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how are genes regulated to produce dramatic left/right tissue differentiation in lobsters and fiddler crabs? | and are there other examples of deviations in perfect bilateral symmetry among other metazoans? | one of the steps of the formation of the embryo involve the formation of a gradient of the stuff cells use to talk to each other. for this some of the cells in embryo develop left or right specific gene expression. for instance the gene lefty (involved in the establishment of left right symmetry) tends to be specifically expressed on the left side. most of the studies are done on inferior chordates (like the amphioxus). this paper is pretty cool: _url_1_ and this one too (even though it looks at it from a pathological point of view). _url_0_ i assume that these same genes (tgfbeta, pitx, hox genes and sonic the hedgehog) are involved in the asymmetries of crustaceans. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/1998/980806/full/news980806-7.html",
"http://users.ox.ac.uk/~zool0615/My%20PDFs/BioEssays%20asymmetry%20review.pdf"
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why shouldn't i control a parallel load register using an and gate? | i have been taught to use a mux to control whether you load a new data value into the d-flop or load the flop's current output back in to the flop. * why is it not better to remove the multiplexers and just have a control input anded with the clock and use the output signal as the clock for the flops? * wouldn't doing this remove the constant reassigning of the flop's output back through the design? | a _multiplexer_ selects one out of two or more input signals to output based on an other (control) signal. any way you choose to implement it, it will be a multiplexer nonetheless. the reason you don't want to use the output of a multiplexer as the clock of the subsequent flip-flop is it's introducing unnecessary propagation delay. also, since the output of a multiplexer can be something other than your clock signal, you have to introduce additional circuitry to cover what happens when the clock is not selected - because if all inputs of the multiplexer were the clock, then it is useless. what you are describing in your question is conflating the usage of a multiplexer and a clock. their purpose and functions are orthogonal. you have to be more specific - what exactly is the circuit you have in mind? and what exactly do you mean by "constant reassigning of the flop's output"? | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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all permeating particle fields sound suspiciously like the aether. what's the difference? | doot. | fundamentally the most important difference is that quantum fields obey lorentz invariance. this means their values are tied to your coordinate system and not a statement of absolute medium like aether did. in qft, there is no prefered reference frame, the universe doesn't have an intrinsic orientation. probably the simplest example is classical electromagnetism. [1] in electromagnetism, one observer might see a pure electric field, but a respectively moving observer might see a mixture of both electric and magnetic fields. neither perspective is more correct. when we say these fields permeate the whole universe, which is what *sounds* like aether!, we're just being sloppy because what we really mean is the physics we're describing works the same everywhere. the sloppy language is actually a strong statement of generality and unimportance of perspective, something that aether models explicitly violate. [1] before anyone yells at me for discussing a classical field theory instead of the *quantum*, the argument here is the same. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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intentional panspermia. good idea, bad idea? | hypothetically, we gather a diverse set of super bacteria. ones that can survive extreme temperatures, radiation, impact, vacuums, the works. we store as many types as we can, each in separate containers, and put them in a guided rocket. then we make dozens of these rockets, and blast one at every interstellar body in our solar system, with the intention of the bacteria containers opening on impact, and seeding life. of course not all if any of the varieties of bacteria will survive, and certainly not all if any of the interstellar bodies will be able to sustain life. hence the variety, hoping at least one strain, from one rocket will be able to develop a foothold on the new planet/moon, and begin to evolve over hundreds of millions of years. good idea? bad idea? thoughts? | since we don't currently know if life forms exist on the other planetary bodies in our solar system, this is a very bad idea. recent science seems to indicate that europa may be mostly water under an icy crust, and if that is the case, life may exist near undersea vents like on earth, or at the border between the ice and the water. blindly seeding bacterial life on a poorly understood and unexplored planet would essentially destroy our ability to verify if extraterrestrial life exists there, because from that point on anytime evidence of bacterial or bacterial activity was found, we'd have to spend a lot of effort to make sure that it wasn't actually our panspermia thing. this may turn out to be impossible to resolve. so no, this is something we should never, ever do. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why can't the planet hunters site be automated? | for those unaware, [this site](_url_0_) is basically a citizen science project where users look for anomalies in star brightness that may indicate a planet orbiting the star. i'm wondering why it's not possible to write a program to do this a lot faster. | the entire point of the site is that humans are better at recognizing patterns than computers. especially when there is a lot of noise. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.planethunters.org/"
] | [
"http://www.planethunters.org/science#human"
] | [
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what precisely does it mean when we say something or things are ordered? | i'm sort of looking for a pedantic answer. i want a cohesive definition of ordering that is independent of any reference frame. i'm also hoping it would be the same when thinking about an ordered set and something like ordering of operators. | a set is ordered (in the most general sense) when there is a transitive binary relation defined on at least some of its elements. common notions of order add additional requirements but transitivity is the critical bit. usually in mathematics an order means a partial order which must be relfexive (or antireflexive) and antisymmetric (a cannot be both greater than and less than b unless a = b). the best example of a partial order in everyday life is a family tree. your parents are you ancestors and because of transitivity all of your parents own parents muut be your ancestors as well. however your aunt doesn't have a "ancestor" relation to you. we could get more pedantic. relations are defined in terms of cartesian products. and to define a cartesian product you need a set theoretic notion of a tuple, which turns out to be rather complicated. however while these things are interesting that aren't really gove you a better understanding of order. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about thimerosal | people used to [prolly still] bring back their infants home from the hospital after getting shots and sometimes on the very way there some said infants would start twitching "abnormally" and shit, well, new parents are concerned and worried and shit and they start inquire and shit and one thing leads to another and next thing you know we find out the amount of thimerosal [a mercury based conservative agent] used for infant vaccines are the same for an adult dose. so, nowadays, they are thimerosal-free "alternatives" for kids 18 and younger, do you have an idea of why is that so? | thimerosal has been removed from most childhood vaccines in the us and europe as a precaution. there was some controversy at the time, and patients were concerned, so the preservative was phased out while research was done. we now have good evidence that there are *no* adverse reactions associated with thimerosal, other than minor reactions at the injection site (swelling and soreness) in some people. the original controversy was based largely on misinformation and celebrity hype. there was one primary "study" that purported to show a link between vaccination and autism, but we now know it was a fraud and intentional hoax. it was published in 1998 by then-doctor [andrew wakefield](_url_0_) in an apparent attempt to enrich himself. wakefield has since been discredited and stripped of his medical license. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiomersal_controversy",
"http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/Vaccines/QuestionsaboutVaccines/UCM070430"
] | [
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what's the oldest known man made object? | the oldest known mad made object? does it still exist? | the species *homo habilis* are known to be found in archeological sites along side stone tools. *homo habilis* translates literally as 'handy-man', and are said to be the first pre-human species to develop tools. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any equivalent to 'pitch circularity' in the visible/near-visible light colours? | _url_0_ this neat video is primarily about the relationship between rhythm and pitch, and the guy demonstrates some striking correspondences between these different periodic sound phenomena. polyrhythms which are easily understood or 'felt', he suggests, turn out to create pleasing pitch harmonies when played a few orders of magnitude faster. later in the talk he draws slightly more tenuous analogies to orbital mechanics at the low-frequency end of the scale and the colours of visible light at the high, and one thing that occurred to me is that it seems a strange coincidence that the range of visible colour frequencies for humans extends approximately from n to 2n. this leads me to ask: is there any physical meaning to the concept of an "octave", where em radiation frequencies are concerned? if, for instance, a pigment molecule reflects 600 nanometer light especially well, do the physics of colour give any reason to expect peaks at 300 or 1200? more generally, are there any special phenomena or principles in physics respecting em waves whose wavelengths are related by 2:1 or any other small integer ratios? | yup, harmonics do occur with light as well. for our purposes, we'll discuss it as "if a material reacts at frequency *v*, it will react in an analogous way to integer multiples n*v*". here are two representative examples. in terms of resonances in molecules, different frequencies of light excite different modes of motion in a molecule. it turns out that the electronic absorption, which are what usually react to visible light, do *not* generally respond to harmonics. for atoms, which are the simplest case, the levels are roughly spaced out as [*v*/n^2](_url_0_) due to their spherical symmetry. however, molecular vibrations, the oscillations of bound atoms which are excited generally by infrared light, *do* show harmonic characteristics. the bound atoms are essentially the quantum mechanical analog of two balls attached by a spring, and just like their classical analog, you can excite it in harmonic intervals. however, real molecules don't have a perfectly harmonic interaction, and have some amount of [anharmonicity](_url_1_) that causes the energy levels to get closer together as you go to higher frequencies. moving beyond resonant interactions, you can use "harmonic generation" to turn, for example, two photons of lower frequency into a single photon of higher frequency by putting it through the proper medium. speaking rather classically, when an em wave passes by an electron, it causes the electron to oscillate in its position, even if it's not a resonant interaction. because the [electron's motion is not perfectly sinusoidal](_url_2_) (similar to the molecular vibration case), there's a component of its motion that goes at twice the resonant frequency. if you can drive that component enough, with a laser, for example, that motion in the electron will create a new photon with twice the original frequency. this particular use is very common for green lasers, where you double the frequency of a near ir laser (~1000 nm) to get to green (~500 nm). | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JiNKlhspdKg"
] | [
"http://dev.physicslab.org/img/3a9c6fb1-d750-41d1-ac19-b13655849a24.gif",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Morse-potential.png/1280px-Morse-potential.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Electron_asymmetric_motion_animation.gif",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/111/50/E5445"
] | [
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angular size test - universal expansion question | creationists use this as an argument against the expanding universe. does anyone have any links or knowledge as to whether or not this holds water? | here's a (fairly long) paper that addresses this: [angular size test on the expansion of the universe](_url_0_) here is the author's conclusion: size vs. redshift present some conflict with the standard model, and that they are in accordance with a very simple phenomenological extrapolation of the hubble relation that might ultimately be linked to a static model of the universe. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1002.0525v1.pdf"
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help with temperature at which sio2, feo and pbo form | i'm asking this for someone, so don't understand it fully, but when smelting slag, sio2, feo and pbo are formed. from the proportions of each, they have made a ternary graph. is there any way to work out temperatures involved and plot it on the graph? it's pretty urgent, so help would be much appreciated! (explain simply please... it's not my subject and i'm relaying through text!) | what you're describing sounds sort of like a pseudo-ternary phase diagram, which relates the phases formed when mixing three different compounds in different ratios. normally these are *cross sections* of what happens at a specific temperature; i suppose you could make a three dimensional ternary plot with temperature along the z axis, but that would be very difficult to read. edit: grammar | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is right, and what is wrong with this video, and if possible please explain this like i am 5 [quantum mechanics] | [_url_0_](_url_0_) in short the video explains the "double slit experiment". from what i gathered it was stating that when an electron particle is fired at a "double slit" it forms an interference patten much like a wave would. however the video states that under observed conditions, the particle acts in a completely different way more akin if solid matter was to be used. result stating that just because the condition was observed it caused the end result to be changed, i find this very unlikely, however when it comes to science any thing is possible. i apologize if my summary doesn't explain the video that well, it was the best explanation on my own i could make without making a wall of text. i don't put my trust in to youtube comments and hopefully some of you here may explain this phenomenon and if there is any truth to it. | perhaps you're confused because of the term "observation." in order to make an "observation," a detector is placed at one of the slits, and in making the measurement the electron is altered. it is an _interaction_ between the electron and the detector that causes what's called [wavefunction collapse](_url_0_) - instead of the electron going through both slits (a superposition of states), only one state is measured. unfortunately that's the opposite of science. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMqtiFX_IQQ"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefunction_collapse",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=double+slit&restrict_sr=on"
] | [
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] |
what makes ferromagnetism and paramagnetism dominant over diamagnetism? | [removed] | diamagnetism is caused by induced currents in the material. these currents follow [lenz's law](_url_4_) which states that induced currents always produce a field that opposes the introduced magnetic field. however, these induced fields tend to be weak. ferro/ferri/para/anti-ferro magnetisms are all the outliers here. all of these other forms of magnetism are ultimately based on [electron spins](_url_1_). most electrons in most chemical compounds tend to [pair up](_url_5_), but in many compounds a few don't pair up. this is often because of [degeneracy](_url_2_) near the [fermi level](_url_0_) and the [pairing energy](_url_3_). in brief, it costs (a small amount of) energy for electrons to pair up. when the available orbitals are well-separated in energy, it is more favorable for the electrons to pair up, but when there are a lot of open orbitals with similar energy available the electrons will spread out, leading to unpaired electrons. it turns out the spin-related magnetic moment of electrons is quite strong, so even when only a fraction of electrons are unpaired the resulting magnetic moments tend to dominate the magnetism of the material. paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons whose spins are all randomly oriented, uncorrelated with each other. in ferromagnetic materials nearby unpaired electrons tend to prefer to align their spins (for complex qm reasons). in anti-ferromagnetic materials nearby unpaired electrons tend to prefer to disalign their spins. ferrimagnetic materials are a mixture of ferro- and anti-ferro- behavior, with a smaller net ferromagnetic-like behavior. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_energy_levels",
"https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/Spin_Pairing_Energy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_pair"
] | [
