? yes. but you will not come up smoothly behind them but will come in at some angle to their orbit. for instance, if you both start in circular orbits, you will have to place yourself into an elliptical orbit. | 3 | []
| []
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|
if someone only flexed their muscles as a workout, instead of lifting weights, what would happen? | would that even add any muscle mass? i've heard that muscle growth comes from the tearing then rebuilding of muscles, and that's about all i know. | _url_0_ it would, there are lots of muscle flexing workouts. the key is working your muscles to the point of fatigue, and weights just make that easier. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calisthenics"
]
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|
my wife wants to do a dr oz detox cleanse but i'm skeptical... | most physicians i know are skeptical about everything that comes from dr. oz's mouth. to quote, "he's good for everyday stuff but i'd still see a regular doctor". he also commercializes everything he does - a lot. treat him like a celebrity, not a practicing physician. detox in general is bs. the idea that your body accrues "toxins" is correct in the sense that some substances, like heavy metals, do accrue in your body. however, the idea that you can get rid of these by drinking watery orange juice (the most common "detox" substance i've seen) is an absolute absurdity. all it does is starve you of nutrients for a short period of time. you need proper nutrition, on a daily basis, to be healthy. also, the idea that a lot of the things in your food are bad for you, and that foods contain a lot of "toxins" that people will say range from preservatives to fillers to outright poisons, is also hit-or miss. it is true that foods can have toxins in them, but these are usually things like mercury in fish or arsenic in poorly-treated water. in a first world country with a very strict food regulation system (the fda), foods are often very heavily monitored to make sure no toxins enter into them. of course, this doesn't mean the food is healthy (see very fatty/sugary foods), just that nothing in there will hurt you if consumed moderately. the classic response, used by sceptics of the fda: they generally don't trust it on the grounds that it is a government organization and don't trust the government, which is a valid position. however, having the fda is infinitely better than nothing. the amount of cases where they *do* find harmful things, usually bacteria of some sort, and force a recall, make it's existence worthwhile. to put it another way, without the fda, we'd have eaten those tainted foods. the idea that you can "reset" your body is also bs. it is a gross oversimplification of the process of going from eating/behaving unhealthily to healthily. you don't need to "reset" - just start eating healthy and getting exercise. yoga works and is popular, but any sort of well-structured regimen will also work just as well. [here](_url_1_) is a good article about the myths of detoxification. [here](_url_0_) is another link, which quotes some qualified professionals (unfortunately still a news site, i apologize for that). see /r/skeptic for other articles. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-08/dietitians-criticise-lemon-blood-type-diets/3762690",
"http://lifehacker.com/5908996/why-body-detoxification-is-a-myth-and-you-should-stop-wasting-money-on-detox-products?utm_campaign=socialflow_lifehacker_facebook&utm_source=lifehacker_facebook&utm_medium=socialflow"
]
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|
is there a formula for the addition of squared binomials? | i've been turning this idea around in my head for the last few days now, and have been struggling to reach a solution, due to my highest (current) level of math education being precalc: *** we have two binomials x-p and x-q, we square and then add them, and set them equal to zero: (x-p)^(2)+(x-q)^(2)=0 x^(2)-2px+p^(2)+x^(2)-2qx+q^(2)=0 *** we can then simplify from here, into a quadratic form (ax^(2)+bx+c=0): 2x^(2)-2px-2qx+p^(2)+q^(2)=0 2x^(2)+(-2p-2q)x+p^(2)+q^(2)=0 2=a, -2p-2q=b p^(2)+q^(2)=c *** quadratic formula: x=(-(-2p-2q)±sqrt((-2p-2q)^(2)-4(2)(p^(2)+q^(2))))/2(2) x=(2p+2q±sqrt(4p^(2)+8pq+4q^(2)-8p^(2)-8q^(2)))/4 x=(2p+2q±sqrt(4(p^(2)+2pq+q^(2)-2p^(2)-2q^(2)))/4 x=(2p+2q±2sqrt(-p^(2)+2pq-q^(2)))/4 x=(2(p+q±sqrt(-p^(2)+2pq-q^(2))))/4 x=(p+q±sqrt(-p^(2)+2pq-q^(2))))/2 *** the discriminant can then be factored: x=(p+q±sqrt(-(p-q)^(2))/2 *** this is as far as i could simplify it. i could substitute it (the simplified quadratic formula) into a factored equation like this: (x-((p+q+sqrt(-(p-q)^(2))/2))(x-((p+q-sqrt(-(p-q)^(2))/2)) but that's not really any more simple than the previous. would it be possible to simplify this even further? edit: i am aware my parentheses are very bad, but to be fair, it's really hard to keep track of them all. | i think this may be best in a sub like /r/learnmath because it is a bit about technical details than anything conceptual. first of all, note that: has no *real* solutions with the exception for x=p=q, to find other solutions we'd need complex numbers. and indeed if you look at your final equation if p is different from q (and real), -(p-q)^2 is negative, and sqrt(-(p-q)^2 ) is imaginary. i'm just seting up some background, because i will show you how to factor sums of squares using imaginary numbers so i wanted to show you that imaginary numbers are indeed important here. first of all, let's look at the difference of squares: x^2 - y^2 , you can factor it any way you wish and you'd end up with a nice, slick solution x^2 - y^2 = (x-y)(x+y) what if we let y = ia where a is some real number and i^2 = -1? (i.e. i is the imaginary unit) then (x-ia)(x+ia) =(x-y)(x+y) = x^2 - y^2 = x^2 - (ia)^2 = x^2 + a^2 does that make your life easier? | 5 | []
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|
does wearing or not wearing spectacles affect myopia? | my younger brother is near-sighted (3 d) and my father claims that glasses can cause further degeneration of vision and therefore restricts their use for him. i quite doubt that and argue that not wearing glasses might cause more harm than good for the vision, even if you don't take into account his unhappiness at not seeing correctly. is there conclusive evidence whether wearing glasses affects myopia, and if so, how? as evidence to his claim, he cites his own experience of recovering from what i understand to be mild astigmatism ("they gave me these weird cylindrical glasses that they only made in (a larger town nearby)") at a young age after breaking his own glasses and spending a lot of time outdoors playing volleyball without them. edit: also, what can askscience say about the causes of myopia and ways to prevent or restrict it? | there is no known way to prevent myopia but from what i've just read, neither [using nor not using](_url_0_) glasses will slow down myopia (see the discussion section). this is also one of the facts that seems to be supported by several other studies...just search for myopia and glasses on google or google scholar :) | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://bjo.bmj.com/content/73/7/547.long"
]
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|
how close is this to actual science? | just looking at the first paper, their has a sample size of 10 people, all of whom were "recruited by word of mouth", and has no control group. i don't really care to spend too much time reading this. they can throw around scientific terms, or format their research like a paper, but that doesn't make it science. | 5 | []
| []
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|
|
how does your "state of mind" affect the quality of your training? | it seems to be popular to "multitask" during training - for example, watching tv while using an exercise bike. i wonder if this has any noticeable impact on the results of your training, compared to if you do the exact same exercise but put all your concentration on it. how could the brain affect your training? well, in my high school a teacher claimed that visualizing can be an important part of training. she also said studies had found that visualizing something, e.g. shooting a basketball, had a measurable positive effect on your actual performance. (i haven't checked if this is true though.) basically, i want to know if the brain plays a significant part in how much we get out of our training (fat burning, muscle building, increased lung capacity, ...), or if it's just a function of how much you exercise your muscles, lungs etc. | one important concept here is central fatigue (or supraspinal fatigue). this states that exercise capacity is limited by the brain. in classic exercise physiology, we learn that as we become fatigued, glycogen stores in the muscle and liver and glucose concentration in the blood diminish, and lactate concentration builds in the muscle. these properties are true, but this classic model of fatigue predicts that exercise will terminate when there is catastrophic failure in the system. we know that this usually isn't the case, because most marathon runners and ironmen walk away from the finish line, even though they gave "maximum" effort (in fact, even as a marathon runner becomes exhausted, less than 100% of muscle fibers have been recruited). central fatigue suggest that the brain inhibits motor impulses at a certain point (perhaps to prevent injury, but that is speculation). the triggers of this inhibition are not well defined, but several models (which are not mutually exclusive) have been proposed: * serotonin is released in the brain as you approach fatigue. this pattern is well documented, and the "targets" of transmission include the hippocampus, the hypothalamus, and multiple loci in the neocortex. * brain glucose becomes limited, so the brain will terminate exercise to preserve itself. neurons only use glucose for fuel (although the brain does appear to store and use glygogen during exercise) so when glucose becomes limited, the brain will divert energy away from the muscles in order to save itself from starvation. * the muscles might have "fatigue receptors" which signal when when lactate becomes dangerously high. there are many factors that play into all of these models, and it gets very complex the further you delve into it. one important point is that the effects of central fatigue can be mitigated by external motivation. this is how athletes "feed" on the crowd. fatigue can also be delayed or induced by certain pharmecuticals. tl;dr: maximal exercise performance is a behavior, and can be modified by external motivation and drugs. | 5 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol6Iss1/MentalSkillsReview.