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how does the 'puff of air' test performed by optometrists determine ocular pressure? | i have never been to an optometrist but when talking to my girlfriend she mentioned a 'puff of air' test where air is blown into the eyes. some google-fu led me to finding that it is meant to determine eye pressure to detect glaucoma, but how exactly do they determine the pressure? | the air puff test (non-contact tonometry) emits a gentle puff of air onto the eye, that comes in contact with the cornea and pushes it, causing the cornea to flattening a bit, as compared to it's normal position. corneal flattening is detected via an electro-optical system. intraocular pressure is estimated by detecting the force of the air jet at the instance of corneal flattening. however, this test alone is not very precise and the data is used in correlation with other tonometry tests to get a more precise evaluation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are sierpinski numbers important and what are they used for? | related news: "at more than 9 million digits long, the new prime number is the seventh largest prime ever found, and it just cut the six possible candidates for the elusive sierpinski number down to five." why are sierpinski numbers important and what are they used for? | from reading the wiki page, the sierpinski problem asks, "what is the smallest odd natural number k such that k*2^n +1 is composite, for all natural numbers n?" sierpinski and others believed that the answer is 78,557. in order to prove that it is the smallest, you simply have to show that no smaller ones exist. there were 6 (now 5) possible smaller sierpinski numbers. this new prime number was found using one of the 6 possibilities, showing that that one cannot be a sierpinski number. i would love if someone would add in if they have a way that these are useful! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.primegrid.com/",
"https://oeis.org/A076336"
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dear reddit, as a 'ginger' it takes 0.5 hrs to burn. but how long does it take me to 'recharge' so i can last another 0.5 hrs? | 0.5 hrs is a rough estimate based on personal experience and obviously varies depending on sun intensity. | your skin / cells need to rebuild after the sun damage. there is no real answer here because everyone heals at a different rate. it's not something that is healed within hours, more like days. uv rays can do some really nasty damage to dna and is nothing to mess about with. use sunscreen, wear clothes designed for sun protection, wear a hat, and always wear sunglasses when you go out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does warfarin kill rats and cows? | ive just learnt about hemostasis, and our professor said freshly cut grass kills cows, because oft warfarin, plus they usw it as rat poison. i geht the basic concept: it prohibits the vitamin k cycle, therefore blood clotting is prohibited. in small doses its medicine, but in high doses it kills. how much freshly cut grass does a cow have to eat to die? how long will it take for warfarin to take an effect? how long does a rat live after earing poison? exactly how will it die? i mean, if it doesnt have an injury, it could live for long, couldnt it? or are there spontaneous internal bleedings? | it's not actually the grass, but rather organisms which grow on clover, particularly when it's damp (as in an early haying). [source](_url_0_). (**warning**: stream-of-consciousness math ahead) [this](_url_2_) source lists the ld50 for coumadin in cattle at 200 mg/kg/day for 5 days. [this site] (_url_1_) has an average cow weighing about 1500 lbs, or about 680 kg (rounding to whole numbers). so, 200 mg/kg at 680 kg = 13600 mg, or 136g over 5 days, which works out to about 27g per day. i searched around to get a figure for how much a cow generally eats per day, and while none of them are particularly scholastic, they *all* refer to a figure of about 2% of body weight per day, which will be good enough for illustrative purposes. so, 2% of 680 = 13.6 kg. the coumadin content needs to be about 0.20% by mass of daily food intake for 5 days to hit the ld50. that's a pretty small amount, but remember that for the microbes that produce the compound to really thrive, they need a warm, damp environment. well-dried hay shouldn't be a problem, but hay cut and left on the ground could be an issue while it dries (hence, the avoiding of fresh-cut grass). now, on to how it kills: from the first source above, coumadin is highly water soluble, and readily bioavailable. so it can easily be dissolved and used by the body. since the clotting mechanism is so similar between the three species discussed (cows, rats, humans) i'm going to make the assumption that they'll be affected by a given concentration (mg drug/kg body weight) in a similar manner. coumadin starts taking effect within 24 hours, but can take 3-5 days for the full effect to be realized. [source](_url_3_). this is for therapeutic dosages, for the kind of dose you'd find in rat poison, it would act much quicker, my guess would be inside of 2 days, possibly as fast as one day. the lethal action doesn't really require what you would typically think of as an injury. various things like microtraumas, inflammation, or hypertension can contribute to blood 'leaking'. normally, these are rapidly patched up by the clotting cascade, but with the k cycle suppressed (to an extent that is again, dose-dependent) that can't happen as effectively. in overdoses, you can rapidly find bleeding of the gums/gi tract without apparently visible injury. even more dangerous are bleeds in the brain, that can rapidly increase intracranial pressure. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2008.07119.x/pdf",
"http://www.dairymoos.com/how-much-do-cows-weight/",
"http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/pyrethrins-ziram/warfarin-ext.html#1",
"http://www.cvcheart.com/patient-education/managing-my-condition/treatment-with-warfarin-coumadin/"
] | [
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my gym professor in high school told us that after a hard running session, your pulse calms better if you walk for a bit after running, rather than stopping completely for a rest. is there any truth to this? | sorry if my question is poorly worded, english isn't my first language. | while you are running, the contracting muscles in your legs help the heart circulate blood through your body. once you stop, that assistance is no longer available. that makes the blood pressure drop as blood begins to pool in the legs and feet. that's why some people get dizzy after an abrupt stop. unless you keep moving to help the heart circulate the blood, blood pressure may get so low you can actually pass out. although there doesn't seem to be any medical evidence that a cool-down walk will help your heart rate recover faster, it's still a good idea to do so to keep from passing out. | 310 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the tropopause isothermal? | i am curious as to why the "pause" regions of the atmosphere are isothermal, in particular the tropopause. i haven't been able to derive or find an answer to why 10 km regions of the atmosphere experience no temperature gradient. sources would be appreciated. | it's my understanding that that's how the layers are defined. in the troposphere temperature decreases with altitude, and in the stratosphere temperature increases with altitude. in between there has to be a transition where the temperature change goes to zero. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when a light or sound wave hits a surface upon which it can reflect, it undergoes a phase change of pi. why? | why doesn't it undergo a path change of half a wavelength instead? | it does not have to. it could be anything. if you're a electromagnetic wave propagating in an isotropic homogeneous dielectric medium of real scalar refractive index 'n1' and you hit the surface of a similar medium of real scalar index 'n2', then if 'n2 if the refractive indices are scalar but complex (like metals, they absorb), then the phase shift can be anything, it does not have to be 0 or pi. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/reflect/soft.gif",
"http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/apl/88/9/10.1063/1.2179615",
"http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/reflect/hard.gif",
"http://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/reflect/pulse.gif"
] | [
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how do the anti-theft beeper-things in stores work? | you know those pillars that you walk between when leaving most stores? what causes them to beep and how do they "see" the barcodes? | there are basically two versions. one uses an rfid tag, which is a low-power mocroprocessor coupled to an antenna that it uses for both communication and as a power source. the tower at the exit hits it with a pulse of radio waves, and the tag converts some of that rf energy into electricity and sends back a signal encoded with a unique id. the more common system (currently) is a passive tag, which is just an antenna and an l-c resonant circuit. it is also activated by an rf signal, but essentially just echoes the signal back, so there's really no way to tell one tag from another. the passive tags will often have a circuit component that can be deactivated by exposure to a strong magnetic field. and they're super-cheap, so you don't have to bother taking them off of or out of the packaging after sale. rfid tags are getting cheaper, though. they will likely ompletely overtake the older tags eventually. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the name of this geometrical shape and is there anything special about it ? | _url_0_ i've seen it used as a sort of a trademark for wolframalpha and i was just wondering what it was and if it has any special qualities. | apparently it is a rhombic hexecontahedron. [here is wolfram mathworld's entry on it.](_url_1_) some of its properties are listed by [wolfram|alpha](_url_0_) itself. i don't know if any of them are particularly interesting. | 6 | [] | [
"http://24.media.tumblr.com/36b5f9ea468dd42db2fff89d79120406/tumblr_mhz3x1F9Wn1qb8jezo1_500.gif"
] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=wolfram%7Calpha+logo",
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RhombicHexecontahedron.html"
] | [
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what is happening to a vibrating shear thickening fluid (cornstarch and water)? why does the finger like formation occur? | i cannot seem to find a good explanation as to why shear thickening fluids behave the way it does under vibration. i was also wondering why this phenomenon occur only in certain frequencies. | my two cents ^[citations ^needed] : in mechanical vibration, you have position, velocity, acceleration, varying as functions of time and space. in the case of a shear-thickening fluid, large velocity gradients (shears) cause a very thick fluid, small velocity gradients cause a very thin fluid. the local viscosity of the vibrating fluid is thus a function of space and time. so you have movement varying throughout, and also resistance to movement varying throughout. one part might want to move a lot, but be pushed back by another part with high resistance to movement. with nowhere else to go, it goes up (fingers). frequency and amplitude would both affect what is a pretty complicated system. maybe. ¯\_(ツ)_/¯ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilatant"
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in the ocean, why does a higher delta18o level indicate higher salinities? | very broadly, we can say a higher δ18o value in seawater means a higher salinity as both are dictated principally by the balance of evaporation-precipitation (e-p). when seawater is evaporated, the salts remain in the water and so local conditions become more saline until it rains again. in climatic regimes where evaporation consistently outweighs precipitation e-p is positive and you are left with waters that have above average salinities, as seen in the mediterranean. in general, e-p is negative in equatorial regions due to the heavy precipitation there. the δ18o is a result of fractionation of different oxygen isotopes in water, again being controlled by the balance of e-p, the lighter isotopes of oxygen being preferentially evaporated and transported to higher latitudes. the correlation between salinity and δ18o is therefore dependent on latitude, you can't just apply the same relationship wherever you are. more local effects which change salinity also need to be accounted for such as input of river water nearby, iceberg melt, ocean mixing and local climate patterns. this makes uncertainties in the δ18o-salinity correlation bigger in some areas than others. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
til about avocadoes being poisonous to pets. i'd like to learn more about specifically *how* this is so. | in [another reddit post](_url_0_), someone pointed to the wikipedia article about persin, which "is a fungicidal toxin present in the avocado" that can be harmful to domestic animals when consumed. while the article gives a cursory description of the chemical, and its resulting effects in certain animals, it doesn't provide much insight into the actual actions of the chemical inside their metabolisms, and says absolutely nothing about *why* it has so little effect on humans. so, askscience, what exactly is, or isn't, going on that makes it so harmful/less? | i found this article: _url_0_ it appears that persin interacts with at least two serum enzymes, the transaminases sgot and sgpt, and alters their function in some way. these proteins are involved in amino acid production, which is sort of a "top-level" vital process that when messed up, causes a large number of systemic issues, the worst of which is liver necrosis and the buildup of fluid in the pericardium (the membrane "sac" that surrounds the heart. presumably the reason we don't suffer from persin as much as other animals is because our sgot and sgpt don't have such a strong interaction with persin. edit: there's also evidence linking avocados (but not necessarily persin) to alterations in gabaergic neuron function, which are vital to the central nervous system. you mess up the cns, and crazy stuff can happen. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/wikipedia/comments/kg9el/heres_why_avocadoes_are_poisonous_to_all_nonhuman/"
] | [
"http://ijrps.pharmascope.org/downloads/Volume%201/Issue%203/39386.pdf"
] | [
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circuits and resistence | when a circuit is completed with a wire, why does it get hot? wouldn't it have reduced resistance? also, how does light get emitted from light bulbs, isn't it light being created, since photons have a small amount of mass? electricity hurts my brain. | when a circuit is completed, resistance does drop from the resistance of air (modeled as infinite, usually) down to the resistance of your components. this reduction in resistance means an increase in current. assuming you have a steady dc voltage source, like a battery, and a purely resistive load, the amount of current drawn is i=v/r. the amount of power dissipated by the circuit is p=iv, so if resistance goes down, current goes up, and power dissipated also goes up. the way power is usually dissipated in a resistive circuit is through heat, so the lower you make that resistance, the hotter your circuit will get. this is why if you short the terminals of a battery, the wire gets extremely hot. you're mistaken on the matter of photons having mass--they have something equivalent to momentum, but no actual mass. the heat energy of the wire is just being converted into electromagnetic energy in the form of visible light. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how efficent are nitinol engines and do they have any real world uses? | the maximum efficiency of a nitinol engine appears to be ~20% (see _url_0_). in terms of the demonstration nitinol engines they demonstrate in thermodynamics classes, i don't think those have practical uses. however, nitinol itself does, particularly for medical and robotic manipulator applications: _url_1_. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v49/i3/p1241_s1",
"http://www.stanford.edu/~richlin1/sma/sma.html"
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|