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can a new layer of topsoil be contaminated by the layers below it? | my community garden has no topsoil, i don't know what was there before, possibly a house. there's a lot of bricks, rock and clay, i'm thinking horizon b (it's been a million years since i did soil horizons). i want to start experimenting with using fungi to rebuild the top soil layer, but i am concerned about contaminants in the ground, like lead, arsenic and so on. this is a former industrial area too, so there's likely a lot of nasty stuff around. i've tried looking for places to get the dirt tested, but no dice (that's another rant). it occurred to me that if i build up a layer on top of what's there, it may be safe to eat from. i feel i should know the answer to this, but i don't. so, if i build a new topsoil layer on top of what's there, will it absorb any contaminants that may be there? | yes and no. diffusion doesn't take much account of direction, so if there are sufficient contaminants in the lower layers, they will tend to diffuse to the lower concentration area in the topsoil. on the other hand, water would tend to absorb contaminants and carry them down and away. the main question is how well water can drain through the lower layers of soil. if the drainage is good, the water from rain and watering the plants will tend to carry contaminants away from the topsoil. if drainage is poor, however, then having water sit there for a while before drying or slowly filtering out would actually tend to facilitate diffusion of the contaminants into the fresh topsoil. i'd suggest testing the existing layers of soil to see how quickly and efficiently water can drain through them. if the water takes a long time to drain, forming puddles, or if the soil stays very muddy for a while, indicating a high level of water absorbency, you might need a different solution. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does a camera measure luminance in a scene and not illuminance? | i always thought that a ccd or cmos sensor measured how many photons had hit a pixel within a given time frame. this seems to suggest that illuminance is being measured, if the pixel has a certain area its value will be proportional to the illuminance hitting it. however i understand that a camera is sensitive to luminance, and is demonstrably so by moving it further away from a light source, where the light source looks smaller but has the same "brightness". how is this? | the key here is to note that the camera is measuring the light coming from the scene it is taking a picture of. it thus measures the amount of light being reflected off the object from a light source; this is luminance. measuring the total amount of light hitting the object, reflected or otherwise, would be illuminance. you are correct in thinking that measuring the amount of light hitting the camera lens would be illuminance, but note the luminance being referred to is that of the scene the camera is taking a picture of, not the camera lens. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the zinc company in russia have legal rights to the meteorite that hit it? | as far as i'm aware, the damage caused was actually due to the sonic boom generated by the meteor as it was disintegrating as opposed to being caused directly by the meteor. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do bones conduct electricity? if they do can we get shocked by touching them when they're connected to a power source? | asked this myself after watching a movie last night. talking about human bones. | human bones consist chiefly of calcium phosphate, this is a form of salt which dissolves poorly (they're solid inside your body). since salts don't conduct in their solid state due to lack of electrons which can flow freely, bones do not conduct. regardless, i wouldn't touch any bones that are in contact with a supply of electricity, they might be wet and then the waste could conduct. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the modern evolutionary pressure on humans? | in the past those who were smarter, stronger and had better immune systems had a better chance of leaving their descendants with us today. what kind of traits are we going to see amplified in the future? i have to stress that i'm talking about second and first world countries, here. it seems to me that actually being good at anything mentally or biologically is less and less important and having illiterate women, rules against birth control and poverty make you more likely to pass on your genes. i'm not trying to get all "idiocracy", but a woman having as many babies as physically possible in her lifetime is, at the moment, the best strategy because nobody is going to let those babies die. as long as these conditions exist, shouldn't we see a general trend towards that master-strategy as people who act more and more like that are more successful? | i don't think we should underestimate 'natural' phenomena. for example, diseases pose an extreme risk to human civilization; they have in the past, and with their evolutionary rates, pathogens are sure to leave a mark on human selection in the future. pathogens can 'jump' from wildlife or even soils to make us sick. and if our immune systems are not primed for these new pathogens, it could cause a selective pressure. there's a really good new article on how we've come to be shaped by pathogens in our evolutionary history: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00231.x/abstract"
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how is absolute, gauge and atmospheric pressure used in practical applications ? | wouldn't we just need to use absolute pressure for everything ? how do they take different altitudes and locations in consideration when pressure is used ? | the second question is the answer to the first. we use gage pressure because in most practical applications you don't care about absolute pressures - you only care about pressure *differentials*. it doesn't matter if you're at 14.7psi or 1000psi, pressure doesn't do any work unless it interacts with another thing at a different pressure. commonly when you're using pressure to do something, the other pressure you're interacting with is the ambient atmospheric pressure, so you really only care about the difference between those two pressures, which is the definition of gage pressure. because gage pressure is always relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, it automatically accounts for being at different altitudes/locations with different *absolute* ambient pressure. 2 psig can do the same amount of work no matter what the absolute pressure is. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can somebody please explain the difference between a shear thinning and a thixotropic fluid? | as far as i'm aware a shear thinning fluid is one that shows a decrease in viscosity with increasing shear stress. having looked up the definition of a thixotropic fluid, it seems as though they're the same thing, although from what i've read is seems as though they do a have a subtly different meaning. could anyone shed some light on what the difference between these two things is? thanks. | i think your hangup is not so much that they are very similar, but rather that they are describing **ideal** behaviors that don't really exist independently from each other in real life materials that we know of. shear-thinning/thickening is just a [nonlinear relationship between shear stress and shear strain](_url_1_); thins when sheared. simple enough. thixotropic/rheopectic refers to [time-dependent change in viscosity after some force, such as shear or agitation etc, is applied](_url_0_). what would an ideal material that is shear-thinning but not thixotropic be like? well, i'd suppose if you applied an infinite impulse function of shear, it would instantly drop viscosity when the shear is applied, then instantly return to its original viscosity when shear stops. that would be how it can be non-thixotropic. of course, such materials don't exist (that i know of). it takes time to apply shear; it also takes time for materials to do the shear thinning. since there are no instant response materials, it would be very difficult to isolate the two. i think of it a bit like compressive strength vs hardness - they are obviously different concepts, but it'd be a bit difficult to come up with a soft material that has great compressive strength in real life. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dfi.uchile.cl/~rsoto/docencia/FluidosNoNewton2008/trixotropia.pdf",
"http://www.chem.com.au/science/rheology/rheology2/"
] | [
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thermodynamics, heat pipes and cpu coolers... are they doing it wrong? | i've been thinking about this one for a while. take a cpu cooler like this; _url_0_ the system makes sense in the orientation that it's shown. heat comes in at the bottom, changes state, rises, cools, condenses, returns, cycle continues. the problem is, how do they work in a tower installation where the lowest point isn't the point you're trying to move the heat away from! it seems like they're all designed for horizontal installation.... and i would think by far the most typical installation is vertical. are they doing it wrong or am i missing something? | virtually all heat pipes used in consumer applications these days also include a powdered metal wick, through which capillary action distributes the liquid medium, essentially making orientation irrelevant. somebody did a study on this very subject and found that there were differences in cooling efficiency at different orientations, but overall the differences were pretty negligible. keep in mind that heat pipes were originally designed for use in space, where orientation doesn't matter at all. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.tigerdirect.ca/applications/SearchTools/item-details.asp?EdpNo=6101275&CatId=493"
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what is the scale for determining an surface's angle as it relates to light? | hi everyone. let's say we are solving a real world or a paper problem where light reflects off of an angled surface. my question is what are we talking about when we say "angled". obviosly we don't me one edge of the surface to the other produces the angle inbetween because angles inbetwen those to points will have an effect on the light. at the really tiny scale it's hard to say there is any angle, just random atoms. at slightly larger it's also hard to say that because of jaggedness. what is the scale at which we can connect two points on a surface and say that is the angle? i'll go ahead and open up the question further to sound because why not more discussion? | for simple problems, we usually use the "surface [normal](_url_0_)" vector as the reference direction, and measure the angle of incidence of the light relative to that. the normal vector is perpendicular to the surface under consideration. for each surface in the problem, you transform your coordinates to align with the surface normal. if the problem is too complex to solve on paper, for imaging optics problems you can use use a ray tracing software (for example, zemax) which keeps track of all the different surfaces for you. for illumination problems, there is presumably other software available, but i'm not familiar with that domain. what is the scale at which we can connect two points on a surface and say that is the angle? in order for there to be a [specular reflection](_url_1_) from a surface, the surface must be effectively flat on a spatial scale comparable to the wavelength of the light being used. to the extent the surface isn't flat, it will also produce a *diffuse reflection* which won't form an image. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_%28geometry%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specular_reflection"
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how did the first “lightyear” measurement get introduced and who introduced it? | [deleted] | as defined by the iau, the light-year is the product of the julian year (365.25 days as opposed to the 365.2425-day gregorian year) and the speed of light (299792458 m/s). both these values are included in the iau (1976) system of astronomical constants, used since 1984. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had a pool filled with jello, and i were to dive in, would i travel through it as though it were a liquid? or would i quickly end up suspended in the gelatinous mass? | jello, like most real fluids, is non-newtonian. that is to say, if you drop an object (such as yourself) in, the relationship between drag and velocity is not linear. gelatin solutions are [thixotropic](_url_0_), meaning the longer stress is applied, the lower the apparent viscosity. based on this information, i would assume that your initial impact with the jello would be rather... unpleasant. however, after you broke the surface, you slide right in. only to find yourself stuck after you slowed down to a halt. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thixotropy"
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|
how do you cure arthritis nodules on fingers? | there's no cure available but there's many ways of managing the condition. usually in the form of anti-inflammatory and painkillers (nsaids). i believe some places have anti-tnf and antil-il-6 treaments, these are your best bet. the condition is due to a perpetual inflammatory scenario in which pro inflammatory m1 macrophages release tnf-alpha and il-1beta which causes tissue damage. it also instructs the recruitment of more m1 macrophages as well as inducing proliferation of existing, undifferentiated macrophages. this just exacerbates the problem. although not available i did my dissertation on curing rheumatoid arthritis through mapk inhibitors. erk, jnk and p38 inhibitors helped mitigate the inflammatory effects. it seemed from my research that anti-tnf treatment concurrent with anti-il-6 and il-10 treatment would be the best method at attempting to resolve the inflammation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we know that action must be least ( stationary ) ? | there are a lot of explanations on how to minimize the action and that newtonian and lagrangian mechanics give the same answer, but how do we know that action must be least ? can it be shown that newtonian mechanics somehow implys that action must be least ? ( sorry for my english ) ? | you can show that if you define the lagrangian l = t - v, then stationary action implies newton's law; see any analytical mechanics book for the proof. but in a more modern perspective, least action is a basic postulate of physics. you can derive it from the quantum [path integral](_url_0_) in a classical limit, but then you could ask "why the path integral?", and there's no answer for that. this is how it always goes in physics: sometimes you can explain a law in terms of more basic ones, but you eventually reach a point where we simply do not know why things are the way they are, they just are. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation"
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how to amplify a specific isoform? | say i pick the gene encoding p53 and want to amplify the nucleotide sequence for pcr. is there a way to design a primer/take any other steps that will specifically allow me to get, for example, isoform a as the product when translated? or does the fact that it it is a splice variant prevent me from altering the outcome easily from the pcr stage? if that is the case, is there a way to increase the likelihood of getting isoform a after that step? i have knowledge of the area, but little practical experience, so apologies if the answer is glaringly obvious! the question struck me when looking at the gene and looking at all the isoforms. | not familiar with p53 isoforms specifically, and from a quick google search i could not find isoform a (rather wt, beta, gamma, and some deletions). in either case, what you are trying to get is cdna, that is the coding dna sequence that gives rise to the rna that encodes the specific spliced form of p53. the way to do that practically is to: 1. amplify the different splices from the genome using multiple primers with overlapping regions to then combine everything into one dna piece using pcr techniques such as soeing. 2. isolate rna, reverse transcribe, then amplify using oligos specific to the isoform (it looks like most isoforms differ on the termini rather than interior splicing, so this should be easy). 3. synthesize gene from scratch using gene synthesis services or your own set of overlapping oligos to make the whole gene. the different methods have varying degrees of cost and work associated with them, your specific approach will depend on the money/tools available to you. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are some of the rarest, most unique, or unexpected star classes? | i was looking at the hertzsprung–russell diagram, and got to thinking about outliers. beyond o-type stars, what are some of the rarest classes? or even further, what are some of the most unique individual stars out there? | unique individual stars that always caught my attention are uy scuti and vy canis majoris, being the largest stars known. they both would engulf jupiter and possibly even saturn if placed where our sun is now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the body send signals to fat and muscle cells? | how does a fat cell 'know' when to give up its stored energy? how does a muscle cell know when to grow? does the body tell it with hormones or some such thing, or do the fat and muscle cells just follow some kind of rule set? are there any drugs designed to instruct the cells to behave in desirable ways? | welcome to the wonderful world of physiology my friend! physiology is the study of how organisms function. cells communicate in several different ways, most of which are chemical. there's a few ways that the body communicates with itself. * autocrine signals cause the cell secreting the chemical to undergo a change. this is seen in immune cells like t-cells. * paracrine signals cause cells near the secreting cell to respond in some way. this is seen in neurons that secrete neurotransmitters. * hormones are signals that affect cells in a different area of the body. this is seen in sex steroids like estrogens and testosterone. * electrical impulses. exactly what it sounds like. this is seen in the heart with gap junctions. the body produces these signals to convey that something has changed. this causes the body to respond to try and get the bodily process back to a baseline level. this is called homeostasis. for example, when your body runs out of glycogen in the liver, blood sugar levels drop. this drop in glucose signals the body to undergo gluconeogenesis, or making glucose out of a lipid (fat) or amino acids. it's the drop in blood glucose levels that signal the body to start this. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there liquid springs? | something viscous that maintains it's shape when force is applied. | if you apply the force from all directions (aka pressure) by enclosing the liquid, the volume will decrease proportionally with the increase in load (with the constant of proportionality related to a material property called the bulk modulus). this is spring behavior, as it follows hooke's law. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where does the rotational energy of olympic divers go? | they start of doing 2 1/2 twists, then they do 2 or 3 flips but still stay in line with their starting position. shouldn't they be flipping off axis due to their rotational energy? where does that go/dissipate? | actually it's not their rotational energy they change, it's their moment of rotational inertia. if you notice, the divers change their shape during a dive which allows them to change how fast they rotate. when they tuck their body, they rotate quickly, when they spread out they rotate slowly. this is the same thing that allows ice skaters to start out spinning very fast while their arms are tucked in, then slow down by putting their arms out. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the strong nuclear force start to repel at less than 0.5 femtometers? | why would this be, what reason is there to repel the atoms at this distance? additionally, how is this force even exerted? is it by some kind of quantum particles linking two quarks togethe? | i believe what you're referring to is not what most physicists call the strong nuclear force, but the so-called [residual strong force](_url_0_). the strong nuclear force will bind quarks into particles like neutrons and protons which are overall neutral under the strong force, but when protons/neutrons get close enough to each other, the quarks in the particles can partially "see" each other which gives rise to an attractive force, hence why this is the "residual" strong force. this residual force is usually dealt with in a very approximate/phenomenological way. the linked wiki article states that the effective repulsion at the ~.5 femto scale is really a manifestation of the [pauli exclusion principle](_url_1_), either between identical protons/neutrons are the individual quarks inside of them. i'm not enough of an expert to know the details of this process for the strong force, but a simple analogy can be made with electromagnetic bonds between electrically-neutral molecules, where pauli exclusion can lead to [london forces](_url_2_) which become repulsive at close distances. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_dispersion_force"