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1821082/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_imagery"
]
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|
what are the four new elements and their functions? | chemistry noob here. i read that japan names one of the new found elements nihonium. there are also moscovium, tennessine and oganesson. what are their (potential) functions and how are new elements discovered? | these types of super-heavy elements are produced by using a particle accelerator to accelerate one large nucleus into a target made of other large nuclei. for example element 113 ("nihonium") was made by the group at riken by accelerating zinc-70 and smashing it into a target of bismuth-209. the new atom made in this collision will shoot out from the target, go into a magnetic separator, and then hit a grid of detectors. this lets them measure what mass the atom has. the atom stays embedded in the detector grid where they will see its radioactive decays. very few atoms of these super-heavy elements are built in these experiments because it's an unlikely process, so it is hard to do any kind of detailed study of their properties. for example the riken group shot 2.4 trillion zinc atoms per second at the target for months and detected only a single atom of element 113, which decayed in 344 microseconds. mostly we just know things like half-life and what kinds of radioactive decays they undergo. source on riken experiment: _url_0_ | 34 | []
| []
| [
"http://journals.jps.jp/doi/abs/10.1143/JPSJ.73.2593"
]
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|
is the earth charged (positively or negatively) or is it completely neutral? | as a whole, even if only minutely. can we even know this? if so, how? if not, why not? | as a whole the earth is neutral to any degree that we would be likely able to measure (we couldn't detect an excess of a couple protons or electrons). however if you look at individual parts of the earth and its atmosphere you will find that the earth itself is negatively charged, while the atmosphere is positively charged. this charge difference creates an electric field between the earth and the atmosphere. see these other threads: _url_1_ _url_0_ | 69 | []
| []
| [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1yql74/why_doesnt_the_earth_build_up_a_positive_charge/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/29hs71/physics_what_is_the_net_charge_of_the_earth/"
]
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|
semantics question: poor circulation vs. heart disease | is poor circulation and intrinsic part of the disorders collectively known as "heart disease"? take for example coronary heart disease, defined by plaque buildup. is the existence of small plaques sufficient to be classified as heart disease even if circulation is not yet noticeably deteriorating? or does it only really become heart disease if circulation is affected? | poor myocardial circulation is not an intrinsic part of "heart disease." it is one specific type of disease. your confusion arises because in common parlance "heart disease" is usually used to refer to ischemic heart disease, which is caused by interruptions in blood flow to the myocardium due to plaque in the coronary arteries. in real terms, though, "heart disease" can refer to any disfunction of the myocardium, heart-as-pump, or constitutent components of the heart (valves, septae, etc). thinking specifically about the spirit of your question, rather than the vocab, no, having plaque does not automatically imply ischemic heart disease. having plaque but no symptoms of inadequate blood flow (ekg changes under stress, chest pain with exhertion, etc) is called coronary artery disease. once you start to have symptoms, your diagnosis changes to "ischemic heart disease." | 4 | []
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|
what caused this red sandstone to look like this? | i was hiking in sedona, arizona today along a trail called fay canyon trail and came across [this!](_url_0_). it was near an indian ruin site so there may have been human influence a long time ago. it bumped out of the rock and didn't follow the grain of it so i was wondering what could have caused it. | i'm more of a paleontologist than a sedimentary geologist, but you're probably looking at the [schnebly hill formation](_url_0_). you can see the cross-bedding mentioned in that link! i believe the jawbreaker-looking thing you're seeing is a concretion that has broken in half, so you're seeing a cross-section. i don't know the specifics of the geology of the area, but one way they can form if iron precipitates out of solution. i'll see if i can find someone who knows more about sedimentary geology to add to or correct my answer. :) | 3 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/IK2YmT3h.jpg"
]
| [
"http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r3/landmanagement/resourcemanagement/?cid=stelprdb5194255"
]
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|
how does a jet know that its locked on? | since battlefield 3 was released pretty recently and i keep getting shot down in a jet i was wondering how does a jet know when its being locked on by a weapon? | it will depend entirely on the type of missile and it's targeting/tracking system. anything that uses active guidance can be detected by those signals; for example if you are using laser guidance from a ground system, the plane could detect the laser signal. likewise if the missile is radar guided an active signal must be generated, either from the [missile itself](_url_1_) or from [another source](_url_0_). these radar signals are getting better and better all the time, so that they become less obvious to any warning receivers. modern missile guidance radar jumps frequencies constantly and is nearly indistinguishable from back ground noise. furthermore some radar guided missiles have the capability to be launched towards the known location of the target using gps alone, and then turn on their radar tracking once they are close to the target. this would avoid triggering a lock-on warning until the last minute, when it is likely much too late. other purely passive types would be even harder to screen against, such as infra-red signature guided missiles ("heat seeking") which do not actively signal towards the target. the only way to warn against these missiles would be if a constant radar scan of the area was able to pick them up and identify the speed and direction they were moving. | 87 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-active_radar_homing",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_radar_homing",
"http://www.es.northropgrumman.com/solutions/aar54mws/index.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_warning_receiver",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_warning_receiver"
]
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|
what is the most conclusive theory on the origin of the nastapoka arc ? | having done some background research on the region for some project evaluation, i have come across the debate between impact vs. tectonic origins. iirc, there have been no signs of impact-related geological features (shatter cones, high pressure minerals, etc.) and the best explanation is a terrestrial tectonic boundary between a fold-thrust belt and the superior craton. some have argued that the tectonic boundary reactivated an older impact structure, but i have trouble believing a scenario where a convergent margin reactivated a circular feature and did not deform the circularity. i'm inclined to lean towards a natural tectonic feature. circular arcs are a common pattern between interacting plates and arise from the geometry of planes intersecting spheres. the nastapoka arc just happens to be a very orderly example. | 3 | []
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|
