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are we prepared to handle a direct hit from a cme? | are there procedures in place for when the earth is hit by a coronal mass ejection? what are they? what would be the short term effects? long term? this is coming from a guy who just learned what a cme is an hour ago. | a cme occurs when an explosion on the sun sends a ball of plasma (and magnetic field) off the surface of the sun in some direction. if the cme is aimed at earth it could cause problems when it collides with the earth's magnetic field, sending showers of high-energy particles through the earth's atmosphere. the effect depends very strongly on the strength of the cme. an ordinary cme that hits earth might cause problems for satellites, but would have no really bad effects. but really powerful cmes like the carrington event in 1859 are different. they would be capable of frying all of our satellites (disrupting the internet), and the giant transformers that are used in our power plants would be ruined. because these transformers can't be bought off the shelf they would have to be built, and the power outages would last for months. the silver lining would be "northern lights" visible from the equator. these problems can be avoided by shutting down vulnerable electronics or hardening them against cmes, but doing either would be enormously costly. shutting down electronics would require reliable forecasts of dangerous cmes like those we have today for hurricanes to justify the cost. right now scientists are working on these forecasts. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to the infrastructure after lava demolishes it? | with all the news about the volcanic eruption in hawaii and all the pictures we see of hardened lava covering streets, destroyed buildings and it just being everywhere in general. what is the recovery process of this? what can the citizens of hawaii do to recover their homes? repave the streets? does this stuff break up easily? or are they forced to just move elsewhere? i cant find answers to this anywhere | generally speaking, there's not a cost-effective way to recover the property. it simply cost too much to demolish the rock to create a new home site. homes are generally built on softer land so that utilities and be brought in underground. this is complicated by the fact that if all the neighbors don't rebuild, the cost to bring in roads and utilities would be too much. the cost of excavation would be much more than the cost of building on good buildable land. the extra money to build would not be recovered in the market price. imagine two one-acre lots that cost $250,000. one is covered with lave and will require an additional $250,000 to clear the lava......... you build two identical houses on the lots. both would sell for the same money, but one would cost significantly more to the degree that you could not sell it for what you paid to have it built. who want's to live in the middle of a lava field where there will be no vegetation for decades if not hundreds of years. the market value would be less. who's going to offer insurance for such a house once it's shown to be in a lava path? it seems that the island government turns these sort of locations into state parks. i don't know what sort of reimbursement the prior landowners get. market value for lava covered land can't be that great. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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if there's no blood supply to cartilage, how come glucosamine or chondroitin is "good for joints"? how do minerals/vitamins/hormones even get to cartilage cells without blood flow? | intact cartilage indeed does not have any bloodsupply, however there is a viscous fluid ( joint fluid ) around the cartilage that does indirectly come in contact with blood. so there is a gradient of nutrients towards the cartilage. it is however not proven that injections or supplements of glucosamine or chondroitin is good for the joints. _url_2_ _url_1_ this leads me to my 2nd point. cartilage that is damaged and close enough to surrounding tissue can get invaded with bloodsupply and restore itself through stemcells. it can also be damaged as part of a surgical procedure called micro fracturing. _url_0_ source: 4th year med student | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfracture_surgery",
"https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/natural/807.html",
"https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/natural/744.html"
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|
i just saw in natgeo that if you touch a 500 kv wire you would desintegrate from the electrical shock. is this true? | usually, you die from a steam explosion, and often your head pops off like a cork because the water in your 'guts' nearly instantly vaporizes. idiots try to steal wire from high tension lines fairly regularly, especially in eastern europe. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would it be possible to have an adrenaline rush while sleeping? | last night i had this dream where i was on the starting line of a race. while this isn't really unusual because i run track and have these sort of dreams ever so often, in this dream i felt as though i had a *very* convincing rush of adrenaline. i know this might seem like sort of a silly question, but i do know that some people for instance kick in their sleep. so is my mind playing a trick on me, or can my body really react to my dreams by releasing adrenaline? | as far as i know, yes. lucid dreamers often claim that when you realize that you are dreaming, the excitement causes an adrenaline boost that can throw you completely out of unconsciousness. thus, i do believe that you are mistaking what you felt for a hallucination (which all dreams are) of an adrenaline rush. a true epinephrine kick would jolt you out of sleep. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the pirate bay is satirically claiming they're launching "low orbit server stations". can anyone comment on feasibility? | [here](_url_0_) is the post in question. they're obviously kidding, but is it theoretically possible to create a network of this type (if not at the speeds they're claiming)? what would be the major obstacles? | your main limiting factor will be battery power. we already have the parts to build all the components of their design. (drones, wireless transmission devices etc) but being able to power them becomes a real drag. most drones available to the public have flight times under an hour, combine that with the added weight of the server and the power it requires, flight times would be cut drastically. | 5 | [] | [
"https://thepiratebay.se/blog/210"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/r2dc8/the_pirate_bay_loss/c42hhne",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Sealand"
] | [
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deet: a deadly neurotoxin, a substance harmless to humans, or somewhere in between? r/science please enlighten me. | yesterday i was hiking and a fellow hiker was getting eaten alive by mosquitoes. i offered him some bug repellent that had deet. he proceeded to make what seemed like preposterous claims about deet (instadeath, neurotoxin, will give me every cancer on earth etc.) so, what does the science say on deet. | yes, n,n-diethyl-m-toluamide (deet) has been shown to have a neurotoxic effect on the central nervous system, specifically by disrupting the function of acetlycholinesterase. however, as far as i'm aware there is still some debate about whether there is a significant neurotoxic effect in humans from typical application (spraying, rubbing on skin, breathing in) of insect repellants and as far as i know, the latest research has shown that the doses incurred during typical application are not sufficient to cause a neurotoxic effect. | 32 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/0002red.pdf"
] | [
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can a chain of reactions be represented in a single feynman diagram - e.g. beta decay followed by gamma decay? | i'm pretty sure both these processes can be represented with feynman diagrams individually (correct me if i'm wrong!), so could the 'chain' of the two processes be drawn in one diagram? or does the time axis have to be to scale, and the gap between the processes is much longer than the time they each take? (i have no academic experience of using feynman diagrams, so my understanding of them is based only on internet research) | yes, you can stack as many interactions as you want into a feynman diagram. they're just a tool for keeping track of particles and quantum numbers, so as long as you're careful you can fill the page with collisions and decays if you want. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the difference in strength between human and chimp mostly software or hardware? | similar sized structures should have similar strengths. what can explain such great differences of weight to strength ratios? tests at the bronx zoo in 1924: 165-pound chimpanzee one-handed pull of 847 pounds 165-pound man one-handed pull of about 210 pounds. 135 pounds female chimp one-handed pull of 1,260 pounds. _url_0_ thank you for sharing your conceptions. | it's supposedly both - hardware - in chimps, the muscle fibers closest to the bones -- those deemed to be the source of strength of both chimps and humans – are much longer and more dense, so a chimp is able to generate more power using the same range of motion. a chimpanzee's skeletal muscle has longer fibers than the human equivalent and can generate twice or more the work output over a wider range of motion. [details](_url_0_) software - our nervous systems exert more control over our muscles. our fine motor control prevents great feats of strength, but allows us to perform delicate and uniquely human tasks. more grey matter in humans means more motor neurons. and having more motor neurons means more muscle control. our surplus motor neurons allow us to engage smaller portions of our muscles at any given time. we can engage just a few muscle fibers for delicate tasks like threading a needle, and progressively more for tasks that require more force. conversely, since chimps have fewer motor neurons, each neuron triggers a higher number of muscle fibers. so using a muscle becomes more of an all-or-nothing proposition for chimps. as a result, chimps often end up using more muscle than they need. [source](_url_1_) | 27 | [] | [
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2/can-a-90-lb-chimp-clobber-a-full-grown-man"
] | [
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/6455",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/03/090330200829.htm"
] | [
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] |
could you keep a superconducting wire cool by surrounding it with thermoelectric material? | pretty much the title. i'm curious if thermoelectrics would be sufficient to keep a superconducting wire superconductive so long as it was cooled to a sufficiently low temperature beforehand. | no. no thermoelectric material can be 100% efficient at converting heat to electricity. so some ambient heat would get through the thermoelectric material and warm the superconductor. if the ambient temperature was above the critical temperature for the superconductor, then tcrit would eventually be reached. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is a capacitor needed between the positive branch and the ground? | while setting up an arduino circuit, i was instructed to put a capacitor between the 24v source that powers a stepper motor and the ground. why is that? | i suspect that is just to condition / clean the input dc power. a capacitor across those terminals acts as a lowpass filter to the device (or highpass filter to the common rail) blocking dc across the capacitor but sinking ac (line noise) to ground. high quality power supplies should already have some output signal conditioning, but if your power supply is noisy or at sufficient distance from the powered device that the lines can pick up high frequency noise, a capacitor across the input power terminals at the device will help. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what's the deal with paprika seeds? | so, i've read/heard that paprika seeds now can not be used to grow new paprika's with. the only place we can get paprika seeds, apparently, is from one company only, and they have engineered paprika in such a way that the seeds from it can not be used to grow new ones. how did it get into such a mess? are there are rules or ways to prevent this from happening with more fruits/vegetables? | [paprika](_url_0_) is a spice which can be made from a variety of peppers. you can't grow a jar of tahini from seed either. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paprika"
] | [
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when solving a problem, what happens in the brain when the solution just 'clicks' into your head? | if i didn't know the solution for a maths equation, for example, i would leave it for 30 minutes and do something else. sometimes with no thought at all the solution will pop into my head; it happens with programming solutions too. what is actually happening in the brain to have a random object/activity you are engaged with to give you the final piece of the puzzle? i can't be the only one that gets this. thanks. | below is copied from an answer i wrote to a similar question a month or so ago: sudden insight is actually a phenomenon you can produce in the laboratory, and at least one research group has done several studies on it. to produce insight moments, they use what they call "compound remote associates" problems. subjects are given three words (e.g., "crab", "pine", and "sauce"), and asked to think of another word that can form a compound word with all three of the ones presented. in this case, the right answer is "apple" (crabapple, pineapple, applesauce). behavioral studies have shown that sometimes people appear to solve these problems slowly and analytically (e.g., think of possible solutions methodically -- crabgrass? pinecone? hotsauce? -- and then test each candidate against the other words until you find one that fits all three), whereas other times the solution just seems to pop out suddenly, with no conscious thought process underlying it. when they have people perform this task during eeg or in an fmri scanner, the most obvious thing that seems to be happening when people get a solution via insight (versus methodically) is a burst of activity in the right temporal cortex at about the same time that they think of the solution. interestingly, they've also found that activity preceding the solution makes a difference -- in essence, brain activity is always fluctuating a little bit, and they have found that when activity in the temporal lobes is higher just before the problem is presented, the problem is more likely to be solved via insight than when fluctuations in those areas are lower. (other studies have had similar findings in other domains -- e.g., that you can predict from moment-to-moment fluctuations in brain activity when a person is in a more alert attentional state and thus likely to respond slightly faster to an unpredictable stimulus.) i've simplified this answer a bit but if you're interested in reading more, a review article that (i think) is not too hard to read for the well-read layman is [here](_url_0_). there could be other work on this issue as well -- it's not my main area of expertise. | 228 | [] | [] | [
"http://groups.psych.northwestern.edu/mbeeman/documents/CurrentDirxns_Kounios-Beeman_2009.pdf"
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how does the iphone horn stand work? | my observations from playing around with it for a couple minutes seems to indicate that it amplifys sound from all directions around the iphone, so i don't think it "concentrates" the sound in one direction. however, it does not consume any additional power (it's essentially a rubber horn). i feel like this would violate energy conservation laws but obviously it does not. so my guess is that either it changes the sound waves so that i perceive an increase in loudness or it raises the waves amplitude by changing the period or something? no idea though. thanks in advance! link to what i'm talking about: _url_0_ | there are two ways the horn could increase the volume. the first is higher directivity, which you seem to think is not the case. the second is by providing a better acoustic impedance match between the speaker and the air. in the case of better acoustic impedance matching there is still no violation of conservation of energy because the speaker has to work harder with the horn in place and will draw more power from the amplifier even if you don't change the volume control. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.ca/gp/aw/d/B0048YB5B2/ref=redir_mdp_mobile"
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my friend took this photo of what appears to be a triple sunrise this morning. what is this phenomenon and how does it work? | _url_1_ _url_0_ photo taken this morning in indianapolis. it appeared to be a triple sunrise. it isn't lens flare - it was visible without the camera. it was like this for several minutes. | those are sundogs. sundogs are caused by ice crystals being suspended in the air refracting the light from the sun. the reason why you don't see a complete halo around the sun (i.e., you see the refraction happening to the left and right of the sun, but not above it) is because the ice crystals are all aligned vertically. i don't know too much about the formation of sundogs. hopefully someone else can fill that in. i believe they happen when ice crystals (which are usually very high in the atmosphere) drop down to lower levels. i don't know what causes them to drop to lower levels or why the crystals are so commonly vertically aligned. | 32 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/1wipOBX.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/1x5TS5D.jpg"