] | [
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what are the possible negative side effects of sleeping in the back of a uhaul in freezing temperatures? is it plausible? | if the u-haul truck cargo bay is unheated and mostly uninsulated (which i believe it is), it's going to be at about the same temperature as the environment (i.e. freezing). if it has a human in it, that's about a 100 w heat source, but the truck is large and not particularly well insulated, so that isn't going to change the equilibrium temperature much. if you try this without sufficient clothing/camping gear you are going to die of hypothermia, period. on the other hand, if you have sufficient gear (a foam sleeping pad to lay on the floor to keep the floor from conducting heat away from you, a sleeping bag rated for those kinds of temperatures, warm/clean/dry clothing), you might be fine. the truck body will keep out wind and rain, which is definitely better than sleeping totally outdoors, it just won't provide much improvement in temperature. this is more of a "wilderness survival/winter camping" question, really. winter camping is possible, but you have to be careful. the cold has killed plenty of people in the past. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can smart scales using bioelectrical impedance differentiate water from muscle/fat? | since muscle and fat are themselves composed of water too. | your underlying assumption is flawed, so let's start with that. fat is made of lipids, hydrophobic organic molecules with little to no conductive properties. while some water is present in human adipose tissue, there's far less of it than in muscle tissue. muscles are made of protein and activated by ionized elements, they contain varying amounts of water depending on how much glycogen is stored within them, which itself depends on how they're used. all that being said... smart scales can't differentiate fat and muscle with any real accuracy. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do the neutral impulses actually originate? how is the electricity for the impulse generated? | electricity in your socket is a surge of electrons. in neurons, the flow of charge is due to ions of sodium (na+), potassium (k+), and chloride (cl-). the charge in a neuron's action potential results from the opening of tiny channels on the surface of the neuron and the resulting flux of these ions. the neuron is normally at a resting charge that is slightly negative. when stimulated to send a signal, an action potential propagates along the neuron's axon. that action potential is really nothing more than a self-propagating local positive charge. what i mean by that is this: a local increase in charge in the axon causes the opening of sodium channels. this causes an even greater increase in positive charge. that positive charge causes the axon a little further down to become more positive, which leads to the opening of sodium channels there. and so it goes, with local positive charge causing the opening of sodium channels all along the axon until it reaches the end of the axon. there, positive charge instead works to release neurotransmitters (like dopamine, serotonin, acetyl choline) into the surrounding tissue, which diffuses to the next neuron. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
sapping hurricane energy | i got an interesting question from my father-in-law today: > suppose you wanted to sap the energy from a hurricane by airdropping dry ice. how much dry ice would it take? based on [this link](_url_0_), ~ 521 • 10^17 joules are released by a hurricane per day. given the heat of sublimation (from wikipedia) of 571 kj/kg or 571 • 10^6 joules per metric ton, you'd need 10^11 metric tons, or about 1/30th of the total atmospheric carbon dioxide, every day to absorb that energy. i'm assuming the heat capacity of carbon dioxide is negligible (~36 j / mol k between -75c and 25c leads to ~ 81 kj/kg, which is an order of magnitude less, so that assumption seems reasonable). however, this got me to thinking, and i came up with two questions i just can't answer: would airdropping dry ice, presumably to cool off the ocean water, actually work? how sensitive to ocean temperature (and temperature variations) are hurricanes? can you disrupt formation of the cyclone (and thereby lessen the destructive power of the hurricane) by strategic placement of the dry ice so that significantly less dry ice would need to be consumed? thanks! | hurricanes can be affected by cooler ocean temperatures, but the idea of trying to cool the ocean to weaken the storm is incredibly impractical for two main reasons. the first is that you would need to cool the area below the hurricane to a depth of ~50m. the second is that you would need to do this at the location of the hurricane and along its projected path. if you we're able to obtain enough ice or another way to cool the ocean, then it might be possible. you can see this actually happen with strong slow moving hurricanes. the direction of the winds at the surface in a hurricane causes upwelling. this is where cold water from deep below is brought to the surface. cooling of the sea surface temperature as much as 5 c can occur. if the storm is slow moving, then the hurricane sits over colder water and can weaken or dissipate. it would also be possible to stop the formation of hurricanes by cooling the sea surface temperature. there are a set of criteria that are required for hurricanes to form and one of them is a sea surface temperature of at least 26 c. this number is actually arbitrary since the real dependence is the difference in sst and outflow temperature, but for the current average temperature of the top of the troposphere, where the outflow is, the sst needs to be at least 26 c. side note, this is why you can have hurricanes during colder past climates of earth. again, all of this is not possible in the real world (except in futurama) but is a cool thought experiment. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/D7.html"
] | [] | [
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what psychological effect does power, or influence, have on the mind? | there was a famous experiment that you should really look into. it shows how power can have a huge impact on the way that people act and shows how cruel people with a little power can be. it is called the stanford prison experiment. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_prison_experiment"
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|
does everything have to have had an evolutionary purpose at some point? | i feel like we're always coming up with new reasons some process or feature evolved in a given species. could there not be some processes or features that mutated but simply weren't detrimental enough to affect the reproduction of the species and so were passed on anyway? | nope. you are completely correct. evolution is a process in which making more babies than the guy next door is good enough. some bad things can stick around if they're only a little bad or only bad under unusual circumstances. if it's a really bad mutation, then it will probably be selected out of the population (or at least to very low frequency). for further reading i'm going to copy-paste my own answer to [a related question](_url_2_) that talks about non-beneficial mutations. if you don't want to read it all, skip to the last paragraph where i talk about how deafness in cats could become more frequent in a population. for example "hercules" is a great specimen of mankind and will go on to have many healthy children and pass along his genes. hercules happens to carry a gene for white fingernails. no one really cares that hercules has white fingernails but the fact that he's strong and sexy leads to him having lots of babies that inherit his white fingernails. now the neutral mutation for white fingernails is becoming more frequent in the population. a counter example could also be given in which "peter pettigrew" had a mutation for white fingernails. no one cares about his fingernails but no one has sex with him because he's a cowardly, ugly man. now the neutral mutation dies with peter. for a more in depth discussion, we can also talk about [pleiotropy](_url_1_). for ease of speech, people often use the phrase "a gene for x" but reality is much more complicated. often a single gene has multiple effects. this is called pleiotropy. [often multiple genes will effect the same trait, but that's not of direct interest to this question.] this phenomenon is important to the "adaptiveness of all traits" because sometimes in order to increase fitness by optimizing one trait, you'll change other traits effected by the same genes. for example there is a pleiotropy between the physical appearance of cats and their ability to hear. cats with white fur and blue eyes are more likely to be deaf. it seems obvious that natural selection could favor cats that can hear which would result in a reduction of white fur and blue eyes in the population. however, if the cats lived with snow on the ground all year you might even see the reverse. more white cats with blue eyes but also more deaf cats. clearly deafness is not a favorable trait but if having a white coat was more important in that habitat you could easily see this result. > tl;dr: no. some mutations are neutral and not selected upon either way. some genes effect multiple traits and "optimizing" one trait will effect another that is just along for the evolutionary ride. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/biology/evolutionary_purpose",
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/pleiotropy-one-gene-can-affect-multiple-traits-569",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2icu73/does_every_trait_of_an_organism_ultimately_serve/"
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are any of the benefits /r/nofap claims to be true actually true? or are they full of crap? | some mentioned are more energy, better focus, you feel less tired during the day, and increased confidence/social prowess with the opposite sex. | not sure about the legitimacy, but this is relevant (only to men. sorry ladies): _url_0_ "23q. i want to start working out to build muscle mass. some of my friends say masturbation will increase testosterone, but others say it will decrease testosterone. what effect will masturbation have? masturbation is very unlikely to decrease testosterone levels. semen is not the source of testosterone, and ejaculation will not cause testosterone levels to go down. all other things being equal, increased sexual activity -- including masturbation -- tends to increase testosterone levels. but these levels depend upon many factors including age, time of day, overall level of physical activity, and general health. psychological factors can cause changes in testosterone levels: levels go up in men who believe they are going to become more sexually active, levels can be affected by whether a person knows in advance that he will be test for testosterone, and so forth. in your case, the increase in physical activity accompanying your workouts will probably have a much greater effect on your testosterone levels. if you are a young male and working out, your testosterone level is likely to be so high that any difference masturbation (or other sexual activity) might make will be insignificant. in much older men (over 40 years old), especially those with fewer sexual activities of other kinds, masturbation might increase testosterone levels significantly--which is not to suggest that masturbation might replace a reasonable program of physical exercise. although athletes were once advised to avoid sexual activities (including masturbation) *immediately* before athletic performances, studies have not found any scientific basis for this advice. so far as i know there have been no studies of the effects of abstinence *throughout* training, and probably there won't be because it would be difficult to find athletes who would agree to be abstinent for a prolonged time and no way to tell whether they really were. at any rate, nothing special about masturbation would cause it to have a bigger effect for better or worse than any other kind of sexual activity." i would like to point out that the increased confidence may possibly come from the self-control involved in not masturbating. although i'm sure someone would know more about that than my speculation. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.masturbationpage.com/asmfaq1.html",
"http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Endocrine_Response_to_Masturbation-Induced_Orgasm_in_Healthy_Men_Following_a_3-Week_Sexual_Abstinence.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11760788"
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how would one apply shell theorem (if at all) to an incomplete shell? | in a typical 2-d shell theorem problem, an object outside the shell views the shell as equivalent to a point-mass, and once inside the shell the gravitational forces cancel out entirely. this got me thinking a bit about how the mechanics would change if the small gap through which the external object would enter, normally hand-waived away as being insignificant and/or virtual, was actually a legitimate structural element of the shell i.e. the shell had a small arclength removed (let's say corresponding to a small angle theta). how would this impact the interaction between the two objects? i expect the outward-facing interaction would be similar, but would the object now experience a net force within the incomplete shell? would that force drive the object to the center of mass of the shell, and if so can that location be calculated by finding the centroid of the circular segment? _url_0_ _url_1_ | the gravitational field obeys the superposition principle, which means that the field from several obkects is just the sum of their individual fields. a shell with a part removed is thus equivalent to a full shell together with a piece of negative mass and double density of the removed part, at the same position. assume that the hole is small enough to be considered pointlike, then an outside particle will be affected by a slightly smaller field, equivalent to a point mass with the mass of the shell and a negative point mass with double the mass of the hole. an inside particle will experience only the field of the negative point mass, i.e. it will experience a slight repulsion from the hole. | 8 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids#Centroids"
] | [] | [
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do odd and even numbers factor into peoples' predictions on how likely or believable something is? | first, i don't think i can answer this question to satisfaction. but if anyone can, it's kanheman (my copy of that book is on the way!) or tversky. or some of the rockstars in math/science education (but your description isn't ringing a bell). people do appear to subscribe categories to odd vs. even numbers [here](_url_3_). and even with [0](_url_4_). but there is also a hypothesis about [pricing](_url_0_) regarding odd and even numbers, and also plenty of work in perception of odd and even numbers ([one example](_url_2_)). but really, when it comes to predictions and beliefs with respect to mathematics... if kanheman or tversky didn't do it, try looking at people that worked with them. your question brings up an interesting point out of survey theory: should questions have odd or even number of responses? when odd, there is always a "middle" response, and tends to be the most popular. but for surveys it's important to force people to choose one side or the other. [here's](_url_1_) a paper discussing how chinese respondents perceive odd vs. even numbered items on surveys. in short, there are perceptual differences and people treat odd and even numbers differently. but whether they are likely to predict... i don't know of anything. the survey world would actually suggest that people will pick things on the 0s and 5s (for tests) or just go for thresholds and "middle" responses. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_pricing",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/h231l057k733018h/",
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3482730?uid=3739920&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=55939173583",
"http://www.livescience.com/15859-odd-numbers-male-female.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_of_zero#Education"
] | [
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|
