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if inflation happened billions of years ago, how is it that it can be detected? for example, if a bomb explodes, its like saying that you found the shock wave from the explosion a year later. | very interested in the big bang theory and moreso because of this discovery, but i don't understand how you can detect something that happened billions of years ago. as mentioned in the title, if a bomb goes off, and you are monitoring it right then and there, you can see/detect the shock wave. but from what it sounds like with this discovery, they are saying they can detect the shock wave from the blast a year later. how does this work? | it just depends on whether the causative effect leaves a record on something that is persistent enough to be viewed later. craters on the moon, for example, provide records of collisions from long ago. the distortion of space-time creates a measurable pattern in the cosmic microwave background radiation. there was nothing to undo that distortion, so it was still present when the cosmic microwave background (not microwaves at the time, actually) formed 380,000 years after the big bang, so it was imprinted on that background. in the billions of years since, the cosmic microwave background has not changed in pattern, only in scale as the universe has expanded (including an elongation of the photon wavelengths themselves); this is because the universe is essentially transparent and so the photons in the background radiation have had next to nothing to affect them in the past 13+ billion years. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the lhc need to be 27km long? | since the particles are sped up going around in circles, why can't they be smaller circles? | i answered this on another sub about 2 hours ago > current designs for a future tev-scale e^(+)e^(−) are either linear (clic, ilc) or circular with circumferences around 80 km to 100 km (cepc, fcc) | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the green revolution taking so long? | i'm hoping to avoid conspiracy theories here. the information technology and medicine fields have moved incredibly quickly over the last few decades. but the green movement keeps coming up with concepts but nothing major really makes its way to the consumer. basically is there any real reason for the slow developememt of green technology for the everyday consumer? | my answer would be that it only seems that way to you because you haven´t been paying attention. please see: 1) [installed global solar capacity by year](_url_0_) 2) [installed global wind capacity by year] (_url_1_) both have seen exponential growth this decade. (solar in particular is doubling every year or two) the prices of solar electricy has dropped an [insane amount](_url_4_) in just the last four years or so. [wind and solar is starting to compete on price with conventional energy](_url_2_). as an example, i live in a country in which the largest single contributor to the electricity used in the national grid [over the course of last year was wind power](_url_3_) (not talking about capacity, but actual energy in mwh). add in other renewables (including of course, big hydro) and cogeneration and spain´s electrical use is over 50% renewable and/or non-conventional. this last decade has been incredible. now, that doesn´t mean its going fast enough yet to avoid drastic climate change, because at the moment it is still too slow (ie that paper by the google guys in ieee spectrum). and of course, this is just on the energy production side, as another poster mention, on the consumption side, we could look at led lighting and electric cars going mainstream (of course the latter isn´t necesarily green but can be). | 93 | [] | [] | [
"http://cleantechnica.com/files/2014/04/world-solar-power-capacity.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Global_Wind_Power_Cumulative_Capacity.svg",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/24/business/energy-environment/solar-and-wind-energy-start-to-win-on-price-vs-conventional-fuels.html?_r=1",
"http://www.rtcc.org/2014/01/06/wind-power-generated-largest-part-of-spains-electricity-in-2013/",
"http://reneweconomy.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/bernstein-solar.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Revolution"
] | [
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do the two lobes of the thyroid serve different functions? in general, how do they differ and what are the implications of this for someone who has had a thyroid lobectomy? | basically, are the two lobes of the thyroid gland performing the same function as each other? if not, how do they differ? relatedly, are there systematically differing implications/complications for those who have the right or left lobe of the thyroid removed as a result of disease? best i’ve found so far is this, but doesn’t really answer my question/i don’t fully understand if it does: _url_0_ | the two lobes and the isthmus all seem to do basically the same thing. there may be minor differences in size, blood supply, and anatomic proximity to nerves - namely, the recurrent laryngeal nerve is a left-sided strcuture. however, to my knowledge the different parts of the thyroid gland all serve the same function. this is similar to how all five lobes of the lung do the same thing even though there are major differences in size, shape, blood supply, ventilation/perfusion ratio, and susceptibility to different diseases. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/22178560"
] | [] | [
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] |
question about electric shocks | i have heard that there is a difference between being electrocuted, say from mains supply, and however one dies when one touches an overhead power line. is this true, and if so why? also, what exactly does the term "grounding" mean? is it good to be grounded or bad? as for my level of science knowledge, i'm in my second year of a-levels, and hence have a pretty good understanding of the basics of electricity. | if i understand you correctly, you are asking for the physical/physiological difference between being electrocuted from a power line and a wall socket? as far as i know, there is no difference as long as we're limiting ourselves to electric lines that run to houses and not power distribution centers (i simply cannot comment on the latter, no knowledge). there is a semantic difference between being electrocuted and being electrically shocked though. electrocution is death by electricity. if you don't die, then you were simply shocked, like licking a battery. if you are grounded, then there is an electrical connection between you and "ground", which is quite often literally the ground, the earth. we can call the electric potential of the ground zero volts. sometimes it is good to be grounded, other times it is bad. if you are working on very delicate electronics, you want to be grounded so that you don't build up a static charge which can transfer and break your electronics. if you are a bird sitting on a power line, it would be bad to be grounded because you would be electrocuted. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livescience.com/4077-shocking-truth-static-electricity.html"
] | [
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what about their function dictates the different shapes of the mitral and tricuspid valves? | learning some heart physiology and i'm trying to remember the orientation by things a little more logically than just memorizing. i know the tricuspid valve is on the right side and the mitral valve on the left. the left ventricle generates more pressure than the right, etc. so the question: why does the tricuspid valve have a three part valve and the mitral valve two? | interesting question! [this page from 1997](_url_1_) says that there's no definitive answer, but posits an embryological explanation: *in utero*, blood pressure is higher on the right side of the heart than on the left side, which is required to shunt blood past the lungs from the right heart to the left heart (until birth). this pressure differential causes the future ventricular septum (the endocardial cushions) to bulge to the left. this bulge *somehow* gets incorporated into the mitral valve by fusing two parts of the valve ring into a single leaflet, resulting in two leaflets on the left side. the right side of the heart bulges in the opposite sense, which ends up not fusing two of the three leaflets of the tricuspid valve. to memorize this, picture a [bishop's mitre](_url_0_) (hence "mitral valve"), and remember that all the other heart valves are tricuspid. if that's not good enough, here's my own completely unsubstantiated mnemonic: of all the heart valves, the mitral valve must withstand the highest pressure gradients (developed by the lv). the more leaflets in a given valve, the more intricately they'll have to mesh with each other, and the thinner they'll each be. two leaflets *seem* more robust than three, so if any valve in the heart should have just two valves, it's the mitral valve. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://tachesterton.files.wordpress.com/2010/06/bishops-mitre.jpg",
"http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/1997-03/855255174.An.r.html"
] | [
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what disorders do you think in 50 years time will no longer be featured in the dsm? (assuming we still use the dsm) | it's not all that long ago that homosexuality was included in there, so i imagine other things will be added and removed throughout time. i kind of hope mpd/did is the next thing to be removed, but i'm not convinced it will be as of yet. | looking back through the history of psychology, [homosexuality](_url_0_) was once thought to be a mental disorder. however, it was removed from the dsm in 1973. but, that doesn't go to say that all mental health professionals agree with that notion. staying on the subject of homosexuality, i would personally like to see a universal agreement amongst mental health professionals and general practitioners that there's other factors other than psychological, emotional, or biological predispositions for this "disorder". | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality_and_psychology"
] | [
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what happens in the brain when spoonerism occurs? | just to be clear [this (spoonerism)](_url_0_) is what i'm talking about! i was reading the wikipedia article, but it doesn't explain anything about the reason for it happening. it happened a couple of hours ago to me (which inspired this question), i didn't even notice it happening, until my girlfriend stated what just happened. which then resulted in laughter! | you're in luck, because there is [this paper](_url_0_) which looked at what is going on in the brain when a spoonerism happens, and proposes a possible reason. let me know if you can't access the full text, or if you have more specific questions. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoonerism"
] | [
"http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/5/1173.short"
] | [
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why were were 6 of 8 announced gravitational wave detections in the latest 9 month aligo run detected in the final 4 weeks? | i’m parsing the news releases from the dec. 1st announcement from the gravitational wave physics and astronomy workshop, and since the detections are named after their dates, their close grouping stood out to me almost immediately. gw170104 gw170608 gw170729 gw170809 gw170814~ gw170817~ gw170818 gw170823 the aligo run was from nov. 30th 2017 to aug. 25th 2018. my best guess for why the announced detections are clustered in this time period is that the computational resources used to isolate these detections were prioritized to the short period of time when ligo and virgo were running together, since virgo didn’t come on line until aug 1st of 2017. i actually looked up virgo’s start time after i wrote everything else in this post. i’d guessed the virgo run coincided with this dense cluster of detections because the 2 detections i marked with a ~ were also detected by virgo and was a little surprised at how closely the run dates fit my guess this guess implies that if the rest of the run’s data gets the same rigorous analysis i’m guessing was applied to the final 4 weeks, many more detections could be teased out of the first 8 months that currently only have 2 detections publicly announced. | * adding virgo improves the sensitivity a lot starting august 1 - three detectors instead of two. even when the virgo signal on its own is not highly significant it contributes a lot to the overall signal to background ratio. i would expect this to be the most significant point. * sensitivity and availability of the detectors improves over time as the operators gain more experience. * some random chance. no, this is a full analysis of the runs up to august 2017. the parameter estimates might change a little bit if the analysis methods improve in the future, there is some chance a few of the marginal detections become more certain, but don't expect more highly significant events. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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use of bra-ket notation in quantum mechanics? | so, i've been reading up on some wikipedia articles on bra-ket notation, spin, etc. and i noticed that the difference between bra-ket notation and normal vectors is that bras < a| are complex conjugates with kets |b > . i can understand a usefulness of complex conjugates with respect to pure mathematics, but what are some examples of variables in physics that use complex or imaginary values? | there are cases where *i* is convenient (optics, waves, oscillations, complex impedance), but in quantum mechanics, the use of *i* and complex numbers is intrinsic to the equations. the fundamental way to see this is that the way the uncertainty principle is encoded mathematically intrinsically involves *i*. below, i describe how that arises. observables in quantum mechanics take real values, and so they are represented by objects called hermitian operators. the uncertainty principle arises when you have two observables whose operators do not commute, that is, operators *a* and *b* (like position and momentum) for which *ab* is not equal to *ba*. the way we characterize this is to look at the *commutator* of *a* and *b*, namely *ab-ba*. and here's the punchline: if the uncertainty principle says that *a* and *b* cannot both be known simultaneously, *ab-ba* must take imaginary values (that combination is an anti-hermitian operator), that is, it must be *i* times a real number or *i* times an operator that takes real values. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do some elements group together underground? | if most elements are created during supernovas you would think that they would be uniformly scattered around. then why is it some elements (gold, tin, copper etc) seem to be grouped together underground? | lets distinguish between what is familiarly called "geologically dead" vs "geologically active" bodies, shall we? your hypothesis of a relatively homogeneous and undifferentiated body applies somewhat to geologically dead bodies, such as meteorites. this is one of the reasons they are on interest to geoscientists: they offer a glimpse into the primitive, initial composition of our solar system. however, earth is geologically active. this means that physical and chemical processes are constantly remobilizing, dissolving/precipitating or melting/congealing its constituent minerals. most of these processes affect individual elements differently, depleting tem here and concentrating them there. possibly the most important group of processes affecting the remobilization of minerals and their constituent elements are those relating to the flow of water in various environments. water is present throught the upper lithosphere, in various states of temperature, pressure, eh and ph, and as such will locally dissolve certain minerals and not others, and reprecipitate them elsewhare as it's conditions change. for instance, lets consider [volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits](_url_0_). these are the end product of a longish set of complex interaction between seawater and the rocks of the ocean floor. cold seawater infiltrates into the seafloor by gravity through cracks, fractures and pores and begins a process of convection as it progressively equilibrates its temperature with increasingly warm rocks. it can go down several kilometers, and reach temperatures of a few hundred degrees in the process. this hot water interacts chemically with the mineral species it encounters along the way, and picks up a load of more soluble ions such as iron, copper, zinc, gold, sulphate, chlorine, and several others. convection then pushes this hot water which is by now quite chemically different from the initial seawater to an exit point on the seafloor, such as a hydrothermal vent which might be a black smoker. as it is released on the ocean floor, this fluid mixes with normal seawater and rapidy cools, decreasing the solubility of it's solute load, and precipitating minerals which accumulate in a mound on the seafloor, thus concentrating in one spot a wealth of metals and such which initially were dispersed throughout a huge volume of country rock. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/mines/prospector/matty_mitchell/Virtual/Metallic%20Mineral%20Deposits%20of%20NL,%20Part%202,%20Volcanic-Hosted.pdf"