can someone break this paper down. negative absolute temperatures? | this recently published article _url_0_ braun et al can you explain it to me like l am 5? edit: l think l have recalled reading before that negative temperatures exist, l just dont see why this paper is everywhere -news. | there are some answers here to what negative absolute temperature means; here i'd like to say something about the mathematical formalism. while negative temperatures being hotter than all positive temperatures seems odd, working in terms of *beta = 1/temperature* makes things clearer. as *beta* goes to positive infinity, you have absolute zero. as you decrease *beta* from that value, you get increasingly positive temperatures. as *beta* continues to decrease, crossing through zero to negative numbers, the system continues to get hotter. those negative values of *beta* correspond to negative absolute temperatures. | 5 | [] | [
"http://m.sciencemag.org/content/339/6115/52"
] | [] | [
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why is there such a fuss about herpes in the united states of america? | a marketing campaign by boroughs-wellcome intentionally stigmatized the disease in the late 1970s in a successful bid to sell zovirax. until then, they had a drug no one really needed because no one really cared. it's the first known and classic example of intentional "disease-mongering." in doing so, they changed a minor skin condition everyone already had into a devastating sexual curse that nobody wanted. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://projectaccept.org/herpes-stigma-the-origin/"
] | [
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|
are there any particles that don't interact with eachother at all? | the phrase 'particle x _interacts_ with particly y' is often used, and that got me thinking.. do some combination of particles never interact with one another? | if by nothing else, all particles must interact with one another via gravity. but forgetting about that, you can find specific combinations of particles in the standard model which do not directly couple to one another. for example neutrinos do not couple to photons. | 94 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson#Particle_physics"
] | [
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who has the check on the supreme court? | if the supreme court got together and said something crazy like murder was a constitutional right, what would be the course of action that would be able to overturn that ruling, providing the check to the judicial branch? | both branches really, because the judicial system has no power to actually enforce the rulings they make. the supreme court telling andrew jackson that non-native americans couldn't encroach on native american lands and jackson told them to go stuff it and did so anyways. it shows that the judicial system can't force the enforcement of the rulings they make. in addition a judge can be impeached by congress through the same process that the president is. majority vote in the house, and then two-thirds of the senate needs to vote in favor. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.judiciary.senate.gov/about/history/CourtPacking.cfm"
] | [
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i just mixed some acetone and water and the beaker warmed up. why? | i'm trying to think through it, but its been a while since i took pchem. anybody have any idea why the delta h of mixing is positive? | i think the answer to this question is going to be complicated, depend on the ratio of water and acetone, and ultimately have to do with the thermodynamics of how the acetone and water molecules arrange themselves. but to be overly simplified, i think you could just state that the acetone/h2o molecules fit together better and exist at a lower energy state together than they do by themselves. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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calculating probability of being born on father's day. | can any of you math experts help me with this? i was the first born son of my parents and was born on father's day in 1981, my son was just recently born on father's day, 2012 and is my first born son. what is the likelihood or probability that this could occur? thanks, | roughly 1 in 365 to be born on a specific day... 1/365 * 1/365 for two to be born on the same day? (there are leap years and days then there are small variances from month to month and weekday to weekday, [see here](_url_0_) but it isn't by very much.) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://info.rjmetrics.com/blog/bid/44966/What-are-the-Odds-Debunking-the-09-09-09-Babies",
"http://www.panix.com/~murphy/bdata.txt",
"http://www.apples4theteacher.com/holidays/fathers-day/when-is-fathers-day.html"
] | [
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what does "motionless" mean? | how to word this... i feel like i am currently motionless, but the earth is traveling through space at a certain speed. therefore although i feel motionless, that is only true in relation to the earth. therefore one could say if you got off the earth, and "stopped moving then the earth would move away from you. however all galaxies are apparently moving apart, so under that assumption perhaps the galaxy you are stopped within could still be moving. like a fly within a car. however in both scenarios you would feel stopped. so if one is truly "motionless" what are they "motionless" in relation to? hope i worded that clearly enough. | there does not exist any sort of absolute reference frame for you to be motionless in relation to, so motion (or lack thereof) can *only* be talked about in relation to some other object, and never in any kind of absolute sense. in short, you cannot be "motionless". you can only be "motionless with respect to x" where x is some other object or frame of reference. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my 8 yo daughter just asked me what the slowest creature in the ocean is? can you help me reddit? | there are plenty of bacteria in the ocean that move at a maximum speed of only tens of microns per second. i'd say they're probably the slowest creatures in the ocean. if you want the slowest macroscopic animal, i'd go with some sort of jellyfish. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
when you choose to "follow your heart" regarding love, lust, etc., what part of the brain are you actually following? | that's an odd question. the answer is: you are making a decision based on brain circuitry which is distributed across a variety of neural systems. there is no one "spot" or central location in your brain where emotions are located. there **are** certain nuclei that are more involved in emotional response than other nuclei, specifically the [amygdala](_url_1_) and the [limbic system](_url_0_) in general. so when you make a decision based on lust, you can point to the amygdala and the [hypothalamus](_url_2_) as systems which influence your state of mind. and when you make an irrational decision, you can say that your [prefrontal cortex was less active.](_url_3_) but these areas never completely "shut off". they are always interacting with each other, and with other parts of your brain. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amygdala",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex"
] | [
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|
is self-awareness biologically useful, and is it subject to selective pressure? | tldr: yes. there are different ways to define and measure the concept, but generally self-awareness leads to a huge host of social behaviors that are beneficial to an individual and to a species. taking into account that behaviors of an individual are imprinted on epigenetic markers, and that social behaviors typically increase survivability, this means that the gene pool of a species can be altered through the self-aware actions of its individuals. ----- sociology professor here. your question is difficult to answer because science doesn't really have a consensus on what "self-awareness" means, let alone the best way to measure it (especially when dealing with multiple species). usually something as simple as a 'mirror test' is used to test if an animal can come to recognize that a reflection is 'them' and many primate species have passed this test. the obvious problem with this is that it emphasizes sight as the core cognitive sense that the subject uses, and the outcome is measured by how meaningful or useful a reflection is to the subject. modified tests use an animal's scent to see if they recognize themselves, and most species of dog pass this version which most humans would fail. even among humans, studies do not agree on how self-awareness develops during childhood or how substance abuse alters self-awareness. however, in psychology and sociology self-awareness is understood to be the gateway to all sorts of social behaviors - learning, empathy, embarrassment, revenge, altruism, and self-improvement just to name a few. these broader behavioral indicators can be used to justify a self-awareness among a much larger number of animal species (elephants and prairie dogs have complex social structures and behaviors). again, scientists don't agree on a common metric. as far as selective pressure is concerned, self-awareness would affect an individual's capacity to breed but to what degree and in what direction is variable. nearly all species have some sort of 'beauty standard' used in finding and selecting a mate, and it might be the courtship ritual of swans or the territory markers of bears or the orgy-inducing female scent of garter snakes. a self-aware creature could easily out-perform others in its species by gaming the breeding system (such as how female humans wear make up, pad their bra, or go on diets). likewise, a self-aware creature might become too picky in mate selection or decide against mating entirely [like my wife :) ] as far as a gene-pool would be concerned, self-awareness means that a species would be able to self-correct potentially disastrous behaviors. the australian jewel beetle was nearly endangered because all the males were attracted to the sleek, shiny, large curves of beer bottles and refused to mate with females. a little self-awareness would do that species some good. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Libet"
] | [
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|
how does one find the scientific consensus on the efficacy of a medicine? | my stepmother believes in all sorts of pseudoscience. for example, she had my dad taking colloidal silver before i convinced him not to. but sometimes she pulls something out for my sniffle that isn't so clearly hocus pocus. today she pulled out niaouli, or melaleuca quinquenervia, and said it would cure my cold. i did a google search while boiling pasta and by the time it was soft i had found a literature review from 2006 stating there was no evidence it had efficacy as a cold treatment (i informed her and she became extremely offended lol). my question is: is there a better way to find the scientific consensus on a medicine than simply googling it and clicking on the first page of links? can i arm myself with information faster? thanks! | the most reliable way of assessing the risks and benefits of a therapy is to examine well-conducted meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials published in reputable journals. if these support not only the efficacy but the safety, then this is a reasonable approach. for instance, one example is st. john’s wort and depression (_url_0_ ). however, the majority of plant-derived products are never subjected to rigorous scientific research. these plant products may certainly cause more harm than good. feel free to to listen to reason and be skeptical. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28064110"
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my local news just said it had a "1,000,000 watt radar." is living near that thing potentially dangerous? | i'm no expert, but i'd wager that if living near power lines can potentially pose a health risk, that thing must be a lot worse. | don't worry. first off they don't really emit as much energy as they seem to claim. you really think they are paying a power bill on a million watts for a radar? hell no. **it is a relatively small amount of energy concentrated in space and time to get such power levels.** here is how: that 1 mw is referring to erp (effective radiated power). radars are highly directional, they emit their power in a very narrow beam. the electromagnetic field strength in that region is equivalent to what would be produced if a million watts were put into a isotropic antenna, one which radiates in all directions. so if it's not pointed at you, no need to worry. the gain works both ways, it also allows the receive antenna to pick up the very faint signals reflected off rain clouds, ships, airplanes, etc. radars also have very, very low duty cycles. that 1 megawatts pulse is only on for a matter of microseconds at a time. they do this cause the radar can't listen for returns while transmitting. they spend most of their time with the transmitter off. even if it is pulsed thousands of times every second, it is only equivalent to a only a few thousand watts of continuous power, at the most, and that is if you are right in the beam. now if you a really close, like within a few dozen yards of a radar, you must exercise caution. radars are basically microwaves. they can burn you. but these danger really only affect maintenance personal, or ground crew for aircraft radars. luckily, for everyone else farther away, the effects are governed by the inverse square law. every doubling in distance results in 1/4 less power. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[engineering] what actually happens when you switch electricity suppliers? | in pennsylvania i keep getting offers in the mail/people at my door offering to change my electricity supplier. if i were to take them up on the offer, what will actually, physically change except for paper work moving around and money changing hands? | nothing. you'll still get a bill from your normal power company for "distribution", which should be a separate line item on your bill anyway. there will be no physical change - it's just paperwork. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the lowest and highest pressure with life? | what is the lowest and highest pressure with life? | the highest pressure where we **know** there is life is the bottom of the marianas trench. it's approximately 11,000m deep and has a pressure of about 1000bar (15750psi) tardigrades in their dehydrated form have been revived after exposure to vacuum. a bee hive was found on mt everest at 18,000 feet. himalayan jumping spiders live up to about 20,000 feet. bar-headed geese can fly to 23,000 feet. that's about as high as you can go. above that the cold and dryness make life largely untenable. so, the lowest pressure where anything actually lives is about 400mbar, but it's not just the lack of air that makes it impossible. some living things have been found at higher altitudes - mainly diatoms and bacteria - but they've been blown there by the jet stream and don't actually live there. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will plasma moving through a coil produce electricity? | pretty much the title, say i have a hot fast moving charged plasma and i pass it through a coil, will this produce electricity. my instincts say yes, but i'd like some confirmation from someone with a bit more of a background physics. | where exactly do you expect electricity? if the plasma has a net charge (quite unusual) and moves through the coil you have a current flow. if this current flow changes with time you can get induction, although a coil around the current flow is not a good geometry to use it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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it's hard/impossible for cartilage to heal in adult humans, so how do sharks with cartilage skeletons deal with skeletal injuries? | detailed mechanisms of healing (including signaling pathways or links to them) would be much appreciated! do the chondrocytes migrate? as they migrate, do they rebuild the ecm that is digested to allow migration? does the cartilage get vascularized? does the vasculature close off and atrophy after healing? do sharks even have an inflammatory immune response after cartilage damage? how big of a lesion can be healed in a shark? why don't these processes work in people? | while i can't give a definitive answer for the biology of sharks, humans definitely do have healable cartilage. for example, the ventral hyaline cartilage of the rib cage does heal (although the cartilage in the joints between for example the clavicle and the sternum does not). the reason why the cartilage here has healing capacity is the same reason bones are able to heal: they have a specialized regenerative layer called perichondrium (in bones periost). perichondrium is also vascularized and nurtures the main body of cartilage via diffusion. the perichondrium consists of 2 sublayers calleed stratum fibrosum and stratum cellulare; the latter contains undifferentiated fibroblasts and mesenchymal cells (the latter being able to proliferate into chondroblasts and chondrocytes). hyaline and elastic cartilage is covered with perichondrium with the exception of joint cartilage (which besides of that also lack proper vascularization); fibrous cartilage doesn't have perichondrium though. i can imagine sharks have similar properties to cartilage, but a marine biologist is probably better suited to answer. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a difference between thinking of subatomic particles as localized forces compared to thinking of them as really tiny physical grains of something? | this might not be the answer you're looking for, since i'm not entirely sure what you mean by localized forces, but whatever, lets explore the topic! generally, there are two ways of describing subatomic particles: as waves or as particles. it can be necessary to describe them with properties of both descriptions, though. describing them, or thinking about them, as one or the other changes what you might predict a subatomic particle might do in certain situations. for example, in the double slit experiment, they take a laser and aim it at a plate with two very thin, parallel slits in it and they observe the pattern that is created on a screen behind it. if you think about photons as particles, you would expect that they travel through one slit or the other, creating two, roughly slit-shaped blobs of light on the screen. you would also expect something similar if you fired the photons one at a time and marked where they fell on the screen. instead, what happens in both situations of this experiment is that the photons produce an interference pattern, something typically produced by a wave. we obtain the same result when we perform the experiment with electrons. i can explain the experiment in more detail if you like, but the main result is "electrons/photons are waves." in a separate experiment, we can fire electrons or photons at a lone electron. what happens when we do this, is the collision acts just as we would imagine if we thought of photons and electrons as particles. (think billiard balls.) momentum is conserved, angles add up, all that good stuff. the result of this experiment is "electrons/photons are particles." for completeness' sake, i'd like to include that there is the idea that an electron, and other subatomic particles, are excitations of certain fields that permeate the universe, but i'm not knowledgable enough to be able to tell you more about that, even though that might be closer to what you mean by localized forces. so to give you the short answer to your question, the two ways of thinking about subatomic particles are definitely different, but the same in the way that you can't use one or the other exclusively. by all means, please tell me if this wasn't the answer to your question or if it wasn't satisfying. this is the first experiment i was talking about. _url_0_ this is an interference pattern. if you draw a horizontal line anywhere, you'll see bright spots and dark spots along the line. the screen in the experiment acts as the line, and we see bright spots separated by dark spots. _url_1_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-slit_experiment",
"http://i.imgur.com/sdIAkPy.jpg"
] | [
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|
could you swim on sulfur hexafluoride, even were it to require flotation devices of some kind? | see title. sulfur hexafluoride is a colorless gas with properties including being denser than air, meaning that certain lightweight objects, notably aluminum boats in many videos, can float on its surface. could one, even with the enhancement of a full body flotation device, swim in a pool full of it? | just like the aluminum boat can float on sulfur hexaflouride gas, so you could you with the right equipment. however, you would need so much volume displacement that you would need a huge pool and it wouldn't be like you were swimming, just sitting in a really big boat. let's say your an average size adult that weighs about 80 kg. sulfur hexaflouride has a density of about 6 kg/m^3 under standard conditions. that means in order for you to float you need to displace 13.3 m^3 of the gas just to cancel out your own bodyweight. if you managed to construct a cube that had massless walls and was filled with air (~1.3 kg per cubic meter) then you would need about 2.5 m per side and you would just float. building a suit or life jacket that would let you swim when it would need to be of those proportions would be a little challenging. taking into account the weight of the boat also makes things get out of hand quickly. if you want a general picture just compare the densities of sf6 and water, a 6 to 1000 kg/m^3 difference. that means a boat that floats on water would need to be at least 167 times bigger to float on sulfur hexaflouride, keeping the mass of the boat constant. also, if you managed to accidentally fall out of your boat you have no chance at swimming to the surface, so you better hope the edge of the pool/lake is close enough to walk to on a single breath. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/bio99/bio99503.htm"
] | [
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hey guys. i posted this in r/crazyideas but was wondering if it was feasible at all. it involves a remote pair of robotic hands to perform tasks such as mechanic work and surgery. | the first remote surgery was performed back in 2001. the robotic "hands" however can be made vastly superior in accuracy and range of motion - designed exactly for the task required - than mere human hands can so there's no goo making a model of them. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Vinci_Surgical_System"
] | [
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|
do we ever witness blatant behavioural or biological evolution in another species? | have we seen or do we ever see another species develop new behaviours evolutionarily? do we see biological evolution? basically, can evolution take place within a lifetime? | within the lifetime of the specimen? no. a species evolves. an individual does not evolve, not genetically. can a fast lifecycle species evolve in the lifetime of a human? yes! a new variety of swallows has emerged due to highway traffic. the short wingtipped swallow is better at ~~catching bugs off the turbulent air coming off~~ *evading* high-speed traffic. edit, pulled an [article](_url_0_) and changed the selective pressure | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencenews.org/article/shorter-winged-swallows-evolve-around-highways",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment"
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what is the smallest thing that we as humans can feel on our body? | for example, we can't feel bacteria moving on our body but we can feel small insects. what would be the smallest thing we could physically feel moving on our body. | not sure exactly how small an object would have to be, but i believe it would be dependent on the receptive field created by the sensory innervation to an area. the density of sensory neurons in a particular area of the body varies, this is why your face and hands are more sensitive to touch as compared to your back. this is because a larger receptive field (area covered by a neutron) and less neuronal density on the back leads to less precise somatosensory perception, and therefore smaller receptive field and greater neuronal density on the hands as face allow more precise perception. so not exactly sure how small it would have to be but it would depend on the area of the body we're talking about. you would need to take into account the precision of the somatosensory perception. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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during the a apollo missions, how did nasa control the pitch of the rocket during the gravity turn? | by gimballing the engines (i.e. rotating them through a few degrees) under active control by the saturn v's [instrument unit](_url_0_). iirc first stage flight was done under open-loop control - essentially the rocket flew a predetermined profile of pitch, yaw and roll attitude, while second and third stage flight had closed-loop guidance incorporating imu-derived velocity and position information to achieve the desired orbit. there was a mode allowing one of the astronauts to manually steer the rocket into orbit (which they could successfully do in simulation) but it was never used in practice. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_V_Instrument_Unit"
] | [
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|
how are discoveries in psychology measured? | i've read that in physics a certain level of sigma in experimental results is considered a discovery. are there any established rules for how experimental results in psychology are measured? | the general rule for psychology experiments is you need a p value of < 0.05 which basically means that there's less than a 5% chance the found effects are the result of chance. beyond that, effect size is also important. there are tonnes of different types of tests that show effect size or the level of relationship between the variables that largely depend on the type of study being done but almost all use a p value of 0.05 (and will report 0.01 if their report reaches that significance). is there a particular type of study or an example you have? i could run you through the basics of how you'd analyse it (it's good practice for me considering i'm studying for a research methods i psychology subject as we speak). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we have 3 of anything in our body? | 2 eyes, 1 nose, 2 legs, 1 head, 2 arms, 1 mouth, etc.., etc.. it seems that in my body i there isn't anything i have 3 of. is that true and why is that? | three lobes of the right lung. the symmetry problem doesn't apply to this one, as the left lung is smaller and has two differently-shaped lobes to accommodate the heart. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://download.imaging.consult.com/ic/images/S1933033207714428/gr4-midi.jpg"
] | [
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] |
hplc only works on incredibly small amounts of liquid, right? | so how can you perform a hplc analysis on something like solid steel and other metals when testing for impurities? | hplc normally isn't used for metals. that is typically the domain of things like atomic absorption spectrometry (aas), [graphite furnace- atomic absorption](_url_0_), [inductively coupled plasma,](_url_1_) and their respective detectors; for example, icp may be coupled with a number of detectors, such as mass spec (icp-ms), or optical emission spectrometry (icp-oes), things like that. the thing is that many of these analytical instruments are excruciatingly sensitive; many are linear across several orders of magnitude. your "typical" instrument is sensitive to at least one part per million (again, depending upon the detector), and- depending upon what you're looking for, and what the matrix is, you can usually get down to part per billion, and sometimes high- to medium-part per trillion levels. so, looking for lead in drinking water, for example, is trivial; the action level is 15 parts per billion, and it's not terribly tough to get down to that level. similarly, if you want to find out, say, how much manganese is in your steel, you dissolve it down with acid, and squirt that solution through the instrument. you'll want ultra-pure acid (and to run blanks to see how much manganese is already in that acid), and your glassware has to be scrupulously clean (run blanks with that, too), and so forth, but ultimately you'll get a reliable number. it's not like on "csi" where they grind up rocks and stuff them into the injection port of an hp 6890 with mass spec detector. if that were real, they'd have to show how the instrument was down half the time due to some new vacuum leak, or how some jackass down the hall was cleaning glassware with acetone and somehow that's swum upstream against the compressed gasses and now you have an acetone peak in all your analyses. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite_furnace_atomic_absorption",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma"
] | [
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what happens to your body when you jump from a hot jacuzzi to a cold pool? | what happens to your body when you jump from a hot jacuzzi to a cold pool? does it cause serious harm? | the simplest explanation: vasoconstriction occurs as your body diverts blood from your extremeties to your core. google "cold shock response" if you're interested. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does focusing, concentrating, and learning consume more calories than "baseline" (inactivity, watching tv, etc.)? | doing things like studying for an extended time, or even something like driving long distances, can leave people mentally exhausted...does using "brain power" consume calories as it would increased physical activity? | [here](_url_0_) is fairly comprehensive pop sci piece from scientific american discussing that very topic. in short, while the theory that more neural activity will result in a greater need for energy is sound the evidence supporting the notion is scarce. to paraphrase one of the scientists interviewed in the piece.... the interesting part of the article (for me at least) was how our conception of how the different mental tasks we undertake influences our behavior. basically, if we feel like we have exerted our self mentally we feel fatigued due to a change in our emotional state. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/thinking-hard-calories/",
"http://www.nature.com/jcbfm/journal/v17/n1/full/9590177a.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2y0lc8/a_computers_cpu_under_draws_more_power_when_its/cp6rl6g"
] | [
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why doesnt the mercury stick to this anvil? | title says it. i figured they're both metals. maybe its not hot enough to bond, but why not at least the "wetness" you would expect from dipping it in water? _url_0_ | you have to consider all the surfaces involved not just take into account the liquid. for example, there are surfaces that when dipped in water would be left as 'dry' as that anvil. in all, how well a liquid wets a surface is as dependent on the surface being wetted. there's definitely going to be an oxide layer on the steel which you can clearly see in the clip. this creates a mismatch in bonding interaction between the noble mercury and the anvil surface. essentially, charge transfer would have to take place for metal adhesion and so generally noble metals typically don't bond well to oxide surfaces, particularly semi-conducting or insulating oxides (*edit: [reference](_url_2_)*). [here](_url_0_), journal page 444 or article page 28, they tabulate observations of mercury wetting a clean fe metallic surface in vacuum (no oxide) but not in air (oxide layer). [here's](_url_1_) the original paper they reference - i can't speak german though. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Damnthatsinteresting/comments/8nariv/anvil_floating_in_mercury/?utm_source=reddit-android"
] | [
"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/cr60162a002",
"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/zaac.19301920103",
"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1992.tb04396.x"