question concerning radiometric dating, tree rings, and ice cores; in regard to "uniformitarianism." | i was debating a yec who claims that a fundamental aspect of modern science is something called, "uniformitarianism." i looked it up, as i was unfamiliar with it, and it looks like it is a theory that had been discredited in the 19nth century. i responded with this information, and he asked me to explain "radiometric dating, tree rings, and ice cores" in light of "uniformitarianism." i know science has addressed this, but i am not scientifically literate enough to have this information. can anyone help me? | uniformitarianism: earth's geological processes (and changes in general) are the same today as they always have been. catastrophism: earth's modern processes are nothing like what they were before. usually, uniformitarianism is correct, but you need catastrophism to explain certain geologically-short phenomenon, such as comets, earthquakes, volcanic activity, etc. both are incorrect because you need a compromise. radiometric dating: radiometric dating is a form of determining the age of an object by the relative abundance of isotopes of some elements in a sample. for example, in the atmosphere, carbon-14 and nitrogen-14 are held in relatively constant proportions. thus, all organic life (plants and animals) contain roughly the same proportions. over time, however, c14 decays into c12. it's replenished for all organisms on the atmosphere, but when they become fossilized, they no longer incorporate new c14. so if you know how quickly c14 turns into n14, and how much is left, you can calculate the last time the sample was exposed to the source of the n14. c14 dating only works on young samples, because it becomes inaccurate as you run out of c14. it should be noted that this entire system only works if you know the rate at which c14 can turn into n14, and that this rate remains constant. creationists often claim this is unfounded, but that's not the case at all. radiometric decay rates have never been found to change and we have no reason to believe they were different in the past as they also agree with other dating methods, including historical documents. the others function basically in a similar manner. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do companies need microgravity laboratories for? | with relatively [cheap orbital space stations](_url_0_) coming online for commercial companies (and states) to hire in the comming < 10 years. what would their use be? i can understand countries and scientists want to use them but not why a commercial company could gain from research in microgravity. but bigelows obviously sees a market so what type of companies could be interested and for what type of research? edit: also not sure what to tag this as, i will leave it as engineering till the mods change it or somebody corrects. | one use of a microgravity environment is for modeling nano-scale behavior at the micro or even milli scale. on earth at larger scales gravity becomes the dominant force, but at nano scales surface forces and chemical/electrical interactions dominate. eliminating gravity as the dominant force can make larger scale study of things like diffusion, molecular transport, and mems possible. source: sending an experiment up on the spacex dragon spacecraft to the iss for study in microgravity! _url_0_ | 29 | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigelow_Aerospace"
] | [
"http://www.houstonmethodist.org/body.cfm?xyzpdqabc=0&id=495&action=detail&ref=1030",
"http://www.iss-casis.org/About/AboutCASIS.aspx",
"http://www.iss-casis.org/CASISBasics/ForResearchers.aspx"
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which came first: ln or e? | i understand that ln is log with base e. when it was explained to me, e was derived from the graph y=1/x as the number whose area (under the graph) makes 1. however, y=1/x was first described as the derivative of ln. i just need to clear things up so i can understand the thought process. | logarithms came first, kinda surprisingly. they were [developed by john napier in 1614](_url_1_) (or so), as an aid to computation. before that, people had used trig functions like sines and cosines for the purpose— somewhat clumsier, but workable— and napier developed a new function specifically for the purpose. (he also developed other calculating techniques, most famously [napier's bones](_url_2_).) logarithms and trig functions seem unrelated in the real numbers, but are closely related in the complex numbers. i don't know if anyone figured this out until leonhard euler, working in the early 1700s. euler is also the person who gave the name *e* to the number 2.718…. the number itself was [described by a number of people throughout the intervening century](_url_0_) though. logarithms are helpful in computation because of identities like log(a)+log(b)=log(ab). if you wanted to multiply some numbers, or raise them to powers (especially non-integer powers, e.g. roots), you would look them up in a table of printed logarithms, do addition and subtraction and such on the logarithms, then look those up in the log table to convert back to the answer. printed log tables were commonly used this way until the 1950s or so, when electronic computers/calculators became useful. it's also the principle on which slide rules worked. trig functions can be used similarly, and astronomers (and celestial navigators) had been using them that way, when napier came up with the logarithm. interestingly, [a venetian arithmetician also pretty much came up with the logarithm in 1494](_url_3_), but it didn't catch on. | 41 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/e.html",
"http://www.maa.org/publications/periodicals/convergence/logarithms-the-early-history-of-a-familiar-function-john-napier-introduces-logarithms",
"http://www.maa.org/publications/periodicals/convergence/john-napier-his-life-his-logs-and-his-bones-napiers-bones",
"http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Pacioli_logarithm.html"
] | [
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] |
can someone explain this image from cern? | _url_0_ what exactly am i looking at? | the inner red/yellow stuff is particle tracks. we record hits (where a particle passes through) in several layers of the detector and connect the dots (a godawful challenge actually) to make a bunch of tracks through the detector. these tracks curve through a magnetic field, so that allows us to measure the momentum of the particle. the next, green layer, is a "calorimeter" of some kind. it measures energy. we match the energy to the tracks that passed through the calorimeter, and since the track gives us momentum, and the calorimeter gives us energy, we can reconstruct the mass of the particle that passed through (thus helping identify what kind of particle it is). finally the last red/yellow layer is some kind of showering calorimeter (i think). essentially we layer a material (like tungsten) that will cause one energetic particle to "break up into" many less energetic particles, then a calorimeter (like a scintillating material) behind it, then more shower, more cal, and so on. this also helps to identify certain kinds of particles and their behaviour coming out of the detector. (note: i worked on a similar kind of experiment at brookhaven, not at cern. one of the cern people would likely know better) | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.extremetech.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/output-from-atlas-experiment-cern-640x548.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how were steam tables generated experimentally? | specifically, how were properties of water/steam like internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy determined (or confirmed) experimentally? | enthalpy, entropy and internal energy are derived from first principles using the laws of thermodynamics and the definition of these terms. the constants in each case for example the specifix heat capacity is determined experimentally. using the equations and imperial data you get the desired value. am i being too vague? should i give an example? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=7EcOAAAAYAAJ&dq=tables+of+the+properties+of+steam+cecil+peabody&source=gbs_navlinks_s"
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how fit did nature intend humans to be? | today, humans can live despite being morbidly obese and unable to sprint half a kilometer. but if we were to look at homo sapiens 50,000 years ago, how fit and physically capable would their genetics have optimized them to be? would they be on par with athletes? or would they simply be by today's standards "above average". would they be able to sprint long distances, would they tire easily? what would their body fat% typically be, and what would their musculature be like?(a picture would be great for this) edit: there seems to be a lot of confusion over what i'm asking. take a seal, it needs a lot of fat. its genetic make-up is conditioned for an organism with a high body fat percentage. the seal would obviously not be able to properly fulfill its niche if it had 5% body fat. what about a human? what is its ideal composition(body fat, musculature, stamina) for fulfilling its niche based on its genetics? | title of the thread is very misleading. rephrasing the question, it might sound like "how athletic were early humans compared to modern athletes?" | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=fossil-reanalysis-pushes",
"http://www.webcitation.org/5kwKK5j9T"
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] |
what is the real reason that are there no snakes in ireland? | a question in honour of st. patrick's day: as an irish person i've often wondered why we don't have snakes here, while they seem to exist in the uk and even in more northerly european latitudes. what is the real reason there are no native snake species on the island? | they were wiped out during the ice ages, and never managed to recolonize across the ocean to ireland. the rest of britain was connected to the mainland for a little while after the retreat of the glaciers. | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[psychology] are there any psychological "best practices" for forming new habits? | a lot of self-help blogs and threads seem to tout various strategies for forming habits, but are there any unified, proven psychological strategies for successfully forming new habits? | psychologist here. a lot of new habit formation requires self-control in order to enact them. the prevalent model of self-control likens it to a muscle; ie it can be exerted for a limited time, and then becomes fatigued and has to "rest". similar to a muscle, self-control can be increased through continual use. if you practice self control, you get better at it. the model also suggest self-control isn't domain specific, so exerting/practicing on one type of task will benefit all tasks. the upshot is: if exercise self-control in any behavioural domain, you should find you get better at sticking to stuff, which in turn should facilitate habit formation. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i swallowed a big gulp of gasoline when i was a teenager. what happened to it? | i mean, i can't have digested it really, right? i burped horrible gas flavored burps for a lot longer than i would have expected. maybe it all evaporated? | gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon chains, and the chemical reaction which digests food is very similar to the combustion reaction. i'm not saying you should go on an all-gas diet, but it's likely your body got some usable energy from it. ...mixed in with all the toxic additives and non-digestible compounds. just curious, but did your stool or urine seem strange for a few days after the gasoline feast? | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the science behind extremism, such as "all-or-nothing" and "black-and-white" beliefs, and why is it hard for some to find a middle ground? | just as an example that pops into my head: take proponents of two opposing politics -- republicans and democrats. or take capitalists/communists, or theists/atheists, etc. one can find extremists on both sides who accept their doctrine whole-sale and condemn any deviation from it. what is the science behind this and *in particular*, why is it difficult for some people to find a middle ground? edit: rather than "extremism" i mean to say absolutism. i think that is more accurate after reading one of these responses. | i'm on mobile, so i hope i didn't mess this up completely. apologies if i did! [this article](_url_0_) is about violent extremism rather than strong partisan convictions per se, but i figured you might still find it interesting. alongside a number of other social factors such as the need to belong and risky shift, "the quest for personal significance constitutes a major motivational force that may push individuals toward violent extremism" according to kruglanski (2014, cited in the bps article), which is likely also a factor in nonviolent extremism. risky shift is a group process in which individuals tend to make riskier decisions in a group setting as compared with when they're left to their own devices ([this article](_url_2_) by kong, 1978, might be of interest). this is turn is thought to facilitate more extreme political decision making through group polarisation - in this case, people tend to become more extreme in their views when they are engaging with a group of people who share their own views. it seems to me that it's not fully understood why this happens, but perhaps it makes sense when viewed in the light of social identity theory. this is basically the idea that in addition to our personal identity defined by factors intrinsic to ourselves, we have a social identity that's defined through our relations with other people as well as groups. given its social significance, of course something like political beliefs will be a part of this, so we don't just intellectually hold these views, doing so tends to make people part of a social group, too. typically, being liked and accepted by a group they identify with is more important to people than being accepted by a different group; one way to ensure this in ideology-driven groups may be through stronger adherence to group norms. intergroup relations the will likely also be influenced by the nature of these norms; in the case of us politics, iyengar and westwood (2014, [link](_url_1_)) summarised the issue as follows: "the willingness of partisans to display open animus for opposing partisans can be attributed to the absence of norms governing the expression of negative sentiment and that increased partisan affect provides an incentive for elites to engage in confrontation rather than cooperation". you might also find [this paper](_url_3_) by toner et al (2013) interesting; this one is about something called political belief superiority (i guess the term is more or less self explanatory) among us liberals and conservatives. arguably, measuring this can help you understand why the divide between the groups seems to be so large - if you're convinced that you're obviously right, and that your beliefs must clearly be superior, why even bother engaging with the arguments the other side might give you? consequently, the paper describes some debate that has been going on regarding the role of belief superiority in us bipartisan politics. one view called the *rigidity of the right hypothesis* postulates that conservative beliefs are associated with a number of factors like are a higher degree of religiosity, aversion of uncertainty, and closed-mindedness, all of which tend to make people more 'rigid' in their beliefs, hence making it more likely they'll reject other approaches as outlandish while also showing belief superiority. the *ideological extremism hypothesis* on the other hand does not argue that this feeling of superiority is specific to one set of political beliefs - dogmatism arises primarily due to the group nature of political discourse and has no ideological preference so to speak. in the toner et al paper, their evidence seems to indicate that there is some truth to both hypotheses: conservatives do tend to score lower on measures of open-mindedness for example (as assessed by the five factor model of personality), but liberals also show dogmatism with regards to some views, and conservatives don't with some. essentially, both groups are capable of dogmatism, but perhaps they are for different reasons. so there might not be a one size fits all explanation for why people often view political discourse in these black and white terms, but there may be different causes depending on the position they're so dogmatic about. (one thing to keep in mind of course is that most of this research was done on americans only, so it may not explain extremism in other places with a different kind of political culture) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.de/amp/s/digest.bps.org.uk/2014/10/27/the-psychology-of-violent-extremism-digested/amp/?client=ms-android-samsung",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajps.12152/full",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/3033587?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24096379",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance"
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hey, this is more of a mental health question. i'm coming here because i couldn't find anything on google. | it could be many different things. i would suggest talking to a psychologist about it as any advice given here would be medical advice and therefore inappropriate. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when does synaptic pruning stop in humans? | also, is it true that the prefrontal lobe of the brain isn't fully developed until 25 years for a human? | synaptic pruning, in the developmental sense, stops at different times in different brain regions. for example, if you do not correct strabismum before age 8 or 9, depth perception does not develop normallly because the critical period in primary visual cortex closes (this includes synaptic pruning). yes, 25 years old is a reasonable approximation for the end of this process in human prefrontal cortex. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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isn't astatine the rarest naturally forming element on earth? | pretty much what the description says, i've heard that astatine is the rarest naturally forming mineral. is that true? and if not then what is? and also, does that mean that astatine is the rarest mineral in rock form like gold or diamond can be? | yes, that or francium. both are extremely short lived decay products of other isotopes. an atom decays into astatine, then the astatine quickly decays into something else. that's why there isn't much of it at any given time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the aortic valve open and close at different pressures? | looking at all sorts of different pressures volume loops, the opening and closing pressures of the aortic semi lunar valve are always at different pressures. wouldn't the pressure needed by the ventricle to force it open be the same as the pressure needed by the aorta to force it closed? | are you looking at aortic pressure alone, or are you *comparing* aortic pressure to ventricular pressure? [link to wikipedia image](_url_0_) aortic pressure at the very beginning of ventricular systole is relatively low because the aorta is relatively empty. as the ventricles contract they will apply more and more pressure until ventricular pressure meets/exceeds the pressure in the aorta-- forcing the aortic sl open at the beginning the ejection phase. as blood flows into the aorta, the aortic pressure rises-- but keep in mind there is still pressure in the ventricles forcing blood out, so that increased aortic pressure is not enough to force the valve shut until the ventricles relax. at the dicrotic notch where the aortic sl valve closes, you are correct the pressure in the aorta is higher than it was when the sl valve opened. however, i don't think that it means the aortic sl valve is easier to open than it is to close. it opens when ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure, and closes when ventricular pressure falls below aortic pressure. edit: added link to image | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiggers_Diagram.svg"
