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minimal cover and related topics: how do i compute the minimal cover for a relation? | i was studying database design this last semester and the textbook we were using relied on mathematics language that went over my head most of the time. the textbook in question: [fundamentals of database systems by ramez elmasri & shamkant b. navathe](_url_0_). i would still like to get a grasp of this aspect of database design. i know what keys are and why they're important, and how armstrong's axioms are supposed to help discover dependencies. it's just this methodology that confuses me. maybe i need to study relational algebra as its own topic for awhile. could someone point me to a good, "for dummies" approach to explaining how to figure out the minimal cover for a relation? | i can't answer you question, but i am currently using that book to study for a databases final. it is a godawful book that doesn't seem to clearly explain almost any topic about databases. one section explicitly said "this is the most important topic of this chapter and you will not understand databases if you don't understand this" and proceeded to use vague and contextless mathematical nomenclature and maybe 2 brief paragraphs, completing neglecting to convey any useful information. tldr: it's probably not your fault you didn't understand fully, the book is terrible. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Fundamentals-Database-Systems-Ramez-Elmasri/dp/0136086209"
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what exactly is "work" in physics? | i only know that something has work when there's a force that acts on it and causes it to move. i've also briefly seen highschool fluid and heat equations that mentions work (although i could be mistaken and the topic was more specialized). but how is that related to energy? how is it 'converted' and also, what does it mean when an object has negative work? | the fluid and heat equations you're talking about are related to thermodynamics. work is somewhat easier to describe, at least for me, in terms of mechanics. in terms of mechanics, work is force applied over a certain distance; so w=f*d if i have a box, and i apply a 10n force, such that it moves forward 2 meters, i've done 20 n*m of work on the box. if, on the other hand, i apply a 10n force on a wall, it isn't going to move. because the wall didn't move, i haven't done any work, despite exerting force on the wall. if i were to push that box up a ramp, the box would gain energy, in the form of gravitational potential energy. that is expressed by e=m\*g\*h or energy(joules)=mass(kg)\*acceleration due to gravity(m/s^2 ) *height(m) as far as things being converted, you could apply force to an object and do no work, or do work on an object without changing its energy, but in order to do work, you need force, and to change energy, you need to do work. the positive/negative work stuff comes from the fact that our movements, forces, and work all happen in a particular direction, and if you are moving in a direction opposite the one you've defined to be positive, you are moving in a negative direction. it helps us keep the numbers straight. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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allometry and sea mammals: do scaling laws explain why large sea animals have lungs? | i read on [wikipedia](_url_0_) that the oxygen intake of an animal roughly scales with its volume (length cubed), and that this explains why larger creatures do not directly absorb oxygen through their body surface area (which scales as length squared). i also know that whales are some of the largest animals, which seems to suggest that they must have lungs, rather than gills. is this reasoning correct? can we say generally that large sea creatures are not likely to be fish? or are whales the only example? and, given this, what evolutionary advantage does the large size of whales provide? | you're correct about scaling: once an animal gets large enough, it needs some sort of respiratory system to compensate for the fact that its volume is too great for uptake of oxygen through the skin. however, this is not the reason that aquatic mammals have lungs instead of gills. the main reason is that, evolutionarily speaking, all mammals have lungs and breath air. mammals can't breathe water, because they don't have the necessary morphological components to do so. they could not have re-evolved gills in a strict sense, because, in mammals, the gill arches have evolved into inner ear bones and other components of the head skeleton and can no longer be used to support gill tissue. secondly, mammals are warm-blooded and must thermoregulate carefully, and therefore even the smallest mammals do not take in much oxygen through the skin. this would require direct contact between the skin and the environment, which is something that a thermoregulating animal can't afford, due to the potential for heat loss. furthermore, this holds true for other types of respiratory tissue in addition to skin. even if aquatic mammals could have evolved some sort of gill tissue, that tissue would still need to be in constant contact with the water, losing heat to the environment and making it harder to thermoregulate. gills are actually quite efficient, for a number of reasons. most importantly, they have an incredible amount of surface area and vascularization (blood vessels). each gill arch has many gill filaments, which in turn are covered with microscopic flaps of tissue, meaning that a lot of tissue surface area is compacted into one small structure. some sharks (such as whale sharks and basking sharks) can get quite large, but not as large as whales. the other thing to consider is that the largest marine mammals (whales) are not doing much breathing. gills can function as long as they are submerged in water, but a whale must surface to take in a volume of air. even then, the lungs don't stay inflated for long, due to the diving behaviors that large whales exhibit. air is highly compressible, so as soon as the whale begins her descent, the lungs will collapse due to the increase in pressure, and the gasses will be dissolved into the blood stream. whales have many adaptations to reduce their need for oxygen, so that they don't have to surface often. the question of why whales are the largest animals on earth is hotly debated, but it likely has little to do with having lungs. the most compelling thing that i have heard is that they are large because they are able to obtain a tremendous amount of food as oceanic filter feeders. to answer your last question, i would say that the primary advantage of being large is being harder to take down by a predator. however, i believe your question about lungs relates more to how whales became large rather than why. | 15 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allometry"
] | [] | [
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how is a circuit complete between a cathode and an anode in a crt? | not sure if this is an engineering question or a physics question. have a look at this [video](_url_0_) as a sort of visual aid to what i'm talking about. how is the circuit complete if the electrons being emitted from the cathode travel through the hole in the centre of the anode? how are the electrons “replenished” on the cathode? are they not replaced in the power source? i understand how the electrons are released from the cathode using laser light or thermionic emission. surely keeping the cathode at high voltage is not sustainable? or is there a finite number of electrons that can be ejected from the cathode? am i missing something here? any help on this would be great! | you are right that overall neutrality has to be respected. if it isn't you will build up a field quickly that stops the flow of electrons. the answer is the electrons are flowing to a ground. in a tem which is very much like a crt that ground is the walls of the chamber. in a sem it is the chuck that holds the sample. in a crt there is no doubt a metalization somewhere near the screen that acts as the ground return. it could be a thin film on the screen itself or maybe it is just metal on the glass envelope of the crt, as i recall they tend to look metalized, but i haven't been able to dig out a cross section showing the ground location. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5Q5rFf-aZI#t=156"