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how can we know one proton moves atp synthase ‘turbine’ one measure without being able to see the protein, let alone the specific mechanisms? | [deleted] | i can't speak to the specifics of how the protein is constructed, but i can tell you this: we know for sure that our understanding of how atp synthase functions is at least partly correct, because we can see it rotate. some people attached fluorescent actin filaments to the turbine head, which are large enough that you can actually **film them as they spin**. which is crazy! here's [one video](_url_1_); [here's another](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/QeHCAFKaWM8",
"https://youtu.be/0y7n-vK1AJE",
"https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/72",
"https://pdb101.rcsb.org/learn/guide-to-understanding-pdb-data/resolution"
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] |
if the average bicyclist rode for 2 hours about how much electricity would that provide? if you could harness it | would depend on the person and the efficiency of the bicycle and generator. [these people](_url_0_) claim that 60-100w is about normal, though i don't know how long the average person could sustain that. note that you can't harness the energy of normal bicycle riding. any attempt to harvest power would mean the rider would have to exert extra effort. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.windstreampower.com/Bike_Power_Generator.php"
] | [
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|
what are the filaments and particles in the air indoors? what is the life cycle of office air? | today i was looking at a beam of light coming from a projector. it shone so brightly, you could actually see the ambient movement of the air in the room, including tiny filaments and specs of material floating through the air that are usually otherwise invisible. this is in an office environment, where you can assume ac and heating. what are these particles? where do they come from? how are they created? are these particles from ground up material? filaments that come off of people's clothes? strictly things that float in from the outside world? how are they destroyed? some must be filtered out by human breathing, or they must fall out of the air as dust and end up getting vacuumed. how else are they removed from the environment? related to this "destruction", what forces prevent build-up of the particles to the point where they would become thick enough to be visible ("smog")? | the particles are called "dust". they are bits of skin, hair, clothing, paper, etc. which fall off people and things in the environment. they can be removed by vacuuming, sticking to people and things, or filtered out by the filters in the office air handling equipment (or your nose, forming boogers). generally they wouldn't remain suspended long enough to form a smog, unless you started to agitate a very dusty place. that is what those little white breath masks are sold for. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does rifling help bullet accuracy? | a spinning bullet has much more stability as opposed to a merely translating bullet because of two main reasons: 1. angular momentum: a spinning object has an angular momentum which takes more energy to modify, making the bullet more prone to keep the current trajectory. you can see that by spinning a coin. 2. magnus effect: one of the most important (in my humble opinion) effects in fluid mechanics is the magnus effect. you might have seen it in regards to baseball, which is the layman's way to introduce the magnus effect (also, wikipedia does a great job explaining it, if you want to go further into the topic, i recommend you read [this page](_url_0_)). basically, take a ball. if you give it a spin, the ball will have zones with varying air pressure on it based on the relative motion of the ball in regards to the air surrounding it. in baseball, this is used to create higher pressure and lower pressure zones to make cutters, splitters et cetera. the spin has such a big effect on the air near the ball that any kind of turbolence should become pretty much insignificant. however, if you give no spin at all to the ball, turbolence will sway the ball from its given course, making the trajectory less predictable. a spinning bullet basically tries to remove the effects of turbolences. however, between the two, angular momentum is the part that impacts the most the course of a bullet: bullets are small, making interactions with air much less relevant than momentum (which is enhanced by the relatively high mass of the bullet). | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_effect"
] | [
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|
why is there an electric field in a pn junction? | hi! i am really puzzled and feel like i am missing something concerning the structure of a p-n junction. when i look at this [image](_url_0_) i see the unaffected parts (away from the junction) in both types of semiconductors labeled as "neutral". i don't get it. shouldn't the p semiconductor have positive overall charge thanks to a larger number of holes to electrons and vice versa for the n type (having more electrons than holes making it over all negative)? furthermore, when they form the junction, physical electrons from the n type should flow to the now available holes in the p type. number of electrons in the n part of the junction decreases, lowering the overall negative charge and it feel like it should have neutral charge then? and on the p side, the excess number of holes gets filled by electrons, lowering the amount of positive charge and make it neutral, right? then how comes that there is a positive charge on the n side and negative charge on the p side, as depicted on the picture, forming the electric field that prevents further diffusion of particles between the two parts. i am really confused by this and would love to understand what am i missing here. thanks and sorry for my english, not a native! :) | it looks like your confusion is that by doping a material you create a net charge. that, however, is not what's going on. for example, in order to p-dope silicon, you can add (neutral) boron atoms to a (neutral) chunk of silicon. nowhere in this process did you add a net charge. what doping changes is not the macroscopic charge, but the number of mobile charge *carriers.* take a look [at this diagram](_url_0_). in an intrinsic semiconductor, a tiny amount of electrons will will have enough energy to jump from the valence band into the conduction band. as a result, the concentration of mobile electrons and holes will be equal. when you add boron to the silicon, the situation will be similar to panel c. the boron will soak up some electrons from the valence band of silicon, leaving behind mobile holes. as a result, you now have more mobile holes, but everything stays charge neutral. finally, when you put an n-doped and a p-doped slab of silicon together, electrons will start flowing from the n-doped part to the p-doped part. this process will continue until you reach electrochemical equilibrium. finally now you are creating a charged region at the boundary between the two sections. these opposing charges then give rise to the in-built field and the in-built potential. | 13 | [] | [
"https://assets.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-6d642db3b423d589b21525a491305391?convert_to_webp=true"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/vk7Ss9W.jpg"
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limestone pavement formation. | i have a degree level assignment to write about limestone pavement formation and i've now read so much about them i'm struggling to divide one theory from another. as far as i've managed to grasp so far there are two formation theories, the post devensian theory (uk) whereby scientists thought high sea levels gave rise to carbonation which eroded the limestone into the pavement we see today... or the theory that glaciers scraped away overlying topsoil exposing the limestone surface which was dissolved away by carbonation from rainwater aka paleokarst landscape-esque. am i massively wrong here? are there other theories? it's late and my mind is boggling at just sight of the word limestone. | it was scraped away, by stones embedded in a glacier, or else it'd be smooth and uniform. at least that is what the guide told us in upstate new york, the drag marks prove it was a movement, like an excavator. just what i was told, hope it helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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it is said that our bodies are 70% water, but what does this really mean? | it means 70% of your mass is water, but i'll grant you that it's often difficult to visualise where this water is as we seem to be rather solid! a lot of the bodies water is contained inside cells: each cell is like a little bag full of water (containing dissolved mineral ions and organic molecules) called cytosol which the cell's organelles (cell structures such as the nucleus and mitochondria) "float about." this is collectively known as cytoplasm. your body also contains a lot of water as blood, tissue and lymph fluid, mucus, and fluid in the digestive tract. ( i may have forgotten about some others!) | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
theoretical questions about the transfer of data between two points. | sure, for example via laser. i wouldn't phrase it quite like this, but yeah, we might do something like that someday. . (protip: our galaxy is over a billion times bigger than our solar system - be careful not to get them mixed up.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the limiting factor of putting power through a wire? | what is the limiting factor of transmitting power safely through a wire? is it the voltage, current, or power? if you're putting a certain amount of power through a wire, does it matter if its high-voltage/low-amps or low-voltage/high-amps? edit: does it matter if it is ac or dc? | voltage * current = power or e*i=p. if you lower the voltage, you increase the current (though a transformer lets say)... and vice versa. power though, will always remain the same. current is the key factor for wire though. how much current that can go through a wire is determined by the resistivity of the metal, and the diameter of the wire itself (if round). the larger the wire, the more "area" current can flow though. if too much current is sent through a wire that is unable to handle it, the wire will heat up and melt. power grids are setup to transmit high voltage and low current. this allows the transmission lines to be made smaller, thus saving weight and most importantly, cost. as for ac and dc, the root-mean-square (rms) value of an ac voltage is the equivalent of a dc voltage that can deliver the same amount of energy to a load. in short, it's the same as long as you are going off the rms voltage of an ac source and not the peak value. dc though, can only be transmitted a few miles, not hundreds of miles like ac. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the speed of "spontaneous" breaking-at-the-same-time-forming bonds in a reaction mechanism? | i studied some chemistry books and for a reaction mechanism (like sn2 or e2) the forming of a new bond can only be made when a following bond is broken at the same time. well what if you had a very long polymer and at the start of it you formed a bond that required to break the following bond and in return form a following bond and etc. like a chain reaction but based only on one polymer. will this be faster than the speed of light? or if not then how fast does this "spontaneous" reaction happen (i believe this is different to what chemical kinetics is but i haven't studied this area in great detail to find out). and if no-one knows, could we derive the speed of this "spontanous" bond-forming and breaking using the speed of light as a limit? | first let's talk about reaction speeds. that's limited by how fast nuclei can move into the right position for a new bond to form, and how fast the molecule's electrons can rearrange themselves. because there's a lot of variability from one reaction to the next, there's really no set speed, only ranges. reactions that require significant rearrangement of atoms occur on the order of hundreds of picoseconds, whereas predominantly electron transfer reactions are faster, closer to femtoseconds. however, the above assumes that the reaction is set to occur under perfect conditions, where the reactants will find each other, have the appropriate trajectories, and have enough energy to overcome reaction barriers. this is never the case in reality, to reactions occur slower, due to temperature, concentrations, and other factors. nope, no reaction is going to be faster than the speed of light. the reaction you're describing is still limited by how fast an electron can move, so it can never be faster than the speed of light. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in gastric bypass surgery, why is the lower part of the stomach left inside the body and forms a "y" to connect with the smaller stomach pouch? | [diagram](_url_0_) | one important reason is that the stomach produces [intrinsic factor](_url_0_). that's a chemical your intestine requires for the absorption of vitamin b12. removing too much stomach tissue would mean lack of intrinsic factor, so b12 could not be absorbed properly. that would soon lead to b12 deficiency, which impairs the production of red blood cells. the patient would become anemic, eventually severely so, to the point that it could be life threatening. | 2 | [] | [
"https://citelighter-cards.s3.amazonaws.com/p16vofhv1noks8rk162e16pk1fjn0_97969.jpg"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_factor"
] | [
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] |
question about circles inscribed within each other getting smaller and smaller? | if i took a circle with diameter d and inscribed a circle whose tangent is at the northern most point of the first circle and whose diameter is exactly d/2 (the radius of circle 1), then inside of circle 2 i inscribed a third circle whose tangent is at the western most point of circle 2 and whose diameter is the radius of circle 2. if i continued this ad infinitum (n w s e n w … etc.), what point within circle 1 would i be at? an example of this could be found [here](_url_0_) although this is a bad example, since the diameters of each circle is not equal to the radius of the the n-1 circle. | place the center of the first circle with radius *r* at the origin. the center of the second circle is at (0, r/2), which we can represent as the complex number z*_2_* = *i*r/2. you can also think of z*_2_* as a vector **v***_2_* = (r/2)**e***_y_*. the center of the third circle is given by that is, we take the previous vector representing the previous center, rotate it by 90 degrees, divide it by 2, and add it to the previous vector. the operation of rotation by 90 degrees and dividing by 2 is represented by multiplying a complex number by *i*/2. in other words, this is then repeated for the next circle. we always rotate and divide the previous *additional* vector and add it to the current vector. so the center of the 4th circle is this process is continued. our sequence of discs is a sequence of nested compact sets whose diameter has limit 0. hence there is a unique point that is in the intersection of all of the discs. that point is given by the infinite sum hence the limit of these centers is the point (-r/5, 2r/5). | 11 | [] | [
"https://mathcraft.wonderhowto.com/news/making-art-with-golden-ratio-0130553/"
] | [] | [