can you tell the race of a person by looking at their skull x-ray? | so this was on the front page today. _url_0_ this has to be bogus right? i mean, i'm sure there are some indicators which could be useful, but there's no way to determine from that picture what race those people really are...is there? | yes actually you can. i took a medical forensics class and it was part of our requirements to know racial skull differences. there are 4 basic shapes of skulls: caucasoid, mongoloid, negroid, and australoid. [here's a link to the wikipedia article.](_url_0_) | 10 | []
| [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/funny/comments/vsf2u/i_think_someone_just_won_some_internet/"
]
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropometry#Race.2C_identity_and_cranio-facial_description"
]
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|
what's the most stunning animal behavior/ability you know of? | blue jays and thieving. blue jays store large amounts of seeds for the winter. some blue jays, however, learn that they can make things easier on themselves by watching where other blue jays stash seeds, and then coming back later to steal that seed for themselves. "victim" blue jays just blindly go on their way, maybe being confused when a seed goes missing, but with no idea what is happening. now, occasionally, a blue jay will witness another in the process of stealing seeds. some individuals are capable of "understanding" this behavior and becoming thieves themselves. once this happens, something "clicks" in their brain and they realize "hey! if i can do this to other blue jays, they can do this to *me*!". at this point, they start to stash their seeds in dark shadows, or behind obstacles - just in case another blue jay is watching. what's amazing to me is that if a blue jay buries a seed, and notices another blue jay watching it - it will fly off as if nothing happened. but they are known to wait for a bit, then return when the other blue jay has left. they then proceed to dig up the seed, *replace it with a pebble*, then fly off to stash their treasure somewhere else. i know it's risky to assign anthropomorphic emotions to animals, but it sure seems like leaving a cruel prank for when the thieving blue jay returns to steal what used to be a seed, but is now a rock. | 21 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pistol_shrimp",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCo2uCLXvhk",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7ijI-g4jHg",
"www.youtube.com/watch?v=L54bxmZy_NE",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/2011/11/08/tet-zoo-highlights-2006-2011/",
"http://www.carolinawildlife.org/fawns.htm",
"http://www.blueboard.com/leafcutters/what.htm",
"http://scienceblogs.com/notrocketscience/2009/12/ballistic_penises_and_corkscrew_vaginas_-_the_sexual_battles.php",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjE0Kdfos4Y"
]
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|
|
why did philae hibernate in spcae? and where does it get its energy? | i saw the timeline and there 2-3 years of hibernation- what does it mean, and why ? also, where do satellites that are far away get their energy from? i know in space nothing usually slows you down, or you could use some planet's \ star gravity to accelertae, but once philae landed on the comet, where does it get all the energy for the drilling etc. thanks! | first off, note that the whole mission is called rosetta, comprising the rosetta orbiter and the philae lander that piggy-backed on rosetta. as sexy as the landing part is, it's just a "cherry on top" of the orbiter mission with regard to the science return. rosetta has some of the largest solar panels ever flown in space. still, as its comet-chasing trajectory took it beyond the orbit of jupiter, even those huge panels could not provide enough power for the regular operation of the spacecraft. now that the actual science mission is taking place, both the probe and the comet are closer to the sun, and still getting closer, providing plenty of sunlight to power the orbiter's systems. philae has batteries allowing for a couple of days of operation. after that, *if* it's in the correct orientation, it can use its own, much smaller, solar panels to recharge its batteries for approximately an hour of scientific observations every 24 hours. that is one big if, though, especially seeing that the landing did not go as planned. still, finishing even the first day or two of operations is plenty enough to call the lander mission a success. almost all spacecraft launched beyond the asteroid belt have used [rtgs](_url_0_) (radioisotope thermoelectric generators) to provide electric power. these use thermocouple devices to convert heat generated by decaying radioactive nuclei (typically plutonium) to electric current. this includes the voyagers, galileo, cassini, and the new horizons probe due to encounter pluto next year. the juno spacecraft, arriving at jupiter in 2016, is the first outer planet mission ever to depend solely on solar panels. the reasons are part engineering, part political. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator"
]
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when i do arithmetic/math, am i actually performing the calculations in my head, or am i pulling the results from old examples in my memory? | [deleted] | read this askscience post about [when i look at five apples, do i know it's five apples because i count them quickly, or because i memorized what five apples looks like?](_url_0_) the answer is pretty similar. for simple arithmetic, you probably memorized most of the answers. personally, i don't calculate 2+2=4, i have it memorized. for more complicated arithmetic, you do the calculation (or at least part of it). for 547+8, i don't have the answer memorized, and i have to calculate it. the simpler the problem, the more likely it is that you have it memorized. the "threshold" of simplicity will be different for each person. for instance, my elementary school we memorized the square numbers through 13. so i don't calculate 13*13=169, i have that memorized. but i do need to calculate 13*12=156. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2ayhkp/if_someone_asks_me_how_many_apples_are_on_the/"
]
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|
i just watched "how long is piece of string," the bbc documentary. why have human senses and human consciousness developed in such a way that ignores the probabilistic nature of the physical world (quantum mechanics), in favor of a "tl;dr" version of experience, i.e., a deterministic one? | youtube link to the documentary: _url_0_ for those who aren't really sure what i'm asking, here's a bit more context on my question: the documentary roughly illustrates that the behavior of the physical world at the quantum level works based on a totally different set of principles than behavior at larger levels. particularly, when you zoom in really close, to measure a piece of string for example, you find that objects *do not have a fixed position.* as in, you're not sitting in your chair, you're probably sitting in your chair. there's much, much more, but that's the basic gist. hence, probabilistic v. deterministic. so again: why do our senses provide us with an interpretation of our reality that is so dramatically inadequate in regards to quantum mechanics? thanks in advance askscience. | you answered your own question in your primary paragraph: quantum events disappear at the macro level. everything around you... other animals, trees, etc - all of them ignore the quantum level (for the most part). there are exceptions to this - for example, the colors of certain butterfly wings, or how geckos hang onto any surface. but those are not conscience - just like your fingerprints were not conscience, just how you evolved. for example, you can't be in two places at once. we can determine your speed and your location. etc. there are no quantum events at the level you experience life. | 3 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VbodZKrAOGg"
]
| []
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|
can you pass a cold to a pet? | the chances are extremely low. there are some zoonotic diseases that can be passed from animals to humans (such as toxoplasmosis, foot-and-mouth disease, and ringworm), but the vast majority of pathogens are species-specific and cannot be passed from animal to human, or vice versa. | 3 | []
| []
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|
|
if i were to go back in time with modern day smartphone, how far would i be able to go back and still get coverage? | modern day smartphone as in an iphone 6s or galaxy s7 | modern smartphones still support second-generation mobile networks (2g). 2g was first introduced in finland in 1991. so that's how far back you could go and still get coverage with a modern phone. note that you would only be able to call, data services were not yet available at that time. | 22 | []
| []
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|
what are these weird byproducts of electolysis? | i dissolved salt into some water, connected 3 9-volt batteries to some copper wire and collected the hydrogen in a shot glass. but the water began to smell like a pool(chlorine) and there was teal sludge an red stuff too. what is that stuff? here is a pic: _url_0_ | that's copper coming off of your electrodes. when you are performing electrolysis, you don't get just the ideal half reactions (here, na+ - what you are seeing here, specifically, is some mixture of copper oxide ([cu2o is reddish](_url_0_)) and copper hydroxide ([cu(oh)2 is pale blue](_url_1_)). | 8 | []