] | [] | [
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measuring pressure change with light | is it possible to pass a laser, uv wave or visible spectrum wave through, lets say, an imperfect, inelastic sphere full of 99% water, 1% varying solutes and measure the pressure inside of it? if you had a 'normal' sphere at 'normal' pressure, could you at least find a relative difference between that sphere and spheres of different pressures? does the index of refraction change in a liquid that is almost negligibly more pressurized? maybe the degree of light scattering? i'm talking pressure differences between, lets say, 10 and 15 mmhg. small stuff. part 2 of the question: what if the solute concentration correlated to the increase in pressure. i would have to assume that light absorbance would change and thus a relationship could be formed this way? thank you for your borrowed and infinite wisdom friends- | we can measure very minute changes in things like pressure using a process called interferometry. in terms of liquid, i have not seen research discussing the change in index of refraction being related to pressure, but are rather related to temperature and density. in general, as long as the liquid is not opaque at a given wavelength, you can devise a simple interferometer to measure the differences. for example, a simple [michelson interferometer](_url_0_) can be used where one arm contains a "reference" material and the second arm contains the "test" material. interferometers can be made to be extremely sensitive to changes in index of refraction (or more appropriately, differences in optical path lengths n*l, where n is index of refraction and l is physical distance traveled). ligo is able to measure changes in distance on the order of 10^-20 m or smaller, so the ability and resolution of these instruments is there. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson_interferometer"
] | [
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could anti-bodies be injected from a third party into somebody who needs those anti-bodies? | i was wondering what was holding us back from having a "bank" of anti-bodies to give to people. for example, if somebody gets something like chicken pox as an adult, could they not be injected with anti-bodies from somebody who has already had chicken pox in order to improve their chances or speed of their recovery? | this is referred to as passive immunization. it is done when the disease is so serious that we can't wait for the person's own immune system to develop an appropriate antibody. i believe we use this for certain snake venoms, when obviously the person would die before they "figured out" how to combat the venom. the problem is however, like with most things you ingest, it would be broken down by the body; the antibodies are proteins like all other proteins we would take in and will be metabolized for various purposes. more often, active immunization is used. we can for example give someone a protein/part of a bacteria or virus, sometimes even a weakened version of the pathogen itself, and wait for their own immune system to develop the antibody. this way, your body has "learned" to make the antibody, and will fight off future diseases much more efficiently. *tl;dr: give a man a fish, and he has food for a day. teach a man how to fish, and he has food for the rest of his life.* | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the best statistical test for this data? | so i am really bad at statistics and need some help for a paper. i need to use a statistical test to analyse the results of my investigation. the data compares a list of plant species and how frequently they appear in the quadrat e.g. (try and imagine a table) "zone 3 species list" "frequency" prostrate kanuka 4 k. ericoides var microflora 3 kamahi 1 mingimingi 2 prickly mingimingi 2 prostrate manuka 5 cyckisorus interruptus 1 psilotum nudum 4 schizaea dichotoma 3 i have about 3 more tables like this (zone 1, 2 and 4) | i will give you the benefit of the doubt and assume this is an actual research project, and not a homework assignment. - assuming you are attempting to determine whether the relative distribution of these nine plant species differs between the four zones, what you have is a 4 & times;9 *contingency table*. your experiment was unfortunately not very well designed, because you have very small values for the frequencies & mdash; this makes it difficult to impossible to answer any questions about the differences between the distributions. if you can repeat the experiment, you should make each zone maybe 10 times larger in size, the get reasonable frequencies for the observations. - if you had larger frequencies (i.e., [at least 5 observations](_url_0_) of each plant species in every zone), then you could analyze the data using chi-square analysis. with your current data set, you would have to use fisher's exact test. unfortunately for you, it is [very difficult](_url_1_) to compute fisher's exact test when your contingency table has a large number of rows or columns, such as yours. [this calculator](_url_3_) can do up to 6 rows and columns, which is probably the practical the limit unless you have access to specialized statistics software that can implement some more [advanced computational algorithms](_url_2_). - if you can reduce your list of plant species to 6 species (by striking the least common ones, or by grouping "similar" species into the same row), then you may still be able to use some of the above methods without repeating your experiment. - tl;dr: it is best to think about data analysis *before* carrying out an experiment... | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.biostathandbook.com/small.html",
"http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/stats/contingency.problem.html",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/2288652?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents",
"http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/stats/exact_NROW_NCOLUMN_form.html"
] | [
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] |
is megalomania an actual clinical disorder? if so, has anyone notable been diagnosed with it? is it treatable? | megalomania is not, in that it doesn't show up in either the dsm or icd. [narcissistic personality disorder](_url_1_) is probably the closest thing. have a read through that wikipedia article, it covers the diagnostic criteria set out by the dsm and the historical development of the diagnosis. the bottom of the article links to [brian blackwell](_url_0_) as a case study. i'm unaware of any other notable diagnoses, but i'm not that well versed in npd. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Blackwell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder"
] | [
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|