] | [
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how do patterns in a non base 10 system appear? | im just wondering if there are any interesting patterns that certain numbers/sequences have in a non base 10 system. is there any fundamental truth to a base 12 pi? how does a binary fibonacci sequence look? etc. sure there are some interesting properties to these things in base 10, but changing the system only changes the look of the number, not its value. | i don't know about the fibonacci sequence, but [let me know if anything here jumps out at you.](_url_0_) there's nothing uniquely 'decimal' about the fibonacci sequence, it's just a recurrence relation. but the prime factors of the base will determine a lot of neat tricks for factoring numbers and other number theoretic things. for example, in base 10, if the last digit is a 2, 4, 6, 8, or 0 then the number is divisble by 2. in base 2, a number is even if the last digit is 0, and is odd if the last digit is 1. these may seem obvious, but another example in base 10 is this trick: sum the individual digits of a number, if that sum is divisible by 3 then the original number is divisible by 3. these neat tricks show up in every base, and are a consequence of the prime factoring of that base. i just don't know many off the top of my head for any other than base 10... perhaps a proper mathematician would give you a better answer. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=convert+0%2C+1%2C+1%2C+2%2C+3%2C+5%2C+8%2C+13%2C+21%2C+34%2C+55%2C+89%2C+144%2C+233%2C+377%2C+610%2C+987%2C+1597%2C+2584%2C+4181%2C+6765%2C+10946%2C+17711+to+base+2",
"http://floating-point-gui.de/formats/binary/"
] | [
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why are anti-particles shown as going backwards in time in feynman diagrams? | are they really going back in time, and if so would this explain the lack of antimatter, due to the anti particles essentially creating an identical universe, just going back in time, relative to us? | really, it's just a way of determining which quantities in your perturbation series are negative. it's mathematical notation only - it doesn't mean particles are actually traveling backwards through time. that being said, it is a necessary mathematical convention to preserve causality. particles traveling a certain direction in time are indistinguishable from their anti-particles traveling the opposite direction in time, and this causes the probability amplitude over spacelike intervals to exactly cancel, giving zero probability of a particle taking a "faster than light" path. | 40 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are there people who are naturally ambidextrous? | we do not have a clear answer for this yet. some scientists have suggested that for ambidextrous people, neither hemisphere in the brain is dominant. additionally, please do not confuse **mixed-handed** (when people prefer using their left hand for some tasks and their right for others) with people who are truly ambidextrous. people who are truly ambidextrous can use either hand to carry out all tasks with *equal proficiency* and are very rare. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are poodles really hypoallergenic? | i know several people who have poodles because they are supposedly "hypoallergenic." what's the basis of this claim? what gives a poodle this magical quality that other dogs don't have? | [relevant wiki link.](_url_0_) the gist of it is that poodles are not truly hypoallergenic; all dogs shed and therefore can provoke allergies. however, their fur sheds less frequently, and loose fur and dander tends to be more effectively trapped by their curly fur than that of other dog breeds. in addition, many poodles are cleaned and groomed more often than other breeds due to being more of a "showpiece", if you will, and this removes dander and saliva, the other common allergen. thus, while poodles are not hypoallergenic, they are less likely to provoke an allergic response due to their lower dander output. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poodle#Hypoallergenic_qualities"
] | [
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osmosis, water potential, hypertonic and hypotonic-- how does it all connect? | osmosis is water passing across a semi-permeable membrane. this happens when there is a water potential across that membrane, which occurs when the salinity on one side of the membrane is different from the salinity on the other side (hypotonic or hypertonic depending on your perspective). not sure what else you're looking for - perhaps you can clarify a bit? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a table salt question | so i bought this iodised sea salt (ingredients: sea salt, iodising agent). in the nutrition information, 39,220mg of sodium is contained in 100g of this product. i'll admit my chemistry is terrible. but does this mean that it contains 39,220mg of na, 39,220mg of cl, and thus 21,560mg of i? and to double confirm this, is it true that in 100% uniodised sea salt, 50mg of na and 50mg of cl is contained per 100g? ty. | no it does not. we can figure it out in this way. 39,220mg = 39.22 g of sodium. the chemical formula for table salt is nacl. it means that for each atom of sodium, there is one atom of chlorine. so let's figure out the number of atoms of sodium we have first. the molar mass of sodium is ~ 23 g / mol. this is 39.22 / 23 ~= 1.71 moles of sodium atoms so there must be 1.71 moles of chlorine atoms too. since the molar mass of chlorine is 35.45 g/mol, the total mass of chlorine is 1.71 * 35.45 = 60.62 g so in 100g of table salt, 39.22 g is sodium and 60.62g is chlorine. both of these add up to 99.84 g. the very last bit (give or take some decimal places) is probably the small bit of iodising agent. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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questions about the lhc | watched a video recently about the large hadron collider, have some questions. 1) what it, instead of accelerating the hydrogen nucleus around the track, they accelerated the electrons around and smashed them instead? (my guess is youd get the same stuff, showing that at some level, both things are made of the same stuff) the interesting part is, could you make a proton from electron soup? 2) if you shine 2 laser pens at each other, you get photons hitting head on at about the same speeds as in the head on collisions between protons in the lhc, but at a cost of like $10 instead of billions. could they just build detectors around that and get the same kind of results? (im assuming no, but why?) 3) i read that as you approach the speed of light with a spaceship, us viewing the spaceship going away from us see it red shifted. someone seeing it approach them would see them blue shifted. what would a proton see, as its going toward another proton, both going c (to an outside observer) toward each other? i ask because i thought there was a minimum distance, and if something is blue shifted to have a wavelength shorter than this minimum distance, then can they still affect each other? (it seems an obvious yes, but think about it, if something smaller than the smallest length can still affect another thing, then you didnt have the smallest length) | 1) before they set up the lhc the same tunnel contained an experiment called the lep (large electron positron collider) which collided electrons and anti-electrons. there was also an experiment in germany called hera that collided electrons and protons. there was probably an electron-electron collider but i'm not sure what it's called. 2) there are a few differences, including the differences between protons and photons (photons don't collide with each other), as well as the fact that the protons in the lhc have about ten trillion times as much energy as a laser photon. 3) it would see a proton moving towards it really fast. the proton would look pancaked. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement",
"http://www.google.com/#q=%22electron-electron+collider%22"
] | [
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in cool runnings, coach irv was pinned for cheating by placing weights in the front of his bobsled. would this have actually made the sled go faster? | i've always wondered. doesn't a hammer fall at the same speed as a feather? | no, of course they don't (try it for yourself), and this is the very key to answering this question! it is true that in a vacuum (or quasi-vacuum) a feather and hammer would fall at the same rate since the acceleration of a body in a gravitational field is independent of its mass (as ~~armstrong~~ david scott [showed in that classic demo on the moon](_url_2_)). but when you add air to the equation that changes things considerably since the air will impose a resistance ([drag](_url_3_)) to the motion of the object, which will change the rate at which objects with a different mass will actually fall, such that a hammer does in fact fall faster than a feather. to a rough approximation, the effective force of drag (fd) can be expressed as: fd = 1/2\*pv^(2)ca, where p is the density of the fluid (e.g. air), v is the velocity of the object (relative to the fluid), c is a constant (a drag coefficient basically), and a is the cross-sectional area of the object. the key thing about this equation is that the mass of the object doesn't come in at all! this means that if you have an object of a given shape and simply increase its mass (e.g. by adding weights inside a bobsled) that would not change its drag. on the other hand, the total force of gravity (fg) *does* depend on the mass: fg = mg, where g is the gravitational constant and m is the mass. for an object falling straight down, the acceleration can be calculated from the sum of the forces (where the force of drag is opposite to that of gravity [as shown in this simple force diagram](_url_0_)) by inverting f = ma to give a = f/m: a= (fg - fd)/m = (**m**\*g - 1/2\*pv^(2)ca)/**m** in the equation above you can see that since the drag doesn't depend on the mass will gravity does, the higher the mass of the object, the smaller the contribution of the drag will be. in other words, if you keep the shape of the object constant but increase its mass, it will experience a higher and higher acceleration (up to the limit of the acceleration it would have in the absence of air resistance, i.e. g). this is why heavier bobsleds can travel faster (at high speeds where drag dominates), and why hammers fall faster than feathers. **note:** for the sake of accuracy, i should point out that the discussion above is a bit simplified. for bobsleds you need to also need to consider the friction with the ice (which does depend on the mass) and the fact the motion is not vertical so that the actual force diagram [would look more like this](_url_1_). but at high speeds, by far the biggest factor slowing down the acceleration of a bobsled will be air resistance, which is why i focused on drag in the discussion above. | 63 | [] | [] | [
"https://tap.iop.org/mechanics/drag/209/img_full_46359.gif",
"http://www.math.utah.edu/~eyre/rsbfaq/fbd.gif",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29"
] | [
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why are math and physics so successful in describing the real world around us? | i know cosmologist max tegmark has speculated that the universe is in fact a mathematical object (_url_0_). just want to hear reddits take on it. | you might be interested in an essay entitled [the unreasonable effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences](_url_0_), by physicist eugene wigner, and [a follow-up](_url_1_) by computer scientist richard hamming. | 11 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_universe_hypothesis"
] | [
"http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html",
"http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Hamming.html",
"http://www.mediafire.com/view/?c5n8hw1tltc9iga"
] | [
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] |
why is a fast reentry from space back to earth a better option than a slow decent? | i've always wondered why the sop for reentry into earth is a fast decent when it requires a incredibly important heat shield on the shuttle, and if said heat shield is damages then the astronauts lives are is danger. i'm guessing that the reason the heat shield is needed is because of the friction with the atmosphere at high speeds during reentry is causing it, so i wonder why a slow decent isn't better than a fast one. | well, two issues, spacecraft in orbit are already moving at orbital speed, which is 7.8 kps for leo, and varies depending on the orbit. so, that speed has to be scrubbed in order for the spacecraft to intersect the surface at nearly zero velocity, otherwise, its a crash. the most efficient way to scrub that speed is by friction with the air. a powered descent (like the apollo lem) is possible, but that would require lifting massive amounts of fuel into orbit to make it happen, which means much larger rockets for launch, etc... | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/3ebku"
] | [
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why did the jeweler tell me that my ring will feel smaller in the summer and bigger in the winter? how can this be if metal expands when warm and the opposite when cold? | metal does expand when warm and contract when cold. however, in this case, the more important part is that your fingers also expand and contract - and fingers grow/shrink much more than the ring will. edit: a couple of people have posted comments about the ring expanding inwards. this is actually [not the case](_url_0_). | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/185815/if_i_heat_a_metal_ring_will_it_become_tighter_or/?ref=share&ref_source=link"
] | [
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] |
|
question about temperature | hey scientists, i'm learning about transitional states and reaction rates and had a question about temperature. if temperature is the average value of the kinetic energy of particles in a substance, then is there a measure of how varied the individual kinetic energies are? say i had three particles, one with 3j of energy, one with 4j, and one with 5j and then i had another set of particles with 2j, 4j, and 6j respectively. the temperatures would be the same, but a reaction with an energy barrier high above the average kinetic energy would be more likely in the second set of particles. i'm not great at statistics but would this be like a standard deviation of kinetic energies? | yes, there is a well-understood description of the energies of particles at a given temperature. in a sample, kinetic energy follows the [boltzmann distribution](_url_0_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_distribution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_distribution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution"
] | [