| [
"https://imgur.com/KFeGHo1"
]
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper\\(I\\)_oxide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper%28II%29_hydroxide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine_production"
]
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|
a wasp has been visiting my room for the last 3 days entering a coke can flying away and coming back. what exactly is s/he doing? | well you see, i drank a can of coke and being a slob i am i left it on me deskaroo, so one fine day (saturday) this little wasp flys into my room, i watched him fly around and then land and enter this can of coke. he climbs around inside for a bit and then gets out and flys away. about 10 -15 mins later he comes back and goes straight back to the can in through the window. he knows exactly where to get in through the window which is only narrowly shut, most of the time flys will bang them selves off the glass until i catch them and put them out. i tried moving the can to a different table of the other side of the room and so when he came in he checked where it was originally and then went around the room looking for it. once he found it and climbed in and out again. the next time he comes back he went to the original spot, remembered it wasn't there and then flew straight over to the second location. climbs in and out again. so this last time, i moved it back to the original spot he flys in and straight over to it. are wasps really this intelligent? whats going on here, he like drinks the coke (little droplets left) and flys off, im guessing its for food but can he not alert others that there is food here? i thought they and bees only liked pollen. | to answer part of your question, wasps use concentrated carbohydrates as an energy source, so they definitely don't only like pollen. for that matter, wasps are also consumers of protein, typically obtained from hunting insects, though that is unrelated to your question. it isn't totally clear why eusocial wasps (not all wasps, by the way, are social wasps, so i don't know the particulars of whether this applies to yours) don't recruit others from their nest to join them more frequently. they appear to possess the requisite pheromones and behavioral cues for recruitment, but don't seem to use them often for carbohydrate sources, perhaps because they compete pretty rigorously with one another, especially when the carbs are scarce. wasps are not particularly 'intelligent', but they can mark the location of food sources. all the information in this post was from the following source: [social wasp (hymenoptera: vespidae) foraging behavior m. raveret richter annu. rev. entomol. 2000.45:121-150. ](_url_0_) | 38 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.121"
]
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|
is the mechanism of sterility in mules genetic or mechanical? | tv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0hm5kn8cewr9fnl3xbzr6i47uslmjvqtv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0hm5kn8cewr9fnl3xbzr6i47uslmjvqtv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0hm5kn8cewr9fnl3xbzr6i47uslmjvqtv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0hm5kn8cewr9fnl3xbzr6i47uslmjvqtv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0hm5kn8cewr9fnl3xbzr6i47uslmjvqtv0eivqgkfyngszqlg0c3vh4p3ojxvy0 | the mechanisms are genetic. differences in chromosome structure can inhibit pairing and segregation in meiosis, disrupting this process and preventing viable gametes from being produced. chromosomal rearrangements contribute to this, but there are also conspecific genic interactions that contribute to sterility such as epistasis. there is increasing evidence to this also being due to alleles at different genetic loci not functioning well together^[1](_url_0_). regulatory genes discovered in *drosophila* such as *ods* can cause sterility in species "a" when inherited from species "b", but the reverse does not cause sterility i.e. when "b" inherits *ods* from "a" it is still viable^[2](_url_1_). hybrid sterility isn't very straightforward, and is an active area of research. some models to describe incompatibility, like the dobzhansky-muller model fall short in recognizing conspecific interactions, but can still be useful for describing some interactions. i don't really know much about puberty in sterile hybrids, i would imagine they go through the normal process but would have differences in levels of hormones which would affect their puberty, but i'm not sure in what way. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.eco.ethz.ch/education/lectures/701-0263-00/ws05-06/701-263-00L_12.pdf",
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/Genes-and-speciation-15080"
]
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|
revisited: carl sagan and the pulsating cosmos -- do we know more a year later? | about a year ago i asked [the following question](_url_0_): > in an episode of his cosmos series, carl sagan briefly discussed the idea of a closed cosmos; a big bang is followed by expansion up until a point, then contraction, and eventually a new big bang. rinse and repeat. > he hinted that further examination of the total mass and gravity of the universe was needed to evaluate this theory. so; in the 30 odd years that have passed since the original run of cosmos, have we been able to verify or throw out this theory? for the original cosmos clip, see: _url_2_ the question received [this excellent reply](_url_0_c8lwozl) from /u/adamsolomon: > not only have we been able to throw it out, we've discovered the exact opposite: rather than slowing down towards an eventual halt and recollapse, the expansion is speeding up. > now, take a moment for it to sink in just how weird that is. even if the universe weren't going to recollapse, its expansion should still be slowing down due to the gravity of all the galaxies and matter. the fact that it's speeding up is as weird as throwing a ball into the air and watching it accelerate out of the atmosphere like a rocket ship. > there are a lot of ideas about what the nature of the dark energy[1] causing this could be, or whether we need something more exotic like a modification of einstein's theory of gravity, but it seems very unlikely that it's such that the acceleration would one day stop, and the universe would turn around and recollapse. > that said, the cosmos could still be closed - meaning it would go "all the way around" like the surface of a sphere - although observations show that if it is, its "radius" must be huge because the universe looks so flat, much the way that an ant would never be able to conceive of the enormous radius of the earth. in the absence of this dark energy, such a closed universe is the kind that would eventually recollapse. keep an eye out for data from the planck satellite being released in just under a month's time; planck's the major cosmic microwave background experiment and this upcoming data release has been in the making for decades, and if the universe does have any large-scale curvature, it's likely that planck would find it. during the year that has passed, this concept of a pulsating universe has lingered with me for some reason. did the planck satellite end up giving us any relevant data, as was hinted towards in the answer above? would greatly appreciate an update. | "[ including curvature, we find that the universe is consistent with spatial flatness to percent-level precision using planck cmb data alone.](_url_0_) " pretty much planck seems to confirm what we've observed elsewhere, that the universe appears to be "flat" (obeys euclidean geometry) and thus probably open and infinite in size. | 13 | []
| [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1993uy/carl_sagan_and_the_pulsating_cosmos/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1993uy/carl_sagan_and_the_pulsating_cosmos/c8lwozl",
"http://youtu.be/aBYpWrYIAl8?t=8m52s"
]
| [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1303.5076"
]
| [
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|
if a few grains of table salt were to get into my eye, how would my body prevent the excess sodium from over saturating the sodium-potassium gradient? | if the excess sodium concentration were to somehow "coat" the optic nerve, is it possible that the axons would be unable to propagate action potentials, rendering me temporarily blind? | things that get "into" your eye don't actually get into your eye. they rest against your [cornea](_url_4_), which gets cleaned out by blinking and tears. but let's say you injected salt directly into the center of your eyeball. the salt would diffuse outward. let's say the amount of salt was 1 mm^3 (which would be a sizable grain of salt). it would diffuse evenly in various directions. since the typical radius of the eye is in the vicinity of [10 mm](_url_3_), the volume area of the inside of your eye is about 4000 mm^3. this means that your salt would be diluted to [2.16 mg](_url_5_) in 4 ml, which is 0.54 mg(nacl)/ml. about .4 of that would be sodium (because of the respective atomic weights of sodium and chlorine), so that's 0.2 mg(na)/ml. meanwhile, normal extracellular concentration of sodium is [140 meq/l](_url_0_), which [comes out to](_url_1_) 23 * 140 mg/l = 3 mg(na)/ml. which is to say, that the amount of sodium would be relatively small compared to the normal concentration of sodium that your cells already know what to do with. so, no big deal. but let's say you literally injected salt into the extracellular fluid of your optic nerve. first of all, *why are you doing this*. second, i will hazard an actual guess: active transport of ions wouldn't be able to keep up with that. water would come out of your cells and into the extracellular space (due to osmotic pressure), which would dehydrate your neurons, and indeed disrupt action potentials traveling down your axons. i have no idea if this would be [reversible](_url_2_). | 5 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine_and_metabolic_disorders/fluid_metabolism/water_and_sodium_balance.html",