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thought experiment - if you could move fast enough, could you use the doppler to change the em radiation hitting you, or being emitted by you? | the doppler effect changes the frequency of sound and light according to the speed that the object that is emitting said light or sound, is moving, in relation to the observer - right? thus with sirens on cars changing pitch, or the red-shift of galaxies that are zooming away from us, and it works in both directions too, you get a pitch increase if something is coming towards you and "blueshift for light" i can't help but notice that on the electromagnetic spectrum that there are some sections that continued exposure to could be considered dangerous. namely microwave and gamma radiation. theoretically if it were possible to move away from the observer fast enough, would your body heat become microwaves to those observing stationary behind you? or in another way, if a ship were traveling at a proportion of the speed of light towards a star, would there be a gamma radiation spike hitting the front of the ship, when it reached a certain speed? | yes. in fact we observe this in every direction in space as cosmic microwave background radiation. light from objects that are so far away the expansion of the universe is causing them to travel at speeds such that they are red shifted out of the visible spectrum. yep. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can other species contract stis? | i don't mean in a weird bestiality way, i'm wondering if other animals have their version of stis the same way we do. kinda random question, but it' s something that's crossed my mind a few times. | yes. for example siv (the primate version of hiv) has been around a lot longer than hiv is thought to be the ancestor of hiv. it is used often in research and in many species which it infects will not cause simian aids. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has a blobfish ever been photographed or observed while alive and not decompressed? | yep. [here](_url_0_) is an article and [here](_url_1_) is a video. short summary, they look similar but not quite as jellylike in the water because on land their skeletal structure can't really support them as well. they don't really swell up when brought to the surface because they don't have swim bladders-a cube of meat or bone won't change size much when you move it from the deep sea to the surface or vice versa...only things containing gas, like swim bladders or lungs or submarines have to worry about being crushed or bursting. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/gory-details/worlds-ugliest-animal-contest-took-blobfish-out-water",
"http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xi14j9_blobfish_animals"
] | [
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|
how are air pockets formed? | so, my sister asked me to explain this, but i found that i can't. how are air pockets created, by air pockets i mean the air that is trapped when say, a cave fills with water, but raised areas in the ceiling retain air. the example that brought it up is from the original pirates of the caribbean when will and capt. jack use the canoe to sneak aboard and commandeer the ship. any help in explaining this would be greatly appreciated. | the canoe in potc was presumably pulled down from the surface and the air doesn't escape because the canoe is fairly airtight, and because for the air to go down around the hull it would have to lift water (which requires energy) so it stays where it is. the canoe scene is completely impossible in real life because the air-filled canoe could be so much lighter than the surrounding water that it would be pushed upward by several tons of buoyant force that no human could overcome. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do you need twice the heat you want to achieve a certain temperature? | first, please excuse the nondescript title. my question is quite a long one. let's say you have an object or substance at 0 degrees centigrade, and you wanted to raise the temperature to 150 degrees centigrade. because heat moves from a high amount of heat to that of a lower amount, my thinking is that when the temperatures become equal they will remain equal, not taking into account that it is a dynamic equilibrium. so does that mean you really need a heat source of 300 degrees to get a temperature of 150 in your object or substance? or is my thinking flawed? thank you for taking the time to read and respond. | temperature is not heat. something can have a lot of heat and still be a modest temperature, like block of granite by virtue of being big. to raise the temperature of object one from 0 to 150, you need to maintain one of two conditions at minimum: * object two is only slightly above 150 celsius, but has enough heat or is supplied heat externally to maintain that temperature. or, * object two is much hotter than 150 celsius and as it loses heat to object one, it never dips below 150 celsius. think of heat as water and temperature as pressure. as long as there is a temperature difference (pressure) the heat will flow (water) to the colder object. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does aslr and dep, and sandboxes exactly work and how do they prevent exploits in software? | from the ground up can someone please explain how address space layout randomization(aslr) and data execution prevent (dep)? what types of attacks do they provide protection | ok. i'm going to assume you understand some basic things about how programs are executed, but please ask if anything here isn't clear. i'll probably make a big edit at some point to make things easier if this thread gets a lot of upvotes. to start with we need to understand a very basic attack called a "buffer overrun" (there are lots of other names but this is what i will use). when your program is running there is a stack. on the stack is a series of "stack frames", one for each method in the call history. in a stack frame are two relevant things for us: (1) local variables for a method and (2) a return address. what happens when a method returns is the program looks at the return address and then jumps to that address and keeps executing. this is how i can call a method from two different contexts and have it return to the right code. a stack overflow attack is going to pollute this return address with attacker controlled content. basically, if you have a vulnerability in your program that allows somebody to write *more* data onto the stack than there is room for the local variables then it will just write over the next thing, which is the return address! now the attacker can control where the program will jump to after the method ends. so the attacker needs to do two things now: (1) get his code into memory somehow and (2) jump to it. well, you gave him a way of writing tons of stuff onto the stack so he can just write his *code* onto the stack. problem 1 solved. so what address does he write into the return address? well, if he can figure out the address of the stack frame he is writing into then he can do some arithmetic and figure out the address of the code he injected. when your method ends now the program jumps to the attacker's code and executes it. this attack is among the most common and powerful kinds of attacks on system code. alsr helps solve problem 2. if the address space of a program cannot be determined before runtime then the attacker has a **much** more difficult time figuring out the address of the code he wants to jump to. he can inject code, but maybe his jump will miss it. other vulns that leak runtime address locations can help an attacker defeat this attack. there are other ways around alsr too, but in general it exists to make it *harder but not impossible* for an attacker to know the address of data at runtime. this is useful for stopping code injection attacks, but will also be useful later. dep says we can't execute code that is on the stack (or in the heap). this means that even if the attacker injects some code and jumps to it, the program will not be allowed to execute his instructions. seems great, right? well, there is a way around this called a "return to libc attack" or "return oriented programming". the idea here is that all of the code that the attacker really wants to execute already exists inside libc somewhere. he just needs to figure out how to jump to the right bits of it in the right order. so dep makes attacks harder but not impossible. but wait! if we used both alsr and dep then jumping to the right places in libc becomes *really* hard. the attacker can't use tricks like nop slides to make it so he just needs to get close to the target address. he needs to be right on the money and he doesn't get to know the address layout ahead of time. again, still not impossible to defeat but now the attacker's job is much more difficult because he needs to figure out the location of libc in the executable (ignoring some details here), which is going to be difficult. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does hyperventilation relate to anxiety? | when you breathe, you breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. excessive breathing creates low levels of carbon dioxide in your blood. this causes many of the symptoms of hyperventilation. how does anxiety create hyperventilation? | anxiety itself doesn't cause hyperventilation so much as panic attacks do. it's a two-parter, really. anxiety-prone people can have a tendency for catastrophizing, which means that they may obsess and grow increasingly anxious over a given thing. for this reason, behavioral therapy can be very helpful for those with anxiety. many people can get a panic attack. in most people, their response might be a ,"huh, that was weird." in someone who catastrophizes, they may instead begin to worry about what that feeling was (really, just a momentary spike in your sympathetic system that made you momentarily have a high heart rate, slight hyperventilation, or such). "oh man, what was that? am i dying?" this causes more anxiety. "oh god, i can really feel it ramping up more." soon, they have a full-fledged panic attack. in other words, someone's tendency toward anxious behaviors causes them to obsess over a brief panic attack and perpetuate it, making it worse. fun fact: the thing you explained about exhaling a lot of co2 is the reason breathing into a paper bag works. it makes the person begin to rebreathe their own co2, increasing the co2 in their system and decreasing o2. this might actually make them momentarily hypoxic, get dizzy, and maybe pass out, which would stop their panic attack (because they're no longer perpetuating it). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would repetitive consumption of a incredibly hot pepper (carolina reaper, etc.) eventually yield lesser physical response? | capsaicin, the spicy component of hot peppers, does indeed cause desensitization of the trpv1 nociceptor with prolonged activation. this seems to underlie some of the effect of topical capsaicin against several types of neuropathic pain. _url_0_ _url_1_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20932251",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3462404/"
] | [
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|
are there "doomsday vaults" for things other than food crops? | given the increasingly rapid deterioration of our environment, are there organizations or projects in the world that have long term storage facilities for fauna embryos/gametes? or maybe coral and other keystone species? maybe the technology for storing seeds is much easier, but i was just curious. | hey curunirrj, good question! from what i researched so far i couldn't find anything. i think the simple explanation is if the earth were to go through a doomsday scenario, hence 'doomsday vault', the first thing humans would need to do is to produce food. the best way to do this is through simply growing it, since we can essentially get all nutrients from vegetation/fruits; carbs (fruits), protein (nuts), fats (avocadoes), and so forth. plus, to raise cattle you need grass and such to increase food overall, but essentially it all comes down to growing it in our backyards and or underground. but, i do know there are massive storages for embryos in beijing, china; simply in the case of a mass epidemic (since most flus and such arise in china first and then spread west) that really damages the human race. for coral and keystone species i don't think so, simply because coral and some sea species are extremely hard to keep in a tank- a reason why a lot of aquariums don't actually have massive amounts of corals to show off to customers. once they're put into water tanks, any changes in ph (another reason why they're dying off in the coral reefs because of co2 going into the sea water and lowering the ph) will kill them - they are very very sensitive to sea level ph and chemicals. side note - along the same lines we can't have great whites in aquariums, they die within a few weeks for reasons unknown. so overall, its really easy to store seeds, since the seeds themselves are durable and long lasting (some cases can last decades within hot climates) and also the basis for any food productions across most civilizations in the world. hopefully i answered or cleared up your question. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a globe storm glass barometer work? | i know that the water level changes when the air pressure changes, but how the water level change within the globe that is not exposed to the atmosphere? i don't understand how the water in the globe changes if there is no air going in or out of the globe. my [storm globe](_url_0_) | it is open to the atmosphere! that glass pipe off to the side is open, and when the air pressure increases it pushes down on the fluid in the pipe. through the wonderful nature of hydraulics, the water in the globe then rises. | 8 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/uNXmS.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
who funds the important work of paleontogists? | just watched imax dinosaurs 3d (awesome) and it begged the question. thanks! | i worked as a volunteer with a small, nonprofit group of paleontologists each summer from 2002 to 2006. a large part of our funding came from educational tours of the dig sites, and a grant from the academy of natural sciences. these sources paid for things like gas, food, and vehicle repairs. about 90% of the tools and equipment that we used were donated from the companies that manufactured them (gps, rock hammers, glue, plaster-of-paris, etc.) the companies that i can remember donating were estwing, star bond, and paleo-bond, though there were many others that i can't recall. another fund raising method i've seen employed by [jack horner](_url_0_) is to hold fundraising dinners, where local businesses and individuals can make sizable donations in return for a meal and a lecture. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Horner"
] | [
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my girlfriend's cat was prescribed lactated ringer's solution given subcutaneously for treatment of renal failure. how does the body process the fluid and how is it different from fluids the cat drinks? | my girlfriend's cat is very old and has trouble with its kidneys. her vet has prescribed 100ml of lactated ringer's solution administered subcutaneously twice a week. we give the solution to the cat by inserting a needle into the loose skin on the cat's back and letting the solution flow in from a hanging bag. the result is a hump of sorts under the cat's skin which slowly migrates from her back down to her side. the hump disappears over the course of the next few hours, but i've always wondered what's actually going on here. how does her body absorb the solution and how is it different from liquids she drinks? would the process be the same if i put 100ml of solution under my own skin? | it would be similiar if you gave it to yourself, but it's no longer used for people for this purpose. it was given to induce urine output in patients with renal failure. it's absorbed into the blood stream, and is much easier for you to give this way than through iv. it's also given because the lactate in it helps to combat the metabolic acidosis that generally results with renal failure. [ringers](_url_0_) is a crystalloid, meaning it contains mineral salts. [this may come in handy](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactated_Ringer's_solution",
"http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/clientED/cat_fluids.aspx"
] | [
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] |
how did avogadro discover the mole? | no one discovered the mole; it was invented. it's an arbitrary unit, like a kilogram or a meter. avogadro seemingly had nothing to do with the number of particles in a mole. rather, the constant was named in tribute to him and his previous scientific achievements. however, the fact that the unit is arbitrary does not mean that it was chosen at random. a lot of work by a lot of different people went into determining the number of particles in a sample, which you can read a brief article about [here](_url_0_). | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=how-was-avogadros-number"
] | [