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is there a type of bias that makes the brain create competition between products and seemingly everything in life? | i've been learning a lot about bias lately and have been trying to become as non-biased as possible to make more logical decisions in my life. i searched on google a little while back and wasn't able to find an answer. basically competition can be found everywhere (mac vs pc, republican vs democrat, ford vs chevy, iphone vs android, nvidia vs amd, and so on). from my own experience, the more biased someone is the more likely they are to strongly side with one or the other. i'm wondering why the human brain seems to always find two sides and then pick a "team" to fight for. i apologize if there has been a post on this, i couldn't find one, if so please give me the link! i would love to read more about this. | i'd reference ["why do humans reason? arguments for an argumentative theory"](_url_0_) (unfortunately its behind a paywall) essentially, it posits that humans developed the ability to argue (and all our associated psychological biases) much like courts of law developed. we evolved to argue our case as strongly as possible, and multiple people arguing very strongly for multiple different viewpoints increases the total understanding of the topic amongst the social group. this is the same procedure in law courts. instead of having people reasoning to try and get the truth, we have found it works better when you have two opposing sides trying very hard to win. an independent jury learns much more about the case this way, and the idea is somewhere in the middle the truth will come out. this extends to the question of "competition". we've evolved to pick a side and fight its cause irrationally strongly, since evolution has demonstrated this is the best way for a group to learn the most about both opposing sides and thus increase the overall knowledge of the group (and thus its survival chances) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8242469&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0140525X10000968"
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today when i was driving home i was about 30 seconds away from driving into a downed live power line. | this got me thinking, just what kind of danger could this put me in? i was in a van, wearing rubber soled shoes. it definitely got my heart racing, but could anything have happened to me? there was an earlier thread on this subject, but there was only one answer and the article linked didn't explain how or under what circumstances the two people were injured. | there's a good chance the car would act as a faraday cage, which iirc is why a car is safe in a lightening storm. **but** don't try it, because i'm just a random person on the internet, and you only get to die once. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do particles pop in and out of existence? | in a vacuum, small quantum particles appear then disappear, how does this happen (or leading theories)? is there any idea why after it is created it disappears? when a particle appears into existence, what is it made of, energy? when is disappears does it dissipate back into energy? if so, what type? | you can think of it like an uncertainty principle problem. given some window of time delta-t, what is your uncertainty in energy, delta-e? the product of delta-t and delta-e must be no less than h (or at least on the order of this value), the quantum of action. so, if delta-t is some *insanely* small time window, delta-e can be large enough that you aren't entirely sure you have a vacuum at all. perhaps you have a vacuum and some energy in the form of a particle anti-particle pair. you don't know, you haven't measured it for long enough. but as that delta-t grows, your uncertainty in energy shrinks, and then you *know* you have a vacuum. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between curling a barbel and just tensing your muscles while doing a curling action? | tensing the muscles could involve (weak) isometric contractions with very little concentric or eccentric component. weak because without an external resistance, the muscles can't do much by themselves. with the barbell movement, you have both concentric (going up) and eccentric contractions (lowering). also, although a barbell is a fixed external weight, the amount of muscular force to move it through the range of motion can vary based on leverage. barbell training allows progressive resistance training. lifting is a stress disrupting homeostasis, and after you recover and supercompensate, you become objectively stronger with each training session when you can produce greater and greater forces. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do prison gangs form? | it's probably worth cross posting in /r/asksocialscience, if i remember correctly there have been some recent papers published on just this subject (socialization in heavily restricted environments?), and i'm sure someone there will be able to give you a broad overview. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
physics question | if you were to gather the entire human population of the earth (roughly 6.5 billion people) in as small an area as possible and then have them jump up and down, would it knock the earth off its orbit? edit: thanks for the answers, everyone. i figured it wouldn't work but it's nice to see solid reasoning as to why. | unlikely. even if the combined mass of people was big enough to make a significant difference - which it almost definitely isn't - they'd push away from each other, but gravity would pull them right back together again. at most you'd get a tiny wobble. edit: according to a quick calculation, earth is 1.209×10^13 more massive than the human population. they're not going to have much of an effect at all. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physics question | so i was watching minutephysics and saw the video that explained that you cannot simply add velocities, you have to do (v1+v2)/(1+(v1*v2)/(c^2)). as soon as i saw that, i thought "lets try and break this," so i tried c and -c. it came out to be (0/0). how does this work? does this mean that it is impossible(even theoretically) to have a train going at the speed of light, and an object on that train moving in the opposite direction also going the speed of light? am i missing part of the equation? i'm only in 8th grade, so i might be missing something. | so it's called the einstein velocity addition formula, if you're wondering. basically, everything moving less than the speed of light will see something else moving at less than the speed of light, and everyone always sees light moving at the speed of light. but that's just for things moving less than the speed of light, or approaching the speed of light, which they can never actually reach. a lot of things break for things that *are* moving the speed of light. for example, gamma (the lorentz factor) is infinite, so time is dilated to infinite and length is contracted to nothing (these facts are consequences of the lorentz transformations, which also give rise to the evaf). basically, photons don't experience time or space- in their frame, they experience their lifetime from emission to absorption simultaneously all in one local space. ever read slaughter house 5? it's kind of like how the trafalamadorians experience time. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a snake is looking for prey, is the height of the animal a determining factor? | say a snake sees a deer and decides to eat it. another one sees me, and while i'm roughly the same mass as the deer, i'm a lot taller. will my height make it think "nah, he's too big", or is the overall mass of the prey taken into account? | the only snakes i can think of that can eat a small deer would be anacondas and reticulated pythons. i dont believe you appear to prey to them because your face isn't close enough to the ground. deer, and pigs, and other large animals that these snakes eat have their faces within striking range. anacondas typically strike from the water, and an animal's face,, bending down to drink, is within perfect range. to any snake capable of eating people, you probably wouldn't even register as prey unless your face was close enough for them to strike. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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whats going on in this video and is it fake? | _url_0_ | it's not fake. it's an example of [magnetic damping](_url_0_). a magnetic field moving across a conductor induces eddy currents in the conductor. those moving electrons in those currents have their own magnetic fields, and they are opposed to the magnetic field that induced the current. in this particular example, the falling magnet induces eddy currents in the copper pipe (which is a conductor despite not being ferromagnetic), and the magnetic fields of those currents oppose the movement of the magnet, slowing it down, and converting the loss of kinetic energy into heat in the pipe. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.firecold.com/videos/magnets-in-a-copper-pipe/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_damping",
"http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8727070372144922020",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/w85zm/how_exactly_does_this_work_antigravity_magnets_in/"
] | [
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] |
is suction in a closed system constant? | i have a whole house vacuum. my perception is that the wall inlet closest to the actual vacuum sucks better than the one further away. accurate or no? | yes, the outlets closer to the vacuum will have a greater pressure drop (i.e. better suction) than those further away. what's happening when you open a vacuum port is you're establishing an airway with atmospheric pressure at one end, and a low pressure established by your vacuum at the other. now, those pressures shouldn't appreciably change regardless of what port you open, but something else is definitely different: the distance between them. entirely apart from any losses in the ductwork, a longer distance between the two differing pressures means a smaller spatial gradient of pressure (i.e. the pressure changes less per unit distance). but when you're running a vacuum, a large spatial pressure gradient is what you want, since the difference in pressure across the sides of a piece of dust (or whatever) is what forces it into the duct. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is a frost line ala mass effect something that actually exists? | so i've been pondering something while playing some mass effect. does a 'frost line' as they state exist? i'm inclined to guess at no, since we're detecting a lot of 'hot jupiters' out there in the stars, but it seems to make sense. basically, is their a minimal orbital distance at which gas giants must form, and anything inside that is an extrasolar capture? is extrasolar planet formation even possible? bonus points if anyone provides information regarding whether or not to orbital bodies can exist within the same solar orbit and eventually collide as a result as well. | the [frost line](_url_0_) is a real concept, and refers to the point at which hydrogen compounds can condense into solid grains in a forming solar system. this makes it much easier for massive planets to form, and it's believed to be the case in our solar system that the massive gas giants planets are all beyond the frost line, and the smaller terrestrials inside it. the current theories on "hot jupiters" mostly, as far as i'm aware, postulate formation beyond the frost line and some sort of orbital decay leading to their current position, so the frequent statements that close gas giants are most likely extrasolar captures are not in line with our current theories. extrasolar captures are possible, though - the likelihood of a planet forming on its own is pretty low, but solar systems do interact occasionally and could steal planets off each other. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_%28astrophysics%29"
] | [
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scientific credibility of emrp or push gravity? | a good rule of thumb is that if someone's made a webpage for their special new theory, they're probably a crackpot :) credible scientists will write papers about their ideas and submit them for peer review, rather than making a website trying to advertise the work (presumably) to laymen. it's also extremely heavy on words and very light on math. this is a huge problem - physics is a mathematical subject, and if you don't make quantitative predictions, your theory can't be tested rigorously. for example, this guy claims his theory eliminates the need for dark matter, but doesn't put forth a single calculation backing this up - so why should anyone believe him? if you're going to put forth a new theory of, say, gravity, you need to recognize that the theory we're using now (in this case, einstein's general relativity) works extremely well and has been tested to absurdly high precision. a new theory can depart from the old one dramatically, but should still reproduce all of its successful predictions in some limit. i don't see this guy doing that anywhere. that's pretty much the definition of lacking credibility. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain to me emergent properties? _url_0_ | i'm having a difficult time understanding this concept. maybe someone could give some examples? thanks | emergent properties are properties are properties that only become apparent when something is present in numbers. a single piece of paper is easy to tear, an emergent property of paper is that it is difficult to tear (like a phone book). single heart cells beat erratically, when enough heart cells are put together they beat rhythmically. | 3 | [
"http:/#Bio"
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did ostriches lose flight or did they never have it? | they are descended from ancestors with flight. ostriches are paleognath birds, and while most paleognaths are flightless (think emu, cassowary, rhea, plus the extinct elephant birds and moa) the group also contains a species that can fly, the tinamous. and its' scattered across the entire southern hemisphere. how did these mostly flightless birds get to all these continents and even isolated islands? they flew! the ancestors of current fligthless paleognaths could fly, but the tinamous is the only surviving flighted member of the group. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216315032",
"https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/ratites-in-trees-the-evolution-of-ostriches-and-kin-and-the-repeated-evolution-of-flightlessness-ratite-evolution-part-ii/",
"https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140513-flightless-birds-ostriches-moas-evolution-science/"
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|
how exactly does nutella "release energy slowly"? | last night i saw an advert on tv (in the uk) which stated that nutella, a chocolate and hazelnut spread with huge amounts of sugar and fat, releases energy slowly. in the uk, adverts are regulated by the advertising standards authority, who have made rulings about tv adverts by nutella in the past. one was banned despite the asa finding that the "slow release" claim was legit, and the other was allowed to continue to be broadcast. here is one of the adverts: _url_0_ here are the rulings: _url_2_ _url_1_ the way they reached these rulings seems completely illogical to me, especially regarding how they came to the conclusion that nutella was not being advertised as something that children should eat daily. anyway: "we noted the research showed nutella was a low gi food and that the nutritional expert consulted by clearcast believed the research had been conducted to an accepted scientific methodology used for gi measurements." the science question is: is it a slow release food or not? would nutella on toast be better for breakfast than say, sugar-free cereal high in fibre with some lean chicken and a tomato? or maybe i should eat a box of ferrero rocher for breakfast (made by the same company and also containing hazelnuts, milk and cocoa) or maybe a cadbury's dairy milk fruit and nut bar? (and the obvious not-a-science question is: how the hell are we going to reduce the number of overweight people if sugar is advertised as a healthy food for children to eat all the time?) | it's perfectly plausible that nutella is fairly low-gi. it has a lot of vegetable oil. fats and oils are large molecules that take a long time to break down and digest, and also slow down the absorption of everything else: eating sugar+fat will give you a [lower glycemic response](_url_0_) than the sugar alone. that does not mean it's healthy, since health is not a function just of glycemic index. most pure fats will have a negligible gi - fat does not spike blood glycogen levels much. doesn't mean you should eat lard all day. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nxT52ppd0I",
"http://www.asa.org.uk/ASA-action/Adjudications/2011/6/Ferrero-UK-Ltd/TF_ADJ_50891.aspx",
"http://www.asa.org.uk/ASA-action/Adjudications/2008/2/Ferrero-UK-Ltd/TF_ADJ_44078.aspx"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15085555"
] | [