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how old is an average hill? | i know the answer has nothing to do with the origin of the expression, but the public must know. how old is your typical hill on earth? | the term "hill" is not really scientific and doesn't have a good definition, an "average hill" for the entire earth likely doesn't exist, but i think i can guess what you're getting at. it's still a very difficult question to answer though. sand dunes for example change constantly. a very active sand dune could probably be significantly different to be called "new" every couple of hours. while mountains on the other hand can remain pretty much the same for millions of years. for less extreme cases it becomes difficult to say when a hill starts or stops being the same hill. erosion is an unpredictable and nearly constant process. to try and answer your question as best as i can, i would have to say it really depends on where you are. my geological knowledge is limited to the central canadian/american prairies. most of the landforms here are a direct result of glaciation. so, i would say the average hill here probably came into being around 10,000 years ago, as the last glaciers were receding. (this is not really scientific at all, just an honest attempt to answer your question as best i can.) if you happen to live somewhere else, i'm afraid i can't really help you myself. you'll have to do some research into past significant geological events in your area. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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effects of condom usage in africa | i've heard conflicting reports on whether condom usage is effective in africa - in particular people reference a study done by a professor in harvard. i was wondering what the current consensus on condom usage to control aids in countries such as africa is in the scientific community and whether there has been a shift? | if you read some of the interviews then what he's saying isn't really that controversial. how effective they are depends on how they form part of the strategy overall, how it is implemented and the population's response. you should find [this](_url_0_) interesting. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jid.1168/pdf"
] | [
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what causes concentrations in the earth's gravitational field? | i was watching [this](_url_0_) video and reading about the [goce satellite](_url_1_) and wondering about the cause of the denser areas in the gravitational field. is this due to the distribution of mass within the core of the planet, as the data relates to tectonic plate movement? | variations in mass density in the crust can be measured by variations in gravitational field. i happen to know that continental crust is less dense and thicker than ocean crust. i don't remember my geology class well, but i seem to remember that this variation in mass distribution can be detected and measured. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogoTXPodNmg&feature=player_embedded",
"http://www.esa.int/esaLP/SEM1AK6UPLG_LPgoce_0.html"
] | [] | [
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what substance can most closely emulate the fluid in the cochlea? | i'm thinking of trying to model the cochlea. what is the fluid that is in the cochlea and what fluid has properties closest to it? | the cochlea contains perilymph, which is basically salt water. from wikipete: so, you could purchase (or look up some recipe for) artificial csf. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just shattered a corelle plate on my granite counter top, why did the plate pieces start jumping around? | it looked almost like popcorn being popped. | probably residual stresses being relieved. iirc, ceramics, especially tempered glass for example, can build up a lot of residual stresses that balance out in the bulk part. when the object is broken, there is suddenly nothing stopping the residual stresses being relieved, and they'll slowly propagate a crack through the broken piece until the crack reaches some critical length, after which the crack propagates suddenly, resulting in a sudden stress release. i need to check with a ceramist to be sure though; i'm rather heavily specialized in metals rather than ceramics. | 71 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you bend a piece of metal, or plastic, what is happening on the small scale to the material? | we've all bent plastic, or forks and spoons and such i'm sure. is bending simply a matter of, one side the molecules are condensing closer to each other and the outer side (the side that turns white on plastic) the molecules are spreading out? or is there some complex interaction occurring here? i know bending produces heat also, so it produces energy, maybe that has something to do with it? | bending plastic is a different mechanism than bending metal. also, there are two different kinds of bending: plastic deformation is where the object remains permanently deformed after bending, and elastic deformation is bending where the object springs back to it's original shape. as for elastic deformation in a crystalline material (like metal), on one side the atoms in the crystal are being pulled apart slightly causing that side of the object to be slightly longer, and on the other side they are being pushed together, making that side slightly shorter (i assumed a bending bar, you can also stretch or squeeze, or twist or shear). because of this, when you elastically bend a material, how hard it is to bend (called the [modulus of elasticity](_url_2_)) is actually a measure of the strength of the interatomic bonds of the crystalline material. at some point of applied force (known as [stress](_url_4_ in engineering circles) plastic deformation will begin to occur. this is distinct from elastic deformation in that it is irreversible. what makes this different, is that you are causing a permanent movement of atoms throughout the crystal lattice (lattice just means the grid of atoms that make up the crystal). fundamental to this idea is that crystals of materials are not perfect. what i mean by this is that there might be a missing plane of atoms in the middle of the crystal, or there might be an extra plane of atoms, or there might be a twist in the crystal structure. these are called [dislocations](_url_1_). in order for there to be plastic deformation, there **must** be dislocation motion (the correct technical term is called "dislocation slip"). when you stress an object, you are causing a stress field through the material, and once that stress field reaches a certain threshold, you cause the dislocations to move through the material. before there is dislocation motion is called elastic deformation which i discussed above. the point at which dislocations begin to move is called the yield stress. the point after which dislocations are moving is called plastic deformation. when the stress is removed, the dislocations remain in their new spot (instead of jumping back to their original spot). this is what causes the permanent change in shape. just like there is a certain amount of energy required to push a car up over a hill before it can roll down the other side, a certain amount of energy is required to push a dislocation to the next "spot" in the crystal. this energy level required is what determines how strong the material is (mentioned above as yield stress). all of these ideas are inter-related and i hope i did not confuse you up to this point. on an interesting side note: if you want to make a material stronger, you can increase the energy required to move a dislocation, or in other words make the hill taller that you are pushing a car up. this will require you to insert more energy to get the dislocation or car to the top of the hill. in materials, this "heightening" can be done in many different ways. one of the first ways ever discovered was the invention of steel, where carbon atoms are inserted into the iron crystal lattice. these carbon atoms deform the shape of the crystal, and in doing so increase the energy levels required to move a dislocation, thus making the material far stronger (before carbon addition it is simply iron, after carbon addition it becomes steel). this is [solid solution strengthening](_url_0_) and the wikipedia article includes a great picture of how the [lattice is distorted by the tiny carbon atoms](_url_5_). so to bring this discussion full circle and to answer your question: just like in the car analogy, once the car is pushed over the hill, it will roll down the other side and accumulate kinetic energy. this is very similar to the motion of dislocations, as they slide into new positions they are releasing energy in the form of kinetic energy that heats the material. as to the plastic spork question, this is fundamentally different as plastic is a polymer, which is a material that consists of long chains of atoms all jumbled together like spaghetti. when you bend the fork, you are pulling the strings apart from eachother (imagine pulling the pile of spaghetti apart). once you bend a plastic spoon it tends to stay bent, but rubber bands are polymer chains that want to be all curled up. when you let go of the spoon, the polymer chains do not snap back to their curled up/jumbled up positions, but a rubber band does. richard feyman (who has forgotten more things about this subject than i would ever hope to know) explained this far better than me in [his short video](_url_6_) and the tragic consequences of polymer elasticity when he told congress how the [challenger exploded due to a cold o-ring](_url_3_). | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengthening_mechanisms_of_materials#Solid_solution_strengthening_and_alloying",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastic_modulus",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8qAi_9quzUY",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Interstitial_solute.svg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRxAn2DRzgI"
] | [
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if a blood clot forms behind an eye, you lose the ability to see through that eye. could the same rules apply to an involuntary organ, such as the heart, lungs, or liver? | i have heard of many cases where patients have blood clots form behind their eye(s), thus rendering their ability to see through said eye(s) impossible. if a scenario occurred where an involuntary organ, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, or kidneys had blood clots form inside of all arteries bringing oxygenated blood to said organ, would the organ lose its ability to function? | yes--a blood clot in the lung is called a pulmonary embolism, and causes chest pain, difficulty breathing, low oxygen in blood, and a host of other symptoms, and can be fatal. a clot that causes a blockage in a vessel supplying the heart is pretty much the definition of a heart attack. for the brain, you'd get a stroke. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the electricity in this video seem to rise? | was curious about a gif i saw in /r/woahdude _url_0_ | when the electricity arcs through the air, it creates a plasma. the plasma is much hotter and less dense than the surrounding air, so it rises as you'd expect. the plasma has much lower electrical resistance than the air around it, so even though the distance the electricity must travel increases as the hot plasma rises, the electricity keeps flowing through the plasma because it is the path of least resistance. | 12 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/jvN0Rc4.gifv"
] | [] | [
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is there any truth to the whole "lose one sense and the others become better"? | i'll have to look up citation, but there is some developmental biology to support this. if you never you use a sense, that area of the brain is not fully utilized. it has also been found that these areas of the brain can change function. studies on individuals with early onset blindness often show other senses active in the area of the brain usually reserved for sight. do they become super senses? probably not, but it does show that brain functions can have flexible regions in the brain. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
should scientists abandon p-values and significance tests in favor of a bayesian approach? | hi /r/askscience! i am a layperson with an interest in science and mathematics and i have recently been exposed to a number of criticisms of the standard null-hypothesis-significance-test statistical approach that is taught as standard in most scientific fields. i find the topic incredibly interesting but i've had trouble finding much on it that isn't too jargon-y for me to understand. i have almost no practical experience with frequentism and none at all with bayesian analysis. here is my understanding of the two main points of the criticism of the current "standard" approach. 1. that the significance test is answering the wrong question. the question people actually want to know the answer to is "given these results how likely is it that my hypothesis is correct," which is what a bayesian analysis would do but significance tests instead answer "given some null hypothesis, how frequently would i see results like these," which is kind of backwards and can lead to confusion and misunderstanding (i know i've had trouble trying to explain the difference to people). the answer to the significance test question tells you nothing about the likelihood of a particular hypothesis being correct unless you also know what the prior probability of that hypothesis being correct is, which is what a bayesian approach includes. 2. that the significance test leads to a huge number of false-positive papers being published, which combined with publishing bias against negative or unsurprising results can lead to an overall bias in the published literature. a bayesian approach would help alleviate this problem by reducing the number of false positives because it takes the prior probability into account and thus doesn't consider every p-value-less-than-0.05-result "significant" (the less likely the hypothesis the higher the standard of evidence). so my questions are the following. first, how accurate is my understanding of the issue, is there more to it than this? the argument against frequentism seems quite compelling to me, so it is difficult for me to understand why it is still the norm. second, although i've done basic statistics and so have actually worked with p-values before, i have no practical experience with a bayesian approach so i don't actually know what that would entail. so, how hard is it to do? what might be some of the problems of adopting it? thanks so much! | frequentist hypothesis testing is objective (a correct analysis of the same results using the same methodology leads to the same conclusion). bayesian analysis is subjective (two researchers analyzing the same results using the same methodology can reach different conclusions). science relies on objective results (since they imply at least some degree of repeatability), so bayesian analysis will never be suitable as a replacement for hypothesis testing as it exists now. the reason for this difference is simple: to apply [bayes' theorem](_url_0_), you must assume a [bayesian prior](_url_1_). typically there is no objective way to determine a prior probability, so whatever prior is chosen is essentially arbitrary and up to the researcher. there is no equivalent arbitrary choice in frequentist hypothesis testing. (at least, everyone will agree on the p-value. the threshold of 'significance' is sometimes a little arbitrary, but usually its kept consistent at least within a field). addressing the specific issues you brought up: 1. hypothesis testing answers the 'wrong' (as in, slightly less useful) question because there is no way to objectively answer the 'right' question. 2. hypothesis testing allows you to explicitly control the fraction of false-positive results achieved by changing the p-value required for significance. yes, in the social sciences a 95% confidence level is considered sufficient (since studies are much harder to scale), but in physics for example, a significance of 5 σ is typically required in order to claim a discovery- corresponding to roughly a 99.99994% confidence level. so yes, using a low threshold of significance produces lots of false positive papers, but that's purely a choice of the field as determined by research constraints. there's nothing intrinsic about frequentist hypothesis testing that leads to a large number of false positives. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayes'_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability"
] | [
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how do knife/axe throwers always get the right end to land? | logically, it seems like your chances of getting the blade to hit and not the handle would be pretty near 50%, but it's not hard at all in reality. | shit tons of practice. experienced throwers get a good feel for exactly how many rotations they want for a certain distance and adjust the speed of the rotations based on that. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how was the first bootloader/os software written? | today, when we write software, we do so on our already fully functional computers (at least i do as a university student although my class projects have only delved into simulations). how was the first computer that allowed writing new software on that computer created? | if you are interested in an introduction to the low level mechanics of computing, code by petzold is by far the best book i've ever come across. it covers the details of a primitive computer made of relays in such a way that it becomes clear how programmable computers could work before we had the ecosystem we have today. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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considering how complicated proteins' structures can get, is there any chance they can tangle like earphones in someone's pocket? | if yes, i wonder whether there's any condition for it or "the panel control" will always catch and destroy a misfolded protein like this. | protein folding is facilitated by van der waals and other interacting forces between amino acid sidechains, as well as chaperone proteins to assist in the assembly of complex tertiary structures. misfolded proteins do occur, but these are usually degraded quickly. some proteins can form aggregates which have been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases; alzheimer's is one of the most well-known of these diseases. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/insights/6968.html",
"http://folding.stanford.edu"
] | [
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] |
how are calibration devices calibrated? | could be whatever is used in your field, i just thought it would be interesting to know. | they're calibrated against other calibration devices, which are ultimately calibrated against a known standard like the [standard kilogram](_url_0_). many standards have been converted over to physics/theoretical standards which can be reproduced locally, rather than traveling to an actual block of platinum or whatever. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.uh.edu/engines/kilogram.jpeg"