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|
if an injury closer to your organs is infected, is that worse than one farther away? or does the circulatory system negate the distance? | for example is an injury on your forehead worse than one on your arm, because it's close to your brain? this is assuming the injury is small. obviously if there is a huge wound near an organ it will be pretty bad. | when it comes to the danger of an infected wound, localized infection is mainly only damaging to the tissue in the area. however, local infections can become systemic once bacteria are introduced into the blood stream with a high enough innoculum (number of bacteria needed to 'overwhelm' the innate immune system). when this occurs, a person is considered to be bacteremic (bacteria in the blood stream) which may cause septic shock if left untreated. to address your original question though, there is no hard and fast rule about what 'surface' wounds are more dangerous than others. however, there are some examples of places that are more dangerous than others--and believe it or not, you nearly came up with one yourself. there is a location on the face called the 'danger triangle' that takes up the area seen [here](_url_0_). infections in this area, even pimples, have venous blood drainage into an area called the cavernous sinus in the skull, an area full of many critical blood vessels and cranial nerves. if infectious material travels by blood into the cavernous sinus (which is within the blood brain barrier!) it can cause serious bacterial meningitis and brain abscesses. this is why you aren't supposed to pick pimples that are in this area. another similar example involves ear and sinus infections. there are a few anatomical tracts, tubes, and fissures that allow the contents of the inner ear and sinuses to drain into the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain and spinal cord. this occurs because it allows the perilymphatic fluid of the ear to be reabsorbed and replaced along with csf, which are nearly identical in composition. but if you have an ear infection or sinus infection which spread to the inner ear, serious brain infections can result, including bacterial meningitis. there is a reason that among the most common causes of bacterial meningitis in children and adults are the normal bacteria of the sinus and middle ear (strep pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae, moraxella catarrhalis)! finally, in general, though there is no rule about it, the greater the blood supply to an area, the more likely a simple infection can enter the blood. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danger_triangle_of_the_face"
] | [
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is it possible to test the (conductive) continuity of a single wire when you only have access to, but can't connect, the two ends? | the situation i'm thinking of is an electrical wire that runs through a wall between two rooms. you can attach whatever devices to the ends you want, but there can't be another connection between the rooms and you can't use the ground/earth. | there is a way to test the (conductive) wire length using resonances, basically setting up the wire as an antenna and measuring its frequency response and pulse echo duration. the equipment you would need for this is quite sophisticated and expensive though (at least for easy measurement. you could probably do it using a frequency generator, and oscilloscope and some time). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a scientific basis/explanation for eye exercises and "palming" improving myopia? | if you do a youtube search for "palming eye" or "eye exercises", you will get many results about various methods for improving one's eyesight. i am always skeptical how it would work and what is the evidence supporting it. | no, there isn't. all these exercises make your iris close suddenly, which may look like you could briefly focus better, but it's just the depth of field of your vision increasing because of the smaller aperture. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_method",
"https://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/eyequack.html"
] | [
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why didn't lovejoy go *poof*? | the thing spent a nontrivial amount of time in very close proximity to the sun. the surface of the thing reached hundreds of thousands of degrees c, at least. comets are balls of mostly water ice. as i understand it, most people thought it would not survive such a close pass to the sun, but it did. are there any ideas being floated that could explain this? i know no one knows for sure, and it's too early to say, really...but what about solid speculation? | lovejoy had a large rocky component to it... it was not pure water/ice, and not all sun grazers get eaten - some survive. [here is bad astronomy's take on it, along with nice footage](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2011/12/16/lovejoy-lives/",
"http://explanet.info/images/Ch14/14_04.jpg"
] | [
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how long would ionospheric density disturbances caused by a cme last? | as the title says i'm wondering how long the effects of a "carrington event" strength coronal mass ejection on the ionosphere and the subsequent impact on radio transmissions would last. also how severe would the effect on radio transmissions be? | there's actually a paper that directly answers all your questions: [atmospheric impact of the carrington event solar protons](_url_0_) by rodger et al. [2008]. in brief, the ionospheric density disturbances are theorised to last around a week before returning to background levels. changes to atmospheric chemistry could potentially last a lot longer, however. the important section regarding radio transmissions is: edit: for reference, an extreme noaa radio blackout essentially mean "no hf radio contact with mariners or en-route aviators", which is obviously a bad thing. you don't want to lose radio contact with planes for 15 hours. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/2008JD010702"
] | [
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] |
the paradigm shift! | paradigm shifts occur when substantiating, and validated, evidence has been accumulated to a degree that overcomes skepticism. new theories are normally considered fringe science until they reach this point, and are discouraged by journal editors and those who control scientific funding. my thoughts are that paradigm shifts are good for science, and help us get closer to fully understanding our universe. wouldn't *encouraging* fringe science theories to find falsification or validation hasten our advancement? why isn't this practical? | because in the *vast* majority of cases, 'fringe' science is a waste of time and money because it's wrong. big, game-changing discoveries are exciting, but the number of these occurances in recent scientific history can probably be counted without taking your shoes off. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when is stationary flow approximation valid ? | i am doing a fountain experiment for school, and my theoretical approach depends heavily on the darcy weisbach equation. however, the flow is not completely stationary in the sense that the mean **speed of the fluid changes slightly with time(maximum 0.1m/s\^2)**. under these conditions **is the darcy equation still a good approximation** ? does someone know any papers that discuss this? thanks in advance. | any acceleration would effectively be an “error” term on both your velocity and friction factor. how large and meaningful that error is depends on the magnitude of the acceleration compared to the magnitude of the fluid velocity. what matters more is what the span of velocities are. a good exercise would be to find the pressure loss at the expected minimum and maximum fluid velocity. how different those two number numbers are should give you a decent idea of how good of an approximation you have. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an infinitesimal equivalent to the dirac delta function? | in any course about fourier transforms you will inevitably come across the [dirac delta function](_url_0_), δ(t). it is defined as 0 for all t != 0, and undefined at t = 0. it also has the property that when integrated across the origin the result is 1. the delta function is a limit case to the unit block function, essentially representing an infinitely thin, infinitely tall block pulse with area 1. the fourier transform of a delta impulse is a sinusoid with some frequency. --- my question is, is there a complement to the dirac delta? let's call this function w(t). if the dirac function represents an infinitesimally thin, infinitely tall block pulse, w(t) would represent an infinitely wide and infinitesimally weak pulse. essentially, w(t) would have an infinitesimal value for every t, and the integral across the domain would be 1. presumably, the integral from 0 to +infinity would be 1/2, and the integral across any finite segment would be 0. --- does such a function exist? does it have a name? is this function useful? what is the fourier transform of w(t)? | standard disclaimer: delta is not a function. it can be thought of as a [measure](_url_3_) or a [distribution](_url_0_) or perhaps as some other kind of thing, but it is not a function. i bring this up because here, too, what we are looking for can not be a function. if we were to try to simply assign it a value at each point, obviously the value would need to be 0 everywhere, and this doesn't give you something that integrates to 1 over (-infinity,infinity). so we aren't sure, a priori, what kind of thing it is that we're looking for. going off of your description, i'd say that at the least you want something that assigns a value to any interval (the "integral over that interval") with 0 assigned to finite intervals, 1/2 to an interval which is unbounded on one side, and 1 to the interval (-infinity,infinity). in technical terms, this defines a finitely additive measure on the field of sets which are finite unions of intervals. such a thing is also known as a [content](_url_2_) on that field of sets. note that if any finite interval gets the value 0, then the assignment can't be countably additive, or else you'd have a contradiction by decomposing [0,infty) as the union of [0,1), [1,2), [2,3), ..., and noting that 1/2 does not equal 0 + 0 + 0 + ... . so it's a finitely additive measure that can not be extended to a countably additive one. however, as noted in the wikipedia article, this isn't enough information to integrate our "thing" against a function, as we'd want to be able to do to take its fourier transform. we don't know what value to assign to, say, the union of the intervals ... [-2,-1), [0,1), [2,3), [4,5), ... . the question of whether you _can_ specify enough information to integrate against an arbitrary bounded function is kind of dicey -- it starts to involve the axiom of choice. still, you can assume that you've done that, and see what you can say about fourier transforms. as it happens, this topic was discussed on mathoverflow: _url_1_ the first part of the response is rather technical, but i think the main takeaway is that it seems the natural extension of the fourier transform to this class of objects turns out to be highly non-injective, so unfortunately you don't end up with something very interesting (since lots of information is lost). this part more or less answers the question of what the fourier transform of your object would have to be: so if your object is translation invariant, then its fourier transform should be invariant under multiplication by e^iηθ for every η. also it should take the value 1 at θ = 0. but the only function satisfies this is the function 1\_{0}(θ), which takes the value 1 at θ = 0, and the value 0 everywhere else. so this is its fourier transform, if it has one, and unfortunately is also the fourier transform of many other similar objects. because of the latter point, you can't really take an inverse fourier transform and recover the object in question. there's always the possibility that there could be some other way to formalize what you mean, but if you want to integrate it over intervals, and you want to assign it a fourier transform in something like the usual sense, i think this is pretty much what you arrive at. tl;dr yes there are mathematical objects fitting that description, and they can have fourier transforms. the fourier transform f(θ) of such a thing should satisfy f(0) = 1, f(θ) = 0 for θ not equal to 0. one can't invert the fourier transform to recover the original object, as many other objects will have the same fourier transform. | 6 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(mathematics\\)",
"http://mathoverflow.net/questions/143587/fourier-transforms-of-finitely-additive-bounded-measures",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_(measure_theory\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_(mathematics\\)"
] | [
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which is the adaptive value about our organs facing one specific direction ? | we have an asymmetrical interior facing one way (stomach and spleen on the left side for example) also knowed as 'situs solitus'. we know that this is due the cilium mediated node flow of growth factors in development, the cilium 'push' this growth factors to the left side of the node making it more concentrated there. mutations that leads to not having that cilius will not have that flow on the node so the growth factors can be on the left or right side with a 50/50 chance, if the gf goes to the right side it leads to a phenomenon called 'situs inversus' where the organs are facing the opposite direction. ['situs solitus' vs 'situs inversus'](_url_0_). > situs inversus is found in about 0.01% of the population, or about 1 person in 10,000. > most people with situs inversus have no medical symptoms or complications resulting from the condition now, my question is, wich are the adaptive advantages of cilium pushing gf to the left side and not to the right ? why evolution selected organism that have stomach on the left and no the ones that have 'situs inversus' ? i wish you got my point clear i tried my best with english. | you kind of answered your own question a little. the simple answer is that there is no advantage. there is a lot more than you might expect that has no adaptive advantage at all. it's just a product of evolutionary history. if the arrangement can be reversed and there are no medical problems that result, then the reasonable conclusion is that there is no adaptive advantage. the organs are arranged as they are because of developmental processes that are left over probably from the earliest vertebrates. | 3 | [] | [
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] |
where would we be if we stood in one place for a year? | a child of a friend learned at school that if one person stood in place for exactly a calendar year (for example noon on 1/1/11 to noon on 1/1/12), they would be 3 feet away from where they started. he understood this to mean that the earth's crust shifts, which i find impossible to account for this 'fact'. however, could this be true due to the fact that there are extra "time" in every day (and hence why we need a leap day every 4 years) and these extra minutes would account for three feet of extra movement? | this sounds suspiciously like all those other lies they told everyone in elementary school and passed as "factoids" (ie: blood is blue in the veins, taste chart, your fingernails grow after death, etc...). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/ZhenHuang.shtml"
] | [
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] |
where is the oldest place on earth i can stand on? | the zircon found in jack hills, western australia has been dated at over 4 billion years old. jack hills is also home to the oldest crystal found, dated at 4.4 billion years old. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuvvuagittuq_Greenstone_Belt",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acasta_Gneiss"
] | [
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|