"http://sitemaker.umich.edu/tutorial/files/handout_milliequiv.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17333319",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornea",
"https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=density+of+salt&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8"
]
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|
is this a praying mantis? and, is it weird that i found it on my window sill in streamwood, illinois? | outside of seeing them as people's pets, i've never seen a praying mantis in person. is that what this is? [imgur](_url_0_) | looks like a [chinese mantis](_url_0_). they were introduced to the states in the late 19th century and have since spread all over the place :) so yes and no, not really. | 8 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/0Um5S.jpg"
]
| [
"http://www.cirrusimage.com/mantidae_praying_mantis.htm"
]
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|
what do i need to do to begin learning physics and astrophysics? | precalculus. if you can hack that, then basic differential and integral calculus will get you through most undergrad texts, though some vector calculus is also necessary. there's also undergrad texts that only use algebra, for pre-med types, but they oversimplify things a lot. if your interest is just in cosmology, you can probably just stick to physics texts, as it is much more qualitative and the real calculations involved in anything non-trivial require years of math study. | 2 | []
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|
|
do polar bears feel "full" after eating? | i've been told that polar bears don't get a "full" feeling after eating enough food. this was said with he example that, if one was taken to antarctica, it could eat enough to kill itself without realising. i've done some googling, but i can't find anything on the topic. has anyone heard this before? is there any substance to this? | 1. a "feeling" of being full is a type of phenomenon known as a qualia, which by its very definition lies outside of the realm of objective scientific measurement. 2. if a creature does not possess a physiological mechanism to let it know that its stomach is reaching capacity, limit the desire to eat, or otherwise cause it to stop taking in food, then that organism will lose a great deal of evolutionary fitness. that is, if you eat until you die, then you won't be able to pass your genes on very well. 3. there is no reason to think that a polar bear would have more to eat in antarctica than in the arctic. but, assuming you dropped a starving polar bear into a rookery of suddenly paralyzed seals, it would not eat until it died. polar bears have been recorded feeding on the massive carcasses of whales. none have been observed stuffing their faces until they've died. 4. whoever is telling you things is just telling you things...without feeling the need to verify, understand or substantiate his/her claims. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-infobooks/polar-bears/diet-and-eating-habits/"
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|
is a patch of algae a "single being" or is it a group of "individual beings"? | same goes with plants, weeds, grass, etc., and fungi. can they be distinguished with unique dna like animals? | no. yes? maybe. algae are unicellular organisms, and patches are most often clusters of sexually reproducing individuals, and so have distinguishable dna, assuming we know where to look to distinguish them, as a patch is almost certainly pretty inbred by animal standards. (but algae can also be clonal: see [this](_url_4_) for algae that you're probably not thinking about as being algae) patches of the same plant could either be: * groups of sexually reproducing individuals, like the clover and dandelions in your yard. * groups of clonal individuals, which are separate 'beings' with exactly the same dna, which typically arise vegetatively: such as from periodic rootings of a runner or underground bulbs splitting. * actually connected underground, and only appear to be individuals because we can't see their roots, such as in [aspens](_url_1_) and [american beech](_url_0_) trees, for example. fungi are harder to tell, and i'm not a mycologist. however, the individuals that we typically see (mushrooms) are the fruiting bodies. the actual individual is living in the ground/tree/dead wood and takes the form of a mass of [hyphae](_url_2_). the fruiting bodies then make spores, which find each other through chemical attraction, and if everything is right, will make a new individual through sexual reproduction. though fungi sex can get [complicated](_url_3_). edit: added links | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://caryaecological.com/2010/05/12/beech-parents/",
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/case-study-the-glorious-golden-and-gigantic-13261308",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypha",
"http://www.independent.co.uk/news/scientists-discover-why-fungi-have-36000-sexes-1119181.html",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1016009620560#page-1"
]
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|
are there error correcting codes in thermodynamics? | in information theory there are methods for detecting and correcting errors in the transmission of information, and since thermodynamics has proven equivalence with information does the same thing exist in thermo? if so, what is the physical meaning? | this is not true. [information theoretic processes need not satisfy the second law (pdf)](_url_2_). i can not definitely say no, but it would be problematic to implement error correction codes in thermo since the uncertainty must *always* increase, and any given state will eventually reach a uniform distribution over all possible states. interpreting the starting state as the message, and the state change as a channel, each message then shares all possible ending states implying the capacity of the channel (for a long enough timeline) is zero. but, that is not to say there is no connection between error correction codes and the expansion of gas! in fact, one of the most popular forms of error correction codes, [turbo codes](_url_1_), was named so because of relationship to the [turbocharger](_url_0_). a turbocharger uses the exhaust gases to compress air for the cylinder. furthermore, in some way a turbo charger may be interpreted as you have stated. you are using a physical structure to improve the original state. still, this connection is little more than footnote though, as turbo codes do not actually obtain their huge boost in performance through feedback. instead turbo codes performance is mainly due to a pseudo random symbol permutation performed at one point in the coding process; this permutation works in conjunction with a convolutional encoder to create very large cycles needed for error events. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code",
"http://staff.ustc.edu.cn/~chenzyn/lectures/paper103_chapter_2.pdf"
]
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|
how much exercise must i undertake to offset an otherwise static life? | i work from home. i've always been thin, so i've never had to exercise to lose weight. i sit for most of my day. even when i "go out," i sit down at a bar or restaurant. so, is there a magic number of hours i need to exercise or a certain number of calories that i need to burn daily through exercise to offset my mostly immobile lifestyle? | it would seem that 30 minutes of activity a day is the magic number- less and you are at a greater risk of disease, more and the payoff is not nearly as significant. it's not my area of expertise and i don't have any peer review stuff to share, but this is a cute little video i like that discusses the benefits of 30min of exercise: _url_0_ | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUaInS6HIGo"
]
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|
is it possibly to be truely stationary? | as i'm writing this, i'm sitting still. but obviously, since (among other things) the earth is rotating, i'm not stationary in any real sense, only a nominal sense. similarly, if i were to go into interstellar space, i'd still be orbiting the galactic centre at whatever speed. so i was wondering whether there was anywhere in the universe where one could be completely stationary, not orbiting anything or moving in any way. inter galactic space maybe? also (and this is where my ignorance of physics may really show), the faster one is moving, the slower time goes by for them, from the perspective of a stationary observer, right?. so...if such a stationary point does exist, are we living in the 'past' or in a slower time frame, from the perspective of that point? and if so, is our notion of what constitutes a 'second' the same as someone who is stationary? | no there are no absolute frames of reference in the universe. everything must be describe in relative terms of something else. | 9 | []