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why are frog eggs stored in the body cavity? | i recently disected a frog, as you might assume from the title, it was full of eggs. what surprised me is that they were not in a separate egg sack of sorts, but simply in the body cavity. why is that? and how do they get out of the body? | i think you probably missed some steps in the dissection. the eggs wouldn't be simply floating around in the body cavity. frogs have a uterus just like mammals do, the only difference is a single route out through the cloaca vs. separated gi and urogenital openings. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in electronic/technology how do you define a second? | how do you get computers or phones to count a second? how does technology know how long a "second" is? | a common way is to use a crystal oscillator. they contain a piece of quartz (or some other piezoelectric material) which mechanically oscillates at precise frequency when excited by an electric field. the frequency is defined pretty much by the shape of the crystal, so we can manufacture them for different applications. the way the length of a second is usually determined - you create a crystal that oscillates for example 32768 times a second. it's a convenient number for computers because it's 2^15, so if you count the pulses, then every time it goes over 15 bit, that's a new second! there are crystals for a lot of different frequencies. tl;dr - crystal oscillator provides a reliable source of stable frequency and the duration of a second can be derived from it. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i was looking at my subwoofers diaphragm at different sound frequencies - and i found out something weird | it looks much less blurry at certain frequencies, for example it's much less blurry at 70hz then at 50hz and 100 or 200 hz this "non blurry" freqency seems to happen again, i can't really pinpoint where, but it's quite higher, around 500 i'd think. i guess it might have to do with how eyes work, but i can't really understand it. | were you doing this in daylight or under artificial illumination? if the latter, the 50/60 hz of the electricity network may have some influence somehow. queue a person who knows more about electricity for further elaboration, i just didn't see this point mentioned yet. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the internet have a core? | i know this is a stupid question, but does the internet have a core? i know its an interconnected network, but surely there is somewhere in the middle where all these fiberoptic wires meet, like a checkpoint? thanks, tiptopgolfy | no. the internet is a decentralized network by design. there is a sort of "core" of so-called "backbone" connections, which carry very very large volumes of traffic between major communications centers and providers, but this smaller network is itself highly redundant and decentralized. edit, to explain a bit more: the way it works is actually pretty similar to the post office. there's no one big central postal processing center that every letter goes through. instead, letters that are being sent within your town just go to the local office and then back out. letters within your region go to your local, then to a regional processing center, and then to another local. letters going to another region go to your local, then your regional processing center, then by truck or plane to another regional, then to another local, and then out to their destination. the plane and truck connections between regional processing centers are like the "backbone" connections i mentioned above. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could you feel the gravity from a teaspoon of neutron star matter on earth? | i would strongly recommend against this experiment as i am a little overly attached to this planet. a few things first. * the instant this mass was removed from the star it would expand violently, very violently, so violently that i cannot even begin to explain it in real life terms, if this helps here is the math 10^27 j... < - this is about 1,000,000,000,000 nuclear bombs being detonated in the same square centimeter at the same time. put it this way the resulting explosion would definitely destroy all life on this planet, and possibly knock it out of orbit. * assuming it could be contained, the gravity from said world ending teaspoon of doom would have a exponential gravitational effect around it. its like a sliding scale, @ 50 feet you might not feel it, @ 30 it would tug slightly, @ 20 it would feel as if you were at 1.5 gs, @ 10 feet 2 gs, @ 1 foot it would compress your hand as you reached for it, pull you into it and compress you to a single point. these numbers are estimations, please refer to your own neutron star for actual results. edited for formatting. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
where is the program for my power button stored? | this is a question i've had for a while. my macbook pro will always start, independent of whether there is a hard drive, ram, or display attached to the machine. where is the program that monitors the power button stored, how does it work, and does it use energy to monitor for input. in addition (and this is all theory, i don't want to alter it but i'm curious if it's possible) how do i access the program and is it possible to change the startup button to be one of my keys, the delete key for example. any response for any system is appreciated, i have a pretty good understanding of hardware and the fundamentals of how software works for both apple built machines and other machines. | that's all in the bios (basic input/output system), which is a program stored in a special chip on the motherboard. that provides a standardized interface between the hardware and the operating system, which is why you can load windows on any brand-x motherboard. os/x has the same concept, though of course apple only officially supports certain motherboards. how much power it uses would be dependent on the motherboard design, but if it uses electronic starting, then it uses some small amount of power to monitor the button. i believe all modern motherboards do it this way. in the relatively distant past, they used to use a mechanical on-off switch, but there were a lot of advantages to electronic power on/off, so that became standard. whether you can use a different key, etc, is whether that feature is programmed into the bios. here is a page that describes typical bios settings: _url_0_ bios settings are usually accessed by pressing a special key when you start up the machine, but before it starts loading the operating system. i've typically seen the del key, the f2 key and the f8 key. i don't know how apple does it. if it works like how apple does other things, then they picked some arbitrary key that no one else uses. :) edit: as haikuginger pointed out, the more modern version of bios is efi, which allows changing some settings from within the operation system (particularly in the case of macs). but the principle is the same, the controlling program here comes from the motherboard firmware. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/bios-beginners,1126-8.html"
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what's the purpose of the wires that usually connect from the back of the cockpit to the tail of world war ii era planes? | you need a pic, but if its anything like a c 130, its an hf antenna. they are quite large. on a 747, they are those booms on the wingtips. on a c 130, its the wires from the tail to the cockpit, on an a320 its hidden behind the composite leading edge of the vertical stabilizer. just so you get a sense of how big they are. vhf, by contrast, are those hand sized shark fins on the bottom of the fuselage. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there really a infinitesimally small(but still non-zero) chance that i could tunnel through the chair i'm sitting on? | this really sounds like something out of those "this bracelet will improve your health through quantum mechanics!" dealios, but the tiny bit i can understand of the theory behind it makes it sound like it might actually work! | you run into a fundamentally difficult problem with these kinds of questions, because scientific knowledge is always limited. once the probability of an event gets low enough, it may become more probable for your theory to be wrong than for the event predicted by it to occur. so when you say "infinitesimal but nonzero", a reasonable answer could simply be "anything is possible because we don't know everything." that seems to be answering a different question, but at the level of accuracy you're requiring, those ideas bleed together. our understanding of reality doesn't carry enough information to distinguish between the two questions on that level. so, yes, you could (in theory) tunnel through a chair. but you may be just as likely to do anything else (like prove quantum mechanics wrong), since that would be possible in theory as well. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the optimal way to wrap a present for christmas assuming you want to minimize the use of wrapping paper? | i've just wrapped my present and i noticed that (at least for some presents) it's better to put the bottom of the present at an angle relative to the wrapping paper rather than aligned with it. with presents where the largest side is a square i'm pretty sure a 45 degree angle is optimal, but does that hold for all presents? is there a function that takes the dimensions of a rectangular cuboid as arguments and returns the smallest rectangle in terms of area that can fully cover all sides? | when the paper is aligned with the present (that is, the edges of the present are parallel to the edges of the paper), then the smallest, single, intact piece of rectangular paper you need would have the dimensions of 2l + 2h by w + h, where l, w, and h are the length, width, and height of the present. this produces minimal overlap (only on the ends where you have to tuck the wrapping paper in to fold the ends down to meet). the area of overlap would be four little rectangles, each with dimensions of h by h/2. i am having trouble seeing how you are going to improve upon this given the constraints of the scenario. at a 45 degree angle, you're having to try and force triangles to cover rectangular sides which seems to me would produce a great deal more overlap. edit: working the 45 angle method out for a prism with a square base, the size of the paper would be a square piece of paper with side length of (2h + 2l) / sqrt(2). this gives an area of (2h + 2l)^2 / 2 which is the same area of paper using the previous method for a square-based present (where l = w). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that supposedly two people huddling together with their skin touching will keep them more warm than each of them keeping their warmth for themselves? | you know, like they say in "survivalist" stuff... | surface area to volume ratio. you lose heat through exposed surfaces by conduction/radiation/convection. when you huddle up as a single person you have less exposed area than if you are physically spread out (i.e. arms extended). if you have two people you are better off huddling in a single ball for the same reason because you'll cut down on your total surface area. the heat you generate is proportional to the volume (or mass) of your body. since that's the same in both cases (two people together = two people apart) the set of people with less surface area will be warmer. also a sphere is the 3d shape that has smallest surface area to volume ratio. bonus reading on sa/v ratios influence on biology: * [allen's rule](_url_0_) - longer limbs to keep cooler * [bergmann's rule](_url_1_) - larger bodies to keep warmer edit for clarity | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen's_rule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergmann%27s_rule"
] | [
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] |
is it actually worth donating my spare cpu cycles to distributed computing projects such as rosetta@home? | well, "worth" is subjective. i have my computer on 24/7 _anyways_, and cpu power consumption difference between "busy" and "idle" isn't too great (i think anyways... my cpu is rated to dissipate 65 w in heat; my power supply consumes 750 w), so i leave my [boinc](_url_0_) on. if you participate in gpu processing as well... that's a whole other story (in terms of power consumption). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://boinc.berkeley.edu/"
] | [
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|
when did hither, thither and yon fall out of common use (and do we know why)? | "hither," "thither," and "yon" are words that are still recognized and even occasionally used by a fair amount of speakers of current english dialects, but they definitely carry an old-fashioned and/or literary flair. * when did these words fall out of common (esp. spoken) usage? * are there any dialects where they took longer to pass out of casual usage (or where they still persist)? what forces shaped the progression? * are there any indications of why they fell into disuse? e.g., were they supplanted by specific other words, did they become stigmatized due to association with certain non-mainstream dialects, etc.? | looks like around 1970s, according to this [webster dictionary](_url_0_) published in 1989. i'm just guessing but maybe globalization and english becoming a lingua franca caused old styled words to become less popular. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=opdWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA505&lpg=PA505&dq=When+did+hither,+thither+and+yon+fall+out+of+common+use&source=bl&ots=RnfKOYdvVF&sig=ACfU3U3iGCT1TmK9J8k6dAl9QPjFJC4U9A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi3tcXo65niAhU1CjQIHY2FCJgQ6AEwDHoECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q=When%20did%20hither%2C%20thither%20and%20yon%20fall%20out%20of%20common%20use&f=false"
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what is the current thinking on the relationship of arthropods? | i know that it's been a matter of debate as to whether hexapods and myriapoda or hexapods and crustaceans are more closely related. the last i read was that crustaceans were the more likely, but with constantly evolving theories, it can be hard to locate the current thinking using the web. i presume chelicerata are still classed as an outgroup. any thoughts on where trilobites would fit in? also, i read that what we formerly classed as hexapods might no longer form a monophyletic group... any info on that? sources, as always, appreciated :) | phylogenetic data seems to be coming down firmly on the side of [pancrustacea](_url_0_). usually you have to take these studies with something of a grain of salt because of a myriad of artefacts, such as long branch attraction (which is widely responsible for the misconception that eubacteria are monophyletic. yes, you may down vote me now.) however, the 2.6 megabases of 75 genome used to construct the tree is quite respectable. all chelicerates were still outside mandibulata; however, chelicerates may not be monophyletic. obviously no trilobites sequence was included to allow their placement within the tree, and i am not at all farmilur with the literature on trilobites. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v463/n7284/full/nature08742.html"
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what keeps two plates of metal from combining? | if they are both have the same atomic structure, why don't the atoms want to bind to each other? if i just took two pieces of metal and touched them, shouldn't the molecular structures merge? why does adding heat make it so that they can combine? | the surface of metals are imperfect due to oxidation and defects such as scratches and such, so that would be a barrier to fusing. even if the surface was perfect and the fused metal would have a lower free energy than the separate metal, there will be a high energy transition phase that will require some initial energy input. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are so many experiments done with nickel ball (rhnb or scnb)? | eg. hot nickel with magnetic putty, foam,gelatin, sugar etc super cool nickel with gasoline, honey etc | nickel is pretty cheap and yet fairly non-reactive as well as able to withstand very high temperatures without softening excessively, changing chemically, combusting, flaking, etc. steel, for example, starts to get soft and be subject to plastic deformation at much less than 1000 deg. c (a common temperature for a very "hot" fire), and at temperatures you can easily reach with a torch you can oxidize steel and many other metals. some alloys of nickel are extremely heat tolerant, such as rene 41, which was used as the heat shielding material for the mercury space capsules. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how plausible are the colonies in mobile suit gundam? | this is a question that has been bugging me for a very long time, are the colonies the old mobile suit gundam anime possible? could we create such a colony in space that would actually work? for those that don't know, [this](_url_0_) is a drawing of a colony. basically, it has 3 long solar panels, and a cylindrical body. the body spins to create a false gravity by using centripetal force, and is air-locked, and with plants inside the colony to create oxygen and process carbon dioxide. could we build such a self-sustaining colony? is it possible? what would be required for us, as humans, to build such a thing? | haha, everyone is downvoting you because you're citing an anime. i think this is a very interesting topic (i happen to be a gundam fan as well). so, in some of the gundam universes, these colonies are stationed in lagrange points: _url_2_ anyways, i'm not really an aeronautical engineer, so i cant comment on the structure. i will say that the iss is the closest thing we have to a colony: _url_0_ the iss however, is not self sufficient and requires constant resupplying from the earth, and does not have artificial gravity, which has severe detrimental effects to the human body. it can recycle its water, but vents the co2 and produces o2 via electrolysis: _url_0__eclss the gundam colonies are plausible, but not something we should expect to see in our lifetime. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fww94.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS_ECLSS",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point"