what would happen if one stopped having social contacts? | is social interaction a natural need like eating and drinking? | **short answer: yes, social interaction is a natural need. regardless of level of introversion/extraversion, the need to interact with others is normative.** --- this is an often asked question. the need to belong vs. social isolation is a fascinating subject, to the point of being included in erikson's theory of [psychosocial stages of development](_url_0_). your question does not specify the circumstances under which an individual is denied social contact, so i will take my answer to one of the furthest extremes in order to better illustrate my point. a very common punishment in the us penal system is solitary confinement, an extreme level of social isolation. in most cases, an individual is secluded in a small room, with no interpersonal contact and very little to stimulate cognitive or physical activity. recently, a movement has begun to attempt to discontinue this practice. this is because research has shown several negative outcomes of solitary confinement that may qualify the practice as cruel and unusual punishment. studies indicate that even healthy individuals experience declines in cognition, including memory, concentration, and problem-solving. individuals may also begin to experience psychotic symptoms, such as auditory or visual hallucinations. they may even develop motor and body-control issues. some research suggests that forced isolation at a young age may play a role in the development of autism as well. in individuals with pre-existing mental disorders, this effect is even larger. humans are hard-wired to engage in social interaction, and the removal of this ability can cause significant and often irreversible psychological changes. of course, solitary confinement is an extreme circumstance, and a major factor in how it affects people is sensory deprivation and a lack of cognitive stimuli. a person that simply withdraws from society may certainly experience some cognitive decline, or develop odd mannerisms, but this effect would likely be mediated by the ability to continue cognitive stimulation. --- references bennion, e. (2015). banning the bing: why extreme solitary confinement is cruel and far too usual punishment. indiana law journal, 90(2), 741-786. gallagher s. the cruel and unusual phenomenology of solitary confinement. frontiers in psychology [serial online]. may 2014;5:1-17. available from: academic search complete, ipswich, ma. accessed april 4, 2016. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erikson%27s_stages_of_psychosocial_development#Love:_intimacy_vs._isolation_.28early_adulthood.2C_20-39_years.29"
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what exactly are lagrange/lagrangian points? | they are equilibrium points where the gradient of the gravitational potential of two orbiting bodies in the rotating reference frame of the orbit is equal to zero. in a rotating reference frame, the gravitational potential has not only a term for each of the masses of the orbiting bodies, but also a centrifugal force term. the places where this potential surface is flat (local maximum, minimum, or saddle point) are called "lagrange points". the equipotential surface meeting l1 is called the [roche lobe](_url_0_) - if a star fills this surface, matter will start to pour off of the star onto the other body, be it another star or a compact object like a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_lobe"
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|
is there any empirical evidence of false media reports causing long-term negative accepted norms? | with all the instant media there seems to be endless contradictions and reporting based on no credible sauce... where is this leading us? | the entire autism-is-caused-by-vaccines report was based on one scientific paper that any decent scientist could see was on very statistically shaky ground. it was subsequently never replicated, soundly refuted, and withdrawn. and still, jenny mccarthy won't shut up about it and the vaccination rates for mmr dropped after the stuy was published. measles is actually making a resurgence today, after having been virtually eradicated for decades. _url_0_ | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/US_Measles_Cases_2015-07-02.jpg"
] | [
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why does coloring a 2-dimensional image sometimes give the illusion of depth? | i went to an art museum today, and found a painting of a house by egon schiele that appeared to “follow me” as i moved around. this was a surreal image created without perspective so it’s not like it’s supposed to appear with certain components in the foreground and others in the background- rather, certain colored parts appeared to jut out at me. i’ve heard that certain color field artists also played around with this- trying to make the viewer “see” depth just by putting two different colors next to each other. but i’ve never understood why this works. i’ve seen a few unsatisfactory or unscientific explanations online- can anyone help me find a good explanation for this phenomenon? (not sure what flair to put here- i’m not sure whether this is a physiological, psychological, or neurological effect) | [here](_url_0_)'s a link to a good explanation on stack exchange. from the [cited wikipedia entry](_url_1_): > aerial perspective – due to light scattering by the atmosphere, objects that are a great distance away have lower luminance contrast and lower color saturation. due to this, images seem blurry the farther they are away from a person's point of view. in computer graphics, this is often called "distance fog." the foreground has high contrast; the background has low contrast. objects differing only in their contrast with a background appear to be at different depths. the color of distant objects are also shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum (e.g., distant mountains). some painters, notably cézanne, employ "warm" pigments (red, yellow and orange) to bring features forward towards the viewer, and "cool" ones (blue, violet, and blue-green) to indicate the part of a form that curves away from the picture plane. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/5615/does-coloring-affect-the-perception-of-depth",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_perception#Monocular_cues"
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can the u.s. economy survive just by trading with itself? | i guess since the world economy can survive by trading within itself, could the us, a country with most natural resources and farmland needed, survive by just trading between states? i wonder this because our exports seem much lower than our imports. | if the usa was an autarky i'm sure it would survive, in that it could probably provide all the basic needs of its population. but daily life would likely be quite different. oil, cars and car parts, and medicines are some of the most significant imports into the country so to make up for that some domestic priorities might need to change as to where to focus production. it would be poorer too. as well as not being able to buy things from abroad, you wouldn't be able to sell things either. north korea claims to be/tries to be an autarky - though it does rely on trade with china and russia for example, as well aid from elsewhere, to function in the way it does. i don't think an autarky is a good idea, even if it does work. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if a major economy, like the united states, decided to cut off its physical borders and disallow material trade? | (i'm trying to keep this question as politically-neutral as possible, and i hope the answers will be the same.) what would happen if the us became fully isolationist. no immigration or emigration, no import or export of goods or products. suppose people and businesses were given enough time (whatever that would mean) to prepare for this transition. it's not like aliens drop a dome over the country without warning. would the country/economy be able to sustain itself? who would do the work that used to be outsourced overseas? what would happen to the products we used to sell overseas? also, assume that internet and other telecommunications still function internationally. we're just not trading with other countries anymore. | that's an insanely broad question, so i'll take just one part of it. discussing the internet, absolutely, it would actually continue to work quite well. obviously, if there were no cross-border links, no traffic from outside the country would make it in. traffic from inside would not make it out. the internet is fundamentally a distributed, self-healing network. it's designed to route around problems and gaps. certainly, there would need to be some adjustment and some border areas (like some parts of canada) that connect exclusively, or primarily through the us would need to change the way they transmit data, but on the whole, things would work fine. centralized services like the dns system would continue to function. dns records are distributed and root dns servers are scattered throughout the world, however some of the fundamental organizations that control the policies surrounding dns and ip address allocation are based in the us, so there would be a period of other countries hashing out which parts of the system would be controlled by which groups, though i don't think it would cause a wide-scale, network-layer outage. on the other hand, many providers and services would struggle. google, for example, might have a challenge on their hands to engineer a system that worked both inside and outside the us. as an american company, assuming google were to cease operation in all other countries (this is weird, because a substantial fraction of googles servers are actually outside the us), then the world would need to come up with new search engines, although inside the us, it might still be ok. in all, it would be functional, but a bit of a mess to sort out all of the broken ends. as for the political topics, that probably needs left to someone else, although what you're asking is *highly* theoretical. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly are muscle tears? | i know exercise creates micro tears to a muscle, but what accounts for complete tears such that the muscle separate from the tendon/bone? below is a video of what i'm talking about, i understand the after math of pooling blood and it "rising" to the surface. [attempt at world record bench press, pec tear follows at 2:40](_url_0_) | when a person ruptures a muscle, it usually happens at the transition between the muscle belly and the tendinous insertion. the insertion of the tendon avulses (rips out) from the bone. now the muscle spasms, and since there is no counteracting force keeping the muscle at length, it will contract down to a small knot of muscle tissue. basically, the amount of force generated by the muscle (or outside force) resulted in a stress in the tissue higher than the ultimate yield stress of the tissue. it's more likely to occur in the tendon insertion because that is where the muscle's cross-sectional area is the smallest (stress = axial force / cross sectional area). | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/attribution_link?a=PvA3T2gYtqc&u=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D2TDtp4ubWYk%26feature%3Dshare"
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did the homogeneous nature or gene pool indicate multiple bottlenecking events? | it seems i hear a lot about how we are all 50th something cousins except for parts of africa. am i just misinformed, or what? edit: does | humans do show a somewhat low level of genetic variation compared to other species, and [there is some evidence that our species has endured a few recent bottlenecks](_url_0_), although the nature and timing of those bottleneck events are debatable. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_bottleneck#Humans"
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why do they suggest you eat less salt "if you are black"? | i was looking up the differences between table salt/sea salt for a friend on the mayo clinic website and something caught my eye and made me very curious... "the dietary guidelines for americans recommend limiting sodium to less than 2,300 milligrams a day — or 1,500 milligrams if you're age 51 or older, or if you are black, or if you have high blood pressure, diabetes or chronic kidney disease." so my question is, why does skin color make a difference with how much sodium you should be consuming? | salt sensitivity is prevalent in the african american population as well as hypertension. limiting salt in their diets works to lessen cardiovascular problems. here's an an article i found on google; _url_0_ | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/407741_3"
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a question on conscious and subconscious processing | > "only 8% of an ad's message is received by the conscious mind. the rest is worked and reworked deep within the recesses of the brain." this quote is attributed to rance crain, ceo of advertising age. i'm wondering how he could have possibly arrived at the figure of 8%, and how he could have concluded the latter part of his statement. i would like to know if this is actually good science - the quote is used in the documentary *killing us softly 4*, a staple of women's studies curricula. | there is no metric by which we can actually measure "conscious vs. subconscious" processing; it is most certainly an arbitrary number that was (at best) derived by making loads of ridiculous assumptions. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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earth reflectiveness and energy balance | i am writing an essay for school, and our teacher taught us that "energy balance" is how the earth reflects as much energy as it receives from the sun, and later he states that the earth reflects 60% of the radiation the sun sends our way: 30% at day and 30% at night. am i missing something here, does this make sense? i would love if someone could explain a bit further about those subjects, or could link me to some good webpages explaining these things in detail (can't seem to find anything myself, books and the teacher does not know much either), thanks in advance - djakobsen :) edit: rephrased a couple sentences | there's a difference between "reflecting" radiation, and "absorbing and re-emitting" radiation. the earth is struck by shortwave radiation from the sun - a portion of that is reflected back into space off of clouds, other aerosols, and land/water/ice surfaces at ground-level. the portion that is not reflected is absorbed, heating the earth, which then emits longwave radiation back to space. the system is in equilibrium as long as the same amount of energy that strikes the planet also leaves the planet, through direct reflection or absorption/re-emission. this is a bit simplified, because i'm not including the effect of the phase-change of water in the atmosphere, but this is the basic principle. [here](_url_0_) is a place that describes the process with some simple diagrams. i have no idea where your teacher came up with that 60% figure. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://okfirst.mesonet.org/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas"
] | [