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what does it take for a new/improved approach for any kind of treatment to become accepted as the new standard, following the first supporting research study? | in other words, if a new study brings to light the fact that there is supporting evidence that would change the way a specific orthopedic treatment is approached, what must occur for it to be accepted into the standard/preferred approaches for treatment? more case studies? or does it just a slow process of adoption by doctors in the field? not talking about a night-and-day difference discovery, but something more like the timing and duration of a given treatment. | eeeeesh. short answer? a lot of time and work. # developing new pharmacological treatments if you're thinking of new drugs, [here's the fda's website on the various stages of drug development.](_url_2_) what they don't mention on there is that each step can take 2-5 years each, and the last step will continue indefinitely (or as long as human society as we know it functions). once a drug is officially safe, produced, and released, it'll typically be incredibly expensive. so at first, only the richest will be enjoying the privilege of that new treatment. so you're looking at a good decade of development, and another good decade of waiting for it to become affordable to the average person, roughly speaking. some drugs get stuck in stages of development for way too long. this approach is incredibly important though, because when drugs make it through the system [without all the proper testing](_url_0_), [it can be disastrous.](_url_6_) # other treatments if you're talking about non-pharmacological treatments, or using existing pharmacological treatments differently, then that's a whole other thing that depends hugely on the field and the treatment. generally though? you'll need a bunch of studies showing it's an effective therapy, then gradually as the word spreads maybe an official body for that field of medicine will eventually make the decision that this is "normal treatment". in the uk for example, it's the [national institute of clinical excellence](_url_5_) (nice) who compile huge flowcharts of how to treat almost every disease ever. they constantly review the research to decide when it's appropriate to change the guidelines. i assume the usa has some kind of roughly analogous body for medical professionals? "supporting evidence" for a new treatment/using existing treatment differently could be: 1. a clinical trial which looks at using existing, authorised therapies differently, like [this trial that looks at deploying an antibiotic typically used for skin infections in cases of bone infection.](_url_1_) 2. a meta-analysis which analyses different case studies to statistically identify which treatment options produced the best results - these are handy when the disease/illness in question is rare and therefore difficult to study. [here's an example of one (that actually suggested a certain treatment should be stopped)](_url_3_) 3. maybe it's a cohort study that follows a set of patients and gathers some data about across a period of time. it might be from diagnosis until they're symptom-free; it might be from diagnosis until death; [it might be from a certain surgery until a month after to see if you're feeling okay](_url_4_). (this list is by no means exhaustive) all of these are going to take years. it's pretty difficult to put a number on how long it takes for a finding to become common practise, because there's so many factors. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4737249/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30648126",
"https://www.fda.gov/ForPatients/Approvals/Drugs/ucm405382.htm",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30647053",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30643837",
"https://www.nice.org.uk",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964774/"
] | [
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saw this thing in a book about nic tesla, and i have no idea what it is. can askscience help? | i'm not really sure, but from this website: _url_0_ the caption to the picture says > above: nikola tesla, with roger boskovich's book "theoria philosophiae naturalis", in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency transformer at east houston st., new york | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.teslasociety.com/",
"http://www.teslacoildesign.com/images/teslacoil2.jpg"
] | [
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|
why the hype about the gut microbiome? | from what i've gathered, which is very little, there does not appear to be any intriguing findings coming out of the research. the research basically confirms what everyone already thought (which is important at some level), that being what a person eats changes the microbe population in the gut. what am i missing? also, if you have a good review on this subject handy i'd like to read it. thanks. | it has important implications for treatment. we were generally aware that the microbe population can change, but once we have a better understanding of those changes, we can start developing therapeutic recommendations to improve the microbiome. stool transplants are one example of a therapy being developed as a result of studying changes in the gut microbiome, and when the dietary implications are better understood, we can start making recommendations in that area as well. but we've got to get a better handle on the basic science first. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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imagine water mixed with a variety of different chemicals and minerals, can those individual components be separated out? | let's say you have water that has lots of minerals mixed into (very small, so it can't just be filtered out). is there a way to separate out specific minerals or elements? maybe centrifugation? or some other method? | if you're interested in making pure water, distillation or demineralisation are fairly simple. if you're interested in separating out each individual molecule present in the water it gets a little more intricate. depending on the molecule you want to get out you can perform some sort of liquid chromatography so you end with a fraction of water that only has the molecule of choice. if it is organic you can then imagine a liquid liquid extraction to get it out of the water into a different solvent. if you're talking about salts you can just evaporate the water and they'll be left behind in your crucible as the water enters the gas phase. different types of molecules require different techniques to achieve what you're asking. the question is quite vague so i don't really know what you're trying to achieve but in general you can separate a lot of things from water yes | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does this happen? [zen magnets exploding] | _url_0_ referring to the first example. i'm pretty sure the second one can be chalked up to the ball spinning too fast for the magnets, but i could be wrong. anyone care to shed some light? | the top has 5-fold symmetry. all permanent magnets have a north and south pole... right? magnets only stably stick together if n can align with s and s with n. an object with 5-fold symmetry will create a "frustrated" magnetic system. what this means is that every so often a n will get stuck next to a n or a s next to a s. the top still sticks together because these unfavorable, repulsive neighbors each still have a few cooperative, favorably attractive neighbors. as you can see in the video, this is a delicate situation and it doesn't take much to allow the magnets to rearrange into a lower energy, more stable state by destroying the 5-fold symmetry in favor of something more stable like cubic closest packing for instance. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7bFLchsPyM"
] | [] | [
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as a nurse, how do i explain polysorbate 80 in gardasil to my patients? | although i am a nurse, i am quite ignorant when it comes to this chemical in gardasil. i read that it is a common food additive, but that when injected it has shown to have adverse effects in rats. naturally, my anti-vaccine friends are all over this information. i believe in immunizing for the greater good, but should i try to dispel fears about this chemical in gardasil? could it really be a threat to female reproduction? i will gladly read and contemplate everything that the brainiacs of reddit can share about this. thanks in advance! i realize this is not at all a scholarly article, but here's what i read: _url_0_ | i see your question breaking down into two parts. 1) why does gardasil contain polysorbate 80, and 2) are the levels of polysorbate 80 harmful? **why does gardasil contain polysorbate 80?** looking up [what polysorbate 80 is](_url_1_) tells us its a surfactant and emulsifier commonly found in foods, notably ice cream. this means its a stabilizer for liquid drugs. **what levels of ps80 are harmful?** let's go to the clinical information available. [the packet insert](_url_0_) is a good starting point. it says each 0.5 ml dose of vaccine contains 50 mcg of polysorbate 80. [one of the rat studies](_url_2_) shows rats having side effects when drinking a solution containing 7.5% ps80, or 16.783 ml/kg bw/day. there were no adverse events seen at the 1% level. children receiving the drug are around the 0.05% level, though of course this varies by the child's weight, but we're talking magnitudes of difference here. also, interestingly, the wikipedia article suggests europeans and americans eat 0.1g of ps80 in foods daily, again, much more than in the vaccine itself. | 16 | [] | [
"http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/921099/gardasil_vaccine_ingredients_roach.html?cat=70"
] | [
"http://www.merck.com/product/usa/pi_circulars/g/gardasil/gardasil_pi.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysorbate_80",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623807002432",
"http://www.dhmo.org/"
] | [
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why are observatories dome-shaped? | random question i had, hoping someone could answer it. my first thought was to make it easier to collapse them so the telescope can see out in all directions, but i think they have a little slot which the telescope pokes through. i did some googling and it looks like some aren't, so why is it that a majority seem to be? | i believe the main reason is that there is a telescope in the center that has to be able to move in all directions, including up and down. this means that the telescope essentially has to have freedom of movement along a hemisphere. a design other than a dome can work, but would be filled with extra space and therefore possibly extra materials. also, that slot that you are talking about, usually moves about with the rest of the roof, so the telescope can be pointed at the majority of the sky. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are locations for video and audio recordings still identifiable by the electric grid they were made in? | a looong time ago i read somewhere how every electric grid in this world has a unique "fingerprint" owing to frequency and other factors, and how that fingerprint is transferred to analog recordings made in the presence of said grid - meaning that even a battery operated camcorder would carry it, as long as it would be reasonably close to an ac source. what was more interesting was that a certain federal agency (not trying to sound mysterious, just don't remember which, it was probably the fbi) made and kept an archive of all the distinct electric signatures they could gather from around the world and that would help them identify, within reason, the source of a video or audio recording. i was wondering if my memory is flawed and, if not, if and how this technique holds up in the digital age. | sounds like total hocus pocus to me. i mean, arguably yes, that could happen. but with maintenance/upgrades/modifications and so on it would not be realistically trackable even on a simple system. on something like the grid, where there are massively complex interactions between millions of devices and hundreds of generators? i don't think so. and then, of course, there would be the difficulty in actually teasing this information out of a recording device. my assumption would be that this technique never existed. edit: other than the ultra-coarse version of mains frequency mentioned by plasma_000. but that's not something you would need to record and store some kind of signature for. it also makes the assumption that the lighting equipment used is susceptible to that effect, which is not true for all light sources. it's also only going to localize by region of the planet, which barely gets you "north america or everywhere else." | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country"
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how do we know that our lagrangian is correct other than just because it works? | i'm trying to make my way through the course on classical mechanics and while i think i'm fine with understanding what is action and how it leads to e-l equations if we already have lagrangian given to us. by given i mean we just assume that it is in a form of l=t-v because it kinda appears to work. i do know that the most commonly presented to me lagrangian l=t-v holds only in classical mechanics, but i also know that l can be written in different forms to make it usable to work with relativistic physics and also em fields afaik, so the general idea of lagrangian can reach much further than just classical mechanics. i have no problem with seeing how it can make descriptions of complicated system much easier and how much freedom in choosing coordinates suitable for different problem symmetries it gives. yet still all of this doesn't explain what is lagrangian other than that it's there because it works. it's like saying something along the lines of "it is a function for which action is the smallest and therefore it meets the requirements of least action principle, which can give us correct equation of motion". the longer i try to understand this, the more i fell like there is virtually no reason for lagrangian to be in any specific form, for example l=t-v for classical mechanics, other than because it works. it seems to me that correct trajectories define lagrangian, and not the other way around. function is lagrangian if it gives us the correct answer... but you have to find another way of verifying that answer. for example going back to newtonian physics for classical problems, if it gives us the same answer then our function is in fact lagrangian. we have some tools(action, least action principle and whole calculus), we have some objects which behave the way they please to, taking into consideration vastly different kind of effects and interactions depending what field we currently study. then we assume that least action principle holds and there must exists some function l which can give us equation of motion based on said principle. then we notice that for our specific kind of problem, lagrangian in a specific form tend to work, so we assume it is the correct form and use it to other similar problems? am i missing something crucial and fundamental here? is there any more general property which function must have to be considered lagrangian other than 'just work'? | first of all, a system of ordinary (or partial) differential equations need not have a lagrangian in the first place. the fact that the fundamental equations of various branches of physics have a lagrangian is just a beautiful accident of nature. even if a system of ode's or pde's has a lagangian, there is no recipe for finding it, for some good reasons too. for one, lagrangians are not unique. finding a proper lagrangian is more or less just guesswork. also, some comments about the least action principle. we don't *assume* the principle holds. if a system of ode's is derivable from a lagrangian, then if that lagrangian has certain other properties, it can be shown that the solution to the ode's must solve the equivalent problem of minimizing the integral of the lagrangian. (for a general lagrangian, the solution is guaranteed only to give a stationary value o the integral of the lagrangian.) | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the rate at which a feather and a brick fall in a vacuum truly the same? | i hear so often that the rate of acceleration near ground level on earth is *always* exactly the same no matter how heavy they are. however, using the gravitational equation f=(gmm)/d^2 would lead me to believe that the gravitational force on a brick is ever so slightly greater than a feather, and with f=ma with mass being a constant, if f is greater, so is acceleration. since the earth has such a huge amount of mass, this difference is negligible and perhaps undetectable, but is it not completely untrue to say that if a brick and a feather are dropped in a vacuum at the same time, theoretically they will land at the exact same time? and if this is untrue, why is it asserted to be truth in so many textbooks? | if you ignore the movement of the larger body, say the earth or moon, then the relationship is exact as "m" cancels out, so you're right, it's a half-truth, but the difference is so unimaginably small ignoring it gives works out great. the reason it's in all the textbooks is because it's exactly the behavior you'd predict for galileo's ideas of acceleration he developed in his book *on motion* and not aristotle's. galileo used a clever thought experiment involving tying a heavier and light object together with a string. this was an important stepping stone to the formulation of newton's laws of mechanics including gravitation. for those who love moon footage, here's david scott of apollo 15 demonstrating this with a hammer and a falcon feather, _url_0_ | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/5C5_dOEyAfk"