] | [
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giant plate of stone on water. | hey askscience, i had a flashback to an idea i had when i was washing the dishes as a kid. i'd always spin the floating dinner plates, make waves in the sink and make the plate sink eventually. anyhow, i remember me one day wondering: "**if one would place an enormous dinner plate (i.e. a somewhat concave object made of stone; let's say 1 mile radius) in a giant pool of still water, would it still float like a dinner plate would in a sink full of water, or would the weight eventually become too high so it would sink? and would it make any difference if it were spinning or not? thanks! | yep. float just like a plate. what determines this is how much water is displaced. if you think of sitting a dinner plate in the water and then freezing the water and taking the plate out, you have a little concave area. if calculate the volume of the concavity it equals the weight of the plate. see [archimedes principle](_url_0_) so as long as the plate can displace enough volume of water to weigh as much as itself without taking on water first... it would float. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle"
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which is faster: the outer edge of the fastest sawblade in the world, or the world's fastest bullet? asked by my 4-year-old; i struck out trying to answer it myself. | in machining, "feeds and speeds" is the relevant phrase - a machinist will typically look up the best value for the speed of the tool on the workpiece from a book like the machinist's handbook (and then may calculate the appropriate spindle speed and workpiece feed rate to get the desired tangential speed at the cutter tip). the speeds that cutters move best through material, without melting the material, getting chips built up in flutes, etc. is mostly fixed, based on the workpiece material and blade material. on the high end of this scale, for a soft metal like an easily-machinable brass alloy, the given speed is on the order of about 100 fps. so while i don't have a definitive answer to your question, i'd say almost certainly bullets are an order of magnitude larger than any blade will move. furthering this point, a spinning metal disk will rupture if the spin speed causes the material's inertia to overcome the material's tensile strength. for a steel disk, the tangential velocity at rupture speed is usually around 2,000 ft/s, (note that it depends on the strength of the alloy and the diameter of the disk). in any case, this design limitation likely guarantees that a bullet will go faster than a blade. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't humans have the telomerase enzyme? | i know cancer cells have this and can divide for ever. why don't we? | the telomerase gene that lengthens the telomeres is present in humans, but generally is only active in select human cells, ones that need to be able to divide throughout a human's lifetime. people often conflate telomerase with cells becoming more "youthful", but that isn't really the case. cell dna accumulates damage over time from all sorts of sources and lengthening the telomeres doesn't fix this. in a way telomerase is more like the cellular equivalent of slapping on duct tape; lengthening the telomeres keeps the cell going for longer, but doesn't fix the underlying wear and tear. every bit of damage increases the cancer risk. humans live a long time and thus rack up a lot more damage than a shorter lived organism. humans have made the tradeoff because the benefits of telomerase are not worth the risks: "90% of human malignant tumors show the abnormal expression of telomerase compared with normal tissues." mice on the other hand who live short lives can get away with keeping their telomerase on because they reproduce and die before they accumulate too much to worry about. it's tough to find decent discussions on telomerase outside of science journals because extended lifespan/immortality topics often attract soundbytes or people who have a vested interest in keeping up telomerase hype. [here is pretty good, albeit old, scientific review from 2000 which is conveniently not paywalled.](_url_0_) if someone found a more recent review of similar quality, i would appreciate it. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/18/13/2626.full"
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confused by the new statin drug/blood cholesterol treatment recommendations. | i keep hearing about how blood cholesterol levels maybe have little to do with heart disease (mostly from folks trying to sell you something) and then the acc/aha [updated guidelines](_url_0_) a couple days ago, which seems to redefine the use of statins away from blood cholesterol levels and instead based mostly on risk factors. what do statins actually do and why would they be helpful to a large portion of the population if their original intent was to reduce ldl? | fourth year pharmacy student here. i'm still looking over the new recommendations, but it seems they're shifting towards more personalized treatment regimens, and less of a focus on hitting defined ldl goals. a similar shift in was implemented in the ada guidelines for treatment of diabetes. statins work primarily by inhibiting hmg coa reductase, an enzyme that initiates the pathway for synthesizing endogenous cholesterol via hepatocytes in the liver. while this has a slight decrease in total cholesterol, the greatest effect occurs because the hepatocytes respond to this decrease by taking up more ldl cholesterol from the bloodstream for synthesis into bile salts.there appear to be other benefits as well - such as reducing atheromas - but the mechanism and evidence still needs to be further explored. while i don't believe elevated blood cholesterol levels alone are responsible for cardiovascular disease and associated events, i do believe it's a significant contributing factor. diet and exercise has been shown to have the greatest effectiveness at preventing heart disease, and as such it often remains as the first line treatment. patients rarely make the effort however, and i think in those cases drug therapy is required. | 3 | [] | [
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/early/2013/11/11/01.cir.0000437738.63853.7a.citation"
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how good of a conductor is our brain? | no idea if this should be tagged physics or human body,sorry in advance. i was just wondering,since our brain sends electric signals,how much of them is lost along the way? | **tl;dr--any kind of tissue is a rather poor conductor when compared to physical conductors like copper. however, neural tissue is designed to conduct signals through more active, complicated means. signal velocities can be quite good in the body, and neurons are fantastic signal conductors compared to other tissues, but nowhere near as high as physical conductors.** first, some background; the question itself is a little difficult to address because the way we define conductivity for metals and conductivity for neural tissue is very different. for physical, rather than biological, systems, we employ what's known as ohm's law to determine conductivity. ohm's law states that the current density that results from an applied electric field (resulting from a battery, say), is proportional the electrical field multiplied by a constant called the conductivity. in mathematical terms, it's expressed by: j = pe, where j is the current density, e is the applied electric field, and p is the conductivity. clearly, the greater the conductivity, the greater the resulting current given a certain applied field. but the way a neuron conducts an electrical signal is not through the generation of an electric field that spans the length of the whole wire (the axon). rather, as /u/vasavasorum says, it's an active process that involves continually regenerating a potential difference called an *action potential.* therefore, ohm's law doesn't really apply over the length of a neuron's projection to another neuron, because the way signals are conducted over physical wires verses neurons are very different. nevertheless, i'll still try to answer this question using some type of analogy. i guess we could make a comparison between wires and neurons by the *speed* at which they conduct signals. membranes leak ions, and ion concentration differences are what are ultimately responsible for signal propagation in a neuron. the fact that membranes are leaky are what dramatically slows signal propagation in neurons. we make membranes less leaky by an insulating material called myelin in our bodies, and this dramatically increases signal propagation velocities in our brains. further still, you can increase nerve diameter to increase conduction velocities. despite this, the highest conduction velocities we get in neurons is a measly 120 m/s. compare this to wires which communicate at 1/100 the speed of light (that sounds small, but this translates to very nearly 3 million meters per second), and you'll think to yourselves that neurons are actually quite poor conductors. but they're the best that our bodies have, and they're great for what we need. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a possibly silly magnetism question. | yes, you can explain magnetic force using strictly electrostatic attraction and special relativity, by examining individually the frames of reference of the two objects being attracted/repelled by the magnetic force. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how much energy is lost in transmitting electricity? | obviously it'll depend on distance but i was watching a ted talk and they were mentioning how quantum mechanics can lead to lossless transmission of energy and i was wondering how useful that would be in a practical sense (eg if we lose on average 40% of electricity in transmission it's a big deal but if we lose 2% then not really). thanks | [electric power transmission losses seem to be around 7%.](_url_1_) it also sounds like the ted talk about [superconductivity](_url_0_), where the resistance in a material vanishes. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission#Losses"
] | [
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what happens to the polarity with a battery stored backwards? | what happens when you put one aa in backwards? (i've done some digging but can't find if it's bad for one battery.) i know if both of them are reversed it's bad for both batteries, but i'm not sure why or what is going on when the polarities are reversed. | the answer is.... it depends. let's start with this diagram: _url_0_ you usually have batteries either in parallel (abc) or series (def). people do a because you get twice the lifetime, since each battery is doing half the work. people use d to get twice the voltage output of one battery (usually twice 1.2-1.5v = 2.4-3v) in cases b and e you have reversed the voltage that the batteries supply. in simple things like a flashlight with a light bulb, this doesn't do anything. but for an led (light emitting diode) this is bad, since diodes only allow current in one direction and eventually fry if you put too much voltage in the opposite direction. if your device isn't designed to protect itself, b or e could damage it. in case c you've basically shorted your batteries! they will discharge quickly and heat up themselves and the wires connecting them; very bad news! in case f, you've basically put your batteries at cross purposes; assuming they're both the same, each will "push" against the other and nothing will happen, since the voltage at the ends of the wire connecting + terminals of each battery is the same, no current will flow. now, if they aren't the same, it's a different story in case f. say, one is fresh and the other is dead. the voltage output by the new one is actually a little better than the other, so you might risk actually "charging" the dead one at the expense of the new one. this would be fine for rechargeables, but for most single-use batteries they were simply not designed to control their own reverse reactions; you could potentially damage your battery this way. (for single-use li batteries, for example, you can form "dendrites" of lithium metal by trying to recharge them, which could short the battery from within. other types of batteries have different potential hazards.) (edit: ok, so you probably won't fry your leds, but it's the first common example where the sign of the voltage matters that i could think of...) (edit2: re-uploaded the image because it was no longer available for no reason...) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/cpdGB.jpg"
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150 million red blood cells are generated and destroyed each minute. how is that delicate balance regulated? | if it were off by only a few hundred cells, it would have disastrous effect. anyone know how the body regulates the production of red blood cells? | i do seriously doubt that one hundred blood cells more or less make any difference. you have about 2*10^13 of them in your blood and their concentration can easily vary by 10% (as everyone who donated blood more than once should know). so if you are off less than a few trillion red blood cells, things are not too bad. source: [wikipedia](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell#Human_erythrocytes",
"http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7032"
] | [
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] |
what organic mechanism "flips the coin" to determine between male and female when conception happens? and is it perfectly 50/50? | i think you may have got slightly the wrong impression. the choice between sexes happens both long before conception and at the point of conception. the vast majority of all fertile women are sex genotype xx and vast majority of all men are xy. the meiotic possibilities from xx are x and x (i.e. women can only produce eggs of x) and the meiotic possibilities from xy are x and y (i.e. sperm are either x or y). the question over whether a foetus is male or female is simply a question of whether an x or a y sperm fertilises the egg. because there are millions of sperm in any given ejaculation there is a choice at the point of conception, but realistically the "choice" is made during meiosis in the testes when the sperm are produced. is it 50/50? it's exceptionally close to 50/50 though there exist metabolic differences between sperm carrying x or carrying y which present in very small difference in swimming speed and possibly a slight mass difference too which may have an effect on fertilisation rates. see [here](_url_1_) and [here](_url_0_) | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6541168",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24419052"
] | [
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|
how did bohr's modification to rutherford's atomic model explain the line-spectra phenomenon? | this sounds suspiciously like a homework problem *cough cough*. anyways, think about what the bohr model *is*. electrons have specific orbits that they can occupy, right? so that means that an electron can only *jump* from one level to another, not continuously transition from one level to another. and because of that jump it must absorb light of a specific energy equal to the spacing of that jump. equivalently, if it's falling back down, it emits light with energy equal to the spacing of its fall. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if my biological evolution has befit me to have my sternum and ribs protect my heart and lungs, why has no protection formed for my brain stem? | 1. since when is the brainstem not protected? [isn't it inside the base of the skull? ](_url_0_) 2. as i understand it, ribs aren't purely for protection. they are also needed for lungs to properly inflate and deflate. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.princetonbrainandspine.com/photos/brain_anat/brain_portions_illus20a.jpg"
] | [
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|