are ivs really such a good idea? | i understand the idea of maintaining volume in order to sustain a suitable cardiac output, however, with the increase of volume, the body won't vasoconstrict and divert blood to the critical core organs. by flooding the system with saline, are we not diluting the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood while we simultaneously inhibit peripheral constriction? of course a blood transfusion would be an ideal remedy for exsanguination, and i understand that this is unrealistic, however, would giving no iv, or maybe even just a fraction of what we typically give be a better solution? it is so instilled in protocol to just pump fluids into people that no one ever takes a second look at why. i recall reading a paper from the 70s demonstrating the exsanguination of a pig with and without ivs, calling into question the idea of limiting fluids. does anyone know of any research or evidence relating to abstaining from iv use? | as a paramedic, we are taught to limit the amount of fluid replaced or added to the cardiovascular system to just enough to maintain an oxygen perfusing blood pressure (100 systolic for controlled external bleeding, 80 systolic for internal bleeding and 90 systolic for closed head injury). we are taught much about the dangers of over-hydrating the system including the dilution and autoregulation factors you list above. in addition, paramedics run the risk of dislodging natural clotting factors in an internal bleeding scenario, thus causing additional blleding after it has already stopped. studies have been done (i believe in the dallas area) regarding trauma patients who have been rehydrated in the feild via iv and have shown that those without iv intervention had a lower mortality/morbidity rate. this has led to the restriction of fluid replacment in internal bleeding patients as well as some jurisdictions not instituting any fluid replacement (just a venous access line) for all trauma patients. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do we stand today with harnessing solar power? | from what i believe i know, the best solar power cells are very expensive and have an efficiency of about 40%... what is missing, what needs to happen for solar power to become the number one choice? (politics aside). > what science do we need that is yet undiscovered, and what are good resources to learn about solar power technology | efficiency is irrelevant. no, really. efficiency absolutely does not matter right now. what matters is dollars per watt. if it is cheap enough then we will cover every roof in the united states and most of the parking lots, and once we're completely out of space to put more panels then people can tell me about efficiency. manufacturing and installation costs are falling. there is a bit of a [price war](_url_0_); 18% efficiency is better than 44% if it is possible to make the 18% ones cheaper than coal, and it is beginning to look like that will happen soon. now would be a good time to learn how to install solar. solar is passive distributed daytime power generation. it will take care of base load when sunny, with minimal energy storage and natural gas or something for when it is not. batteries are not economical. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Module-Costs-Dip-Below-50-Cents-Per-Watt-in-JinkoSolars-Strong-Q4"
] | [
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is it possible to not have a functioning central nervous system, and still carry a child to term? | say that alice was impregnated, then had a traumatic brain injury (or the other way around). could the baby be delivered and live a normal life? | first off, note that [there is a wide range of tbi](_url_1_) that encompasses a wide range of physiologic states. but there's no intrinsic reason why a 'comatose' woman would be unable to conceive (unless whatever caused the coma is also affecting her endocrine function). there have been numerous [case reports](_url_2_) of [pregnant women receiving injuries that lead to coma](_url_0_), and subsequently delivering a healthy baby. the literature does note that some cases result in fetal demise shortly after the onset of coma (though of course we cannot say anything about causation based on just case reports). also note that delivery must be by cesarean section, if women are unable to participate in labor for a spontaneous vaginal delivery. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22805738",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glascow_Coma_Scale",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002294/"
] | [
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] |
if i'm a fast reader and read a book in a few days but don't remember much of it afterwards, is this info still somewhere in my head and having an impact on my life? | probably not. if you're not remembering the content, it's most likely because it wasn't [encoded](_url_0_) and didn't make it into long-term memory storage. | 50 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoding_%28memory%29"
] | [
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|
what speed are you breaking to create a wake in water? | if shockwaves in air are caused by breaking the sound barrier what am i breaking when i make a wake in water. if that makes any sense. | the [froude number](_url_0_) is the value used for water analgous to a sound barrier (mach number), and is the ratio of the velocity to the characteristic water wave propagation velocity. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froude_number"
] | [
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what is the diamaiseau's curve? [img] | i wouldn't normally ask a school question here, however i'm genuinely interested and haven't found this anywhere online or in my books. [please see the image.](_url_0_) how does a hydrothorax produce dullness on percussion in this two different triangles, wouldn't there just be one contiguous spot with the altered percussion note? what side is the problem actually on? | i am no medical expert and have no idea what this curve is relating to, but i think diamaiseau is a misspelling or an alternate spelling. a little googling brought me to this page (had the use the google cached version, the original seems to be down): _url_0_ alternate names for this line, according to that site, are: * damoiseau’s curve * ellis’ sign * ellis-damoiseau line * ellis-damoiseau’s parabolic curve * garland’s curve hopefully searching for those will bring you closer to your answer! | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/DrsNu"
] | [
"http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:gjLv-pHJUtsJ:www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/3269.html"
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why don't we have any underwater observatories? | i have no idea why i was thinking of this, but why don't we? i'm not saying we could build one at the bottom of the marianas trench, but do we just not have the technology to build one in shallower water? i would think that we would be able to learn a lot if we had such a station. i'm just surprised that we can talk about building things like this on the moon, and yet have none in the ocean. would it actually be more difficult underwater than it would be in space? | it's not manned, but [neptune](_url_0_) off vancouver island is a multi-station network with one down to -2660m. you can see live (user ptz) and historic video feeds from the stations and if you register (free) you can access much more data. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.neptunecanada.ca/"
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] |
do the magnetic toys "buckyballs" mimic the behavior of any type of particle? | how good are buckyballs? i love them. i think they are brilliant! i have actually thought long and hard about this question while playing with my little round magnets. from a purely theoretical perspective, they do not mimic anything because a fundamental property of magnets is that they are dipolar (ie have a north and a south end). you cannot have a magnetic monopole (and if you were to make one somehow you would probably get a nobel prize). this pretty different to electric charge which can have monopoles. atoms tend to either be positively or negatively charged, ie they are monopoles. so of you were to have two buckyball sized atoms with opposite charges they would be attracted to each other in all orientations, which is very different to magnet balls which can be attractive or repulsive. but, dont despair! because of the roundness of the magnets they can do things normal magnets cannot. you can have them stick together so that a north pole isnt exactly touching a south pole. this is why they are such fun to play with! and as a result you can use them to model the different ways of [packing sphere](_url_0_) (well, some of them) which is a great model of what occurs at the atomic scale in solids! that is probably as close as they can get to an actual atomic behaviour, and there are some issues. but if we relax our rules to what mimic means we can use them to model other things. so i said before that its problematic that they have two poles. but what if we use them to model something that has two distinct ends? such as a polymer. when you put your buckyballs in a line they are mimicing a polymer! and you can even branch the polymer, just like we observe in real life! go play with your buckyballs and have some fun with it! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_packing"