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so if you took the unique 2d sine wave of any song at any specific point, could you express said point in a mathematical equation? | like if i took a cd of one of my favorite bands (let's say white album), find a specific point on the album and recorded the sound wave on it, would that same sound wave be able to be expressed as a mathematical equation? it seems possible, since any digital file is essentially just one long number that can be expressed in many forms (usually binary), but i've never heard anyone actually say this would work. also if you did make an exact equation using sines and cosines how complicated would it be? would it be an equation that would take up a whole page, or three, or would it be infinite and usually full of nonrepeating decimals? also, if it is possible, is this how compression of sound files works--by simplifying the sine wave of the sound being played? i just think this sort of stuff is interesting and don't have any ideas about it. :-) edit: if you could tell me whether this is categorized properly or not that would be great. i figured physics is acoustics, but didn't know if mathematics or computing was more appropriate. | at a single, specific point in time, the wave is described by a value--you'd play the sound into a microphone and record the voltage at a time instant t. but, this isn't very useful, because you couldn't really do anything with one instant of sound, so we'll broaden our look to include a short period of time, like 20 milliseconds, which is plenty of time for you to hear something (although it may not be recognizable yet). again, if we hook up a microphone and look at the voltage coming off of it while george harrison plays guitar, you'll see an oscillating wave but it won't really look like a sine or a cosine, because it is actually a sum of an infinite number of sines and cosines (a very strange concept, but useful for modeling the situation). if you noted down the voltage very carefully (perhaps by taking a picture with an oscilloscope), you could create a representation of the signal for this brief period of time by calculating the coefficients of the fourier series, as necator15 noted. the problem is, like you mentioned in your question, that this representation requires an infinite number of coefficients to exactly replicate the signal. however, many (under lots of assumptions, which aren't really useful to explain yet) of these coefficients will be nearly zero, so instead of trying to write down an infinite number of coefficients, we can just write down some of them, and then when we want to play back the signal, we generate a finite number of sines and cosines with the right coefficients and add them. the result will be *almost* the same, and if we've kept enough of our coefficients, nobody will say there is a difference. we can also choose to keep a certain number of coefficients for a tolerable amount of error in the reproduction, saving even more space. this works in the continuous domain, which is unwieldy for a number of reasons. the most important is that computers operate on time steps, so they cannot handle continuous data naturally, and because calculating these coefficients for storage, as well as producing sine waves for playback are both tedious, we want to have a computer automate the process. when your computer is hooked up to a microphone and you record sound with a program like audacity, it samples the continuous voltage using an analog to digital converter to produce a series of discrete values--generally this operates at 44.1 khz, so you'd get 44,100 samples of the microphone's voltage per second. these samples represent the sound (as humans are capable of hearing it) almost exactly, so they contain all the information in the original signal that we care about. there's a lot of subtlety and more assumptions involved in this, but i won't bog you down with it for now. you can take this digital stream of samples and feed it directly into a special circuit known as a digital to analog converter which will produce a continuous time version by filling in the gaps between the samples, allowing you to listen to the sound through your speakers. now, we have harrison's guitar digitally recorded, and we can listen to it, but we don't technically have an equation, all we have is a bunch of voltage measurements taken at specific times. you might ask yourself: is it even necessary to write an equation, at this point? you could just carry these numbers around with you whenever you want to listen to the white album and play them back--this is exactly how audio cds work, and it is why you're limited to ~70 minutes of music on an audio cd. a cd stores 700-750 mb of data based on who you buy from and the formatting. we already know that you need 44100 samples per second to reconstruct your audio, and i'll throw in here now that audio is generally recorded in stereo, so there are two channels of data (88200 total samples per second), and each sample is generally stored as two bytes. if we multiply all that out, we get 88200 samples/second * 2 bytes/sample * 60 seconds/minute * 70 minutes of music = ~740 mb for an album. so, that's great, but what if we wanted to have the beatles entire discography? we'd need a lot of cds (i don't know off hand...15-20?). so instead we look for a way to compress the data, and we remember that in continuous time, when we wrote down the fourier series, if we threw away some of the coefficients, the result would still sound approximately the same, but would no longer require an infinite number of values to describe. in the discrete domain, we can actually do the same thing. the first thing that we do is take the so-called discrete fourier transform (dft, it's a fourier series but for sampled rather than continuous data) of a segment of the signal (not the whole signal because it would kill the quality). so, we grab an aribtrary number like 256 samples (a very brief period of time, only ~5.8 ms of audio) and convert it with the dft giving us 256 different values (actually, we only get 128, but that is not important, because each value has both a real and imaginary component, so it requires twice the space to store--there are no freebies here). however, most of these values are zero or nearly zero, so we write down the most important values (say, the largest 32 coefficients along with their places). then, when we go to play back the sound, we put our 32 coefficients in the right place, fill in zeros for the other coefficients, and use the inverse dft to produce the signal that we can then play into our speakers. the advantage of doing this, however, is that we've used less than half as much space (32 real and imaginary coefficients + 32 offsets = 96 values, compared to 256 values initially), so we can store more than twice as much audio on the same cd we used before. except, now anything we want to use to listen to it must understand how to decode our new format. if you wanted to record an entire song this way, you'd just break it down into 5.8ms segments and encode each individually, then write them down in sequence. real compression algorithms operate on the same principle, except they are much more sophisticated. for instance, they use variable block lengths, rather than always 256 samples, to capture different categories of sounds (such as silence) even more efficiently, they employ quantization to reduce the number of bits required per sample (2 bytes = 16 bits provides 65536 unique quantization levels, but by grouping ones that sound similar, we can reduce the number of levels without significant sacrifices in sound quality, allowing us to use less storage space), and they use human acoustic sensitivity profiles to weight the dft results by how much we hear them--something may have a nonzero coefficient, but it might be something that we are not very sensitive to and therefore won't perceive, meaning it isn't important to store! they also use different, and sometimes more sophisticated transforms--the dft is easy to understand because it uses familiar sines and cosines, but in some instances, transforming the data into a different format that matches its underlying structure can provide more space saving without losing quality (for example, square waves could be used instead, although they are not great for audio). incidentally, jpeg-style image compression works the same way, but i'll leave it up to you to think about what it means to have a two-dimensional sine wave. there are many other types of compression algorithms (such as those used on arbitrary files, like in zip formatting, which do not share the same assumptions as audio, picture, or video data), and an important result in coding theory is that there is no optimal compression algorithm for which all inputs require less space to reproduce exactly (or even at a specific level of accuracy), so the algorith must be paired with the application for best results. i hope this answers your questions and i hope it helps. if you have more questions feel free to ask. ps, you should study probability and linear algebra if you're interested in learning more about this and how/why it works. edit: a few minor terminology issues, acronym swaps on dft/dtft | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_Series"
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just watched a cardinal feed (regurgitate into the mouth of) a sparrow. is this common bird behavior? | never seen it before is all. | are you sure it wasn't a baby cardinal? they [look a lot like sparrows](_url_2_). here's [another image](_url_0_). alternatively, it could have been a baby [brown-headed cowbird](_url_1_); female cowbirds lay their eggs in other birds' nests and let the other species do all the work of raising her babies! | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_5NJQecVqQcU/TBjPS_vEJlI/AAAAAAAAAo4/CfKjBNIgbUs/s1600/DSC_2425w.jpg",
"http://iamabrahamlincoln.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/640-cowbird-cardinal_5711.jpg",
"http://robertprice10.com/baby_cardinal.jpg"
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does draining water exhibit a spiral motion at or near the equator? | so today i've been learning about the coriolis force and i knew it was responsible for the rotational motion of water when it drains in a sink and that the direction of the force depends on which hemisphere one observes this in. i did not know until today that the coriolis force vanishes at the equator (and this is the reason no hurricanes form within 500 miles of the equator) so does this also mean that water simply drains without spiralling into the sink? | this is actually false. the coriolis force is basically nothing on the scale of your sink - small imperfections in your sink, or water being poured in off-centre dominate by a huge amount. i did hear of someone managing to actually see the effect of the coriolis force on a tub, by taking a perfect bowl several metres across and making sure the water had no currents before draining. so if you drain at the equator, your sink and how you pour the water in has the dominant effect, just like anywhere else. however, what you learnt about hurricanes was right. and it's cool that you worked out that if the coriolis force controlled which way water drains, then water should drain straight down near the equator - there are tourist traps where they try to convince you that walking 2 metres on either side of the equator makes a significant difference... | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a reason why western countries moved away from the rigid hierarchical class system whereas eastern nations didn't? | i live in india, but broadly speaking japan too had a caste system and so did many south asian cultures, the ramifications and prejudices of which are still felt strongly today. i want to know the difference in factors that caused the shift in one place but didn't in another | the feudal system was very popular for a long time in europe, from around the 9th to 15th centuries. it disappeared largely impart to the growing kingdoms of that time. feudalism worked best when most of europe was divided into small kingdoms that offered little protection. basically people would be willing to work as serfs because they got protection from land owners jn return. when the kingdoms could provide more protection, people had the liberty to move out on their own. officially feudalism was banned in france in the mid 18th century. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what motivation is there for scientific validation of another lab's findings? | as an example of validation in science, i'll refer to [rusi taleyarkhan](_url_0_) and his sonofusion research. other laboratories tried to replicate his result and failed. but why would other laboratories even try to replicate this scientific experiment? science can be very costly. what's in it for them? certainly *some other lab* can try to replicate the findings and shoulder that cost. | often replication happens when you try to extend someone elses work, in order to use someones method for a different purpose or optimize the method you must first understand the original method so you try to replicate it and once you have succeeded you can then apply the method and attempt to extend it or optimize it. an example would be a specific pulse sequence used to do mri tractography, you use the original pulse sequence and then you compare to your novel pulse sequence, if the results are identical but your method is faster then you publish that - the replication is simply part of testing and understanding the subject. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusi_Taleyarkhan"
] | [] | [
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how did scientists in the early days, say late 1800s and early 1900s carried out experiments with such precision like measuring weights of electrons and its charge, etc. | i know a lot of the measurements was done indirectly, but even then, what sort of wacky instruments did they use to measure things so minute. i know what i'm asking is very broad, so let me specify some measurements to narrow things down: * mass of an atom, * charge of an electron, * counting alpha particles going through a membrane, * measure specific mass of a gas (as in carrying out experiments with chemical reactions) | * [rutherford's gold foil experiment](_url_0_) * [oil-drop experiment](_url_0_) * [ruterford-villard](_url_1_) (ionization) * (density?) mostly mixing gas and measure the pressure on the walls of the containers. nothing wacky. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_foil_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_particle#History_of_discovery_and_use"
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how do atoms work in pilot wave theory? | the classic example for why the concept of electrons doing trajectories around the nucleus is wrong is that they would continuously lose energy via radiation. pilot wave theory assigns trajectories to particles. this seems contradictory, how is it resolved? | it's resolved by the pilot wave, which guides the motion of the particle -- the particle doesn't act back on the pilot wave, so it can't be the case that the particle has the important properties that affect other pilot waves. the charge and its distribution are possessed by the pilot wave itself, not the particle. so in a stationary hydrogen atom for example, even though the particle is moving around, the charge distribution remains the same and therefore no radiation is emitted. reference: _url_0_ hope that helps! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie–Bohm_theory#The_ontology"
] | [
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where does the v^2 come in fr=k.a.v^2 ? | i'm assuming you're referring to the drag force on an object in a fluid (with large reynolds number). note that this equation is not meant to be exact, it's supposed to be a good approximation in certain cases. presumably you can derive it as a particular limit of the equations of fluid mechanics, but i'm not aware of the details. however, it's possible to guess the form by an intuitive argument: the drag force can be thought to be caused by getting transferred momentum from collisions with fluid particles (recall that force is the rate of change of momentum). clearly this force should be proportional to surface area (because you hit more particles). it should also increase with velocity, since at higher velocities that particles collide with you at higher relative momentum. but, not only is the momentum transfer increasing at higher velocities, but you should also be hitting more particles per second at higher velocities. since we expect both the momentum transfer from an individual particle and the number of particles per second to be proportional to velocity, the total force should be proportional to velocity squared. there is an more sophisticated argument using dimensional analysis which you can find [on wikipedia](_url_0_). ultimately, this equation will always be an approximation valid in certain limits. presumably it should be possible to derive the form of corrections to these equations would necessarily depend on different properties of the fluid or the object experiencing the force. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_equation#Derivation"
] | [
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|
how accurate with lat/long coordinates do you have to be when specifying a location about the size of a street block? | this may be pushing the 'science' part of this sub, but i can't think of a more appropriate place to ask. | the exact answer of this would depend a little on where on the earth you are as the conversion between degrees of longitude and distance change as you move higher in latitude (i.e. if we ignore the complications that arise because the earth is an ellipsoid and consider it a sphere, at the poles, the distance between two lines of longitude is zero and at the equator the distance conversion between one degree of longitude is equal to the distance of one degree of latitude, which is ~111 km). if we instead just use a simple calculation of distance along a great circle (i.e. measuring the length of an arc with a radius equal to the approximate radius of the earth if it was a sphere) and pretend a city block is 200 meters, 200 meters equals ~.00018 degrees. so if you wanted to specify a particular spot within a city block with lat-lon, as a general guide you would need to specify the coordinates down to the fifth decimal place. the [wikipedia article](_url_0_) on decimal degrees gives a rule of thumb for the necessary precision for various sized objects. edit: a good place for these types of questions would be /r/gis | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_degrees"
] | [