what is the difference between p-branes, d-branes, m-branes, etc...? | what is the difference between these objects in string theory? is there one? also are the strings of string theory a type of 1-brane since they're 1d objects? | yep, there's a difference. before i start babbling about branes, let's fix some context: there are: * precisely five different superstring theories (called type i, heterotic so(32), heterotic e_8 x e_8, type iia, and type iib), all set in 10 dimensions; i will abbreviate these as i, ho, he, iia, iib. * two bosonic string theories in 26d, called closed and open * m-theory, set in 11 dimensions, and not a string theory itself (as i will show later) moreover, all of these admit a low-energy description, called an effective field theory. for bosonic strings, don't worry about it. for the rest, these are the supergravity (sugra) theories: * five 10d supergravities, called like the respective superstring theory (i, ho, he, iia, iib) * the one single 11d supergravity, corresponding to m-theory the sugras are simply generalizations of general relativity that include supersymmetry, in fact as much as possible of it. ok, we can start. **p-branes** p-branes are general p-dimensional objects in supergravity generalizing a black hole (which would be a 0-brane). since our sugras of interest are set in 10d and 11d, you can have fun building p-dimensional black holes for any p less than the dimension; however there is no guarantee these will be stable objects. if they are suitably charged under the various field of sugra (you know how a black hole can have an electric charge? same thing but there's an f-ton of different charges to have) they can however be "half-bps" or "extremal" which means they are as supersymmetric as they can get and so stable. extremal p-branes are at absolute zero and don't emit any hawking radiation, just like extremal black holes. polchinski around 2000 had the intuition that extremal p-branes are just an equivalent description of d-branes. so p-branes in general aren't d-branes but some of them are. **ns branes** ns1-branes are also called f-strings, f for fundamental, and they're just the strings of string theory. there's also another dimensionality of ns-branes that must be paired with ns1-branes for a reason which i'll explain later, so you have: * superstrings: ns1 and ns5 * bosonic: ns1 and ns21 (i think, at least according to a quick calculation i did in my head). m-theory does not have ns1 and therefore is not a string theory. **d-branes** d-branes only appear in string theory. the defining characteristic is that they are the natural objects on which open strings should be attached. now this can sound sort of weird, but d-branes aren't actually any kind of additional artificial feature you "add" to a string theory, they actually are *made* of strings; they're bound states of strings (just like a black hole is sort of a big ball of gravitons). they're wooly carpets of yarn. the d-brane content depends on specifically which string theory you're in. the list is: * iia: d0, d2, d4, d6, d8 * iib: d(-1), d1, d3, d5, d7, d9 (you might wonder just wtf would a d(-1)-brane be. the answer is don't think about it) * bosonic strings: i think no stable d-branes. at least not in the conventional sense. * he, ho: no d-branes. * i: d1, d5 now, you might notice two things. 1) type i and iib have stable d1-branes, or d-strings. are these different from fundamental strings? yes. they are distinct objects, and have different charges under the various fields. however, if in iib strings you swap f-strings with d-strings, *and* simultaneously you mix and rearrange together a few of these fields, you find the physics is the same; this symmetry is the celebrated **s-duality**, in the case of iib is a self-duality as the theory maps to itself. s-duality also swaps ns5 and d5 branes. 2) the lists above are symmetric about the d3 brane. i.e., if there's a dp-brane there's also a d(6-p)-brane. this is part of a more general correspondence in d spacetime dimensions between k-dimensional objects and (d-4-k)-dimensional ones, electric-magnetic duality or hodge duality. this is the same duality that in our d=4 world relates electric with magnetic fields and point charges (0d) with hypothetical monopoles (4-4-0=0d). that's how and why i guessed bosonic strings had an ns21 brane for example. **m-branes** m-branes are just the branes of m-theory. m-theory has exclusively stable m2 and m5 branes. note that m-branes also respect hodge duality, this time with d=11. **other** there's other kinds of exotic branes all around actually, but for the sake of clarity we're going to stop here. | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you're in a landslide, are you safer living at the top of the hill or at the bottom? | neither would be great, but depending on the type of landslide, you might be a little better off at the top of the hill than the bottom. so, first, the term "landslide" is pretty generic and can imply lots of different movement styles, types of material that moves, etc. if we just take a look at some of these [different styles of landslides](_url_0_), we can start to get the sense that your relative safety will depend on the type. for all of them, if you (or a building you are in) is in the area that will be covered by the toe of the landslide, there is a high probability that you will be injured. depending on the type, if you or the building you're in is up the slope but still within the volume that moves, you might be fine or you might be just as bad off. if it's a rotational slide, a lot of the upslope material will move as a semi-coherent block so it's possible that a structure would survive (but it would obviously be rotated and likely not long for this world) and allow you to get out after the slide ends. however if you are on top of a mass that suffers a rock fall, you fall with the rocks, so perhaps not good. similarly, when mass movements start to act more like fluids (e.g. flows) if you are anywhere on top of that mass, the chance of you/your building getting entrained and deformed (generally deformation of a human body is a bad thing) in that flow is pretty high. it's also important to consider speed. some of these events are very quick, nearly instantaneous, where as others can be slower and would certainly allow time for you to recognize that something was happening and try to move yourself to safety. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bgs.ac.uk/landslides/how_does_BGS_classify_landslides.html"
] | [
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|
how are underground cables routed? (after covering up) | are there underground tunnels and robots that route cables underground? how are new cables routed after covering up? | many (if not most) cables are simply buried. if you need to service or replace it, you dig it up. need to lay new ones? trench it up. there's also machines and equipment to drill and push cables horizontally under obstacles where trenching isn't feasible. for cables within service tunnels, there's a wide array of machines and tools used to pull and push the cables through the tunnel. these are usually not small cables. for underground conduits or ducts, there is likewise machines for pulling the cable through the pathway. typically you'll utilize a rope or pull cord/string attached to a cable sock, and then pull the cord through your pathway, along with the cable. one fun way to get the pull string through, especially with smaller underground conduit, is to create a seal around the pullstring at one end of the conduit, and a vacuum at the other. string pulls itself through! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you were in outside of the solar system with an apple. would you have enough mass to have it revolve around you? | if you were a point mass of say 80 kg, an apple could orbit you at a distance of 1 m in approximately 24 hours. orbital velocity would be about 27 cm/hour. there are terrestrial slugs faster than this by orders of magnitude. it would be impractical for two reasons: the orbit would not be very stable because you are not a point mass. the apple will gravitate towards different parts of your body, uppsetting the orbit. establishing the orbit in the first palace will be difficult. at a radius of 1 m, the difference between a circular orbit and escape velocity is 30 micrometers per second. edit to say this: the gravitational gradient due to your body at the orbit of your apple is 67000 times stronger than the gradient in the suns gravitational field at the orbit of the earth. what this means is that any disturbance from even your closest star would be neglible. you don't have to go through the trouble of leaving the solar system to try this experiment. you could just fail closer to home instead. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would we be able to function if our gravity was any less then 9.8? | *speculation time* so i'm going to assume you mean if humans as we are now were suddenly exposed to lower gravity. the problem with lower gravity is that our blood circulation relies on gravity to a certain degree. in 0 grav, you tend to have blood stay in the upper part of the body. also, the absence of 'weight' causes the bones to lose bone density and can lead to osteoporosis. nasa has actually looked into what would happen if humans colonized mars as it's gravity is much lower than earths. they do recognize that various problems could arise (we actually do not know if gestation would develop correctly at lower gravity - > in other words, we may not be able to make babies). one proposed solution to help adults stay in lower gravity environments has been to have them ride a centrifuge for an hour or so a day to simulate the effects of 9.81 m/s^2 gravity. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can i train myself to like food, music, etc. that i currently don't like? | to an extent. we know that exposure to certain unappealing stimuli can increase our tolerance for it in a number of ways (adaptation, mostly). it's the same principle behind being exposed to a noxious smell, over time you will rate it as not quite as adverse as you once did (forget the cite on this paper, there are a few). however in terms of liking food, music, etc, that process takes longer. but it will only work to a certain extent because a lot of what we like depends on biology and upbringing, and you won't always be able to trump that. for example, if you are brought up around country music and your parents like country music, you begin to associate country music with being happy because that's what you observe in your parents and that's what you were exposed to. that could give you a preference for country music (there's actually a psychology prof at my school trying to get their kid to like a certain type of music by using this sort of conditional learning). | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are lobotomies bad? | it's not that they're bad, it's just that they are most certainly not good. sometimes they work, sometimes they go horribly wrong, i remember reading an article about a us bus driver who had been lobotomized as a youngster and didn't realize it until a medical exam in his 40's! it was ruled out because towards the end people were having procedures done in a doctors office with equipment similar to an ice pick and a hammer, it was no longer as "safe" as it was when it was done in a hospital with machines. it was also deemed unnecessary as most of the illnesses it was used to cure are commonly treated with behavioral medication, it was used to "help" people with aspergers syndrome, obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficits disorder, attention deficits hyperactive disorder and many forms of autism as people simply did not understand what was wrong so the only reasonable thing to do was turn them into a vegetable. and now you know. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how hard can water get? | everybody knows falling into water from great heights can kill you, but what is it a combination of? does speed and trajectory affect the impact? can something hit water so hard it instantly stops? do minerals and certain water deposits affect it also? | fluids (i.e., liquids and gases) notably exhibit viscosity, or strain-rate-dependent stiffness. the faster you try to shear a fluid, the more resistance you'll encounter. water that's accelerated to a higher speed has to stop faster when it hits you and therefore produces a greater impact force. to address your question about stopping almost instantly: airplanes (which are pretty much aluminum tubes with a very small wall thickness) that crash into water essentially disintegrate at the surface because of the high effective stiffness they encounter, as if they hit a rigid wall. i'd expect dissolved impurities up to around a percent level to have minimal impact on the viscosity, although certain exceptions could exist. a slurry of (for example) half clay, half water, however, would probably behave much differently. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/xoLmVFAFjn4",
"https://what-if.xkcd.com/6/",
"https://water.usgs.gov/edu/hardness.html"
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is it possible to develop a resistance against heat? | just like gradually eating spicier and spicier foods to get a resistance to them, can you do the same to heat? say, you burn your tongue from eating something that is a little too hot. it heals, and then you do the same again, but hotter. or along the same lines, your burn your skin with something that is a *little* bit too hot, then let it heal, then do the same thing again. does it work the same way? | protein damage is what causes the blistering (separation of skin layers). would need a protein which is effective against heat in the body. the skin can generate callluses but these aren't very good against a constant flame. a matchstick flame is about 800 c i believe. perhaps one day we can take a pill which will populate the body with heat resistant amino acid analogues. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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any stack effect specialists care to help me with the puzzle that is my house? | i spend a chunk of time in my home office and i would like to keep the ac off as deep into the summer as possible. i don't know enough about stack effect, except that it is pretty darn cool. the house has some features that are perfect to play with--vents, 2-cycle ceiling fans, good windows, a chimney and hatch. also, it's a two-story, east-coast (usa), row home. basement is closed. first floor is an open floor plan, no doors etc. to speak of. [**second floor pictured to scale.**](_url_6_) i have lived here for a year and played around with all these variables but have no real way of measuring the effects. __________________________________________________ **variables:** first floor windows (2 in front, 2 in back): • [open partial bottom](_url_0_) • [open full bottom](_url_4_) • [open partial top](_url_5_) • [open full top](_url_1_) second floor windows (3 in front, 4 in back): • open partial bottom • open full bottom • open partial top • open full top (3) [vents \(door\)](_url_7_): open/closed (4) doors: open/closed (note, door 1 is sealed closed) (1) [chimney \(roof\)](_url_2_): open/closed (1) [hatch \(roof\):](_url_3_) open/closed (3) fans (ceiling): suck up/blow down [pictured:](_url_8_) standing in bed #2 looking east, foreground--vent 3, door 3. background--vent 1, door 1 (sealed closed) ______________________________________________ so, the puzzle, how to keep the office as cool as possible, which i assume means the greatest air flow. any thoughts greatly appreciated. | ok, so stack effect causes higher pressures the higher in the building you are and lower pressures the lower in the building you are. natural stack effect would pull air in the first floor as long as there is a place to let it flow out the 2nd floor. the problems are 1) making a large enough pressure difference to get a noticeable airflow in and out of the windows, and 2) having the air flow in and out of where you want it to. where does the hatch go? attic? does it have soffits that are open to the outside? if so, you can open the hatch and a bottom story window and the air will slowly get pulled from the first to the second floor. the chimney is a great way to do this especially when you have a dark chimney because you create a solar chimney which heats air inside of it, the air rises, and increases the draw of air into the house. (but the chimney is on the opposite side of the house than the office. secondly you want to make sure the rest of your house is well air-sealed. if you have a leaky house the air will come in and go out wherever it can which means tiny cracks and penetrations. if you have an attic you can actually air seal from the top. this creates a better air barrier where the highest pressure is, resulting in more airflow in any other hole, ie the hatch. so, open a window or two on the bottom floor (top or bottom of the window doesn't really matter, but typically, the lower the opening, the lower the pressure), and open the hatch if it is open to the outside in the attic. if not, open a second floor top of the window. these are all passive techniques. no active (with fans or anything) does that make sense? edit: you also mention a basement. if you have any windows in the basement then your best option is to definitely open these. if you put a fan in the 2nd floor window blowing out and close everything else up, the basement air will be pulled into the house and this is cooler air. edit 2: this is one of my favorite subjects so feel free to private message me for more specific questions. what you are looking for are passive cooling techniques. see [this page](_url_0_) for a basic reference. also, if you have a yard, you can actually put a large pipe or tube underground and direct that into your home. that way if you have a pressure difference, the outdoor warm air gets pulled through the ground tube and gets cooled before it goes into your home. | 3 | [] | [
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"http://www.sustainable-buildings.org/wiki/index.php/Category:Passive_and_solar_assisted_cooling"
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what is the best example of "this molecule is awesome, but its diastereomer/enatiomer will kill you"? | kind of relating to how ibuprofen has two forms, and only one of them is effective, but the other is just inert. | mppp is an opioid analog that was first synthesized in 1947. it can get you high, relieve pain. it's structural analog and synthesis byproduct, mptp, is a selective killer of dopaminergic neurons. it will give you parkinson's even if you so much as inhale it. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://webspace.yale.edu/chem125/125/thalidomide/thalidomide.html"
] | [