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could i survive jumping out of an airplane over the sea, strapped to a massive, long, narrow iron spike | o < -me l \ / \ / < - big heavy spike \/ ocean edit: i was thinking the plane would be moving slow enough and be high enough that the spike and me would be falling directly downward at terminal velocity. the main question being can i some how survive this drop w/o a parachute, so any other add ons (fins, dif material, a quick release strap etc) are welcome. | theoretically, if you had the perfect entrance angle, and a properly shaped spike, you could safely decelerate after hitting the water. this wouldn't be my first choice for an open-water free-fall safety device, though. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can i regrow quartz crystals | i have these quartz crystals growing, if i grind them up and boil them into water again will they regrow? | what do you mean by saying you have these 'normal quartz crystals growing'? the formation of macroscopic quartz crystals requires high temperatures and pressures. it is not possible to grow them in normal household situations. there's some very good and detailed information here: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.quartzpage.de/gen_form.html"
] | [
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is there any truth in the saying "do not try to conceive after you had alcohol / tobacco" ? | i've heard a few times that you shouldn't make a baby in the days following a party, because alcohol and smokes will damage your sperm, therefore raising your chances to have a baby with either physical or mental trouble. while it sort of "make sense", is there any science behind this and if so, how long until your sperm is "safe" again ? | there is definite science behind both of these claims, although more the alcohol than the tobacco ones. alcohol affects both male and female reproductive capability. for females, alcohol consumption causes variations in liver function, in turn causing fluctuations in oestrogen levels, which can lead to reproductive issues. for men, it's a little more complex, but [studies have shown](_url_0_) that alcohol consumption, even in low doses, can lower sperm count and reduce dna integrity within sperm cells. as for tobacco, i haven't seen too much literature on this, most literature linking smoking and reproduction is about smoking during pregnancy. [some recent research](_url_1_) however shows a link between ccertain genetic polymorphisms and tobacco-smoke triggered reduction in sperm count and quality. [further reading](_url_1_/pubmed/23346252) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23871382",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23346252"
] | [
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are there quanties that are globally conserved but not locally conserved? | as i've learned more physics, the conservation laws that i've grown familiar with have been recasted in terms of the local conservations. this makes sense as it makes the law of physics agreeable with special relativity. my question is: does this generalize? are all global conservation laws merely extensions of more powerful local ones? | the homogeneity and isotropy of the universe is not merely an extension of a local conservation law. also, even though it is not a conservation law, the second law of thermodynamics only applies globally, but not locally. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a pistol shrimp were to use his "hand gun" on me.. would i even feel it.. or it would sting.. or.. leave a mark? | it would be pretty painful. it can break small glass objects, but not aquarium's glass tanks. they're not as powerful as a mantis shrimp which can break aquariums (and literally split your finger open). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
say i'm standing in a space suit in a perfect vacuum chamber with a golf ball sized black hole next to me. would anything happen? what would happen if i poked my finger in it? could i pull it back out? | say that i and the chamber are also in orbit so the black hole is floating. | once your finger passed the event horizon you're not getting your finger back. no way no how. all paths for all particles, including light, head towards the center of the black hole past the event horizon. i used a radius of 0.0215 meters on [this](_url_0_) website someone just used earlier to talk about blackholes. according to that website this golf ball sized black hole will have a mass of 1.4x10^25 kg which is roughly twice as much mass as the earth. i won't claim to know the math but i imagine that you're going to be experiencing a surprising amount of gravity from something so small. an awful lot in fact. keep in mind that if you stayed where you were but made a black hole at earth's center out of all its mass, the force of gravity it had on you would be the same. so even if you were a much further distance away from this black hole that you're standing next to , you would still find yourself accelerating towards it alarmingly fast. and although i'm not sure by how much the gravitational force would definatley increase as you got closer to it. even if you were the distance from where you are to the center of the earth you're going to find yourself accelerating towards it twice as quickly as if you jumped out an airplane so i will speculate that the forces of being right next to it wouldn't make for comfortable standing and i wouldn't want to be in your shoes! tl;dr you're a goner edit: remove extraneous use of the word "so" | 19 | [] | [] | [
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what happens to muscles if they get overworked with very little oxygenated blood reaching them? | the muscle will switch from aerobic cellular respiration to anaerobic cellular respiration. this is a biochemical pathway which trades off efficiency for the ability to proceed without oxygen. it only produces 2 atp per oxidized glucose molecule rather than 38 atp. additionally, the pathway does not completely oxidize glucose to water and carbon dioxide, but rather forms the byproduct lactate (or in some organisms, ethanol). lactic acid build up is commonly blamed for muscle soreness following a workout. [this](_url_0_) is a short top-level diagram showing the overall process. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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|
where do people get their news? | is there a reliable metric that delineates what proportion of the population is reached by any given segment of news sources? for example, if you want to measure bias in public discourse by sampling publications, how would you ascertain that your sampling was representative of the discourse to which the population is exposed? | [pew research center](_url_2_) does quite a bit of research in news media trends. their research typically relies on nationally-representative surveys, which most epidemiologists would consider gold standard for assessing population characteristics. if you want to know who is viewing/reading what (at least in the u.s.), that would be one place to get your population estimates. if you are doing textual analysis of news publications themselves, you would want to select sources that span the continuum of discourse/biases. the sampling frame is going to be limited by feasibility. for example, if you're researching bias of a local news story you could collect *all* of the online news coverage. if you're researching large topics like racial equity or political partisanship, you would need to take a systematic sub-sample that reflects the overall discourse. your data analysis plan is going to steer the sampling plan. in qualitative research we are primarily concerned with [thematic saturation](_url_0_), and there has been [recent work](_url_1_) that attempts to quantify sampling sizes in this realm. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/03.CP.3.4",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13645579.2015.1005453",
"http://www.pewresearch.org/topics/news-media-trends/"
] | [
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] |
detecting observers - is this possible? | i am by no means an expert on quantum physics, but i've been reading about the [observer effect](_url_1_) and the [delayed choice quantum eraser](_url_0_) experiments, and i had an idea which i fully expect to be (gently) disabused of. 1. let's say you have a room that has a display device which consistently outputs information regarding which-path and/or which-slit photon results from repeated automated dual-slit experiments. this is the only place where the results can be obtained. 2. let's also say that there is a device which discerns interference pattern-present, or pattern-not-present, and triggers an alarm when it changes between experiments. < -- [problem is most likely here.] 3. a researcher walks into the room... essentially, regardless of my feeble attempt at creating the suitable conditions above, i am trying to determine if a device can be created where a human would be tricked into "observing" the measurement data and thus destroy the interference pattern, which could be detected and trigger an alarm. yes, a sentient being detector--ridiculous i am sure, but i would like to know why at the very least. just as interesting, i think. :) | from what i know about the observer effect, it does not have to be a human observing the experiment to interfere with the results. this device outputting data regarding which slit the photon travels through is considered observation, so an interference pattern would not be registered based on that device's use. | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_choice_quantum_eraser",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_effect_%28physics%29#Quantum_mechanics"
] | [] | [
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second attempt. i made an false color image of the moon and asked myself how accurate the data is. [image inside] | hello, i tired to ask this approximately 2 days ago but there was no answer. so i decided to paraphrase the question and tag it more generaly. so here it goes. i made a moon photo (_url_0_) a few days back with my achromat refractor and wanted to try this (_url_1_) tutorial to get the false color out of it. if i get it right it shows wich regions are rich on iron (orange) and wich are rich on titan (blue). someone asked if you could realy get so much data out of the picture and it occurred to me that there is a thick layer of atmosphere and chromatic aberration that could change the wavelength of the light. the question is, how accurate does the picture represents the soil composition of the moon under the given circumstances? thank you in advance and sorry if there is something unclear. im not a native speaker. :-) | the precise colors you see depend on a lot of things: the atmosphere, the glasses that make up the lenses in your camera/telescope, the efficiency of the detector (and its spatial dependence), the filters, the processing that makes it into a color image, and finally the composition of what you're looking at. without calibrating each of those things carefully first, you could still probably distinguish various areas of the moon as having a different composition. if you know the answer beforehand, you might be able to say, "this is what iron looks like through this system," and identify other iron-rich areas, but there's a major complication to that. the molecular and atomic wavelengths that are the signatures of certain molecules/elements are very narrow. taking very broadband colors mixes a lot of those lines together, and i doubt you'd be able to differentiate them. so a lot of things that aren't iron could also look like iron through your system. ideally, you'd like to take a high-resolution spectrum that has been carefully calibrated all wavelengths, or take narrow band images in particular wavelengths to look for signatures of specific elements/molecules. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Nyq7gCZ.jpg",
"http://www.atalaia.org/filipe/moon/colorofthemoon.htm"
] | [] | [
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time dilation tug of war - who wins? | tom and fred are kidnapped by aliens and forced to play tug of war. they are both equals in strength and all other physical attributes. a white line splits the playing field in half with the competitors on opposite sides. there is something unusual about the playing surface in that time seems to behave differently in each half of the court. fred, observing from his side, sees tom moving around very rapidly and also notices that for every tick of his own watch, tom's watch appears to tick twice. tom observes the opposite. he sees fred moving extremely slowly and that it takes 2 ticks of his watch for fred's watch to tick only once. the match begins! who wins? edit: i'm trying to avoid this to be seen as a gravity well. both sides of the field are either entirely 1x time or entirely 2x time. there is no time gradient (which i think should stop it acting as a gravity well). the dividing line between 1x and 2x is magical alien technology specifically designed to not interfere with the game. final edit: each half of the court are each in distant parts of the universe, but are brought together through virtual reality!!! the contestants interact with a virtual rope that repicates the forces applied by the opposing contestent. jk i'm done :) | you would have to ask the aliens. you're describing a sharp discontinuity in time rates while also saying each of the court is at rest relative to the other. this is completely incompatible with known physical laws. as such, you really can't say, "use our understanding of physics to describe how this situation that completely contradicts known physical laws works." you'll have to ask the guy that built your magic time room. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do stator windings have to be angled? | this image from the link and many others show stator windings that are angles and not just tangential to the circle. do they have to be this way or not? and why? would a magnetic field not be created if they didn't have this skewed angle? _url_0_ | no, they don't. if you build a rotor with them straight, it will actually have higher torque than a motor with skewed windings, but it will "cog" into those positions. you can often feel this with the motors on a drone, for example, where high rpm smooths out the cogging and torque to weight ratio is very important. skewing makes the magnetic field, and therefore rotation, smoother. the penalty is in torque and to a lesser extent efficiency. like most of engineering, it's a trade-off. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.hk-phy.org/energy/power/elect_phy/images/plant_generator.gif"
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why does the need for the ipk exist when one kilogram could be defined as a a certain amount of water at a certain temperature? | after reading around on the [ipk](_url_0_) it suggested that water at its maximum density is 99.9265% of the weight a kilogram is defined to be, so why do scientists refer to the ipk rather than a set volume and temperature of water? unless i'm missing something but surely the water wouldn't change its mass in the same way that the ipk does? | the ipk was used in the definition of a kilgogram for convenience. instead of risking a need to re-adjusting all of the calculations when they found a better way to measure the original definition, scientists in the 19th century just decided to call the ipk the definition and be done with it. a new definition, based not on either a few metal blocks or the measured volume of water of a certain composition at a certain temperature and pressure, is "forthcoming", in that same article you noted. note that the same idea was applied to the rest of the metric system -- look at _url_0_ for the ipm, for example. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre"