| []
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|
are the physics in total recall correct? | for those who haven't seen the movie, it features a tunnel between australia and britain, which allows fast travel in a giant vehicle that is dropped down the shaft, to emerge at the other side. i'm fine with that part (and ignoring the impossibility of constructing such a thing), what i'm questioning is the forces experienced by the people in the vehicle. for the 'downward' leg of the journey, while the vehicle is in freefall, they seem to experience gravity just the same as if they were standing on the surface. when they near the core (going past it rather than directly through), there is a period of weightlessness, then on the 'upward' part of the journey they appear to experience normal gravity again, in the other direction (the seats rotate so they aren't upsidedown). so, is this correct? | if it's a free fall there will be no apparent gravity during the entire journey. the tunnel was not aligned with the earth's axis of rotation, which means that the walls of the tunnel will be applying a force on the vehicle. this will result in friction between the vehicle and the walls, so that there will be a force opposing the fall. this will make it not a complete free fall, so that you can experience partial apparent gravity. the only place where the vehicle then will experience almost no apparent gravity is around the center where the gravity of the planet is zero (all the mass is symmetrically on all sides and cancels out - check the shell theorem). the apparent gravity will start lower than if you are stationary on the surface and proceed to gradually get lower until you reach the center, where it would start getting higher but now you'd be hanging upside down (hence the flip in the middle). in this case you'd also need something to "push" the vehicle on it's way up from the center since you'd have lost a lot of energy to friction. if anyone sees anything wrong with the forces, don't hesitate to correct me. | 20 | []
| []
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what causes mines to collapse? | miners being trapped and/or killed in a mine somewhere on earth seems to be a fairly regular occurrence. what is actually causing these collapses? is it a specific type of mine? are they drilling too deep? are there cavernous pockets that just give-way? also, are there any preventative measures in place such as constructing stabilizing reinforcements within the mine, or are there no real regulations in place and its just kind of a free-for-all? | each mine is different, and that extends to mine collapse. that being said, when brought to their simplest expression, mines are temporary confined artificial spaces where one regularly uses high explosives. so structural integrity can always be compromised as blasting weakens cryptic weaknesses and small pre-existing fractures in the rock. coal mines seem to be particularly prone to collapse: they are in somewhat weaker and younger sedimentary rocks (speaking from the chauvinistic point of view of a hard-rock geologist), and the the volumes or material removed are generally quite large. furthermore, in the case of shallowly dipping coal beds, you have the added complication that you are essentially removing a shallowly dipping layer within the sequence, trying to keep enough pillars in place to keep the roof up. those pillars at times let go, or are insufficient and collapse occurs. coal mines also are prone to accidental coal gas (grizou) explosions which add an extra level of risk. as to regulations, these differ from one country to the next. in canada (with which i am most familiar) the safety standards and training of the personnel are quite high (silent alarms, protective gear, emergency training, mandatory scaling, etc.); this of course affects operation costs. elsewhere, the reverse might be true. | 2 | []
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|
why is the femoral artery not the best place to check pulse on an adult? | apart from the fact that it is a personal area. | when it comes to making sure someone is alive, there are no personal areas. the real problem is, that despite it's size it can be very difficult to find a pulse due to the surrounding tissue and clothing. whereas the neck and wrist have little between the surface and the veins and rarely have clothing in the way. | 8 | []
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during time of economic depression, why doesn't cost of living decrease? | suppose that in an economy of 200 people. 100 people work to supply things, and 100 people work to buy (demand) things. when salary goes down for everyone (except the top 1%), the demanders are having less money, but the suppliers are also getting paid less so the price stays should decrease. so if a person's money decreases, but the cost of living decreases too, shouldn't this in some way buffer the supposed drop in purchasing power? | first of all, everyone in the economy works to supply things and to demand things. everyone needs to eat, sleep, and crap - all of these things require goods and services that they purchase from other people. everyone needs to produce something, otherwise they don't have enough money to buy what they need to survive. in a depression, this is what happens - people don't have enough money, so there is less demand for specific goods - for example, fewer people can afford to buy bread. when this happens, bakers can respond in two ways: first, they can sell the same amount of bread at a lower cost (what you're suggesting). or, they can sell less bread, and keep the price the same. however, the bakers also have costs associated with production - they need to buy a certain amount of wheat, etc., so they presumably can't just arbitrarily lower the cost of their items until everyone can afford it. it's much easier for them to simply stop making as much bread - stop ordering as much wheat, and only sell to people who can afford at the current prices. of course, there are situations where prices will drop in general. this is called "deflation", and it occurred during the great depression. this is usually considered to be very bad, because it is hard for the economy to get out of this situation. fortunately this seems to be less of a problem in systems with a currency controlled by a central bank, which can artificially raise prices just by printing more money and injecting it into the economy. | 2 | []
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|
how is the genetic sequence for something like gfp isolated? (modern techniques okay, "period" specific / historical not required) | so i get that they can isolate the gfp from the jellyfish, but where do they start to look for the gene(s) that code for this protein? i'm talking about a new situation where they know "here's a protein" and "here's the chromosomes", but they don't know anything about the sequence location. i'm assuming that they might be able to make informed decisions on which chromosomes would be most likely to contain it - i.e. by eliminating ones that may be known to only do certain functions, or perhaps targeting ones known in other research to have yielded similar proteins. or do they somehow denature the gfp and get an amino acid sequence (what i'm guessing comes fresh out of the ribosome pre-folding) and then reverse engineer this back into the dna codons for those amino acids and then look for those dna sequences inside the full genome sequence of the jellyfish (or maybe specific chromosome)? all the papers i find on this talk about isolating / characterizing the protein (i mostly get this) and then 'cloning' its mother dna - which i guess means pcring the isolated dna - which i don't see how they obtained / isolated the dna of in the first place! what do you think guys? | there are a number of ways that i know of if i'm understanding your question. one older method is to mutate multiple organisms and look for ones that are alive but don't have the phenotype. then you take the organism's cells and grind it up, isolate protein or dna (whole/digested protein or digested for dna). run it on a gel with a wild type sample and look for differences. once you find the difference, you can cut it out of the gel and then sequence the protein or the dna fragment. a quicker way (usually) is to use bioinformatics. with genomes being sequenced like its going out of style, this brute force approach now works very well in most cases. you look at the phenotype and you ask yourself has this been observed before; like for instance finding an organism that fluoresces yellow (yfp) and you know that the gfp exists and has already been sequenced. you can then sequence your organism with yfp (it has probably already been done by someone else) and then you take the gfp sequence and use an algorithm called blast (basic local alignment search tool). blast will then look for sequence similarity between gfp and organism's (with yfp) genome once a match is found (i think its lastly other software exists that can be used to compare genomes directly. mutate a bunch of individuals, screen for the missing phenotype, sequence the genomes of candidate individuals and look at changes in genomes between the mutants and the wild type. this can be time consuming (depending on the size of the genome and the speed of your pc) and needs to be done multiple times to avoid changes that are simply due to natural polymorphisms. | 5 | []