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what is the mechanism behind optical fresnel losses? | even a perfectly polished glass surface can exhibit ~4% loss per surface when bombarded by orthogonal incident rays. i understand that optical coatings form layers of increased density, therefore decreasing the "step density" between air and glass, but i don't understand the actual mechanism behind the fresnel less. in a vacuum would the effect become more pronounced? | the backreflection arises from an impedance mismatch between the two media. in this case the impedance is related to the electrical permittivity, which exhibits a discontinuity at the interface. the permittivity of air is very close to that of vacuum, so there wouldn't be a significant difference between air and a vacuum. by adding one or more layers of material at the interface, the impedance can be matched over a specified wavelength range such that the back-reflection can be well below 4%. this is how anti-reflection coatings work. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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octopi have turned off annoying aquarium lights by squirting water at them, can use tools, and open jars - all while living as little as a year. how do they manage to learn so fast? | > octopi have turned off annoying aquarium lights by squirting water at them, can use tools (veined octopus) and open jars (see video). > > amazingly, octopus do all this while living as little as a year. they grow to full size, solve puzzles, breed and die while human babies are still learning to sit up and crawl. that’s mind-blowing. and it makes you wonder – what could an octopus achieve in fifty years? > see _url_0_ | abstract 1 ([link to article](_url_1_)) cellular mechanisms underlying learning and memory were investigated in the octopus using a brain slice preparation of the vertical lobe, an area of the octopus brain involved in learning and memory. field potential recordings revealed long-term potentiation (ltp) of glutamatergic synaptic field potentials similar to that in vertebrates. these findings suggest that convergent evolution has led to the selection of similar activity-dependent synaptic processes that mediate complex forms of learning and memory in vertebrates and invertebrates. ie. their brain works essentially like ours (vertebrates) [source 2](_url_0_) they have at least as many neurons as a field mouse, but they have brains in each arm as well and these are responsible for movement mostly, so maybe more of their actual brain could potentially be used for other memory tasks. add to that that they only live a year so rapid brain development is advantageous and you have a fast learning, quick developing creature. with these two traits alone you could get a creature capable of using complex step actions to accomplish goals. edit (separate my supposition from research quotes) | 294 | [] | [
"http://blogs.agu.org/outdoorscience/2011/01/20/smart-octopi-go-on-walkabout/"
] | [
"http://blogs.sciencemag.org/origins/2009/10/tackling-brain-evolution-with.html",
"http://jn.physiology.org/content/90/5/3547.short",
"http://boingboing.net/2010/02/01/the-secrets-of-octop.html"
] | [
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how much mass must an object have to be an effective electrical ground? | for example, you can ground jumper cables on the frame of car, yet it is insulated from the actual ground. i'm guessing it depends on the voltage/amperage, but what exactly is the math involved? | essentially the earths size is so massive that it can absorb the extra electrons at a higher voltage state without changing the voltage of ground. use the equation q=cv and assume the earth has infinite capacitance. the voltage of ground will not change with any addition of electrons. voltage is similar to how many electrons are in a certain area and is similar to physical elevation. voltage is also similar to potential energy. when a path presents its self with a lower elevation, current flows to it. essentially earth is like the ocean and all current will flow to it unless you have a negative voltage (where the electron density is lower than that of earth or ground. then electrons from earth or ground will flow to the negative voltage source.) the ocean's water level will rise a negligible amount with the addition of a little water. same with earth ground. it's voltage won't change at all. research the phenomenon of self-capacitance. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does diets, physical and mental exercises affect cognitive functions and, if so, how? | what does diets, physical and mental exercises affect cognitive functions and, if so, how? thank you, ~waddlesticks | **diet** alzheimer's disease is being increasingly referred to as type 3 diabetes. a 2008 article reviewed the scientific literature to see whether or not this makes sense. the conclusion: [it makes absolute sense](_url_1_). sugar may not only be related to ad. [it may also be related to adhd](_url_2_). "what?" you ask. "i thought we disproved the link between sugar and adhd a long time ago." well, yes. sugar doesn't make kids hyperactive. that's just a myth. but this myth seems to have obscured the reality of the situation. adhd is usually treated with dopamine agonists and it is believed that individuals with adhd have problems with dopamine signals. so we give them drugs that "amplify" dopamine signals similar to how we give deaf people devices that amplify auditory signals. excessive intake of sugar in individuals with certain genetic predispositions may lead to a reduction of dopamine (d2) receptors. why? the reward hub of your brain, the nucleus accumbens, adjusts to the relative sizes of rewards in your environment. when it has become adjusted to large rewards (sugar), it gets less sensitive to smaller rewards. this leads to problems of concentration and motivation. bear in mind, this is just a hypothesis. if you will accept 'bacteria' as forming part of one's diet, [there is an interesting link between autism and gut microbiota](_url_4_). *bacteroides fragilis* is a bacteria commonly found in our gut. individuals with autism have been found to have a less diverse microbiome than non-autistic individuals. probiotic treatment with *b. fragilis* have been demonstrated to relieve many of the symptoms related to this disorder. **physical exercise** it is a common myth that you don't grow new neurons during your lifetime. in reality, there are some areas of the brain where you do see fresh ones popping up. in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, for instance. this is called 'neurogenesis' and is treated with great enthusiasm in the field of neuroscience. want to boost your memory? lift your mood? learn faster? exercise. [exercise has been found to increase neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus](_url_0_). it also does other great stuff for your brain. **mental exercise** you see a lot of brain training games these days. they are sold with the promise of enhancing cognitive abilities, such as working memory. [this is, sadly, just a sham](_url_3_). when you play a 'brain-training game', you get better at that specific game, but nothing else. been investigated in a wide range of studies involving typically developing children, children with cognitive impairments (particularly adhd), and healthy adults. our meta-analyses show clearly that these training programs give only near-transfer effects, and there is no convincing evidence that even such near-transfer effects are durable. the absence of transfer to tasks that are unlike the training tasks shows that there is no evidence these programs are suitable as methods of treatment for children with developmental cognitive disorders or as ways of effecting general improvements in adults’ or children’s cognitive skills or scholastic attainments. there are some studies showing that individuals with higher levels of education are less likely to suffer age-related cognitive decline, but that doesn't mean that they were saved because they used their brain more. it is more likely that more educated individuals are more concerned with diet and physical exercise than less educated individuals and that this is why they stay cognitively sharper in their later years. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4565722/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2769828/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3598008/",
"https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/dev-49-2-270.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3897394/"
] | [
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a billiard ball is placed on a granite counter. how many atoms are touching/interacting? | there are equations for this! the ball and the granite are not perfectly rigid. (nothing is...) so when you put one on the other, they both squish together a bit. this got studied a lot because of ball bearings and some et cetera... we can use the the equation for a spherical contact patch between isotropic materials to calculate the size of the contact patch. for this to work, we assume the granite plane is a thick sphere with infinite radius. * r = radius of contact * f = force of contact. (for this, the weight of the billiard ball.) * v = poisson's ratio of ball/granite (amount a material expands off-axis when squished.) * e = modulus of elasticity. (stiffness of material.) * d = diameter * subscripts 1 and 2 will indicate granite and sphere. (note that 1/infinity = 0.) equation: (from shigley's mechanical engineering, load & stress analysis chapter.) r = cuberoot((3*f/8)*(((1-v1^2 )/e1+(1-v2^2 )/e2))/(1/d1+1/d2)) inputs: (billard ball) * weight 1.668 n * mod. of elasticity 4800 mpa * poisson's ratio 0.36 mm/mm * diameter 57.15 mm (granite) * mod. of elasticity 50000 mpa * poisson's ratio 0.14 mm/mm * diameter (huge) mm result: r = 0.193 mm a = 0.117 mm^2 (about the size of 2 computer monitor pixels.) now, i don't know the size of a granite crystal, or anything about it's lattice structure (because it's difficult to google and i'm ~~lazy~~ tired) but silicon has a square crystal structure that's 0.543x0.543 nanometers with two face atoms per crystal cell. divide that out and you end up with about 793 billion 'granite' atoms "touching" the pool ball. and maybe one of you magnificent bastards can clean up that equation formatting up for me... grandpa can't reddit. [pdf of equation - on page 7-5](_url_0_) | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mech.utah.edu/~me7960/lectures/Topic7-ContactStressesAndDeformations.pdf"
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|
what does it mean to understand something or not understand it? what's going on in the brain and conscientiousness that allows this to happen? | [deleted] | i think it comes down to how "black box" a thing is to you. i know exactly how a toaster works... coils get hot, bread gets toasted. so i feel like i "understand" a toaster. but a jet engine? i know air goes in one end, yadda yadda yadda, and comes out faster on the other side. i have absolutely no idea what that "yadda yadda yadda" part is, so i feel like i don't understand a jet engine. so can you break a thing down into it's bits and parts, or is there a bunch of yadda yadda to it? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a friend stated "tilt: two charges of one coulomb each separated by a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons." is this statement true? | yes, although the way it's worded is nonsense. 1 million tons is a unit of mass, not force**. however if we assume they mean the equivalent weight of 1 million tons on earth then it's easy to check, the force between two charged particles is f = k q1q2/r^2 k is a constant, k = 8.987*10^9 n m^2 c^(-2) so if q1 = q2 = 1c and r = 1m then f = k *1 c^2 / 1m^2 = 8.987 * 10^9 n. a million tons is a unit of mass, but we can calculate the force due to gravity at sea level exerted on a million tons (i'm assuming this doesn't mean metric tons) due to gravity and we get (thanks to wolfram alpha for doing the unit conversion) (1 million tons) * (9.81 m/s^(2)) = 8.899 * 10^9 n pretty similar. if we were to use metric tons we would get 9.81 * 10^9 n. ** i forgot that tons could be used to mean 2000 lbs, which is force, in which case you get 8.896 * 10^9 n, which is equivalent to everything above anyway. thanks to click353 for the clarification. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
apéritifs and digestifs supposedly stimulate your appetite and aid in digestion, respectively. is there any evidence/science behind this? | i was reading [this article on the difference between an apéritif and a digestif](_url_0_), and was wondering if there's any actual science behind the claims, or if it's more tied to other factors, like maybe culture? | apéritifs seem like a good way to stimulate your taste buds before having a meal. digestifs however are not necessarily useful for after a thick fatty meal. they only seem to send out signals to the brain as a muscle relaxer. tea in contrast is much better for digestion. scientists from eth zurich have experimented on this: _url_0_ | 140 | [] | [
"http://www.italspirits.com/the-difference-between-an-aperitif-and-a-digestif/"
] | [
"http://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c6731"
] | [
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my girl's client is trying to sell her "earthing" products, can someone please explain why this stuff does or does not work? | earthing apparently is about grounding yourself to the earth and promotes being barefoot outside which of course has benefits, but they also sell products to keep you "grounded" all the time. i know it's a psuedo-scientifical concept taking advantage of some truths about being barefoot, etc but can someone explain why this stuff is or is not legit? (based on science) [_url_0_](_url_0_) | no chance this works. so this idea behind 'grounding' is mainting the same electric potential between your body and the earth. in our every day lives do we build up charge and have a end up having a different potential than the earth? yes, absolutely! but, (and this is a big but) when this happens, as soon as you touch a door knob, or anything else that is grounded -- *spark* -- a quick shock and we are back to equilibrium. the truth is we touch grounded things all the time, realigning our electric potential with the earth's. now, it seems from reading a bit on this site, that they aren't really talking about actual "electric energy" but something a bit more metaphysical, in which case there is exactly zero proof to back up such a claim. so long story short: we are grounded...all the time, and this idea of some otherworldly energy force has no basis. | 23 | [] | [
"http://www.earthinginstitute.net/"
] | [] | [
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publications from north korea... | it wouldn't really matter much for me, but i can't really recall seeing a north korean paper in any context, really. i did once hear a second or third hand account about a north korean guest researcher they had at my university back in the 80's, who was accompanied by an appointed chaperone (i'd suppose, to make sure he didn't defect or do anything 'subversive'). people talked about how weird it was that he'd be working in the lab with this guy just sitting there, watching. it was only for some months though. i don't really know anything about science in nk (i mean, it doesn't seem like _anyone_ knows too much about anything going on inside the country) i'm sure they read foreign journals, but i'd guess they mostly publish (to the extent that they do) in their one ones, in their own language. their scientists are probably very isolated; i doubt many get permission to leave the country to go to conferences and such (even the soviet were restrictive with that back in the day, and yet they weren't nearly as shut off from the rest of the world as nk is) the ones who don't do 'important' military-related research probably have very little resources as well. my feeling is that in these extreme societies, it's not so much about the politicians telling the scientists what to do, but rather bad scientists who cunningly exploited their totalitarian systems to eliminate their scientific rivals and further their own careers. that happened in the soviet union, mainly during the stalin era, [lysenkoism](_url_1_) being the most infamous example. (they also executed hans hellmann, who wrote the first textbook on quantum chemistry. although probably mainly because he was german) in nazi germany there was ["deutsche physik"](_url_0_), and part of hellman's tragedy was that he'd fled nazi germany because he couldn't get a professorship there due to his wife being a russian jew. but i don't think scientists or journals would ever put a blanket ban on a particular country. (although in this case, they don't really participate much in the first place) we're capable of evaluating the research on its own merits, so there'd be little reason to. these things haven't been consistent either; even while lysenkoism was a huge blow to soviet biology, there was still good work being done in physics (e.g. lev landau), mathematics (kolmogorov) and chemistry (frumkin) among other things. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Physik",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism"
] | [
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] |
|