] | [
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why does clipping a sine wave create a square wave? | i understand why an infinite series of odd harmonics at proportional amplitudes and frequencies creates a square wave, and i understand the additive properties of waves. i also understand why overdriving a sine wave through an amplifier/circuit cuts off the top and bottom of the wave, giving it a "square" appearance. i guess i don't understand the reasoning the other way around. how and why does the fairly simple operation of clipping turn one sine wave into an infinite series of sine waves? it may seem like i'm asking a question i've already answered, but that's not my intention, or maybe i'm not getting something. let's say you didn't offhand know the harmonics of a square wave. how could you derive them from the shape of a square wave? odd harmonics generate square/triangle waves. why do square/triangle waves generate odd harmonics? does that make sense, or is the answer just, "dumb dumb, what about the transitive property don't you understand?" | it ends up being like you said a sort of transitive property because you're dealing with fourier analysis. the fourier analysis is basically working off the theorem saying you're working on a continuous, periodic function and it can be expressed in terms of the sum of its component sin/cos terms with phase and amplitude coefficients. when you go through an analysis on a square wave you'll come back with those odd component frequency components. and part of it being a fourier series is that you can go back and forth between frequency space and time space as the two are fully inclusive. if you know the component sinusoids of a periodic continuous function you know the function. if you know the function you can run it through a spectrum analyzer (like your music visualizer) and analyze the frequency component's amplitudes and phases. the math of why it is only the odd components comes down to how you integrate the square wave function when doing the fourier series component calculations and i believe you end up with something like a (cos(k*pi) -1) where k is the harmonic and so all the even harmonic wind up with ((1)-1 = 0). a cool way to see it is finding a music program and getting a sine vs a square wave going. you can try using the amplitude ratios and set the frequency. i did it before as a demo in a music theory class with i think 12 sine waves. also can model in pspice or matlab if you're engineering type and see both way what's happening. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a g force tests from the army work? | i saw a youtube video of an army test for future pilots where they were able to change the g force from high to low very quickly. how do they change it so fast? | sounds like you're referring to [high-g training](_url_1_). these tests typically use a [large centrifuge](_url_0_). centripetal acceleration (the acceleration causing the high-g forces towards the center of the centrifuge) is given by v²/r, where v is the tangential velocity (at the rider's position). so by changing the rotational speed, the g's experienced by the pilot change. doubling the rotational speed quadruples the acceleration. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-G_training",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xuqf_6oplMc"
] | [
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how could cicadas have developed their predator satiation survival strategy ? | they are coming out now for the first time in 17 years. how was it possible for them to go from being an annual species like most cicadas, to one that mates every 13 or 17 years? is it possible that this survival strategy could backfire somehow? | the strategy could potentially backfire if environmental conditions change drastically enough during their dormancy that they could not survive (or eggs can't mature properly, etc) at the next emergence. also, here's some interesting insight from a poster [here](_url_0_): > but the question still remains- why remain dormant for 17 years? well, in fact there are 13 and 17 year life cycles. so, what's significant about 13 and 17? first of all, the advantage of a long dormant stage is that it forces specialist predators to become dormant themselves or to switch their preferred food. but why not 20 years or 15 years? there has been some speculation that 13 & 17 are significant because they are prime numbers so that a predator could not regularly fall into sychrony with cicadas if it had a short life cylce of which the cicada life cycle is a multiple. if the cicadas had a 15-year lifecycle, predators with 3 or 5 year life cycles would fall into step with their prey every third or fifth generation. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.thenakedscientists.com/forum/index.php?topic=9496.0"
] | [
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what would be the most effective layout for a tug of war team? | say you have 2 strong large guys, two medium strength medium size, and two small, low strength guys. what layout would produce the most effective tug of war team? | it shouldn't matter - the tension on the line will just be a sum of all the players' pulls. it would matter more to order everybody from shortest to tallest or vice versa so everybody can get into an efficient and comfortable pulling stance (so a short guy isn't stuck between two tall guys pulling the rope at his head height instead of shoulder-height or wherever the ideal pulling position is). | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a ground/earth pin work on a plane? | i was on an american airlines flight and noticed that there were power plug holes on the backs of the seats, 110v 60hz, they had earthing ports, how did they work? | the ground pin doesn't have to connect to the actual ground: what matters is that it connects the case of the electronic device to something else the user is touching, so the device and the user are at the same voltage. no voltage difference, no shock. in a car, for instance, the ground is the metal frame of the car. for an airplane, the ground pin presumably is in contact with the frame of the plane. the vehicle might have a very different voltage than the actual ground, but so long as all the objects the user can touch are at the same voltage, no shock can occur. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does learning the abacus allow someone to do math extremely fast? | [_url_0_](_url_0_) | abacus lets us calculate faster the same way a calculator does, the main difference being that a calculator has all the encodage, decodage and rules programmed in it, where with an abacus you have to learn it. but the people in the video are especially fast ; of course, just learning the abacus won't take you to that level. hope i answered your question. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FvhNnwrGBBs"
] | [] | [
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i often hear that medicines are discovered in plants in the rainforest and jungles. is this true, and if so, how is it done? | i have heard that many medicines were discovered in a forest's vegetation. how do they decide what plants to try using for certain ailments? | one would apply the concept of evidence-based medicine (thus the scientific method) to folklore. much of traditional or folk medicine is based on _some_ perceived efficacy - and of course, others are pure nonsense. one would have to test for themselves the efficacy of a particular treatment, and then attempt to isolate the active compound. once the lead compound is identified, it may become a viable drug candidate to undergo [rational drug design](_url_0_), where the structure is modified to maximize efficacy, safety, bioavailability, etc. [this paper](_url_1_) has a good overview of natural products that were isolated from folk medicine. perhaps the most famous examples of natural products leading to drugs is aspirin (from willow bark) and penicillin (from a fungus). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_drug_design",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3901206/"
] | [
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enantiomer question | is there really no way to elucidate (+)/(-) enantiomers without checking the rotation of polarized light? is there really no physical/optical hypothetical analysis that can be done? there must be a physical reason for one way versus another in a molecule, right? edit: sorry, i should've been a bit clearer. i'm really trying to find out what, if anything, about the physical structure of a chiral molecule could be used to determine the direction of rotated plane polarized light. and if there is truly no way to determine polarized light rotation, a priori, then why is that the case? | enantiomers can be separated on an chromatographic column that has a chiral stationary phase. if you aren't familiar with chromatography let me know and i can explain a little more. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it not possible to control our lower body functions? | like, stopping your body from digesting food for a certain amount of time or stop sweating. | your nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain + spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system. the peripheral nervous system is further divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems (along with the enteric nervous system that is sometimes thrown in with the autonomic). the body functions you have control over (typing, moving your leg, flexing your arms, etc.) fall under the division of your nervous system known as the somatic nervous system. the body function you don't have control over (heart rate, digestion, sweating, etc.) are controlled by your autonomic or enteric nervous systems. the somatic nervous system relays to your cerebral cortex where your consciousness is. the autonomic nervous system relays to your brain stem. the brain stem controls very basic activities of life and is evolutionarily more basic. because the control of these autonomic systems isn't connected as much to the cerebral cortex, you can't voluntarily affect them as easily. the enteric nervous system controls your digestion and is locally controlled with influences from your brain. you can create situations that would cause certain things to happen in your autonomic nervous or enteric nervous system though. for example, being stressed for a long period of time would cause your digestion to slow or stop. running will make your heart rate increase. putting food in front of you will cause you to salivate. even just thinking about food can cause you to salivate. likewise, modern medicine can turn on and off various autonomic responses. atropine will make it impossible for you to sweat, and morphine will shut off your digestive tract to name a couple of examples. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm doing a lab with 2.0 m hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. should i be worried if i get it on my skin? | of course i will be wearing chemical resistant gloves, splash goggles, and an apron, but on the off chance i do make a mistake, will anything happen besides a burning sensation? and if i do, what should i wash it with? | any lab should have the msds (material safety data sheet) available for you to inspect for just these kinds of questions. 2m hcl is relatively innocuous on the skin if washed off with tap water. it will cause slight stinging but not right away. naoh can cause chemical burns and if you get it on your skin rinse it right away with lots of water and you should be fine. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a way to physically visualize electric or magnetic flux in real-time? | did a bit of googling with no avail. just wondering if there's some sort of method to do see either an electric/magnetic field/flux. | yes! get a cylindrical magnet and a long piece of straight copper tubing with just a slightly larger diameter than the magnet. first drop something non magnetic through the tubing note the time it takes. than drop the magnet through. prepare to be amazed. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30oPZO_z7-4"
] | [
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] |
how come some moments in life feel like they happen in slow motion? | it seems to happen when i'm scared or excited, and have a heightened sense of what's going on around me. edit: spelling. | neuroscientist david eagleman proposes that what is actually happening is that you are capturing and retaining more memories during stressful events. the idea is that your brain normally discards a lot of peripheral information during normal day to day events. (what color were that persons shoes? how fast is that car next to me moving? why is my face feeling warmer? noticing those two birds flying over head.) this is because this information is relatively unimportant to whatever task you are trying to complete. from an evolutionary standpoint it is unimportant to your survival. however, when a possible life-threatening event occurs it is in your bodies best interest to capture everything that is happening. one of these minor details could be the difference between life and death. it is this difference in memory capture that makes it seem like time is moving in slow motion. so much more information crammed into the same amount of time. [here](_url_1_) is a new yorker article about david eagleman and his theory. also check out [this](_url_0_) radiolab podcast - if nothing else it has stories of falling cats! tl;dr - more memories crammed into the same amount of time. (edit to change link to single page new yorker article) | 189 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.radiolab.org/2010/sep/20/",
"http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/04/25/110425fa_fact_bilger?currentPage=all",
"http://www.radiolab.org/2010/sep/20/",
"http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/04/25/110425fa_fact_bilger?currentPage=all"
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why do skills and strengths atrophy if they aren't put to regular use? | why do we need regular training to keep our bodies and minds working in peak condition? i'd understand if we didn't have enough resources for our bodies and our brains had to get rid of unnecessary things. but if we have enough for our bodies to be comfortable, why aren't we designed so that when we achieve some physical or mental level once, we never need to practice it again*? *unless we want to get better | because as much as you say we may be comfortable, your brain stores billions of memories everyday. if you stop, for example, playing a piece of music, you may forget how, as your brain thinks you won't need it anymore. you may also however notice that once you make an attempt to be better again, it will come quicker than it would to someone who has never done it before. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how precise is the human biological clock | it happened to me a few times (including this morning) that i wake up a few minutes before the alarm clock sounds, i then turn the alarm off under the thought "i am already awake, i don't need it". i then en up sleeping another few hours. in contrast sometimes i wake up without the alarm at the time the alarm should ring. this morning i woke up at 8:24 to turn of the alarm that was due at 8:30 if our biological clock has a resolution of minutes, then why we cannot use it as an actual clock for day to day life? | this question appeared only hours ago in similiar fashion. [here](_url_0_) you can peer through my submitted for some more information if you need as well. as for why we don't use it as an actualy day to day, it's because every individual varies, we need a universal reference upon which we can all rely and which is inarguable. this makes it easier to schedule everything from entertainment to work schedules, and all the other things that make the world go round. not to mention human beings are notoriously bad at gauging the time that has passed when bored or when enjoying themselves. our perception of time is easily altered. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/sjj91/is_there_a_specific_location_in_your_brain_for/"