] | [
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|
function for a electromagnetic wave in 2d? | specifically, looking for parametric x,y function, to build [this image](_url_0_). source: _url_1_ i've been trying, i can't find the formula for this. | you should be able to get pretty close with f(x,y) = cos(r) * abs(x/r) with r = sqrt(x^2+y^2) _url_0_ note that my function mimics your diagram, but a real antenna field would also decrease as you went further away. | 2 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Radio_waves.svg/1024px-Radio_waves.svg.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave"
] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=contour+plot+(cos(sqrt(x%5E2%2By%5E2))+*+abs(x%2Fsqrt(x%5E2%2By%5E2)))++with+-15%3Cx%3C15+and+-15+%3C+y+%3C+15"
] | [
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could someone vulgarize the three-body problem for me? th ewiki page kinda assume that i know what the problem is and the videos online contain way to much math for me! | so first, let's go through the 1-body and 2-body problems. firstly, the 1-body problem. you have one object, like a star or a planet. it sits there and does nothing, moving in a straight line at a constant velocity. that's easy. next, the 2-body problem. you have two objects, like two stars or two planets. they interact with gravity, which makes them accelerate and move with respect to each other. they might orbit each other, they might collide with other, they might fly past each other into the distance. the 2-body problem is a "solved problem". if you have two objects, and you know their mass, position, and initial velocities, then you can do some fairly quick maths by hand and figure out exactly what's going to happen and where the two objects are going to end up. then there's the 3-body problem. what if you add a third object? suddenly, the maths become too difficult to solve by hand. as far as we can tell, there's no easy solution, except in a few very ideal situations. we have to make approximations so we can solve it, and those approximations will only be okay in certain circumstances. the most precise method is to use a computer. a computer can take an approximate method and apply it millions of times to get an answer that is actually very accurate. and this is the issue with the three-body problem: we don't have a single simple way to predict what happens, we generally have to run a computer simulation for each situation. edit: btw for my research, i deal with the million-body problem :p | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if one end of a spooled wire is hurled toward a black hole, does it start to unspool when it hits the event horizon? | alright, so i'm about three beers deep (wooo, obama!), but i'll give this a shot, so to speak. i think what you're getting at here is a means of communication between the inside and outside of the event horizon of a black hole. unfortunately, it's not possible for *any* signal to travel across the event horizon (as far as we know, though there is speculation that [hawking radiation](_url_1_) may contain some information about its contents). this includes not only signals traveling up the thread, but also photons traveling back to you from the spool itself. as the spool approaches the event horizon, light traveling back from it will become increasingly redshifted and take a longer time to reach you due to the gravitational field. at the event horizon itself, light becomes redshifted to infinity and takes an infinitely long time to reach you. what you will see is an increasingly redshifted image of the spool approaching the event horizon slower and slower until it stops right at the event horizon (as light taking longer and longer to reach you eventually does). the same goes for signals traveling back up the spool; they will be increasingly redshifted to infinity. however, since these signals will have a slower speed than the speed of light in a vacuum, the effective event horizon for these signals will be larger than the optical event horizon. not only will signals inside the event horizon never reach you, but some signals *outside* the event horizon will never reach you either. so to answer your questions: you will observe the spool spinning until the image is redshifted to infinity, it will take less than a year to reach this point since the spool will never be moving faster than the speed of light in a vacuum relative to you, and no electrical signals from inside an effective event horizon will be able to travel up the wire back to you. what i think is more interesting is what the spool will see. as the spool gets closer and closer to the event horizon, the black hole will obstruct a larger and larger portion of its field of view, and more and more of the background light will be [lensed](_url_0_) by its gravitational field. at a certain distance from the black hole, the spool will be able to "see the back of its own head", chuck norris-style, as photons emitted from it will orbit around the black hole back to itself. as it crosses the event horizon, the sky will "turn inside out" and darkness will envelop its field of view. space and time become dynamical and intertwine; moving closer to the singularity equates to moving forward in time. the singularity no longer exists at a localized point in spacetime for the spool, but everywhere in space in its future. there is no turning back for the poor spool. unfortunately we don't know what happens exactly at the singularity, because on these scales quantum gravitational effects become important. these two views may seem paradoxical, but any attempt to reconcile them will show them to be equivalent. if you wanted to go see what happened to the spool, you would have to follow it into the black hole. maybe you will find that it had been torn apart by tidal forces, or maybe you will find that it held true up until it reached the singularity. unfortunately, it will be too late at this point to communicate that information to the outside world, because the singularity will be in your future too. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_radiation"
] | [
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|
i was thinking what a previous poster stated. it's about the atoms that exist in me came from the big bang..(more inside) | i been thinking about this for a while and was kind of scared to ask here because i didn't want to present this as some metaphysical discussion. the op who [posted this](_url_0_) been thinking what i've been thinking, but i want to expand on it. the atoms that eventually came to be me all came from the big bang, because of course they cannot pop out of thin air. my dilemma is, why did those atoms make me? i mean, in a sense that i know i'm the person typing this and that i exist now, in a way there is a infinite amount of people i could have been. is there something that we don't know that make up the consciousness "me", that say would separate my brother from being me? is the atoms arranged a certain way that each is so intricate where they dictate "i" would exist? i try to think of it like an artificial intelligence being assembled, if we made say a 100 of these androids and activated them at once, would each of them have a sense of "self" or just merely be programmed to act according to their programmed instructions. trying to compress this as much as i can because it makes my head hurt, but if we were able to rewind my timeline and say something occurred differently in the atoms that came to produce me, i'm sure it would be someone else right? if so, are we like some randomly generated entity (at birth) and we just haven't grasp that concept yet. sorry for the long post. | the answer to your question is one of the end points of science, and a starting point for philosophy. all of the cells in your body are replaced over about 10 years. does that mean you aren't the same self you were 10 years ago? if the universe is completely deterministic, there's no chance that you would've ended up as anything but the colection of atoms you are now. as for how those atoms came to be a part of you, there's a lot of science that will paint the broad strokes, from universe formation to the rise of life on earth, the evolution of man, the development of nations and society, the psychology of why your parents got together, the biology of sexual intercourse and birth, and the physiology of growing up. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/z8s8h/did_the_atoms_that_make_up_my_living_body_exist/"