if i dug a hole through to the other side of the earth (ie apple-core style), and jumped down the hole, what happens when i get to the middle? | i dig a wide, perfectly straight hole from one side of the earth to the other, effectively turning the earth into something like an apple that's had it's core taken out. assuming that this hole is also lined with something that prevents magma and the iron-core etc leaking-into/distorting the hole and that i have a special suit that can handle the pressure/heat, i then jump down the hole, trying to jump from my side of the earth to the other end (eg uk to australia). do i reach terminal velocity and then go at a constant speed until i reach the core, and then stop dead at the core? do i keep going when i get to the core and shoot out the other end like a champagne cork due to my momentum? what the hell does gravity and my momentum do to me when i get near/to/past the middle? also, if i got past the core, would i then "feel" upside down, or the right way up? | if we ignore air resistance, it will happen like iorgfeflkd said. you will continuously accelerate as you approach the center of the earth, and then gravity will slow you down when you are on the other side of the center. if the earth was a perfect sphere and there was zero wind resistance, you would just barely pop out the other side of the hole, and then you would fall back in the hole and go the opposite direction. a detail that makes the problem interesting: as you move towards the center, the force of gravity on your body will decrease. when you are at the center of the earth, the force on your body would be 0. bare with me for a second, but this is because [the gravitational force anywhere inside a uniform hollow sphere is 0](_url_0_). all of the matter in the earth that is further from center than you ends up having no effect (the combined gravitational attractions to each part of the sphere's surface end up canceling each other out). so, your acceleration is at a maximum directly at the surface of the earth and decreases to 0 at the center. if you add air resistance, you would hit terminal velocity very early in the fall. because the force on your body due to gravity is decreasing as you approach the center, the terminal velocity would actually decrease. this is because gravitational force = air resistance force if you are at equilibrium, and the air resistance force increases with velocity. so, a decrease in gravitational force means you need a smaller air resistance to reach equilibrium, and you reach a lower speed. as a result, you would pass the center going fairly slow and you will not reach the exit to your hole. instead, you will oscillate back and forth across the center of the earth. each oscillation you will lose some energy to air resistance, so the amplitude of your oscillation will slowly decrease. after a very long time, you would end up sitting still at the center of the earth. edit: i put together a little calculation to show that this is true. you can [see the document here](_url_1_). it uses a time-stepping procedure to numerically solve for the distance fallen with time. it's very rough, but if it is correct it qualitatively verifies my claims above. the most interesting number to come out of it is that it actually takes 3 days to make it to the center! (note: i didn't account for the fact that the air density changes substantially with distance into the hole. because the result would be greater drag at the same velocities, this means that the person falling through the hole would go slower than what i a calculated.) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/Numbers/Math/Mathematical_Thinking/grvtysp.htm",
"http://imgur.com/a/qIKj9"
] | [
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you remember those batteries that you could press on them and they showed you how much life was left? how did those work? | some quick googling turned this up. _url_0_ the tl;dr is that you print a wedge of ink that changes color in response to temperature changes over a wedge that conducts electricity. pressing each end completes the circuit, and how far the indicator changes is dependent on the current density. higher current density means the conductor is warmer there, and the current density decreases as the wedge spreads out. as your battery loses its charge it can't supply as much current, so the color change is visible less far down the indicator. does that make sense? | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/everyday-tech/question423.htm"
] | [
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|
writing a short story featuring a neutron star. need science advice. | i am writing a short story featuring a neutron star. speculate; what would happen if a rogue neutron star entered our solar system? it's destined to slam into earth and destroy it but along the way surely it would have other effects. if there are any scientists that would like to weigh in i would love your input and proudly acknowledge you should the short story sell. thanks! | ignoring the phenomenal improbability for a second, it would almost certainly be travelling at breakneck speed, so the effects would be brief. without more details it would be exceptionally difficult to give you an accurate answer, as speed, mass, trajectory, current planetary positions etc all make a large difference. one thing you could try is buying something like universe sandbox from steam. it's not absolutely flawless, but it's based on real physical laws and isn't bad, plus it comes with a built in model of the solar system. so all you'd need to do is learn how to stick a mass reminiscent of a neutron star in, lob it at the pre-existing solar system model, and you've got a reasonable idea of the gravitational effects. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if you stayed in room with only one color of light, such as red? would your cones adapt or would it be like coming out a cave? | the cones don't adapt but the chemicals that your body interprets from the reaction with light become saturated. it takes time for this to clear out, which leads to the effect of things appearing the opposite color. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does wingwalking work? | i’ve googled repeatedly but can’t find an explanation of the physics of non-harnessed wingwalking. why don’t they just get blown off? | planes aren't usually going that fast when there is un-harnessed wingwalking going on, and even then you will be holding onto either the struts or the wing itself. really this just comes down to a question of how high winds you think it would take before you couldn't stay upright or walk with the assistance of a railing/pole. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do islandic spar crosshairs work? | i was wondering if anyone could _url_0_ how these islandic spar crosshairs that are described in the 'islandic alarm goes modern' section work. i have tried to replecate it but i feel that the classical blocks that are cut in a way that shows a nice double letter effect is not the right cut. should it be cut allong a different axis? [_url_1_](_url_1_) | i'm surprised to see this, and am interested to learn that optical mineralogy has some important use in war. the sight is an early version of the modern "holographic" sight. it uses interference figures in anisotropic minerals (here, it is calcite) to create an image only when the viewer is looking through it in a very particular orientation (directly down the gun). i think it would probably be used in tandem with a more traditional gun sight to help gunners be sure that they are looking right down the gunsight. td;lr. you are correct. your crystal needs to be cut perpendicular to the optical axis of the calcite (iceland spar) crystal. you should not see the "double refraction" phenomenon in that orientation. however cutting a calcite crystal in this orientation takes some effort. if you take a piece of iceland spar and hold it to a piece of paper with a dot on it, you will notice that one dot becomes two! this is the characteristic "double refraction" of calcite. the distance between the two doubly refracted points is a function of the thickness of the crystal and **the orientation of the crystal**. in different orientations of the crystal, the space between the to doubly refracted images will vary between some maximum distance (dependent on the crystal thickness), and zero distance (overlap of the two doubly refracted images). in almost all orientations, two dots will be observed, and by rotating the crystal the two images (dots) will revolve around one another. however, there is a special orientation of a calcite crystal where only one dot can be seen, even if the crystal is rotated. this is the optical axis. cutting calcite exactly perpendicular to its optical axis is tricky! it's even more tricky to explain where the optical axis is without images. [mindat has a great tool for visualizing the orientation of axes on crystals](_url_0_). in the linked webpage, scroll down to "crystallographic forms of calcite". just to the lower right of the crystal figure toggle on "axes". you should be able to see the different axes of the calcite crystal superimposed over the 3d image of the crystal. the "c" axis of the calcite crystal on the diagram is the optical axis of the crystal. if you can match up your iceland spar rhombohedron with the image on mindat, and cut it perpendicular to the "c" axis, you should have the cut you need. | 3 | [] | [
"tell.me",
"https://petapixel.com/2013/12/12/iceland-spar-rock-discovered-optics/"
] | [
"https://www.mindat.org/min-859.html"
] | [
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are humans, by preserving the weaker members of our species, hurting our evolution? | evolution selects the individuals who are most fit for their environment. this is not always the most physically imposing specimen (ask the t-rex how that worked out) but rather one who is able to survive under the given circumstances. since humans are a highly social species our "circumstance" consists largely of other humans and our mental capacity is far more valuable to our survival than pure physical might. the average iq has been increasing over the decades so it would appear we're going in the right direction. brute strength is no match for human ingenuity. if it's any consolation, the *homo* genus has been selecting intelligence over strength for several million years, this isn't a new phenomenon. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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fight or flight is controlled by the adrenal glands (atop the kidneys). does someone who has had kidney transplants lose this response? | that is, assuming the failing kidneys are removed. since nerve connections don't regenerate, wouldn't that sever the connection that would signal the glands to release adrenaline? | there are a few misunderstandings in your question. innervation of adrenal glands do not originate in the kidneys. their removal does not prevent innervation (but does affect adrenal function). secondly, you are right that some nerve connections do not regenerate but that is isolated for the most part to central nerves (ie. brain and spinal). in fact, we study peripheral nerves in attempt to learn and induce regrowth in central nerves. it's an ongoing and very complicated field of research. back to hampering adrenal function during a kidney removal. the architecture of the body is not identical on either side. the right-side kidney empties into the inferior vena cava whereas the left-side kidney empties into the left adrenal vein. because removal of the left kidney would necessitate clamping off the left adrenal vein, the function of the left adrenal gland would be severely hampered. removal of the right kidney would not have that effect as it drains directly into the inferior vena cava and does not need to be clamped off. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could someone explain the math in this article? | > during a mean follow-up of 7.3 years, 797 participants (23.2%) developed dementia (637 of these [79.9%] developed alzheimer disease). a 10-year cumulative dose-response relationship was observed for dementia and alzheimer disease (test for trend, p < .001). for dementia, adjusted hazard ratios for cumulative anticholinergic use compared with nonuse were 0.92 (95% ci, 0.74-1.16) for tsdds of 1 to 90; 1.19 (95% ci, 0.94-1.51) for tsdds of 91 to 365; 1.23 (95% ci, 0.94-1.62) for tsdds of 366 to 1095; and 1.54 (95% ci, 1.21-1.96) for tsdds greater than 1095. a similar pattern of results was noted for alzheimer disease. results were robust in secondary, sensitivity, and post hoc analyses. _url_0_ is this one of those 1 in a million becomes 1.05 in a million or does this study point in the direction of anticholinergics cause dementia? | neither. it's an observational study, which means that they can only conclude association, not causality. it could be that there are external factors that cause both increased probability of dementia and increased prescription of anticholinergics. that said, the association they did get seems both significant (25% increase in dementia incidence for tsdd of 366-1095, which comes out to anticholinergics once every 3-10 days, etc) and robust. | 3 | [] | [
"http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2091745"
] | [] | [
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what is the evolutionary benefit for a gap between the infundibulum of the fallopian tube and the ovary itself? | i was talking with some colleagues today about female reproductive anatomy and i could not think of any reason there should be a gap between these two structures. maybe it has to do with embryological development, but if that is so, wouldn't we have evolved to remove this "shortcoming"? usually any defect in the process of egg moving from ovary to fallopian tube is fatal (to the embryo and mom). so you would think that this would be strongly selected against... your thoughts? | while i can't comment on that structure specifically, evolution doesn't necessarily lead to the overall best outcome, just what is locally more competitive (eg, 3 hands might be better, but since we have two, two with fingers is better). this gap might not serve any purpose but could be a hang over from a pathway to a current facet of evolution. if you wanted to do some research on this particular one, i might suggest comparing it reproductive tracks of quad-petal animals or different bi-pedal animals and trying to spot something that might make sense there | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcVC3TFI7fQ",
"http://radiopaedia.org/articles/abdominal-ectopic-pregnancy"
] | [
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what would happen if you would repeatedly electrically stimulate a muscle and didn't stop? what would you feel? | okay, here's the hypothetical scenario. most of us know that muscles can be electrically stimulated. an electrical pulse will make a muscle contract without the brain playing any role. well, what would happen if you took an electrode and stimulated a muscle (say a calf muscle), and continued to pulsate at a high enough frequency to not allow the muscle to recover. what would happen to the muscle? could there be permanent damage? how would that feel to the subject upon who it is being performed? | it's called tetanus. you could damage the muscle and the whole experience would be really painful. after a while the tissue would run out of atp and the muscle would be unable to contract anymore. it would still hurt though. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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shortest latency for human visual processing? need some clarification. | can't seem to find a concrete answer on how quickly the human visual system can process a scene/object from the time light hits the retina to the brain processing the stimulation and beginning to react at a "higher level" what i think i know so far is this: 1) averages from 100ms - 200ms+ for brain to process static visual input into higher level categorization e.g. recognize a face, object categorization etc. 2) motion involves a lot of further calculation and the brain does a lot of fudging/averaging out of processing in order to try and speed up calculation time? 3) exists at least two (?) pathways in which processing happens simultaneously/parallel. 4) some process called "blind sight" which involves a older pathway of the brain, allows for rapid outline,contrast checking and can quickly determine "flight or fight" scenario like "snake darts out in front of you, oh shit, dodge" or similar reactions. this can be < 80ms? basically, am i right in assuming that conscious "visual identification" less than < 100ms does not occur and that the quickest processing occurs unconsciously. therefore it would be accurate to say for day to day scene processing 100ms is quickest? please any correction or clarification would be very welcome!! | areas v1 and mt especially, but also other brain areas, get direct input from lgn - lgn responds starting ~10ms or so after stimulation of the retina. there are neurons in mt that have latency ~50ms; v1, v2, and mt in general, all have average latency < 100ms. even though mt responds very quickly, it's also getting a lot of input from striate/extrastriate cortex, and response to that input is once you get past lgn, there are indeed many parallel visual pathways; more than two; it's branches after branches. it cortex starts to respond to input ~150ms after stimulation (i'm working on some it data lately). blind sight is not well understood; there are only a few patients who've been studied in depth, although we definitely believe something's going on there, it's hard to say what. someone who's lost v1 to injury will have lost most subjective visual experience, but they still have access to some visual information, though it depends on exactly where the lesion was. most people with v1 don't have any functional blindsight (i.e. they aren't aware of any visual information, and can't make any use of what they do have). i've worked with many stroke patients with striate lesions - i always did checks to see if i could find any functional vision in the scotomas, and never found any - not that it wasn't there, but it's not obvious. i think 100ms as the limit of speed of seeing is a good number; as you indicate, vision is a cascade; you'll get low-level qualia before you get the higher (you can see a word before you can read it, etc.). but something has to get into the cortex before you have a chance of being conscious of it, and that takes at least 100ms. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the rings of uranus seem to be... resonating? 2:30 in video | _url_0_ at first i thought that both the rings of uranus and saturn were doing this, but there is only a slight low reverberation near the beginning of saturn's rings (3:30). why does everything sound like static, expect for those rings, which are practically harmonizing? | 1) sound absolutely does not "exist as electromagnetic radiation." you can *convert* em radiation into sound, if you wish, but that's a pretty trivial statement. 2) this doesn't have anything to do with the "rings" around the planet, not to my knowledge at least. at best it would be maybe the interaction 3) the video tells you itself where the sound comes from. interactions of charged electromagnetic particles from the solar wind, ionosphere, and planetary magnetosphere (ie, charged particles from the sun interacting with the uppermost atmosphere and magnetic fields of the planets) | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odTVP7JiURE"