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are some people's sense of balance intrinsically superior to others the same way some are more naturally athletic than others? | my friend and i got into an argument about whether some people are more naturally balanced than others. i'm more inclined to think yes, there probably is a natural variance in the same way some people are simply more coordinated at physical activities regardless of fitness level or practice. my friend seemed to think that everyone has equal potential for their sense of balance. i don't doubt that it is something that can be improved through practice and training. but i can't help but think that the vestibular system must be inexplicably tied to one's athleticism and there must be some genetic variance in how well these systems naturally function in different people. i could not articulate my sentiment to her in an intelligent way so she would not be convinced. it would be most appreciated if askscience could resolve our quandary. am i completely off on this? am i even correctly understanding what the vestibular system is? | your understanding seems pretty good to me. i'm sure that there is some innate difference, your sense of balance and your kinesthetic sense (where your body is within space - its what lets you touch your nose with your eyes shut) are senses just like taste smell and vision. some people naturally have better vision or smell than others, so it stands to reason that there are natural differences with your vestibule sense as well. i'm not sure about it being totally connected to your althetic ability; i'd say more research needs to be done here. my guess is althetes have good balance because they use their vestibular system all the time, so it essentially is trained to perform. (plus, they were probably better than average to begin with!) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a type of 3-phase power where the phases are offset 90 degrees? | i have a [book](_url_0_) that briefly goes over electrical theory and 3-phase power. it shows a sine wave graph with the phases offset 90 degrees (which would leave one 180 degree gap). the paragraph describing this alignment doesn't seem to follow either. i know normally it's 120 degrees apart, but i just wanted to make sure this isn't some special kind of 3-phase. thanks for the help | the illustration is most likely a printing error. the reason you have 120 degrees offset between the phases is because it spaces the peaks in the power evenly, which helps balance the load in the system. keeping the sum of the current close to zero is very nice. if you were to have 3 phases with 90 90 180 degrees between them, the power would surge and fall with every cycle. while technically possible, it would make simple things, like trying to get an electrical engine to run smoothly, very convoluted. | 8 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/hLCQl8c"
] | [] | [
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does d'alembert's formula hold if the wave speed is not constant? | for example, if the speed c in the [link](_url_0_) is not a constant, but instead a function of the coordinate x. is the formula still valid? | as the other poster said, the formula does not hold in this case. let me elaborate a bit further, in case you are still interested. in this case, the wave will no longer propagate information at a constant speed (which you probably guessed), but it will also no longer propagate information **along straight lines**. rather, it will happen along curved paths known as bicharacteristics (also sometimes called "rays" or "geodesics" \*). for instance, if you study the wave equation with speed c(x) = |x| on an annulus, some information will propagate around and around in a circle, never "escaping" into a larger region. there are various methods for solving these types of equations, though none of them are really as neat and tidy as d'alembert's formula. i don't know what your background is, and the papers/books i know of are at a graduate level. (the topic is called microlocal analysis) if you already understand the fourier transform, i can try and give you the basic idea of how this works. (i could write it up maybe an hour from now) \*: actually all of these three have distinct mathematical meanings, but let's skip that here. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Alembert%27s_formula"
] | [] | [
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how does 'contact cement' work on a molecular level? | i use a lot of contact adhesives with my leather work, and i've been wondering recently how they actually work. with contact cement, you let both sides rest until they're "touch-dry," then put them together, then hammer it. if all is done correctly, the adhesion is so strong, you'll be tearing leather fibers apart before that seal is broken! [this](_url_0_) is really about the most information i can find on how it actually "works," but it doesn't go much into the science. can anyone shed some light on this? | polymer science grad student here background on butyl rubber i work with polyisobutylene on a daily basis and occasionally butyl rubber which seems to be the active ingredient in contact cement. having handled high molecular weight butyl rubber (200kg/mol), i can tell you that the stuff sticks to itself extremely well due to the high amount of entanglement between polymer chains (think of a bin of christmas lights on a molecular level). furthermore, this stuff sticks to even a smooth surface like glass because it has a very low [glass transition temperature](_url_1_) (kinda like a melting temperature, but for non-crystalline polymers) of [-65 degrees c](_url_7_). this means that even at room temperature, the polymer can flow causing it to have as much surface area contact as possible with the substrate. couple that with the high amount of van der waals forces ([what allows a gecko to stick to stuff](_url_4_)) between the polymer and the glass, and you have a system that has a very high surface contact area and thus a high amount of inter surfacial forces causing the amount of force needed to separate the two to be extremely high. contact cement now, if you replace the glass in the previous paragraph with leather, you have a substrate which is very porous compared to the glass and thus has a ton more surface area. when you coat this surface with a solution of butyl rubber (again, it has to be very high molecular weight to allow for [enganglement of chains](_url_2_)) in a solvent, the butyl rubber can make its way into each and every pore of the surface and the surface contact area between the butyl rubber and the substrate becomes ridiculously high. the solvent then evaporates leaving behind nothing but a butyl rubber coated surface. you then put the other butyl rubber coated piece of leather on it and smash it with a hammer. in doing this, you are essentially [welding](_url_0_) the two outermost layers of butyl rubber together. the butyl rubber can flow, but only very slowly under normal circumstances. hitting it with a hammer forces the chains to mix and entangle with each other. in the finished system, you have two leather-polymer interfaces which are held together by a very large surface contact area and between the two interfaces and you have a bulk polymer which is held together by polymer entanglements. closest i could come to a wikipedia article on contact cement is one on [pressure sensitive adhesives](_url_8_) which are similar but are usually either lower molecular weight or have plasticizers to lower their viscosity. also, there is a phenomenon called [strain induced crystallization](_url_3_) which increases cohesive strength in contact adhesive formulations. edit: tl;dr: coating the leather surface with a butyl rubber solution and allowing solvent to evaporate lets the butyl rubber anchor itself to the substrate via a very high surface contact area and van der waals forces. hammering two dried butyl rubber coated surfaces together causes the butyl rubber chains to entangle with each other and form a physically gelled bulk between the two leather surfaces. sorry for the wall of text. edit #2: according to [this](_url_6_) in some contact cement formulations there exists a phenolic resin. basically, this acts as a secondary cure process whereby once the solvent is evaporated and you have your initial butyl rubber network, the phenolic resin will react chemically and form chemical crosslinks making it so the contact cement cannot be dissolved as easily and further increasing the cohesive (interactions of the polymer network with itself) and adhesive (interactions of the polymer network with the substrate) strength of the cement edit #3: thank you for the gold, whoever you may be edit #4: vanderwalls=/= van der waals edit #5: some references edit #6: as has been pointed out, butyl rubber is not used in contact cements, but rather neoprene. [here](_url_5_) is a website detailing in a bit further detail the curing mechanism of chloroprene adhesives. | 92 | [] | [
"http://www.madehow.com/Volume-6/Rubber-Cement.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_welding",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_crystallization",
"http://news.sciencemag.org/2002/08/how-geckos-stick-der-waals",
"http://www.adhesivesmag.com/articles/polychloroprene-contact-adhesives",
"http://www.dap.com/docs/msds/00030503_english.pdf",
"http://www.merl-ltd.co.uk/2003_materials/rubber12.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure-sensitive_adhesive"
] | [
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why does an action potential travel down the axon? (more details on question in post) | so, here's what i know about action potentials just so you know where i stand on things: * neurons have slightly negative resting potentials. * when a chemical signal triggers the neuron to fire, sodium ions rush in to the soma and create an area of positive charge * all the information i've read just says that this area of positive charge just "triggers" the areas next to it to pump positively charged cells in to the axon as well * this positively charged region moves down the axon until it reaches the other end but what i don't understand is why this collection of positively charged particles moves down the axon, or how the initial collection of positively charged particles causes the region next to it to pump positively charged ions in to the axon. and, to be honest, i also don't truly understand how this constitutes an electrical signal at all either. any help on any of these questions would be hugely appreciated! | the channels that allow na+ ions to enter the neuron are called voltage gated channels. when the membrane depolarizes this causes the na+ channels to open, allowing na+ to rush in. the reason that the action potential caused by this only propagates down the axon is because these na+ channels have a refractory period in which they have been deactivated and cannot open again. thus, preventing retrograde action potential propagation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about the repolarisation of an axon following an action potential | my textbook tells me that hyperpolarisation results in the inside of the axon becoming more negative than at restimg potential. therefore, depolarisation must occur in order to restore the resting potential. however, it says this is achieved by the sodium-potassium pump actively transporting 3 na + ions out of the axon for every 2 k + brought in. won't this make the inside more negative? | the hyperpolarization of axons often has to do with voltage-gated k+ channels, which close late rather than early, so they "overshoot" and cause the hyperpolarization. once these close, the na/k/atpase just restores the balance of ecf to icf k+ and the vrm normalizes. the na/k/atpase doesn't directly affect the vrm, rather its an indirect relationship based on the concentration gradients. the biggest effect on the vrm normalizing comes from the closure of the vgk+ channels, which you'll learn about, if you haven't already, if and when you start calculating nernst potentials and using the goldman equation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly are our eyes doing when we see the hidden 3d images in autostereograms, or "magic eyes"? | like [this one](_url_0_), for example. i always wondered this because to me it feels like my eyes just de-focus and and suddenly i can see the image. | in order to see the 3d effect, your eyes need to focus on a point beyond the plane of the image you're looking at. each of your eyes then sees a different part of the image. now your brain gets the two images, and tries to create a 3d representation that you then percieve. that is what your brain tries to do in the normal world: stitch together two images to create a 3d representation in your brain. as soon as you move your eyes, the effect dissappears. tl;dr: your eyes are not doing a lot. it's the brain that does the work. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.eyetricks.com/stereograms/6_SIGMA_2.gif"
] | [
"http://www.dlt.ncssm.edu/collections/toys/html/exhibit01.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_dot_stereogram",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horopter",
"http://webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/Space5.jpg",
"http://visionlab.harvard.edu/members/ken/Ken%20papers%20for%20web%20page/054visionres90.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binocular_disparity",
"http://webvision.med.utah.edu/imageswv/Space3.jpg",
"http://machinewrapped.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/stereograms_html_m41b3b120.gif"
] | [
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why is the 'oh' in brackets in ca(oh)? | i assume you know that ca refers to calcium, in its ionic form it is ca2+ (missing two electrons) oh on the other hand is the hydroxide ion with a -1 charge (has one extra electron) the compound you have described ca(oh) is not complete because it still has a +1 charge because the hydroxide only cancelled out one of the positive charges on the calcium. the compound i assume you are describing is ca(oh)2 where there is one calcium ion and two hydroxide ions there are two good reasons why the oh is in brackets: 1) in ca(oh)2 it becomes ambigues and unclear if we instead say caoh2 is that [1 calcium 1 oxygen and two hydrogens] or [1 calcium and 2 hydroxides]. we put the brackets around to describe that we have 2 oh not 2 of something else. 2) when you put brackets around the oh it infers that the oh is actually the hydroxide ion. it quickly informs the reader that you are dealing with (h-o)-ca-(o-h) instead of h2-ca-o2. it also infers that the oh bond is covalent instead of ionic. hope that helped, if your still confused i can try to explain it better. it would also help if we knew what level your understanding of chemistry is at. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
does crispr/cas9 have any effect on a subject after the embryonic stage? | if you're asking "do changes made with crispr/cas9 persist after the embryonic stage" the answer is yes. the crispr/cas9 system irreversibly alters the genome. any modifications made to an embryonic cell will be carried by all daughters of that cell. as such, if you modify a zygote - the parent to all future cells of an organism - every cell in the organism will carry those changes. if you're asking "can you use crispr/cas9 on mature animal cells," the answer is also yes. however, the modifications will be limited to whatever cells are exposed to the cas9. depending on the proliferative ability of the targeted cells, these changes could wear off once all affected cells and their progeny die. clinically, for the moment at least, this is seen as an advantage. the first approved use of crispr/cas9 in [humans](_url_0_) targets mature t-cells rather than a group of stem cells precisely because any possibly dangerous off-target mutations will be short lived. other proposed treatments targeting hematopoietic stem cells (which can persist and proliferate for much longer than t cells) are currently considered too dangerous for use in humans due to the risk that a random insertion or deletion could produce new disease in the patient. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/first-crispr-clinical-trial-gets-green-light-from-us-panel-1.20137"
] | [
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|
a couple of rudimentary physics questions my teachers never could really answer, for some reason or another, that i'd like to still know. [big post warning] | instead of doing a bunch of threads over time i thought i might as well make one where if people knew a solid answer to, could help me out with. **1)** if light can literally push an object, but it in on it self doesn't have any mass and moves at the speed of light, how would that pushing actually happen especially without breaking newton's third law of motion. how and what gets pushed back at the instant the force is applied? ------------------------------------------------- **2)** if two electrons suddenly came into existence near each other having initial relative speed to one another at 0. what would their path of motion look like and how would the magnetic field lines come into play when they start moving if there were no third frame of reference to observe it from. can the change of initial distance cause wildly different results or would it just be the same with just less energy involved(?), if so what is the cause? ------------------------------------------------- **3)** i was told that every particle can be destroyed if the energy is high enough. can you do this to an electron too without breaking the conservation of charge and if not what would happen if a large group of electrons only were to fall into a blackhole? wouldn't that break the universe? ------------------------------------------------- **4)** another electron question: if neutron stars are a real thing, could you pack a bunch of electrons tight enough together for it to form a some kind of....*solid*....*liquid* or *gas*? if so, what would that actually look like if at all? ------------------------------------------------- **5)** if the speed of light is slower in a medium because it is absorbed and re-emitted randomly, taking an indirect path contributing to the time delay, how can an image travelling through a thick chunk of glass still be coherent and not completely scrambled up? ------------------------------------------------- **6)** if blackholes curve spacetime so much that literally nothing can ever come out or interact with anything outside of the event horizon ever again, how can matter still be said to exist in its center (*everyone keeps telling it is still there*) and how can it have an influence on anything outside....if not even information can travel through the horizon? ------------------------------------------------- **7)** i keep hearing this everywhere i go: "*we only see the images of the past when we look at the edges of the visible universe*", wouldn't that imply that there is an absolute frame of reference outside the universe? i'm being told that time, motion and even the timing of various events is only relative to how you are moving, where you are and what kind of gravitational field you are in, in relation to everything else...doesn't that mean that when something travels at the speed of light at us (*light from a supernova or the cosmic microwave background radiation*), it is literally and practically happening then and right then to us and not in any other time in the "past"? what i mean by this is: if the sun suddenly vanished, wouldn't it practically and literally happen to us instantly **when we actually see it** vanish? because if you say: "it really happened in the past it just took time to get to us", isn't that invoking some kind of an absolute frame of reference that everything ticks by at regardless of relativity? this one is really hard to explain properly, with english not being my native language so i don't blame you if i make absolutely no sense here. ------------------------------------------------- **8)** if gravitational lensing actually **bends** light, physically interacts with it as it is said in pretty much everywhere, with what does it interact with it with? wouldn't light then also cause a gravitational pull on the object bending it? how would that even work? ------------------------------------------------- **9)** i'm being told that if something moves near the speed of light relative to you, you'd see its time slow down as it travels. how can this be possible if the object was coming towards you instead of away? i tried explaining to the teacher that if a ship sent out a flash of light when it was launched from andromeda towards us and instantly accelerated to near c, wouldn't he appear to reach me just a few seconds after the initial flash from the launch from my point of view and wouldn't i have to see everything he did in that time he was travelling compressed into that few second difference? ------------------------------------------------- **10)** is biology technically a science? ------------------------------------------------- **11)** i was told you can't know if you are orbiting an object if you couldn't see outside of your spaceship. how can this be true if i placed four apples at the opposite ends of the ship along each axis, if one of them was closer to the gravitational well wouldn't that one have the shortest orbital period and move faster around the well than the rest...eventually colliding with something first? | 1) light has no *rest* mass but has momentum based on it's frequency. newton's laws don't describe it as it wasn't discovered yet. newtonian laws only apply to newtonian physics. 