| []
| []
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|
my friend and i were discussing dragon mythology... | there is obviously evidence of flying reptiles, but is it all all possible for these, or any other animals to have developed the anatomical parts to "breathe fire?" (we feel it would be extremely unfair and probably unnecessary for a species to evolutionarily develop this trait.) | evolution is a blind process, so there is no "fair". as to breathing fire, the closest thing to that would be the [bombardier beetle](_url_0_). | 17 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_beetle",
"https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-x0TxczvsYn0/TYRmGCvYecI/AAAAAAAAANE/x13fIBbtXzA/dragonmale.jpg"
]
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|
how fast was this guy going? | so the dashed lines on the highway are 10 feet, with a 30 foot gap between them. i tried to time it, but this is rather imprecise even with a large number of tries. it looks to me like he is going ~200 feet per second, or ~140 mph. (220 km/hr) | 5 | []
| []
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do 'xx days without an accident' signs correlate with lower accident rates? | this might have made a better question in ask reddit sub. without any experience in psychology i can only answer from experience having a sign like that in my store. it wasn't until there was an incentive to having so many days without an accident that made a difference. it resulted in less reported accidents. people are more likely to be coached/fired by supervisors if caught doing something that might result in an accident. our incentives increased the longer we went without an accident in 30 day increments. the closer we got to one of those increments there would be more peer pressure to be safe, or not report an accident until after we receive our incentive. | 2 | []
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what could be accomplished if we were able to adjust the strength of each fundamental force? | if the force of gravity is only weak because we are separated from its concentration by one or more extra dimensions, then a similar separation from the areas of concentration of the other forces should also be possible, which would result in the adjustments mentioned in the title. so what would the ramifications of such adjustments be? | no. this... really doesn't mean much of anything, i'm afraid. i can answer the last part of your question, but i have to point out that this whole premise part does not make sense. if you could adjust the strengths of the fundamental forces you could do a lot of things. if you made electromagnetism too strong then atoms wouldn't be stable. if you made the strong force too weak, nuclei wouldn't be stable. there are lots of things that would be different if some combination of relative strengths were weaker or stronger, and i really don't know how to list out all of them. | 7 | []
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|
straight to the gut: why when some people put on weight it appears to gravitate to a certain body part ie. < butt,gut > is there a scientific answer to this | when we gain weight are some people more prone to gaining weight in specific areas? shouldn't it spread proportionally throughout everyone? before someone else says it, an example of this would be a girl gaining an extra few pounds but instead of going to her stomach it appears to show up on her butt, or a guy gaining a few pounds and instead of going to his butt it goes to his gut, thanks askscience! | there is a fairly clear association with the distribution of fat and circulating sex hormone levels. unfortunately, while there are pieces of the puzzle being worked out, i don't think anyone can say for certain why men gain weight in their gut, while women gain it on their arms/thighs/butt. it's related to testosterone and estrogen, but it's a complicated interplay of factors going on. | 5 | []
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|
roof shingles and black body radiation | okay so i know (as well as a layman can know) that black objects radiate heat more effectively than white, or shiny objects. then would it make sense that white shingles would actually make your house hotter, instead of the prevailing wisdom that says it helps cool the house down? not to mention there's probably a lot of differences in the materials that make up a shingle, and the improbability that a white shingle will stay white for long, but i am curious what else i don't know about. | if we're talking strictly about color - white materials stay cooler than the same material in black. white objects largely *reflect* the light, so the energy from the light is not deposited in the material, but reflects off it, since the object doesn't absorb energy, it doesn't warm up. black objects absorb the light that hits it, so the material *gains* energy. the energy gained by the black object turns into heat and some leaves the material as (infrared) radiation. | 5 | []
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|
what would it be like standing at the bottom of challenger deep if there was no water there? | seeing as you need oxygen tanks and masks on the top of mount everest, would one have to take other precautions if we could stand at the bottom of challenger deep if it wasn't filled with water? not inside a cave, but if you look up you see the sky. | nope (and being inside a cave or not wouldn't change anything). challenger deep is approx. 11 km below sea level. under air (1.2 kg/m^3 ), that's an extra 1.2 * 10 * 11 * 1000 = about 132,000 pa of pressure. that's roughly 1.3 atm, so the total pressure is 2.3 atm. that's practically nothing - equivalent to a ~13 m dive, which people do routinely with no special preparations and no consequences. e: actually, i found something interesting: according to [this website](_url_0_) people can tolerate partial pressures of oxygen of up to about 0.45 atm without any ill effects. given that the base partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is about 20 kpa and we're talking about ~2.3 atm, that's about 46 kpa (0.45 atm) of oxygen partial pressure. so the challenger deep is about as deep as you could go without worrying about oxygen toxicity. e2: note that my rough math neglected the compressibility of the air. so at the bottom of the real challenger deep you probably wouldn't want to stick around too long because of the risk of oxygen toxicity. but the pressure wouldn't crush you or anything (for the same reason atmospheric pressure doesn't crush you right now). | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.diverite.com/education/rebreather/tips/oxygen%20toxicity/"
]
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|
in one of the first full-res shots from curiosity, there's a spot on the rover that is "whited out." anyone know what that is? (link inside) | [here's the picture.](_url_0_) i'm thinking that it might be some sort of transmission error or weird reflection, but i don't have anything to back that up. curiosity is probably too public of a project for nasa to be scratching out serial numbers and the like. | a reflective or white surface directly reflecting the sun can max out the camera's sensor. i don't know that that's what's happening here, but it's a possibility. | 6 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/xkA2t.jpg"
]
| []
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|
how do you date things underwater? | i was recently watching a video about mysterious underwater anomalies and was wondering how are things dated from underwater? [here's the video if anyone's interested...](_url_0_) | there is no real difference with unsubmerged materials. the same techniques of geochronology and stratigraphy apply on a case by case basis depending on setting and material. c^14 would be appropriate for human remains, but other phenomena could be dated differently, depending on type. there are several approaches and methods available. | 9 | []
| [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=erK2MGLua0s"
]
| []
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|