] | [] | [
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] |
how can a neutral pion exist? | if a particle and its antiparticle collide they annihilate so how can a neutral pion made up of an up quark and an anti up quark exist? | quantum mechanics is inherently probabilistic. particles and antiparticles don't always have to annihilate. take [bhabha scattering](_url_1_) as a counter-example. the valence quarks in a neutral pion usually *do* annihilate pretty quickly. the π^(0) has a lifetime of roughly 10^(−16) s, compared with 10^(−8) s for charged pions, and the branching fraction for π^(0)→γγ is about 99%. ^[source](_url_2_) the fundamental interactions have characteristic timescales that are inversely proportional to their interaction strengths.^[source](_url_0_) neutral pions decay predominantly via electromagnetism, which has a smaller coupling constant than the strong force (which binds the quarks together), hence a longer timescale. charged pions can only decay via the weak force, which has an even longer timescale. this is evident in the difference in lifetimes between charged and neutral pions. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ph.surrey.ac.uk/partphys/chapter6/nature.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhabha_scattering",
"http://pdg8.lbl.gov/rpp2014v1/pdgLive/Particle.action?node=S009"
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how do doctors rule someone to be in "stable" condition vs being in "critical" condition? | i know what they mean about, but i am just curious as to what doctors/nurses/emt's look at when they pronounce someone to be in critical condition. i always ponder this question when events happen like today's bombing incident. thanks. | depends on the setting. if you are an emt first-responder, you will triage the patients based on a color-coding system such as those described [here](_url_3_). there are algorithms that can vary by your location, etc. here is an [example of fdny's](_url_4_). figuring out who's black (not going to make it), who's red (critical), and who's stable enough to wait around is most important. usually, if the patient is not breathing and doesn't start breathing after a [jaw thrust](_url_2_) they are a black and probably won't make it. if they can't walk but can breath, they probably will be more of a red. (you can search algorithms if you want) in transport to the trauma bay, we will generally qualify you as a level 1 (bad) or level 2 (not so bad) trauma. this can also vary by region, etc. here is a [pdf](_url_0_) that shows criteria for each. usually a penetrating chest injury will be level 1, same if you are in a coma, can't breath, and so on. a level 2 will be more diminished level of consciousness, broken bones, penetrating wound on your arm... the difference in response at my hospital is just that we are a little more revved up, make extra sure to have everything we're always supposed to, and the attending (head) physician comes down faster. it can also affect where you are transferred to though. once you are in the hospital, you can be assigned as good, fair, serious, or critical condition based on your vital signs. [here](_url_1_) is an example. usually, i just think about whether you are stable or not. signs of being not stable can include fast heart rate and low blood pressure, especially if that's happening as we are trying to give you fluids. you can obviously also make that call based on the types of injuries you have (bleeding into your abdomen after a car crash as a 20 year old might not lead to a big change in your vitals but probably still means you are unstable). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/surgery/trauma/Protocols/TraumaAlert.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_state#US_practice",
"http://www.aic.cuhk.edu.hk/web8/Hi%20res/modified%20jaw%20thrust%203.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_triage_and_rapid_treatment#Procedure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FDNY_Modified_S.T.A.R.T.workflow.jpg"
] | [
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] |
why does this patch of arizona have such a clear demarcation in color? | i was flying over arizona this week, and spotted this from the airplane window. the ground has a distinct change in color in a very straight line. what causes this? we thought possibly a fence or something affecting the flow of dirt, but it goes on for miles and over a large canyon. if you look closely you can also see the wind patterns on the ground continue over the color change line. (it is not the airplane window or photoshop.) we found it on google maps and it's the ha ho no geh canyon area. photo here: [_url_0_](_url_0_) | this is really fascinating. i think there's a couple things going. first, in google earth images, there are some real lines and also some lines that *look* like this, but are really different edges of stitched photos and in the this part of the country, a little bit of rain or shadows from time of day can make the photos look slightly different a few hours apart. i have a largely unused degree in geology and there are three things i know of that can make lines sort of like this. tilted geology so that old sedimentary layers are seen on edge. lava "dikes" that have been injected vertically upward and that look like a two inch wall after they are eroded down. basin and range faults, where a huge bock of crust just drops down can look strikingly linear like this, as can more typical faults. i've seen faults in utah that look like a 10' hill that runs for a mile. however, i think this line is a fence for grazing land that follows county borders or something. it's too long and too perfectly linear. and if you follow one of the lines down a ways here: [_url_0_](_url_0_) you can actually see a fence and some cattle grazing on one side of it. i think most of us are just incredulous that a fence could be that dumb and long and straight. but if you've got a 100,000 acre ranch, a surveyor, a post hole digger and plenty of time... | 13 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/aKZDBFH"
] | [
"https://www.google.com/maps/place/Ha+Ho+No+Geh+Canyon/@35.7952162,-111.0009387,90m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x87317ed7ff173d6f:0x2f45d497ab99cb54!8m2!3d36.1255494!4d-111.0101422"
] | [
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what is nomenclature? | a nomenclature is simply a system for naming. it's a convention for a specific field or subfield that's followed in order to ensure some degree of consistency. i'm not sure what you're asking about that can't be answered from wikipedia or a quick google search, which makes me think there may be more to your question. could you please clarify? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a couple questions about food chemistry | * what sorts of chemicals give different fruits and vegtables they're unique/diverse textures? it has to be some mixture of sugars, proteins, and fiber(==cellulose?) i would imagine, is there a class of molecules i'm missing? * mayonnaise. seriously, how the ...? * what is responsible for the awesome stretchiness melted moezzerella whence heated? * grains! can some explain the chemical difference between complex carbos? wheat, starch, rice. is any one healthier than the other? | texture is partially a function of the molecules present, but mainly a function of how they're arranged. layers, fibers, random granules, etc, have a much stronger effect on how a food feels to your mouth than what those structures are made from. we can use this to our advantage when designing food substitutes; microcrystalline cellulose has a close mouthfeel to fat, despite being an entirely indigestible carbohydrate, because the crystal structure is similar to the way solid fat is arranged. mozzarella cheese is kneaded during production. this aligns the casein proteins in long internal fibers, as opposed to most cheeses where the curd is cut up and squeezed together. these proteins stay aligned, and the high moisture content of mozzarella helps keep them pliable when melted, leading to awesome stretchiness. almost all grains have three kinds of complex carbohydrates, all of which are built from long collections of glucose molecules. if the molecule is linear, that is long chains of glucose, it is either amylose or cellulose (depending on the specific links between glucose units). amylose is digestible starch, cellulose is nondigestible fiber. if the glucose molecules form a branched structure, the molecule is known as amylopectin. the specific ratio of cellulose/amylose/amylopectin determines the texture, nutrition, and cooking characteristics of any given grain. grains higher in cellulose are thought of as high-fiber, and a diet high in fiber has shown some health benefits. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if two of your fingers were cut off, let's say index and middle, and the doctor reattached them, but in reverse, would it feel like you were touching the opposite finger that you were actually touching? | assuming the nerves reattached perfectly (not likely), it'd feel about the same. there's a nerve path from the fingertip all the way to the brain, like a wire. swapping one finger for another doesn't change the fact that the rest of the path still goes to the same spot it's like: if you're wiring your house up, and you swap the bathroom lightswitch with the kitchen lightswitch, going into the kitchen and flipping the switch won't make the light in the bathroom come on. source: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://virtualworldlets.net/Resources/Hosted/Resource.php?Name=NervousStructure-Arm"
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|
can someone explain why this is a valid method of measuring the obesity rate? | the article is using information directly from the cdc: [prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents: united states, trends 1963-1965 through 2007-2008](_url_1_). as far as i can tell, the cutoff for obesity was fixed to the 2000 charts, so it makes sense to compare obesity rates across different years. those charts are based on data gathered from 1963-1994. (you can find the charts and methods [here](_url_0_).) notice that it hits around the exact 5% obesity (which you'd expect using the 95th percentile) in the '70s. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/",
"http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity_child_07_08/obesity_child_07_08.htm"
] | [
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|
does electricity really have to be used as it is created? | i was listening to the radio and they were having a discussion on energy. someone, who was not an expert, only a listener, called in and said "as you all know, electricity can only be used as it is created". i barely know anything about science stuff, but i was under the impression that energy like electricity could be saved. like with wind and solar energy, those sorts of energy producers can save the energy produced in order to continue to be used later. so how do wind and solar producers make energy and how is that converted to electricity to be used either later or immediately? | electric current is created when there is a flow of electrons through a conductor. so for there to be electricity the electrons must be moving. when we store electricity we're actually storing some of the energy. it gets converted to other forms. in the case of batteries it is chemical. sometimes they use the power to pump water back up hill (creating potential energy in the water). there are other ways to save the power such as (but not limited to) flywheels and capacitors. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's all this madness about an electron changing its behavior depending on wether or not there's an observer? | so i understand the difference between light-as-a-wave and light-as-a-particle. but seriously, why does an electron's behavior change when observed? | because you can not observe an electron (or any other object subject to quantum mechanical effects) without modifying its state. (eg, you have to bump a photon off of it) but that being said, it technically applies to large objects too. the effects are simply diminishingly small because bouncing wee little photons off of a large object does not hinder it much. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how to generate electricity from scratch? | assume i wake up in pre-industrial civilization with only my clothes and everything i've got on myself. past sucks, so i want to rebuild modern society as soon as possible. unfortunately i'm just regular guy, i hardly know how any of the technology i use works, i could give locals some good ideas, but nothing radical. luckily i have a smartphone/laptop with full wikipedia dump on it, possibly other technical information also. alas batteries are far behind from other technology and i cant memorize everything important in just a couple hours. so i would need to do something to produce electricity to charge that device. how do i go about producing just enough electricity to charge that device, with no industry to support it? | the most important thing to know is to be familiar with [lenz's law](_url_0_): the changing magnetic flux through a loop of wire is proportional to the amount of "voltage" produced in the wire. so you get yourself a coil of wire and a magnet, and maybe a water wheel, and you've got yourself a generator. of course, the wire and magnet are non-trivial problems. maybe someone here knows how to make a strong magnet on the cheap? (also there are other sources like dc batteries, but they generally require a society that has some basic chemical engineering in place) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenz%27s_law",
"http://worldwatts.com/homemade_solar_cell/homemade_solar_cell.html"
] | [
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how do elephants and other animals deal with the microbes and parasites in natural water sources? | title summarizes the question - is it simply that humans are so much more susceptible to that sort of waterborne issue, or are animals that much more resistant, or something more complex? | it's not much different for humans than animals--they also get sick from waterborne illnesses and parasites, and often die from it. however, when a human dies from it, there's a lot of news, but if a wild animal dies of these natural causes, it doesn't generate much news. different species are susceptible to different diseases, but there's not some tremendous categorical difference between humans and all other animals. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the ocean compress itself? | so we all know that deep down in the ocean, it'll compress pretty much everything because of the immense pressure. does the ocean compress itself? if we were to eliminate, let's say for convenience sake, the top half of the ocean, would the bottom half "uncompress" and fill up a volume greater than what is was previously? another phrasing. does the bottom half of the ocean have a greater volume being weighted down by the water above it, than it would if there was half the water in the ocean? does any of that make sense to anybody? | yes, the weight of the water above is what's causing the increase in pressure below. if you remove half the remaining half would expand slightly, but since liquids don't compress very well, it wouldn't expand much. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a way to contain he⁴ super fluids? | of the atoms become bosons, lose all viscosity and start to essentially ignore macro matter, is there a way to contain he⁴ to study it? | just to be clear, the fact that helium is a superfluid simply means that it has no *internal* viscosity, or resistance to flow. however it still interacts with other matter. so you certainly can contain it in say a metal vessel where gravity will keep the fluid down. there is actually one complication here worth mentioning, where the zero viscosity property of superfluids is key. while the fluid molecules aren't attracted to themselves, they can be attracted to other surfaces. this surface tension in turn can lead to a film that can ride up the sides of the container. for superfluid this film can be a [rollin film](_url_0_), which has the crazy property that the fluid can creep up and around the walls of the container as [shown in this clip](_url_1_). this creeping behavior is actually a serious issue in some cryogenic coolers meant for superfluids. one way to deal with the issue is to either create a sharp interface or to use a heating element called a film burner to prevent this film from climbing up the walls. as long as this film doesn't exist the creeping behavior is impossible and the fluid stays contained. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollin_film",
"https://i.imgur.com/ssLJSoS.gifv"
] | [