2) they would repel one another as a function of distance squared. 3) falling into a black hole is not destruction but compaction. at high enough energies non-fundamental particles can be broken down into their constituent particles by breaking the nuclear bonds that hold them together. 4) this is called a degenerate gas. it exists at the core of white dwarf stars. 5) the time delay is the absorption and emission not the indirect path. the clarity depends on the composition of the material and whether the light is reflected/refracted (and at what angle) internally. 6) the nature of matter at the center is unknown, but the black holes still bends space so we assume the matter is still there and take the center of mass to do calculations. 7) yes. from some frames of reference the sun hasn't gone out and from others it has. either one could be considered correct. this is called the relativity of simultaneity and it is indeed relative if the events are not causal. 8) gravity bends space and light travels through space. 9) he would only have a few seconds to do anything in his spaceship. 10) if they apply the scientific method yes. if they count how many shrimp are in a bucket of water for fun then no. 11) the one that was farther away would be moving faster with respect to the surface, but colliding with something is equivalent to "seeing" outside. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do endurance olympic swimmers swim for hours without "refueling"? | biology / sports science question: the 10k olympic swim event is on, and i was wondering how the athletes can continue to exert themselves without "refueling". you see runners and cyclists carrying food and water with them, because the body (afaik) simply can't store that much fuel; and the swimmers are slim enough that i can't see the body storing enough for the entire race. runners, cyclists- they stop to eat/drink or do it in-stride... how do swimmers condition their body to work so hard and so long without food or drink? edit: further on in the race, i saw the answer: they have water (with additives, maybe) lowered to them while they race and they backstroke while consuming it. til. | i watched the 10k olympic run, they didn't eat/drink there in their 1/2 hour run either. when it comes to how much energy our body is storing, i think you are underestimating it by far. i'm sure there are more scientific and authoritative sources, but this [health site](_url_0_) suggests a marathon winner would use about 2,500 calories on his 2-hour run, which is less than a pound of fat. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.spryliving.com/articles/the-olympic-sports-that-burn-the-most-and-least-calories/"
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suppose someone has been up for 30 hours. what effects on their body distinguishes them from a well- rested person? | define a well-rested person to be someone who has gotten regular, quality sleep every night for the past week, and has been up for about 6 hours. assume the sleep-deprived person hasn't taken any stimulants such as caffeine. | in sleep deprived states the neurones in your brain suffer from reduced sensitivity, causing cognitive impairment. in short, being tired slows reactions, increases think time, increases think error occurrence. in laymans terms it makes you "dopey" and slow. they would be distinguishable by taking longer to complete tasks or failing tasks that non sleep-deprived people would pass easily. also dark circles under the eyes, although it's somewhat anecdotal. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hat has changed, technologically speaking, to allow people to fly around in bathtub drones like the guy on youtube? we've had propellers, radio-controls, batteries, for years. is it just that the design of the drone in general is so innovative as to have been a total game-changer? | [here] (_url_0_) is the link for those that don't know what i'm talking about | modern drones are based on four technologies that have really ramped up in the last 10-15 years: 1) powerful electric motors based on rare-earth "supermagnets". we've had electric motors forever, but they used much weaker ceramic magnets. the new magnets allow *much* better power-to-weight ratios. (a related development is the use of the brushless dc design, which is super reliable and lightweight but requires computer control, you can't just hook them up to a battery.) 2) lithium batteries have been a game-changer, they're able to store about 5 times as much juice in the same mass as earlier rechargeable battery technologies. 3) to keep a drone stable, it needs to be able to measure its rotation and acceleration. mems (microelectromechanical systems) technology allows us to shrink a motion-sensing device down to a few mm in size, costing a few dollars. previous devices (mechanical or laser ring gyros) weighed kilograms and cost thousands of dollars. 4) really tiny digital video cameras. not needed for the bathtub drone, but the defining feature of most modern drones. why *now*? what do all these technologies in common? well, think about it, what other device needs incredibly high battery capacity, motion sensing, a very small electric motor, and a tiny camera? the smartphone. (the motor is for the vibrate feature.) early drones often specifically used cell phone components, and while everything in that bathtub drone is way too big to use in a cell phone, the enabling technology is the same. the smartphone revolution provided the technology that makes modern drones possible. | 23 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=208&v=EQK9m_OBVgY"
] | [] | [
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you have an unlimited budget. return voyager 1 to earth. | no. voyager 1 is traveling at 17 km/s, which is at least 11 km/s faster than the local solar escape velocity, which you would have to overcome in order to eventually bring the spacecraft back. the current record for highest delta-v in a single mission is dawn, which achieved more than 10 km/s. remember, we're governed by the laws of physics, and any spacecraft you send to push voyager will have an extremely obese mass fraction. not to mention to achieve that delta-v, dawn had an order of magnitude more power available (compared to voyager 1) to activate its nstar thrusters. needless to say, it would take centuries for a spacecraft with today's technology to catch up, and then probably in excess of millennia to bring it back, if it was at all physically possible. just throw tsiolkovskies equation at rough estimate of a xenon thruster with fuel tank and giant rtg, attach the giant mass of voyager 1, and you'll get a pretty good figure of just how giant of a spacecraft you would need to get your mass fraction low enough to slow down voyager 1. not physically possible. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
will student loans eventually crash, similar to how mortgages crashed in 2008? | also, are student loans bundled and sold to other companies, similar to how mortgages were. | student loans are indeed being collateralized: they're called [slabs] (_url_0_), which is short for student loan asset-backed securities. thing is: the market for those (like any abs) could crash, but that would not have any effect on the (former) student's liability. just as the crash in mortgage-backed securities did not (by itself) make any homeowner's mortgage any smaller. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset-backed_security#Student_loans"
] | [
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from 2010 to 2016, student loan debt has approximately doubled, and the average student loan debt in 2016 has seen a 50% increase from 2010. what factors are driving this growth and what's the outlook of it's sustainability? | 2010 average debt source: _url_0_ 2016 average debt source: _url_1_ chart from wikipedia showing debt increase from 2006 to 2016; _url_2_ | increasing by nearly 50% is not doubling. according to your sources, the average debt in 2010 was $25,250. for that to double it would have to be $50,500, but it's only $37,172. converting to constant dollars using [this inflation calculator](_url_3_), the 2010 debt would be $28,085 today, so that's a 32% increase, or about 1/3rd. i don't know why that is, though. maybe people are going to more expensive colleges. let's look at one near me, university of north texas. [2010 tuition and fees](_url_0_): $3,803.00 per semester for 15 hours [2016 tuition and fees](_url_2_): $5,244.80 per semester for 15 hours that's a 38% raw increase, which is a 24% constant dollar increase, or about 1/4. so tuition and fees both increased faster than inflation by about 25% for that one school. still don't know why though. according to [this article](_url_1_) most of the disproportionate increase has been going to administration. | 12 | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/education/average-student-loan-debt-grew-by-5-percent-in-2010.html",
"https://studentloanhero.com/student-loan-debt-statistics/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_loans_in_the_United_States#/media/File%3AStudent_loan_debt.png"
] | [
"http://catalogarchive.unt.edu/2010-11/undergrad/financial.htm",
"https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/05/opinion/sunday/the-real-reason-college-tuition-costs-so-much.html?_r=0",
"https://studentaccounting.unt.edu/sites/default/files/UGRDSpring2017resshort.pdf",
"https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=25%2C250.00&year1=201001&year2=201606"
] | [
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how do construction methods in zero g differ from those on earth? | i was listening to startalk radio with neil degrasse tyson and the discussion turned to the iss, the hubble telescope, and how the two cannot exist structurally on earth. it got me thinking about construction methods in zero g. is it more difficult or easier? are there specialty tools to use? where could i read up more about this (textbooks, popular science books, websites, etc.)? | definitely not an expert on this, knowledge limited to an undergrad spacecraft design course and reading [this book](_url_0_), but just throwing a couple things out there. that also answers your last question -- michael griffin was the previous head of nasa, so the guy seriously knows space vehicle design. well, certainly everything is more difficult. not only do you have to get everything there in the first place, but you have nothing to stand on. imagine hammering a nail in 0g. one random thing i remember is the issue with cold-welding. on earth, metals naturally get a layer of oxide formed on them. this can't form in space, and when you have two pieces of very clean, pure metal touching each other, they naturally fuse/weld together, so just making joints where two metals touch is very hard. related to that is the issue of lubrication.. you're generally forced to use graphite powder (iirc) instead of oil/grease as on earth. there's also an issue of "outgassing" of materials -- all materials naturally have some amount of atmospheric gas trapped in them -- in space this gets sucked out and can damage the material. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Space-Vehicle-Design-Second-Education/dp/1563475391"
] | [
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feasibility - "project plowshare" for lunar construction? | howdy, ladies and gents of r/askscience! reading about building a base on the moon, and how radiation poses an issue... burying any habitable base is a necessity to protect from the harmful gamma radiation which can't be deflected practically, only absorbed. so a thought occurred to me - has it ever been suggested to bury a low-yield nuclear warhead below the lunar surface, and detonating it to create a large underground cavern; and possibly cleared, cleaned, and re-enforced and sealed by robots prior to human habitation? i am aware nuclear weapons are presently not allowed in space (per all the test-ban treaties), that the radiation from the warhead may persist, and that the cavern's stability is presently low... not to mention the risks of putting that much lunar material into space, should the explosion cause ejection, as opposed to being sealed properly, without collapse. but aside from the bans and aforementioned risks, is there anything unsound with this concept, or is mining out or burying a base on the moon (or other solar body) a more effective option? | if you have the robots to clear, clean and reinforce, why not add a few to dig and forego the problems with launching nuclear weapons to the moon? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why doesn't ek=1/2mv^2 agree with ek=1/2mm^2g^2t^2/r^4 for a falling body? | ek = 1/2mv*`2`, v = gt, g = gm/r^2 so ek = 1/2m(gmt/r`2`)^2 = 1/2mm`2`g`2`t`2`/r^4*. but when i substitute values in (eg. m = 100kg, t = 10s, m = 5.972\*10^24 kg, r = 6,371,000 m; a mass of 100kg after falling towards earth for 10 seconds from near sea level), the basic ek = 1/2mv^2 gives ek = 480,000 j, and ek = 1/2mm*`2`g`2`t`2`*/r^4. gives 386,960 j, more than 20% less. what's happening here? is this just my bad maths or is there some underlying phenomenon? | seems like a calculation error on your end. [calculating using standard value of g](_url_1_) - 480852 j [calculating using the gravitational force formula](_url_0_) - 482093 j | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=0.5*100*%285.972e24%29%5E2*%286.67384e-11%29%5E2*100%2F%286371000%29%5E4",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=0.5*100*100*%289.80665%29%5E2"
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why have armadillos only come into the us in the last 200 years? | prior to the 19th century, there were no armadillos in the us. there were no barriers to their entry though, were there? across their current north american range, they don't have significant enough predation to affect their spread. they can swim across rivers and streams, and the climate wasn't that much less armadillo-friendly 200 years ago. why did the little guys take so long to get over here from south america/mexico? | you mention predation, but realize that while there's not significant enough predation to stop their spread today, 200 years ago there where many more jaguars, cougars, alligators, large birds of prey, wolves and bobcats that would prey on armadillos. also, while they can swim, large rivers like the rio grande and the mississippi still slow their spread. the beautiful armadillo, a close relative of the nine banded armadillo, lived in north america and became extinct 11,000 years ago, around the same time as the mastodon. it's hard to say what caused their extinction. so, for about 11,000 years there has been some aspect of north america that made it hard for armadillos to live here. since this recent shift is happening right now, we can only guess as to what is causing it without a major study. i know it's not a good answer, but in ecology sometimes all you have is a good guess until you can look into it in more detail. and my guess is the predation aspect. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how is the contraluz opal formed? | how exactly is the [contraluz opal](_url_0_) or other similar gems formed? | opal forms when ground water dissolves silica into solution. as this silica impregnated water moves down, it will pass through faults or other subsurface voids where some of the water will evaporate away leaving behind a hydrated silica. opal doesn't have a defined crystalline structure in the way that most minerals do, instead it is composed of tiny spheres of amorphous silica. while there isn't a crystalline structure, there is order to the packing of these spheres. when the spheres are ordered nicely, the light passing through the silica will behave similarly to when it passes through a prism and you'll get a sample with a really impressive color(s) while it's not an academic source, [this website](_url_0_) explains it well. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/xFRDwSn.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.gemstory.com.au/advanced1-how-opal-is-formed.html"
] | [
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what's the reason why we can never rememer anything from when we were babies? | the oldest memory i have is from when my parents were next to me in bed telling me it was my 3rd birthday. thinking about this made me realize i dont remember anything past this. does this mean we gain the abliity of memory around age 3 or does it cary prom person to person? | the phenomenon is called infantile amnesia, and while we know a lot about what happens, the "why" is a bit unclear. two-year-olds can describe recent events, and children ages 3-4 often have some memory from ages 1-2, so it's not entirely an issue of never forming the memory to begin with. there is some interpersonal variation, but basically, no one remembers infancy, and 3-4 is a common age of first memory. it seems that forgetting happens throughout childhood, while we develop better strategies for remembering and retelling as we get older. (memory, as many have noted, is not like a faithful recording, but more like something you alter each time you reuse.) the really striking thing is that a lot of stuff you don't remember at all still influences who you are and how you act in a big way. people who were neglected as infants or toddlers have no memory of it, but are prone to serious difficulties in forming trusting relationships. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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