do convection currents in the mantle follow the atmospheric tri-cellular model? are they affected by the coriolis effect? | does the coriolis effect affect the earth's inner material the same way it affects the atmosphere? i would think because the mantle is fluid (well, relatively speaking), it should be pushed into the same pattern as the atmosphere, with subterranean jet streams, etc. however, if i look at a tectonic plate map, i don't see them moving as if these predictable currents are pushing them. | yes, in the sense that any moving object on the earth will be impacted by the coriolis effect. however, there are *far* bigger forces at play on mantle dynamics. also take note that the atmosphere 'overturns' on the order of a couple weeks, i believe (pulling from memory here). the mantle overturns on the order of a billion years (again pulling from memory). realistically, the mantle is very much more like a solid than a liquid. when something moves very slowly, is non-homogeneous, and is surrounded by the immense temperatures and pressures that rocks in the mantle experience - the coriolis effect ends up having very little impact on the way things move. though there should be a very slight tendency for the mantle to form some sort of slight analogue to the atmosphere dynamics. now as a side note, it's widely expected that the coriolis effect does have an impact on the dynamics of the outer core of the earth - this would explain how the earth's magnetic field arises. but the outer core **is** liquid, and is much more uniform than the mantle, so it makes sense that the coriolis effect would have a more noticeable impact on it. note: this isn't my direct area of research, nor something i've been directly taught. i'm just pulling together these conclusions from stuff i've learned from a good number courses i've taken. there's always the chance my intuitive understanding of the physics involved is way off (but it would surprise me). | 2 | []
| []
| []
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what is the difference between osmotic pressure, oncotic pressure, and hydrostatic pressure? (renal physiology) | hydrostatic pressure: the pressure any fluid exerts on the wall of its container caused by gravity (weight of more fluid pushing down on it from above). hydraulic (which you didn't ask for but i feel like helps inform this) is the pressure caused by the driving/pumping of a fluid through a pipe (heart pumping blood through vessels). osmotic pressure: the pressure needed to prevent the flow of a solvent (water, in this case) from traveling from a region of low solute concentation, across a semi-permeable membrane, and into a region of higher solute concentration. as far as i understand, oncotic and osmotic pressure can be used interchangeably. i believe the only distinction is that "oncotic" refers specifically to impermeable blood plasma proteins like albumin that produce the pressure gradient for water, whereas "osmotic" refers to any solute or solvent. | 2 | []
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what do the strong and weak fields "look" like? | with the electromagnetic field, i know we draw two sets of field lines: ones radiating in/out from electric charges and wrapping around magnetic charges, but i also know the strong on weak fields have their own sets of charges, as well as their own "electric" and "magentic" components. how would this work for the weak fields and strong fields, both around the charges and the force carriers? | any picture of this type you can make in your mind is going to be misleading, because there is no situation in which, for example, the colour field can be approximated as a classical (non-quantum) field. this is because of confinement. it's a property of theories like qcd which tells you that it's not possible to separate colour charges which therefore must always be bound in colourless composite particles. therefore, if all you're allowed to get are colourless bound states, which are the hadrons (mesons and baryons and a few other exotic hadrons) then the colour field can only be significantly nonzero inside the hadron. there is no field the hadron generates outside that you could detect at a specific distance\*. so all the field is inside, but the hadron itself is small (it's around the femtometre scale, for a reason i won't go into now, but it's a purely quantum thing). the colour field inside is going to be very quantum. it's far from having any specific classical configuration. accordingly, a correct description from first principles of the structure of hadrons is extremely challenging. still, coming up with a **qualitative** description of what is going on in terms of classical field theory can be useful for building an intuition about phenomena in qcd (even though it'd be pointless for quantitative predictions). i suggest you get a hand on a copy of peskin & schroeder and check out section 16.7, where the field from a lone quark and its interaction with a vacuum fluctuation is treated in a semiclassical manner looking at the colour-electric and colour-magnetic field, to explain confinement. an explicit example of such a classical picture can be done in the particular case of mesons, which are to a decent approximation to be thought of as bound state of a quark and an antiquark. in this case it's reasonable to assume the colour-electric field takes the shape of a thin tube, a flux tube, [like this](_url_0_). in fact, since for light quarks the mass of the meson is much larger than that of the quarks (the lightest mesons, the pions, weigh ~140 mev), essentially all of the energy is in the flux tube, not the quarks. this flux tube acts in many ways like a string - in fact this is precisely the reason for the initial success of the original string theory as it was applied to hadrons. modelling mesons as literal strings explains a series of particular relationships between their mass and spin known as regge trajectories. (this in a modern perspective is actually revisited in terms of holography, where if a string theory is dual to a lower-dimensional theory similar to qcd, then the flux tubes are holographically dual to strings.) anyways, in the end meson = flux tube is an approximate picture, and it's unable to explain many other phenomena in qcd. it's just not possible to describe the qcd field in classical terms. \* to be honest, there is a residual field, which gives the (residual) nuclear force holding nucleons together in nuclei. however, this residual field is itself a "colourless" component which is reflected in the fact that it can also be seen as just the field of the pion, which is a colourless meson. the field is scalar (because the pion is a scalar particle) and it goes like e^(-mr)/r in natural units (that's the potential field, analogous to the electrostatic potential), where m is the mass of the pion. note this field is significant up to distances of order 1/m: this is roughly (m_proton)/(m_pion) ~ 7 times larger than the size of the proton, so approximating it as a classical field is right on the edge of making sense. | 6 | []
| []
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"http://blogs.uslhc.us/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/confine2.png"
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|
whats better for you? eating junk all at once or rationing it over time? | the human gi tract is pretty efficient at breaking down all the food that's able to be broken down. it's going to spend up to 48 hours in your gut, being crushed and doused with acid in your stomach, then being worked over by all kinds of enzymes in 20 to 35 feet of intestines. most of what you ingest that makes it out is fiber - and junk food doesn't have much of that unless you're eating bean burritos - and water. here's the scoop on poop: _url_1_ according to [this paper](_url_0_): the only thing is, they weren't feeding these children mass quantities of junk food, so there might still be a possibility your friend is right. sadly there's not much call for research in that area. can you imagine the outcry if thousands of taxpayer dollars were spent on such a study? maybe this could be a kickstarter project. has anybody ever used kickstarter for science? | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1793018/",
"http://www.smellypoop.com/facts_about_poop.php"
]
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|
can someone demystify abstraction for me? | hi there! i am a second year computer science major. i am hoping someone could help me understand the process behind the abstraction that is hardware (cpu) to software conversion. i understand bits, but i don't understand how they go from being electrical signals to numbers on the screen... abstraction really frustrates me as i would prefer to know how something works instead of that it works. anyways, thanks a lot. | i **highly** recommend reading the book code by charles petzold. it is by far the best book written about computers at a level that non-experts can understand. it addresses your exact question in clear language but in a way that still has some depth. it is one of like three books that i have on my bookshelf at work that i lend out to people. | 7 | []
| []
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|
a few questions on physics & particles | hey all, i'm in 10th grade in ny so by state education law i'm required to take a chemistry course this year. however, i'm much more interested in physics, which is what i'll be taking next year. i've just been thinking about it and i've come across a few questions. 1.) does light have a mass? because i've been told (so far) that it doesn't. but wouldn't that break e=mc^2, causing e to be 0? i thought light does have energy? and could e^2 = (mc^2 )^2 + (pc)^2 be displayed as a right triangle by pythagorean theorem? 2.) what is a photon? 3.) what is a negatron? 4.) will i ever have to divide by 0 in a physics course? (just this completely random, nonimportant question.) thanks! | 1) light doesn't have mass but it does have momentum. i have seen it as a triangle actually so yes but it seemed pretty pointless to me 2) a photon is a particle of light. 3) never heard of it. 4) if you do, someone is doing something wrong. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-momentum"
]
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|
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