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which is easier to transport over large distances, 230volts or 115volts? | what about 230v/1a over 1000km versus 115v/2a over the same distance? | power loss to resistance is p = i^2 *r. for a given cable resistance, it is always better to pass less current. since p = v * i, this can be achieved by increasing the voltage. at that point the limiting factor becomes insulation between conductors. in order to decrease r, one has to increase the cross section of cable that the current is flowing through, by using thicker cables or by adding many parallel cables. in order in increase insulation between conductors, they can be separated by air which has excellent holdoff (about 30kv/cm with smooth surfaces), at which point the limiting factor becomes the insulation of whatever is touching the wires. the insulators need only exist where the tower touches the wires, which can vary from every few hundred meters to every few kilometers. to directly answer your question, it depends what kind of cable you have available. if your cable technology is limited to only 120 vac, then you cannot safely transport the 230v. if you have a cable that can handle 230v, then it becomes a question of the wire thickness. if the 120v cable has wires that have 4x the area of the 230v cable, than the two situations would be equal. if the two types of cable had the same wire area, than the power loss would be 4x lower by sending it at 230v/1a. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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doppler shift | the doppler shift for radio waves is no different from the doppler shift observed for any other wavelength of light. what you'll want to do is examine the difference from the accepted lab value of the wavelength from the wavelength of the light you're observing. you'll then want to use the appropriate doppler shift equation for the object you're observing. you'll see the doppler shift pretty clearly (depending on the apparent velocity of the object) if you plot the lab value of the wavlength and your observed wavelength on the same plot. the deviation between the two is the shift. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
need help understanding jfet's, specifically how the depletion region is controlled and its relationship to drain current? | so we just started studying fet's in my electronics circuits and device theory class, i have a basic understanding of how n-channel jfet's work. i am having trouble wrapping my head around how the depletion region is affected by vds/drain current when vgs is set to 0v. i think the larger the drain current(id) becomes the more free electrons are "pulled"(not sure if correct term) from the n-type making the depletion region have more positive ions. i am trying to understand what is physically happening in the depletion region when vgs=0 and id increases. i also want to understand the other side, where id is a function of vgs, how does applying a larger negative voltage make the depletion region larger and how does that effect the resistance of the n-channel. what is the difference between the depletion region when vgs=0 and id is at saturation compared with vgs= some negative value and id = some lower saturation current. what physically happens to the charges in the depletion region? i can clarify if what i'm asking is unclear. | let's start with fundamental materials first. n-type material is doped with pentavalent elements and p-type is doped with trivalent elements. an n-type jfet has an excess of electrons in it's source to drain conducting channel due to n-type doping, and an excess of holes on the gate due to p-type doping. therefore, when n-type and p-type are placed together to form a junction, electrons migrate into the p-side and holes migrate into the n-side. diffusion of an electron from the n-side to the p-side leaves a positive ion behind on the n-side, and diffusion of a hole leaves a negative ion on the p-side. this creates an electric field that provides a force opposing the continued exchange of charge carriers. the formation and change in width of the depletion region depends on the voltage applied to the gate and voltage applied to the source(see construction of a n-type jfet). if you have a lower voltage applied to the gate relative to the voltage applied to the source ie a negative gate to source voltage, the pn junction is reverse biased, causing current flow from source to gate, creating more negative ions and more positive ions in their respective channels and an increase in width of the depletion region. as vgs becomes more negative, the n-type material is depleted of electrons(more positive ions) resulting in greater resistance to current flow(from source to drain) and a smaller drain current. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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theoretically could you implant cones into your eyes that would allow you to see colors you could previously not see? | would be cool to see colors we currently aren't aware of. | perhaps. experiments have been done where new visual pigment proteins have been introduced into red-green colorblind monkeys, and afterwards the monkeys could distinguish colors that they were not able to previously. however, these experiments did not implant new cones into the monkey retinas. instead new proteins were expressed in previously existing cones, and the circuitry already in place adapted to the new spectral properties of the photopigments. see the [neitz lab website](_url_0_) or their [published paper](_url_1_) for more info. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.neitzvision.com/content/genetherapy.html#humans",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782927/"
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i saw citric acid being sold as an antacid in a pharmacy. how’s that work? | i use vinegar as a "stomach remedy", i started doing it about 4 or 5 years ago. i am just now wrapping up a b.s. degree in chem and i will continue to use vinegar as a stomach remedy. your stomach's normal ph is around 2. your stomach has the job of "churning" to mix your food with the acid that is present. when there isn't enough acid present, it overchurns (and causes acid reflux for me). in short: citric acid won't work as an "antacid", but if it works as a "stomach remedy" like vinegar does: it offers _instantaneous relief_ for me and _helps_ my stomach _continue to do it's job_ instead of impeding it. edit: i was at my _wits end_ taking 3 or 4 tums every hour of the day to try to solve gut rumble and looking for a solution. a half a capful of vinegar is one and done. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
there seems to be a correlation between ease of thermal conduction in materials and ease of electrical conduction. why is that? | for instance, copper conducts both heat and electricity very well, but concrete does neither. | there are a few reasons for this trend. 1) charge carriers also carry energy. an electron is pretty much free to move around in a metal right? well, an electron picks up some energy in a hot area and then takes that energy with it to a colder area, thus quickly conducting heat. see section 2.4 of this [book](_url_1_) 2) energy can also be transferred through a material by concerted lattice vibrations known as [phonons](_url_0_). these vibrations are only stable if the pattern of atoms along which the vibration is traveling is stable.when the wave meets an obstacle (a variation in the atomic pattern), it can't travel any further. a wave can start in one crystallite (domain if you like) and travel to the next crystallite, only if the two crystallites have a specifically compatible orientation with respect to one another. metals tend to crystallize in highly symmetrical patterns. this leads to a "high redundency of planes" between adjacent crystalline grains in the material, meaning that there are a lot of different ways that the two crystalline domains can successfully allign to allow the wave to keep moving and keep carrying energy through the material. tl;dr: metals conduct electricity and have symmetrical structures. concrete does not conduct electricity and has a non-uniform low-symmetry structure (mostly). edit: added tl;dr | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=I9XRU9mtBeoC&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=electronic+component+of+thermal+conductivity&source=bl&ots=knVxOPcDJZ&sig=G7BrWLt6cc5w1V1dHI22eWKaM90&hl=en&ei=AuTYTpb0C_OI2gW9v6jSDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&sqi=2&ved=0CEQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=electronic%20component%20of%20thermal%20conductivity&f=false"
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i have heard that you should feel temperature with the back of your hand versus the front but cannot find information regarding why. can someone explain this? | i considered the possibility that skin on the front of the hand is thicker than on the back. however, i do not know where temperature is sensed to know if this is a reasonable explanation. i also considered that the front would be warmer on average as the front is used to interact with the environment (e.g. a steering wheel, writing, etc.) edit: i should have noted: this is in the context of doing something like feeling someone's head to roughly detect temperature. | using the back of your hand is safer for a number of reasons. if the surface is dangerously hot you can remove the back of your hand from it faster than the palm. you can also keep your fingers curled up and out of the way while you are testing the temperature. if you use the back of your fingers to test the temperature you can remove them even quicker than the back of your hand by clenching your fingers as you pull your hand back. the hairs on the skin of the back of your hand may provide some amount of advance warning before your skin actually touches the surface. finally, i believe that the fatty pads under the skin on the inside of a hand are more likely to stick to a hot surface as the flesh cooks. if the surface is electrically live (eg a faulty kettle) your fingers will clench due to the electrical current. using the back of your hand in this case will cause your fingers to move away from the surface and hopefully break the circuit before any damage is done. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how high can a float my hd camcorder into the air without the balloon popping? and could i get a piece of string long enough, strong enough, and light enough to be able to reel it back in? | i want to float my kodak zi6 up into the air with a piece of small rope or thick string so that i can reel it back in. i've seen others do similar things but they used parachutes and gps to get their video back... i'd prefer just pulling it back down... and if possible maybe even pull it around while it's up there to steer what i'm looking at. i know i won't be able go nearly as high with my string limitation, but how high would i be able to go? and what kind of rope should i use? i would be using helium but i couldn't find any info on carrying capacity with helium. i found some info about hydrogen filled weather balloons, it said the more gas you put in the more it can lift but it will burst at a much lower altitude. it said a balloon that could lift 30 pounds would most likely burst at 20,000 ft. & a balloon that could reach 100,000 feet would only be able to carry 3.5 lbs. */r/askreddit recommended i ask over here* | what you are talking about is a moored baloon and there are many restrictions from the faa on using them. you'll want to research these before you launch but i believe the maximum allowed height for this kind of rig is 500'. [edit: yes i was correct 500'](_url_0_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.risingup.com/fars/info/part101-13-FAR.shtml"
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what is the actual benefit a sauna has on your health/body, if any? | in other words: is there any significant positive effect to sitting in a sauna sweating your balls off? | well, there are several elements that go into sauna'ing, as it were. a simple review on the subject matter: _url_1_ study: phys of saunas _url_5_ this article's stated "health risks" have not been found by other studies, but their physiological data is good. 1) improved mood one of the only benefits that seems to be consistent throughout the years is that people enjoy saunas, as mentioned in the previous review. 2) loss of body water while body water is important, the shedding of it can help wrestlers and martial artists cut a significant portion of water weight without having to over-exert themselves during match preparation. study: _url_2_ secondary to this is the fact that the high release of sweat can aid in opening previously closed pores in the skin that are blocked enough not to be easily opened via scrubbing, but still able to be forcibly sweat from. this is relevant because work-induced sweating is more electrolyte dense than that of a sauna, so repletion with water only is safe. 3) heart rate one thing the study notes is the persistently elevated heart rates without force of exercise, which means that mild sauna-ing for purpose of cardiovascular work out could be an alternative for individuals who may be capacity limited to exercise traditionally, but are still aiming to "work out there heart" at a near exercise level. i am unaware that this has been investigated directly extensively but there is promising data in patients with chf and ventricular arrhythmias: study: _url_4_ 4) bmr increasing body temperature results in a dramatic decrease in the basal metabolic rate. now this is a bad thing for everyone trying to lose weight, but, building on our last example, a patient with a history of anorexia nervosa has two really important treatment goals: 1) maintain adequate nutrition and calories to gain and maintain weight and 2) promote cardiac health. after severe periods of anorexic behavior, the heart can be dramatically weakened in its capacity to take any level of exercise and their muscles may be massively underdeveloped. saunaing is a way to elevate heart rate without promoting weight loss and help rebuilding cardiovascular integrity. the same is true of the chf patients in the previous study, but is less obvious why a decreased bmr is significant. study: _url_3_ review of study and additional thoughts: _url_0_ conclusion: sauna'ing for regular people is fun. for a number of types of patients it offers great therapeutic potential! | 305 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1471015301000514",
"http://ijch.fi/issues/653/653_Kukkonen-Harjula.pdf",
"https://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/sportsmed/doi/10.1055/s-2003-42017",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11300546",
"http://www.sld.cu/galerias/pdf/sitios/rehabilitacion-bal/sauna_arritmias.pdf",
"http://ukpmc.ac.uk/abstract/MED/1017928"
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is "touching" caused by electromagnetic forces or the pauli exclusion principle? | this is a little "the chicken and the egg"y. (note, see me edit at the bottom for discussion of the touching event itself). on the one face, degeneracy pressure resulting from purely exclusion principle is always a repulsive force. however, everyday objects deform first elastically, like springs. i can push and pull them and they return to their original shape and the force to deformation amount doesn't really care if i'm pushing or pulling for small pushes. if i push or pull harder i start to get plastic deformation, but this too is something that occurs both in pushing and pulling. so one could say that degeneracy pressure is playing very little role here. and that'd be correct. furthermore more, if i take a bunch of neutral atoms (a gas), all gases will behave very similarly (more of less like an ideal gas). however, when i compress them to a smaller and smaller volume, eventually they form a solid. however, unlike with the gas, the properties of this solid will be very different depending on what the atoms were. to belabor this point a bit more, i can model most gases with a simple interaction like a lennard-jones potential, with a simple force law for attraction and repulsion that is generic to most all gases. however, modeling a solid is not so easy. not so easy at all. and this complexity is not a result of em forces, otherwise all solids would be fairly generically the same, and have a simple set of properties that would be easy to model based only on knowledge of their mass and atomic number.(*) this complexity results from pauli exclusion. as atoms come close into contact their electrons develop elaborate interdependent behavior. i am of course talking about bonding and electron orbitals. in a world without pauli exclusion all electrons would just sit in spherical orbitals and "fancy" things like sp3 hybridized bonding would not occur. diamonds would be very unimpressive and behave something like, i suppose, a hydrogen gas. so one can say bonding is a prediction that lays its foundation on pauli exclusion. and this is the reason for the linear deformation behaviour as before. so degeneracy pressure is not why solids behave the way they do, but bonding is. but bonding isn't 100% due to pauli exclusion, because if protons and electron were neutral you wouldn't even get atoms, much less bonding, but it isn't 100% coulomb, because if em was all that determined bonding, you'd see pretty simply and remarkable behaviour in solids. (*) you actually can do this, through for example density functional theory, but the models are anything but simple. edit: it occurs to me, rereading the question that you may be asking simply about the touch event itself. here it is electrostatics. as evidence i would put forward the existence of atomic force microscopy (afm): _url_0_ where one can essentially image individual atoms by running the worlds fanciest record needle across the surface. the key point i would make is that afm data can be quite adequately modeled by only considering electrostatic, dipole-dipole, and van der waals forces. my point being that em interaction is all you need to describe how a fancy record needle behaves when "touching" surfaces at the resolution level of individual atoms. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic-force_microscopy"
] | [
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