] | [] | [
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is there any scientific basis for the claims of "r/nofap" on their faq page? | there is such thing as numbed pleasure response, it occurs when dopamine releasing behaviour happens, it usually only occurs after an excess. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
during yoga, my instructor will sometimes say "...this exercise is good for massaging the organs/cleansing the liver/opening up the heart..." etc. is there any truth to these statements or is it just part of the yoga spiel? | specifically, we were doing [this pose](_url_0_). she told the class it's great for opening up the heart, as well as beneficial for runners for some reason i cannot remember. i couldn't help but question the validity of these statements. | many of these are metaphorical; your heart is not literally opened (you would internally bleed to death). however, many poses do massage (apply pressure and motion to) the digestive organs. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.indovacations.net/yoga/images/matsyasana1.jpg"
] | [
"www.people.hbs.edu/acuddy/in%20press,%20carney,%20cuddy,%20&%20yap,%20psych%20science.pdf"
] | [
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] |
you have been transported to a planet somewhere else in the milky way. is it possible to deduce where you are in relation to earth? if so, how would you do it, and what equipment would you need? | yep! by using pulsars as beacons. each pulsar has a very particular spin period, no two are exactly the same and we know them to very precise values. we know accurate distances to relatively few of them, but enough that by identifying the positions of these pulsars on the sky, we could accurately determine our 3d position in the milky way by triangulation. this idea [has been tested by nasa](_url_0_) already (but only locally). | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2018/nasa-team-first-to-demonstrate-x-ray-navigation-in-space"
] | [
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|
where do humans fit in the scale of biggest known things to smallest known things? | are we considered a large object or small compared to the biggest and smallest things we have discovered? | some numbers i crunched for you. all are based off of volume, and given in scientific notation. a human is assumed to be 0.0664 cubic meters (from wolfram alpha) 1. smallest unit of volume in the universe is the planck volume, derived from planck length. a human is 1.591x10^103 times larger than the planck volume. 2. a small atom i used for comparison was the biologically abundant carbon atom. a human is 6.60x10^27 times larger than a carbon atom 3. onto large objects, i used the sun, which is a midrange as far as stars are. the sun is 2.108x10^28 times larger than a human. 4. finally, the size of the observable universe (from wikipedia) is about 5.271x10^81 times larger than a human. meaning that a human is 1.897x10^-82 times the size of the universe overall, we're larger from the planck volume to us than us to the universe (if that makes sense). but we're still pretty tiny. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone provide me with an explanation i can understand about the difference radio active terms? | recently with the fukashima incident i've seen the terms rad, sievert and becquerel, thrown around. i don't understand the differences, correlations, and conversions of these terms. can anyone explain them to me? | becquerels are a measure of the number of decays occurring. one becquerel is one decay per second. this doesn't necessarily tell you very much about its effects on anything else; it's just a measure of the activity. a rad is 0.01 grays, and usage of rads is generally frowned upon in favour of grays, which are the si unit. this is a measure of the energy absorbed by a sample of matter from ionising radiation. sieverts are a measure of the amount of damage done by radiation absorption, and is a function of the amount of energy absorbed (measured in grays) and a weighting function for how much damage is done by the particular type of radiation in question; alpha particles (which are helium nuclei), for example, have a much higher weighting factor than beta particles (which are electrons or positrons). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why did the founders effect not take place in humans isolated in australia? | why are we still able to reproduce with aborigines? shouldn't they have evolved into a new species? | it hasn't been long enough. people have lived in australia for, i believe, about 40-50,000 years. not nearly long enough to branch off into separate species. anatomically modern humans are around 200,000 year old and we're all still perfectly compatable in terms of reproduction. the darkest aboriginal can have babies with the most northern laplander. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the vasimr plasma engine as good as they say? | [i saw this click bait on facebook](_url_0_) about a vasimr plasma engine that says it's the key to propulsion once in space. /r/askscience, please explain! | sorry i don't have time for a long answer right now but the short version is this: * media are terrible at reporting anything related to plasma propulsion. for example the quote: “this is like no other rocket that you may have seen in the past. it is a plasma rocket." must have been taken way out of context because plasma thrusters have been used in space for 40 years. * while vasimr is really interesting concept on paper, the engineering is very complex. it requires 2 high power rf generators and super conducting magnets with the associated cryogenic cooling system. all things that are super expensive and a pain to qualify for space operation. * the engine performances are not that much better than the other simpler competing electric propulsion technologies. * while diaz has been claiming to be nearly ready to fly for years their prototype hasn't fired for more than a dozen seconds. they need to prove that they can fire for hours long duration over several month/years before you can really rely on it. lifespan is one big design challenge for ion thruster. * their 39 days to mars paper has been met with a lot of scepticisme in the field. it assumes super light power sources and spacecraft. if the post get some attention i will try to write some more later. i would like to explain how it works too. | 45 | [] | [
"http://www.industrytap.com/nasas-new-vasimr-plasma-engine-reach-mars-39-days/33646"
] | [] | [
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] |