] | [
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how dissimilar are particles and forces on a microscopic level? | obviously, they behave very differently on a macroscopic scale, but i and others would be curious to know what separates particles and forces at the base level. what, if anything, makes forces act as forces (i.e. causing acceleration), and particles as particles (volume, mass, etc.)? i understand that there is probably not any single well defined answer, but it would be interesting to hear the prevailing theories from different fields. | you know newton's law, right? *f = ma* is the way it's usually taught in schools; *a = f/m* being the more useful way of writing it. newton's law says, in essence, that a particle will accelerate in a way that's inversely proportional to its natural resistance to acceleration — quantified as something called *mass* — and directly proportional to whatever is acting upon it, generically called "force" and represented as *f*. "what the heck is *f*" is the question that *literally all of physics* answers. so your question essentially boils down to "please tell me everything." can you please narrow it down a bit? | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if we constantly applied a very small charge to our body over a long period of time? | i'm not sure how much our bodies can handle, but think of a small charge that won't kill us, but is big enough to produce minor effects in our body. would the charge affect our heart rate in anyway? what about the way our brain processes information? ions in our body - will they start flowing towards the site of electrical charge or anything? how about nerve impulses sent from our brain to our muscles? or autonomic activities (breathing, maintaining homeostasis, etc.)? | low amounts of charge can be readily absorbed by our body. as an example a tens unit (transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation) uses a 9 volt battery and can be worn for several hours causing only a mild 'tingling' sensation. many people's nervous system will adapt to the stimulation within minutes, while some take several hours. all this is dependent on one thing more than others: location. tens units are never to be placed on the skull, across the spinal column, or over the chest wall. there is no therapeutic benefit from running a tens unit from the anterior to posterior chest wall and it isn't advisable to run leads over the heart so i don't think you will find any research on that. all this being said people can wear these devices for fairly consistent long periods of time with little to no effect on the heart rate, breathing, nerve activity (aside from c-fibers), or ion channels. that being said this is only tens and there are literally thousands of ways to induce current in the body. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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two questions about the doppler effect and light. | is it possible to go so fast that the doppler effect will cause me to become invisible due to light wavelengths' frequency so high that is goes into ultiviolet and above out of the "visible" spectrum. bonus, is it possible to go by fast enough so that if looked from the side you would see all the colors of the rainbow as i go by. sorry that this is badly worded. | your question isn't so well formed, but what you're getting at is true. to other observers, you may become invisible to them if you are moving fast enough with respect to them. this phenomena is actually observed in nature. the light produced from the transitions of electrons in hydrogen in distant galaxies is substantially doppler shifted. this effect is called "red-shift" because the galaxies are moving away and so the wavelength of the light is increased. the redshift of these photons from hydrogen is actually a very accurate method for measuring the velocity of distant galaxies with respect to us and is evidence that the universe is expanding. by contrast, if the galaxies were moving toward us, they would be "blue-shifted". as for your bonus question, i'm not sure what you're asking. the doppler effect requires a relative velocity between an emitter and a receiver. directly to your side as you move is neither moving toward nor away from you, so there is no doppler effect immediately to your side. (note this as a police car with its sirens on passes you.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible for an event to affect nothing? | i took physics 2 (emag) recently and have been thinking about this for a little while. here's a longer version of the question: does there exist an event or class of events such that if one had perfect knowledge of the universe just before this event and just after, he could not determine whether the event had occurred? the biggest obstacle i had when thinking about it was gravitation, because everything affects everything. i eventually developed a counterexample for this. a hollow sphere with perfectly uniform density should not change the net gravitational effect on any other matter in the universe when the sphere is rotated. i worry about this idea because of electric charges potentially being in motion and generating magnetic flux. any ideas? i'm hoping that there's been some interesting work done on the subject because it seems like it could have some major ramifications if it were possible. for instance, if it had no effect, would it be observable? if not, would this be an untestable hypothesis? thanks for reading! | for an event to 'happen', there seemingly must be some change in something, by definition if by nothing else. the example you gave of a rotating, spherically symmetrical mass is interesting because there is a measurable effect according to general relativity: the [lense-thirring effect](_url_0_). oversimplisticly, a rotating object 'drags' spacetime around it in an observable manner. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lense-Thirring_Effect"
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what (if any) are the health benefits of replacing your office chair with an exercise ball? | i've heard that there are some, but i'd like to know whether they are scientifically justifiable. | here is the link to the most recent study on these balls. _url_0_ i'm copying the abstract for people who cannot access the website. abstract background prolonged sitting is recognized as a risk factor for the reporting of low back troubles. despite the use of exercise balls in replacement of the office chair, little quantitative evidence exists to support this practice and hence motivated this research. given the potential for several biological effects and mechanisms this study was approached with several layers of instrumentation to quantify differences in muscle activation, spine posture, spine compression and stability while sitting on an exercise ball versus a stable seat surface. also, differences in the pressure distribution at the seat–user interface were quantified for the different seat surfaces to provide an objective perspective on the mechanism influencing perceived comfort levels. **methods** **eight male subjects volunteered to sit for 30 min on an exercise ball and on a wooden stool. muscle activity and spine position were used to model spine load and stability. an additional seven sat on an exercise ball and chair to examine pressure distribution over the contact area.** **findings** **there was no difference in muscle activation profiles of each of the 14 muscles between sitting on the stool and ball. calculated stability and compression values showed sitting on the ball made no difference in mean response values. the contact area of the seat–user interface was greatest on the exercise ball.** **interpretation** **the results of this study suggest that prolonged sitting on a dynamic, unstable seat surface does not significantly affect the magnitudes of muscle activation, spine posture, spine loads or overall spine stability. sitting on a ball appears to spread out the contact area possibly resulting in uncomfortable soft tissue compression perhaps explaining the reported discomfort.** | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.11.006"
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what would happen if you turned on a hair dryer in space? | in space itself, not inside a ship. would you feel (measure) anything out the end of it, with the fan turning? what would heat up, besides the coil? the plastic, or 'area' surrounding it? would it 'overheat'? what would the fan be doing, since there is no air/atmosphere? anything? how would it affect the heat/temperature change? | with such little atmosphere, the fan would move but not push anything. the only sensation that would generate is a bit of resistance to movement because of the rotation. the coil normally uses convection to push all of that heat away, so without that you can expect it would get much, much hotter before it reached an equilibrium wherein it was radiating as fast as it was producing heat. i don't know whether that point would be before or after it melted the plastic, but most likely after. most likely it would destroy its functionality in short order. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i was told my blood type was non-reactive to cmv. what does that mean? | recently when giving blood, the nurse told me my blood was cmv non reactive (and o-), meaning my blood is good for newborns. i already new about o-, but what does the non-reactive to cmv part mean and why is it good for infants? | i'm going to start by explaining it very simply, and then if you want more details i can expand on it! as far as the part about being non-reactive to cmv (cytomegalovirus), that simply means that you do not have antibodies to the virus. this means that you have not been exposed to cmv before. it doesn't mean that your blood "type" is non-reactive; we don't speak in terms of blood *types* being reactive or non-reactive to a virus. as far as your o(-) status, i'm afraid she gave you some misinformation. that does not mean that your blood is "good" for newborns. it doesn't mean it is "bad," either. the (+) or (-), as you probably know, is referring to the presence or absence of rh factor, which is a protein on the outside of red blood cells (you are either rh+ or rh-). you don't have it. therefore, if your blood was exposed to blood that did have it, your immune system could form antibodies against it, because it is recognized as something that is "foreign" to your body. the importance of this would be if you would become impregnated by a male who is rh(+). in that case, the baby might inherit the gene from the father and also be rh(+). therefore, if your blood (which is rh-) was exposed to the baby's blood, whether during birth or some event during the pregnancy where bleeding occurred, your immune system could recognize the rh factor on the baby's red blood cells and form antibodies, which would allow for an immune response at sometime in the future. your first baby would be just fine (the immune response takes too long that first time for it to put that baby in danger), but any babies you have after that are also rh+ would be at risk of your immune system attacking their red blood cells, something we call [hemolytic disease of the newborn](_url_0_). there is good news, though! we have developed something called rhogam, which can prevent all this! it's an injection that basically suppresses the mother's immune response to the rh factor. we can give it to pregnant women during their pregnancy and prevent the bad stuff that might have happened otherwise. science is great, isn't it? | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythroblastosis_fetalis",
"http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/test-catalog/Clinical+and+Interpretive/62067",
"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cmv/DS00938/DSECTION=symptoms"
] | [
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can someone explain to me how scientists know the state of something when they 'arent looking'? like how electrons act like a particle when your looking, but act like a wave when your not. | if any of that makes sense? | it makes sense, so far as it sounds like a very common misconception. it's flat-out untrue that electrons "act like a particle" sometimes and "act like a wave" other times. that's simply false. i've used this example before, but i think it fits. imagine you had never before seen a zebra, but you're familiar with both horses and tigers. someone might describe a zebra to you by saying it's shaped rather like a horse, but striped rather like a tiger. would it then be correct to say that a zebra has "horse-tiger duality?" would it be correct to say that a zebra is a weird thing that's sometimes a horse and sometimes a tiger? of course not! that'd be ridiculous. what *is* true is that to a person who's never seen a zebra before, it has identifiable characteristics that can reasonably be compared to both horses and tigers. but those are just comparisons. in truth, a zebra is a zebra, and nothing else. an electron is an electron, and nothing else. it has the properties of an electron, and behaves in the way that electrons behave. to a person who's never "seen" an electron before — where by "see" here we mean studied, really — we can say that it has identifiable characteristics that are both comparable to little cannonballs and to waves on the surface of a pond … but it's *neither of those.* it isn't a cannonball sometimes and a pond sometimes, nor does it have cannonball-pond duality. it's just an electron, doing electron things, being all electronny. if one wants simply to know what electrons are, what role they play and what their general properties are, one can picture them however one likes. if one chooses to *study* electrons, however, sooner or later one has to let go of the pictures and just accept them on their own terms. they are what they are, and they do what they do, and they aren't anything other than themselves, and now here's a semester's worth of equations that elaborate on that. | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't ladybirds get stung when they walk on nettles? | that's it. as asked by my daughter. thanks! | botanist here: the "stinging" mechanism for stinging nettles are stiff little hairs on the stems that when broken off into the skin inject a number of chemicals that cause the stinging sensation and the primary reason for these hairs is to reduce herbivory by things like rabbits and deer. ladybird beetles have a hard exterior exoskeleton (unlike humans with a rigid endoskeleton) that the needle-like hairs can't penetrate, so that's why they don't get stung. not to mention that the nettles don't need to protect themselves from ladybird beetles because they're predators on other insects, and they don't eat plants. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Rl424UR.jpg"
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is it okay to leave my remaining water in the teapot to use next time. | i boil water for several things like tea, oatmeal, coffee press, etc. i usually fill the thing 3/4 full and reheat the leftovers when i need it again. sometimes there will be 2-3 days between use. sometimes when it runs low i'll just add more water (from the britta in the fridge) with the existing. about every month or so i'll think to dump it out and start over. is there anything wrong with this? **edit:** i use this guy [here.](_url_0_) | in addition to everyone's point that boiling water will kill bacteria/fungi, a kettle is a closed system, and should be fairly protected from new fungal growth or bacterial inoculation post-boiling. it's like [pasteur's famous broth experiment!](_url_0_). evaporation would similarly be limited in a closed system like a kettle. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Michael-Graves-Spinner-Whistle-Teakettle/dp/B00005OTVI"
] | [
"http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.php?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id=27"
] | [