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question about internet and mobile internet. | i'm not sure if this is the right subreddit but here goes. does it acctually cost the internet providers, whether home or mobile, more for larger data uses? is there any physical reason for limiting internet? or is it purely a reason to milk more money out of a ogopoly? sorry if this has been asked (i searched) and if it is a stupid question. | the primary cost comes from congestion and equipment maintenance. if you provide unlimited bandwidth and unlimited usage you will naturally have higher usage from your subscribers. the provider would then need a more robust network. honestly if isps want a more effective 'pay per gigabyte' model for their customers it's best to do it based on usage hours (when the bandwidth is being used). similarly to how long distance telephony use can cost more in the evening.weekends. that way you encourage your subscribers to spread their usage out more evenly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a lower limit or smallest unit of time? | i’m sorry if this is a stupid question. i have a high school education and never took any math higher than algebra, save some stuff i’ve taught myself for the purpose of audio synthesis because i read a lot. so i’ve been reading about superfluid he4 and how what i will call “practical absolute zero” (i don’t know the real term) is higher than 0 kelvin, and that this is due to a baseline ambient excitation that occurs as a sort of prerequisite for physical existence. i was also reading that states above that are quantized. i also read the inevitable connection to the heisenberg uncertainty principle, which has to do with precisely measuring velocity and position. the only way that makes sense to me would be that a particle’s position is only accurate for an instant. you can’t measure velocity in an instant, that much is apparent because there needs to be a duration of movement factored in to measure, therefore it can probably only be approximated. you can measure position, except for the fact that the particle is moving, so again, to measure where it is in this hypothetical “instant” would be difficult to do precisely. a lot of this seemed to be revolving around this “point” in time that occurs instantaneously, which i am having trouble comprehending. so it got me wondering, is there a duration that is the absolute minimum that time can be broken down into? we measure time with a system of quantized integers, but is it possible that time itself is actually quantized? if that’s the case, is space also quantized? is everything operating on a grid of values that can be represented by a cardinal set of natural numbers? is aleph 0 the only real infinity in physics? i’m confused, i hope this question doesn’t sound as dumb to you as it does to me. | essentially no, there is a limit to how accurately we can measure time and that arguably could be a smallest unit but in classical and quantum mechanics time is treated as continuous rather than discrete. the issue here seems to be that of calculus. if you have a particle which changes its position over time, you are considering measuring velocity by measuring the distance change in the smallest amount of time possible (an infinitesimally small time) but this is not very rigerous and likely doesn't represent reality. instead you need to think about limits, how does the the particles position change not in the smallest amount of time, but when you take the limit as the amount of time tends to 0. this meay seem the same as taking the infinitesimal but is distinct in that you never need a smallest unit of time. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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using time dilation theory, would it be possible to develop an academic farm on another planet? | using time dilation theory, would it be possible to develop an academic farm on another planet? assuming basic colonization abilities, would it be possible to develop an academic farm on another planet? “in general relativity, clocks that are near to a strong gravitational field (such as a planet) run slower.” this also applies to human perspective as well. admittedly, i recently watched interstellar and it got me thinking. i am going to use that math because it is already there. (spoiler) in the movie, 7 years pass on earth for every 1 hour on the planet = 168 earth years per day on planet. given this, after one day on the planet, you could experience the existence of 168 years of civilization/scientific research. a week would be over 1000 years of development. would this at all be possible? the second underlying hurdle would be communication over distance and time. | well, first of all, the degree of time dilation described in interstellar does not and cannot exist on any real-world planet, because you would have to be practically kissing the event horizon of the black hole in order for that to work. second, i don't understand what the advantage is here. put someone in a strong gravity field, and less time passes for them. if you then bring them back to earth, they will have experienced less time than their colleagues at home. less time means less work accomplished. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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want to invest in a microscope, any suggestions? | as a student i assume that you are on a budget. you might want to look into [digital microscopes](_url_1_). these have low magnification and resolution (but still much higher than a magnifying glass) but are cheap and fun. they also have great depth of field. you can also consider "toy" microscopes that they sell for kids. these cost < $100 and can have pretty good magnification. for really high quality images you will probably need a compound microscope with a 60-100x objective (600-1000x total magnification). look on ebay for some used ones or you can try a [smaller manufacturer](_url_0_). things to consider: lenses have several qualities besides magnification. numerical aperture and the corrections of a lens (ie plan, planapo etc) have a big effect on image quality. if you can get a scope with differential interference contrast or phase contrast or even just darkfield capability you are gonna have a good time because you won't need to stain/heat fix your samples. to see bacteria prep is just as important as the microscope. you will need to learn basic staining and mounting procedures to see bacteria through with standard brightfield illumination. hope this helps. qualifications: i run a university light microscopy facility. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.microscope-depot.com/compound-microscopes.htm?gclid=COSy5M3Qy68CFQaEnQodfmV_ZA",
"http://www.amazon.com/Portable-Digital-Microscope-cameras/lm/R2BUIEO3EZPSGB"
] | [
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|
if you disconnected a house from the grid could you... | make the outlets in the walls work by plugging a generator into the wall through a male/male wire? since the current is ac and it's all wired in parallel......would it work? | i've worked as an electrician and will tell you it will work. it will just work horribly. since the power would be going through one of your standard breakers, if the other circuits in the house drew more current than that breaker can handle it would trip. also you would lack the break for the circuit it is connected too. so even though it can work, it would be a very bad set up. the correct way is if you are disconnected from the grid go through the breaker panel like a standard service would. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it more effective to heat your body from the inside out or outside in? | i was watching a first aid how-to's video on treating hypothermia, and that got me thinking: as humans, our layers of fatty tissue always have been great for insulation for trapping heat and protecting us from cold environments. however, doesn't that insulation work both ways? meaning, if i tried to heat myself up by drinking a warm liquid versus a heated blanket, energy-wise (joules), wouldn't the former be more effective since the heat transfer along the surface area of the skin has to go through that insulation in order to increase my "core" temperature? | in cases of extreme hypothermia, it's actually safer to heat from the inside-out. this is why we have things like warm saline infusions, warm bladder irrigation and warm peritoneal irrigation. they work faster and more efficiently than warming blankets, bair huggers etc. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does surfactant prevent alveoli from collapsing? | i know that it lowers the surface tension, and high surface tension will cause them to collapse. i don't fully understand what surface tension is in this context, and why it causes alveolar collapse. | on the scale of an alveola, surface tension pulls around the entire inside of the sphere because of how the radius of curvature scales to the radius of the alveola. _url_0_ the surfactant reduces the force of the surface tension, and so reduces the amount of pressure required to prevent the alveoli from collapsing. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_surfactant"
] | [
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] |
how does a krasnikov tube work? | why can matter travel faster than the speed of light in one? | from [wikipedia](_url_1_) (emphasis added): "a krasnikov tube is a **speculative** mechanism" it works exactly the same way as [this time machine](_url_0_). | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/TeamTimeCar.com-BTTF_DeLorean_Time_Machine-OtoGodfrey.com-JMortonPhoto.com-01.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnikov_tube"
] | [
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is it just coincidence that a solstice happens at around the time earth reaches perihelion and aphelion? | yes it is. the relative positions change too, with the equinoxes/solstices doing a full revolution in about 20,000 years. they just happen to be roughly at the same time right now. about a 1,000 years ago they would have lined up perfectly and are now in the process of moving apart. see [axial precession](_url_1_). also worth noting the [apsidal precession](_url_0_), or the rotation of the ellipse that is earth's orbit. that however takes more than a 100,000 years to do a full rotation so it has a smaller effect on things. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsidal_precession",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_precession_\\(astronomy\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsis#The_perihelion_and_aphelion_of_the_Earth"
] | [
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|
olympic records and gravitational variance | i've always wondered this, and this [article](_url_0_) made me remember to finally ask. is there any correlation to the local gravity at the olympic games and record-breaking? lower gravity could help events like running, high jump, shotput, javelin, etc. while higher gravity could aid events like downhill skiing, bobsled, luge, skeleton, etc. | the gravitational strength difference is pretty small, but it might be noticeable. i don't have figures for the exact variance, but we can make a reasonable estimate of the magnitude of variation by considering the gravity at the average equator height and the gravity at the average pole height. at the equator, with wikipedia's figures i get 9.86809008 m/s^2 . at the poles, 9.80013036 m/s^2 . this is a difference of about 0.7%. this does carry through to the height you'd expect to achieve on, say, a jump, so an identical high jumper who reaches two metres (that's a guess, i don't know how high they actually jump) at the equator might reach an extra centimetre at the pole, which might well be enough to affect a record. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.gotgeoint.com/archives/feeling-gravitys-pull-map-shows-where-gravitational-pull-is-strongest/"
] | [] | [
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are there any lingering questions in astronomy/astrophysics which no one cares to tackle because, frankly, it will take too long to learn the results? | like some question that, in beginning to studying it, one would not know the results in any future foreseeable generations? **edit 3 hours later: did i stump askscience?** **edit #2 - ^^^ it's a joke. relax.** | as i'm sure you're aware, there are quite a few things in the universe that happen on timescales vastly longer than human lifetimes, and often vastly longer than the entire existence of mammals or even land animals. for the most part, if we want to understand how these processes occur over long timescales, we have to find a sample of objects in different stages of the process, and then try to piece together a picture of how that process works over long times. i'll list a few that come to mind. now, all of these systems and processes are being *studied*, so i certainly wouldn't say that "no one cares to tackle them", but people are certainly trying to tackle them in ways that will produce results in a matter of months to years rather than thousands or millions of years (nobody without tenure would ever work on such a project). * **bursts of star formation in galaxies**: we observe, throughout the universe, various galaxies which have significantly elevated rates of star formation. usually, these galaxies appear to have undergone some sort of interaction with other galaxies, such as a [close pass](_url_3_) or a [full-on merger](_url_1_) or a galaxy in the [late stages of a merger](_url_6_). using models, we can work out rough estimates of how long it takes for two colliding galaxies to merge. but we don't really know how star formation proceeds over time in these systems-- are there characteristic rates for mergers? are there lots of short intense bursts? extended bursts? if we could observe one of these merger systems for half a billion years it would be glorious. * **formation of individual stars**: this is still a relatively poorly understood process, because stars necessarily form deep in dense molecular clouds, so it's very hard to see them (the upcoming [jwst](_url_2_) should help with that some), but we also don't have a good sense of how long it takes from the formation of a dense core inside a cloud to the onset of fusion. * **[active galactic nuclei](_url_7_)**: throughout the universe (though they're most common in the early/distant universe, about 2-3 billion years after the big bang), we see galaxies whose central supermassive black holes are accreting large quantities of gas, and in the process the accreting gas launches very powerful jets which can be seen from billions of lightyears away. we know that some of these can stay 'active'--that is, accreting matter and launching jets--for millions of years or so, but we don't have a good sense of whether that's typical or not. these agn also play a role in pushing gas out of galaxies, which shuts down a lot of the star formation happening in those early galaxies, and we don't know how quickly that shutoff occurs after an agn starts going. * **jupiter's [great red spot](_url_0_)**: how long will it last? it's been going for a few hundred years already, who knows how long it could keep on? * **the proper motions of distant galaxies**: we can work out the radial velocity of a galaxy from its redshift, but over the course of the less than two centuries that precision astrometry (position measurements) has been going on, there's been no perceptible transverse motion of distant galaxies, which is really not at all surprising (it would be shocking if they did move). there are many systems, including galaxy clusters, where knowing the proper motions could add greatly to one's understanding of the dynamics of the system. as a side note, it may be possible soon to get [proper motions for the andromeda galaxy](_url_4_) using masers in that system, but this is only because it is so much closer than any other major galaxy. there are even closer dwarfs, including the magellanic clouds, for which we have made proper motion measurements, and it can tell us [a great amount about the history of those galaxies and their relationship to the milky way](_url_5_). edit: as a last one, i'd mention that stellar positions have been measured over the course of the last hundred-some years, and many stars have proper motions that are only measurable over long timescales. stellar proper motions are often expressed in units such as milliarcseconds per year or arcseconds per century, which gives you an idea of how small these angular motions are and how long it takes to observe them. astronomers a century ago doubtless knew that their work, while valuable in its own right and own time for scientific reasons as well as for navigational and geographical reasons, would also be usable for future astronomers. | 85 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Red_Spot#Great_Red_Spot",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antennae_Galaxies",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope",
"http://www.nrao.edu/news/newsletters/115/scienceNeutral.shtml",
"https://science.nrao.edu/newscience/9-Wed/15-Darling/darling-v2.pdf",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/652/2/1213/pdf/65541.web.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_220",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_principle",
"http://www.amazon.com/Unsolved-Problems-Astrophysics-John-Bahcall/dp/0691016062",
"http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/guide-longest-science-experiments"
] | [
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] |
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