can someone explain the difference between h254 and h255? | so i was reading about all the buzz of 255 being finalized, and how it will cut bandwidth and all that. what exactly does it do differently from h254? i know a tiny bit about how compression algorithms work, so maybe eli 10? any insight would be helpful! | they are both compression standards. you also named them wrong, they are h.264 and h.265. for the differences between the two i'd like to explain compression and it's benefits. let's say you want to send 1080p content to someone. well that would technically be an impossibility, unless you were one of the richest people on the planet able to afford an internet connection to run it. using _url_0_ a bit-rate calculator, a standard 1920x1080p 24 frame per second video uncompressed is roughly 150 megabytes per second, or around 1.2 gigabits/sec. that is a huge amount of data to move, so compression's goal is to make it smaller, for both storage, and for bandwidth concerns. so what does compression do to minimize size? well it does a lot of things, but let's go over some basics. one technique is filling, essentially during compression if a large area of a frame, or set of frames is one colour, or close enough to the compression's colour tolerance it will treat that area as a "single pixel" more or less. instead of defining each pixel, define an area and a colour associated. a lot of compression techniques exist, from throwing away unneeded information, standard compression, algorithms, colour ranges, contrast etc etc etc. all these compression methods store a file in a certain format, and a program must be taught how to decode and play that format. with all that being said, h.265 standard is more strict, and has much broader ranges so it can incorporate and compress more information. the problem with this is it requires more processor power. so normally when these standards come out, they go by averages. h.264 was based on average processor speed and decoding times, and the compression method would of been based on all those factors to come to a balance of speed and bandwidth. with the average processor speed changing by an order of magnitude, changing the standard is only beneficial for speed vs bandwidth. the downside? old computers will hate h.265. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.forret.com/tools/video_fps.asp?width=1920&height=1080&fps=24&space=rgb444&depth=8"
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] |
let's say a 25-digit code is flashed in front of my eyes. do i now subconsciously 'know' that code? | even if someone has an insufficient amount of time to memorize something like a code, is it subconsciously known? can you work that image out of your mind in any manner? or is information like that just 'trashed'? | maybe if you had "photographic" memory (which is related to strong sensory memory). but that would also require you to keep processing that sensory memory in order to move it into long term memory. what we can see and work with quickly is generally capped. for example, [visual working memory caps out at about 4 items](_url_0_) and [subitizing caps out at about 7](_url_1_) (subitizing is how you can quickly tell there is a certain number of items that you see, without counting them individually). edit: should clarify that visual working memory is different than working memory, which is also involved. you can deal with more objects in working memory (as lolmonger posted) than in visual working memory. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/classes/31133/readings/Luck_Vogel.pdf",
"http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/~ashby/magicnum.pdf",
"http://www.musanim.com/miller1956/"
] | [
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most efficient heat exchange location on human body | i've gotten myself into a pretty heated (ha ha) argument over what location of the body is more efficient at heat exchange. for example, cooling your core temperature on a hot day. my thoughts are areas with more capillaries close to the skin surface, such as hands, feet, and genitals. whereas the person i was having this discussion with insists the neck or an area close to large veins/arteries would be more efficient. so which is it? | the hypothalamus (a part of the brain) is devoted to maintaining a stable environment in the body, in terms of temperature there's a few ways in which it does this, once of which is either dilating or constricting the capillaries in our extremities. this is in concert with starting or stopping sweat production and making our body hair lie down or stand up, and encouraging or discouraging urination. (for each of these pairs the reaction to warmth comes before the reaction to cold.) in simple terms, your extremities, which is basically your *entire skin*, are riddled with capillaries for the specific function of heat exchange, whereas your major blood vessels are near the core of the body, mainly for transport of blood. so you're right, your friend is wrong. source: current biology major. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you explain the briggs rauscher experiment in a way that is understandable to people without a science background? | hi! this is a good question for our sister subreddit /r/asksciencediscussion. all our panelists have flair over there, too. also, if you haven't seen it, i'd recommend checking out /r/scienceteachers. they may have helpful advice as well, since they're more specialized in breaking down complex subjects. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's going on here? (xpost from r/asmr) | so, this fellow is using a microwave transformer to fry plasma screen tvs. i'm wondering if r/science can explain to me exactly what is happening/how exactly this process works. here's the link: _url_0_ | ever put a fork in the microwave? it shoots off sparks. it's irradiating the chamber with microwave radiation. this excites molecules in the food, heating it up. florescent lighting works by exciting mercury vapor using an electrical current. the same effect is happening in the panel, except at a few dozen times the recommended wattage. it is literally causing the chemicals to jump to a state of plasma (impact ionization). they actually heat up beyond that, and destroy everything around the affected area. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ZZTIY-YIBZA"
] | [] | [
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what is medicine and how does it work? | silly question, but i've always wondered. what exactly is medicine? chemical compounds i'm sure, but of what? and how does it work? i mean, ibuprofen is a clump of brown chemicals and it makes my headache go away. nyquil is a green goo and it makes my cold go away temporarily. how? how do they work differently? | that's a pretty broad question; i've spent some time working at a pharma company, so i'll do my best to give you an an answer: - medicines have a variety of forms... some are proteins or other big, biological molecules derived from other plants or animals. vaccines, for instance, are sometimes made from bits of the proteins in a particular microorganism that induce an immune response in people. most medicines in use today, however, are what we call *small molecule* drugs. these drugs are relatively small organic compounds (carbon backbones, with oxygens and nitrogens here and there.) humans have made lots of medicines from these drugs in part because we have advanced knowledge of making them to begin with--we have a lot of chemical skills for making them. creating proteins to do what we want is an area that biochemists are just entering. - the mechanisms of all of these drugs vary enormously; typically, they interact with either your cells, or interact with other microorganisms in your body, and change how they function. that's really vague because the different effects of drugs are really broad. take a look [here](_url_0_). - most of these medicines are, in their pure forms, white-ish to yellow-ish powders. (most organics wind up looking that way.) what you put in your mouth (or wherever) when you take a medicine is basically packaging. the functional pharmaceutical drug can be compressed with sugar and other fillers to make a pill, or dissolved in syrup to make "green goo," or just dissolved in saline solution to be injected. the best approach varies with the molecule, and is described by the acronym [adme](_url_1_). edit: fixed my grammar. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADME",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywdk3BTjK2s&feature=player_embedded"
] | [