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do lymph nodes on either side of the body protect that section or is it just an all over system? | would right sided problems cause that side to be larger and vice versa or do both sides work in unison. | they are localized, sorta. lymph collects in the lymph nodes from the region they are around and sorta filter it. basically if your lymph nodes are swollen you probably have an issue in the area where the lymph nodes are...sorta | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there really such a thing as 'the present'? | we always talk about the present in general terms, it being in minutes and hours and so on, however in reality we are always moving from the past to the future where there is a minuscule instance in which the present is well actually present. so when we try to understand the present in real terms it is impossible for us because it is something that will always be unknowable due to the fact that we can only know time from its past and its predicted future. reddit, does this have any truth at all? | to make matters 'worse', the present isn't even universaly defined: you have a present moment, let's say defined by the set of events all simultaneous with that moment. however, another observer in relative motion will actually *disagree* on which set of events are simultaneous with the same moment. so whose present is correct? both are. even though some of his events are in your past and future, and vice-versa. they're just not well-defined concepts scientifically. the only thing that is is the direction from past to future. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=present&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/icd8u/does_the_present_moment_have_a_real_physical/"
] | [
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why is crispr called clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats? | i know what crispr is and what it does, but how can i compare its name to what it does? i mean they called it crispr for a reason, so what is that reason, what does it mean? | this is a little convoluted, basically it's just scientist jargon though. crispr is a technology that was adapted from a bacterial immune response to viruses. in nature, viruses can inject dna into bacteria and infect them, same as viruses infect humans. bacteria have this crispr system where they can incorporate the sequence of the viral dna into their immune system. piece of the viral dna are brought into the bacterial genome, and they can be transcribed into crrnas, rnas with special shapes that contain a bit of the sequence of the original viral dna. if the immune system later finds some dna that is complementary to that crrna, then it degrades it using cas proteins. . . . the term cripsr comes from the fact that this viral dna is stored in special *clusters* in the genome that contains alternating viral and non-viral dna sequences. viral dna segments are stored at *regular* intervals in this cluster, with non-viral dna *interspaced* between viral dna. these sequences are *short.* *palindromic* refers to that fact that single strands of nucleic acids (dna or rna) can bind themselves if they're something called an "inverted palindrome." (this is kind of confusing to explain in words, but [this website](_url_0_) does it some justice). these palindromic sequences are in the non-viral dna, and they are *repeated* over and over again in the crispr array. the interspacing of viral and non-viral palindromic repeats allows the crrnas that the immune system makes to be specific shapes, which is important for their ability to function (though the reasons why are complicated). . . . hope that helps! | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.biologydiscussion.com/dna/palindromes-or-inverted-repeats-in-dna-and-its-role-with-diagram/16535"
] | [
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what is the opacity of air (average, of course)? | how much visible light does, say, 1 metre of air block? how far is it physically possible for a human on a flat surface to see through an earth-like atmosphere? | i couldn't talk about air's transmittance over 1m, but [here's](_url_0_) the solar spectrum measured in the upper atmosphere and at sea level. [source](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/PvG5Y.png",
"http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/"
] | [
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if i tack up a poster to the wall and then immediately remove it, it reverts to its rolled/curled form. if i tack up that poster, leave it for six months, and then remove it, it stays flat and straight. where did all that energy go that was causing the poster to curl? | this property is called viscoelasticity. when you deform a viscoelastic material for a short period of time, it will revert back to (close to) its original shape. when held over a longer period of time, it will not. this is common in polymers (which your poster is made of), which are made up of long fibrous molecules. the reason for the relaxation of the stresses is because the molecules slowly rearrange themselves, because the 'stretched out' orientation is not favorable for them. this takes time, so the restoring force will gradually decrease as the molecules 'settle' into their new position. as for the energy, it's slowly released as heat. for more info: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscoelasticity"
] | [
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|
why doesn't the human body "heal" tatoos? | when you look at a person's tattoo, you're seeing the ink through the epidermis, or the outer layer of skin. the ink is actually in the dermis, which is the second layer of the skin. the cells of the dermis are far more stable than the cells of the epidermis, so the tattoo's ink will stay in place, with minor fading and dispersion, for a person's entire life. p.s. the skin cells do heal and change, but ink is like traped in one place. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we pick the right frame of reference for time dilation? | i've always had a problem with time dilation. i know the basics of theory and how it works. basically the observer, whether moving faster or slower with respect to another object, will observer time on that object moving faster or slower respectively. however, how can you decide which object is actually moving faster than the other. for example, a scenario. two space shuttles are approaching each other at near the speed of light with respect to each other. astronauts from shuttle 1 can either see themselves as being stationary and shuttle 2 moving really fast towards them, see themselves as moving really fast towards a stationary shuttle 2, or any in-between combination of velocities. essentially they have nothing to compare their speeds to other than the other shuttle... so how can we determine which time dilation effects will take place for each shuttle? another question... how do we slow something down relative to earth? i mean, we know how to speed something away from earth (send it in space). but how can we slow something down from earth.. the earth isn't stationary. we are moving very fast in space. would we be able to slow something down with respect to the earth in space? wouldn't that give the same illusion of an object speeding away from us? would that produce contradictory time dilation effects? | this is not true, and it's the source of you confusion. all speeds are relative. you pick any reference frame and an object will either be at rest in that frame (in which case you won't observe any time dilation) or moving at some velocity in which case you will always see their clock running *slower*, never faster. so in your example, both spaceships will calculate the other ones clock running slower than their own. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you integrate cos(t)-sqrt(cos^2(t)+24) dt? | i'm trying to find the area in terms of theta of the polar graph r = cos(t)-sqrt(cos^2 (t)+24). to do this i want to integrate r dt (t being theta) from 0 to some angle. i can't figure out how to do the integration. wolfram won't give me an answer. is the integral possible? am i approaching this wrong? edit: fixing notation | the integral exists but cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions. the integral of the second part is an example of an [elliptic integral](_url_0_), which is an example function that can't be obtained from polynomials, roots, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions in standard ways. but you can integrate it no problem. if you want to integrate it from t=0 to pi/4 you'll get [-3.21ish](_url_1_). just like we can't express values of trig functions in terms of polynomials, we can't express values of these in terms of the others. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_integral",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=integrate+cos%5Bt%5D-sqrt%5Bcos%5E2%5Bt%5D%2B24%5Ddt+from+t%3D0+to+pi%2F4",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risch_algorithm"
] | [
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] |
least weasels hoarding food? why? | i recently watched a documentary about "the secret lives of predators" or some such, and the documentary had a segment about least weasels. apparently, least weasels have this perplexing tendency to kill small rodents, eat their brains, and then hoard the carcasses in their dens. as far as i could tell, there was no noted purpose to keeping the carcasses around, and the least weasel never returns to eat the rest of their kill. a quick google told me nothing on the behavior either. so i'm curious as to why exactly the least weasel "hoards" its kills in its den? | if this was true, it would make very little sense. one possible explanation in this scenario is an instinctive response to a temporary superabundance of prey - i.e. the weasels automatically kill and cache everything they can, but if there's lots of food available they never need to go back to their caches. however, my googling finds plenty of suggestions that weasels to in fact return to their caches, espcially in winter. this is driven by seasonal variation in food abundance, and also because weasels often kill prey much larger than themselves, and the weasel therefore cannot consume the prey in a single sitting. [[1]](_url_3_) [[2]](_url_2_) [[3]](_url_0_) [[4]](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/1381110",
"http://webapps.fhsu.edu/ksfauna/mammals/index.asp?page=species&species_id=352-892&dots=yes&tributaries=yes&isAnura=&map=",
"http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Mustela_nivalis/",
"http://rcin.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=11341"
] | [
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why is 45 degrees that best angle for maximum distance. is there anything beyond it simply being equal parts forward and up? | well, you can derive it. for a projectile launched from the ground with some initial speed v at some upward angle θ in a gravitational field g (neglecting drag), the range is d = v^(2)sin(2θ)/g. now just maximize d with respect to θ. dd/dθ = 2v^(2)cos(2θ)/g = 0 cos(2θ) = 0 if we restrict θ to be between zero and 90 degrees, the answer is θ = 45 degrees. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
has there ever been an instance we've observed where a species evolved to consume its former predators? | there are many examples, but i don't think we've ever observed this directly. the question might need to be more specific. an example of a species evolving to eat its predators is fairly easy to find though, depending on how much evolution you consider to be a legitimate answer to the question. one example would be human beings. a natural predator of our ancestors would be early land birds. they ate our predecessors and now we eat their descendants. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do plagiarism checkers work? | this may be more computer science, but i have always wondered this. when i turn a paper into _url_0_, it tells me how much of my paper is similar to other papers and internet websites. but how precisely does it check it? does a whole sentence have to be the same, or just a few words, or what? | it is measuring the document similarity using a vector space model afaik. basically, every word (excluding stop words like a, an, the, and) becomes a variable with the count of the occurrences of words normalized to the document size (term frequency inverse document frequency). one can calculate the cosine similarity from that. here's the wikipedia explanation: _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [
"turnitin.com"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space_model",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROUGE_(metric)"
] | [
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could you swing on a swing set on the moon? | with or without someone pushing you? inspiration: was listening to frank sinatra fly me to the moon | all the factors that let you swing here are also in effect on the moon. the gravity is less, it would take less effort to reach the same heights. you might be able to go over the bar and turn into inside out boy. | 677 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why aren't lymph nodes impervious to tumours? | this is to do with lymphomas. so why are areas so abundant in immune receptors so susceptible to tumour growth? shouldn't areas with high immuno-surveillance be practically impervious? thank you | simple answer is because cancer cells look very similar (to your immune system) to normal cells. longer answer is that there often is immune recognition of cancer cells (often by natural killer (nk) cells). nk cells pick up more on "stressed" cells and cells where things just aren't quite right than do other more specific immune cells (like t and b cells) and that does often have an effect which slows down cancers in general (immunosuppressed people/animal models get more cancers partly due to this (also because of viruses etc.)) but there are also other factors at play. some cancers secrete immunosuppressive factors and cytokines which your body naturally produces in other situations and the cancer hijacks it and tones down the immune system re:the cancer. this can often only be local so you don't get opportunistic infections. there's also this thing called immunological editing (i think that's what it's called, might be receptor editing) whereby the cancer cells are under selection pressure from the immune system. most of the cancer cells don't look too wrong to the immune system (as they are your own cells, just out of control). the immune system kills them though because they are still wrong looking. the cells which are the least wrong survive and proliferate. rinse and repeat until you have a cancer which isn't recognised by the immune system it's also worth thinking about the fact you only "hear" about the potentially cancerous cells which make it through the lymph nodes defences. the rest get killed and you're none the wiser; it only takes one in a million cells to get past the defences :) (sorry for lack of references, on my phone, but i'm an immunology student studying for finals atm for background) tl:dr cancer cells do get recognised, but its sometimes not enough to completely stop them, and they have various methods to stop the immune system or evolve away from recognition. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what was the leap of insight that led john bell to develop bell's inequalities? | it wasn't until 1964 when bell addressed the epr paradox from 1935. since the results of bell's theorem seem so counter-intuitive and he had no experimental evidence prior to crafting the theory, i'm trying to understand his thought process that led him to the theory. basically why did it take so long before a physicist figured this out? | for obvious reasons i can't tell you what john bell was thinking, but we can look at his paper to see what he was reading that helped him formulate the ideas. in addition to the epr paper, he was influenced by von neumann's textbook on the formulation by quantum mechanics, and another paper by [jauch and piron](_url_1_) showing that hidden variables are unphysical. he also mentions bohm's [hidden variable interpretation of quantum mechanics](_url_0_) in 1951. he uses bohm and aharonov's formulation of the entanglement problem. it's kind of funny as a historical perspective that bohm is so highly respected for his work with aharonov but somewhat disrespected for his interpretations of quantum mechanics. anyway, bell's contribution was taking the idea from epr and turning it into something testable, and if i had to speculate on his thought process, i imagine bohm's formalization of a hidden variable quantum mechanics helped him figure out his inequalities. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psiquadrat.de/downloads/bohm52a.pdf",
"http://cds.cern.ch/record/345316/files/CM-P00056869.pdf?origin=publication_detail",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell#Bell.27s_critique_of_von_Neumann.27s_proof"
] | [
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