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at what point do we need to say "just because that's how it fucking works" when talking about subatomic particles? | do we say "quarks are magnetic in flavours deal with it" or something along the lines of that? when do we end up saying it works because it works? | well... the answer seems to be, we don't know. the way particle physics generally progresses is 1) someone develops a model which behaves very similarly to what we see in experiments 2) an experiment produces a result that can't be explained within the model 3) the model is either augmented to produce behavior like what we observe, or a new model is created. it's worth noting that in sciences, particularly in physics, the mathematical structure that gives rise to a particular behavior in a model is considered to be equivalent to an explanation. particle physics keeps throwing new results at us every now and then, which are more often than not explainable by the standard model of particle physics (that is, the mathematical model behaves very much like what we see in experiments - so well, that it's hard to believe there could be a better model). however, it's true that sometimes anomalies occur. what usually happens in this case is that there is some deeper mathematical property inherent in the model, previously unexplored, that allows us to describe the particle phenomena very well. so far, this has happened every time an experiment has produced an anomaly. most probably, we can continue doing this indefinitely; that is, modeling more and more precisely the behavior we see in real systems, backing these up with mathematical framework. there may come a day where we can't explain something with the standard model or any mutation of it. but, more than likely, we'll just invent a new model, rather than say "whelp, can't be done." | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is a psu efficiency rating and what does it measure? | is it the loss of power when converting from receptical ac to dc, or is it something else? | the psu converts 110 or 220 v ac from the power socket to 3.3 v, 5 v and 12 v dc that computer components need. this conversion is not perfect, so there are losses along the way. the efficiency rating expresses what fraction of the input power is converted into useable power by the psu. a psu that is running at 80% efficiency will need 125 w of input power in order to provide 100 w of output. note that there is no single efficiency number for a given psu, since the efficiency depends on the load. most psus are at their most efficient when they have a medium load (compared to their rated maximum power). there are certain certifications (80 plus, for example) that lay out requirements for psu efficiency at various loads in order to obtain the certification. but the final efficiency that you'll get as user depends on your usage pattern. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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microgravity-related question. | hi, i have been reading carl sagan's pale blue dot, in which he mentions that a space station is far from an optimum platform for testing microgravity as "the very presence of astronauts messes things up." can somebody please explain why is that? thank you! | geophysicist here. i carry out microgravity surveys down here on earth. the movement of people walking near my gravimeter can upset the readings due to the vibration transmitted through the ground. micro-gravimeters are incredibly precise instruments that use a mass on a spring to measure the acceleration due to gravity - a higher gravitational acceleration pulls the mass down further (simplified a lot, but that is the basic idea). you can imagine that if the ground is moving very slightly up and down due to vibrations transmitted from nearby moving objects, this movement is transmitted into the gravimeter housing and through the spring to the mass, and this can give a false reading of the mass' acceleration (in the instrument i use, it takes 6 readings per second over 30-90 seconds in each survey location to compensate for this). now, i don't know the specifics of satellite-based microgravity surveying, but if the gravimeter is built into the space station it would be very susceptible to vibrations from moving astronauts inside. it may be possible to have a gravimeter floating free inside a station, which would probably help a bit, but the ideal situation is to have the microgravity isolated from any movement as much as possible (my earth-bound instrument has a remote control so i can press go from 5+ metres away). | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do the aortic cusps work? | so i understand that the cusps of the tricuspid and the mitral valve have chordae tendinae connected to papillary muscles so when the papillary muscles contract they move the cusps, but as there are only 5 papillary muscles in the heart, how do the aortic cusps function? | to start with, he cusps are not closed by the papillary mucles, instead, the muscles and chordae tendonae work to prevent the valve inverting and allowing backflow. to explain how all the valves work, we'll go through a systolic cycle: we'll start in diastole. during this phase, blood is returning to the heart via the vena cavae and pulmonary vein. during this phase, blood flows into the atria as the pressure in the atria is lower than that in the veins (the whole cycle is about pressure). the pressure is also greater in the atria than the ventricles, as the ventricles are relaxed and empty. this means that the mitral and tricuspid valves are open, as they do not resist flow in that direction (due to lack of papillary muscles and chordae tendinae on the atrial side of these valves). at the end of diastole, the atria contract, forcing most of the blood there into the ventricles (still at low pressure due to being comparatively large and empty). very shortly after, the ventricles contract, raising the pressure above that in both the arteries and the atria. the raised pressure in the ventricles force the (mitral and tricuspid) valves closed, and they do not invert due to being anchored by the chordae tendinae in the ventricle, and thus prevent backflow. the increased pressure in the ventricles rises above that in the aorta and pulmonary artery in the left and right respectively. this forces the aortic and pulmonary valves open, and blood flows out of the ventricles and into the arteries. at the end of systole, the pressure in the arteries rises above that in the ventricles, so blood wants to flow back. the increased pressure causes these valves to close. they are prevented from closing due to the leaflets (or cusps) of the valves being shaped in a way that means that they are unable to invert, and thus stop backflow. and the cycle repeats. here's a [video](_url_0_) hope that clears it up. if not, feel free to ask for clarification. qualifications: year 5 medical student, who particularly enjoys cardiology. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jLTdgrhpDCg"
] | [
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i put some gorilla glue on the frayed ends of a nylon dog collar, and it started to get very hot and began smoking, what chemical reaction did i unintentionally facilitate? | [removed] | cyanoacrylate (the active component of most super glues) reacts with some fabrics to produce a lot of heat and a white smoke that is very irritating to eyes/mouth/lungs. i don't recall exactly what it is, but if it was a small amount of glue (it sounds like it was), you should be fine. for preventing nylon fraying, i often just melt the end with a lighter, so it becomes one solid bead of fused material along the end. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the smallest thing? | hi science, i'm interested in your opinion on my highly speculative and uninformed theory. please don't hesitate to tell me why i'm an idiot. ok, so here it goes: doesn't absolutely everything in the universe have to be made of the same thing? i mean, one universal, elementary... thing? my thinking is that if you have two different things, then whatever it is that makes them different is necessarily smaller. thus, you have to drill down further to get to the smallest thing. but as long as you have different things, you have smaller things. so unless everything is infinite, you'd have to get to a point where everything is made of one thing. does that make any sense? | that's kind of what string theory wants to come in and do: say that all subatomic particles are just the same fundamental kind of thing, a string, vibrating in a different way. everything is strings. if you look up "scale of the universe" on google, you should find a neat interactive app to demonstrate just how small a string would theoretically be compared to, say, a quark. this is incredibly theoretical though, and doesn't correspond to any experimental evidence. experimentally, we have the "particle zoo" - twenty some-odd particles that are fundamental and indivisible, according to the standard model. quarks, leptons, neutrinos, photons... etc. you aren't the first person to say, "hey, why would there be 20-something fundamental things? doesn't that suggest that there is something even *more* fundamental?" it's a weird number. one is a nice number. it'll be a golden day if we ever get to that point experimentally. edit: apparently "particle zoo" refers to the model immediately preceding the standard model, and so is an outdated term to refer to the set of fundamental particles. the number of fundamental particles currently sits just below 20. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone concisely clarify differences between pcr types? (qpcr, qrt-pcr, rt-pcr, real-time) | hey so i'm a novice sitting here with someone super familiar to pcr but i can't seem to get a concise answer on what the difference between them is. 1) is the difference between anything reverse transcriptase and pcr the source of your genetic material (i.e. rna vs dna). so if any time your source material is rna it would be denoted as reverse transcriptase? 2) difference between real time and regular pcr (or regular rt-pcr) is quantitation methods (fluoro probe vs gel). if one were to extract rna to run "real-time" would you technically be running qrt-pcr/real-time-rt-pcr? | qpcr: quantitative pcr. there are different ways of doing quantitative pcr but the common more accurate way is to perform a pcr with some fluorescent molecule that fluoresces increasingly as product is formed. (i think the other way is called endpoint quantification and you basically can use various methods, sometimes as crude as gel viz., to measure the strength of the pcr product, but this method is less reliable due to various biases that can creep in). the earlier in the pcr the fluorescence threshold is crossed, the more initial template there was. watching the fluorescence level in real time allows you to measure the threshold event timepoint, which allows you to backcalculate starting amount. 2)rt-pcr: some people call this real-time pcr, confusingly, in which case it would be synonymous with qpcr. however most of the time nowadays this refers to reverse transcription-pcr. so this means that before doing pcr, you make dna template by running a reverse transcription reaction on your rna. 3) finally, yes, qrt-pcr simply combines a fluorescence-monitoring pcr reaction following the rt reaction. note that there are basically two types of qpcr right now, one which uses a dye that fluoresces in response to dsdna, the other is part of a 'probe' that specifically hybridizes to a region of your product dna and upon doing so fluoresces. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does the phrase 'wild type recombinant' mean when used to describe a protein? | i was reading a book and came across the phrase "full length wild type recombinant green fluorescent protein is a protein containing 238 amino acids." what do they mean when they use the phrase wild type recombinant? | this means that although the amino acid sequence of the gfp in question is identical to the gfp found in jellyfish (and is therefore the wild-type), this gfp was grown using artificial methods (cloned onto plasmid, expressed in bacteria, etc), and is therefore recombinant. wild-tpye, non-recombinant gfp can only be found in the original jellyfish host, expressed from the natural jellyfish genome. anything else, regardless of sequence homology, is recombinant. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you have "extra" or "supplemental" mitochondria? | what would happen if you tried to give someone "extra" mitochondria? for example, if they could be grown in a petri dish and injected into a human. this question was motivated by a brown fat discussion. | given that mitochondria are large organelles that are found within all our cells, it' impossible to supplement them, they must develop and divide within the cell. however, one way you could increase the number of mitochondria in your cells is through exercise, especially aerobic exercise. this is because aerobic exercise demands a lot of energy, this stress promotes additional mitochondria growth in an attempt to meet future energy needs. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA"
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how many logs base 3 would we have to apply to graham's number to bring it below 10? | the first of the 64 numbers used in constructing graham's number, g1, is equal to 3\^\^\^\^3. the number of times you would have to take the log, base 3, of this number in order to bring it below 10 is far, far larger than the number of atoms in the observable universe. the number of times you would have to apply the base-3 logarithm to graham's number, g64, is not appreciably smaller than graham's number. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentation",
"http://waitbutwhy.com/2014/11/1000000-grahams-number.html"
] | [
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] |
|
since the event at cern that proved the existence of higgs bosons/higgs field, can we now see this event happen regularly now we know ‘where’ to look? | it doesn't quite work that way. there never was a single event at cern that proved the existence of the higgs. what happened was, they announced a few years ago, and detailed in subsequent paper, a statistical analysis of the decay products detected after countless collision and deduced the existence of a subatomic particle with all the attributes of the higgs. from the way the physics is done today, there isn't really a place we can look and say "there it is! that's the higgs!" the evidence is always indirect. at these large particle accelerators, beams of protons are directed into each other, resulting in collisions that produce a shower of short-lived subatomic particles that are observed and recorded. the volume of data from these experiments are huge. after tedious and painstaking analysis, a statistical spread of what was detected is examined and may or may not [show something](_url_0_) that matches the predicted properties of a particular particle. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://atlas.cern/updates/physics-briefing/atlas-observes-higgs-boson-run-2-data"
] | [
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|
according to carl sagan we are a 0.7 type i civilization (fermi paradox), what is the missing 0.3? | from [the wikipedia page for the kardashev scale](_url_0_), and and in 2012, total world energy consumption was 553 exajoules (553×1018 j=153,611 twh), equivalent to an average power consumption of 17.54 tw (or 0.724 on sagan's kardashev scale). so when we are able to generate energy equivalent to the amount of energy that hits the earth from the sun, we will become a type 1 civilization. at present, we are simply using about 72% of the logarithm of this level of energy. note that this interpolation that sagan used was explicitly logarithmic, because the definitions of the levels are exponential (and log is the inverse of exp), so we have quite some ways to go to achieve 100% of the energy level - it works out to be 5 orders of magnitude, or 100,000 times the power we use today. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kardashev_scale#Type.C2.A0I_civilization_methods"
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|
i get really confused thinking about the galaxy we live in and had some question regarding it and was hoping for some help understanding some of these confusions.. | 1. what is (or could be) the oldest thing in our galaxy? 2. does being the oldest define the age of our galaxy or does its size define the age of our galaxy? or are the they same? 3. do older or younger things within our galaxy potentially have more complexity and/or more or less intelligence? what i mean by this, is that if a black hole is one of the oldest things and has been around for billions of years, does that mean it has more information or knowledge compared to an ai system developed on earth today? i'm not sure if this question even makes sense or if i'm comparing things which are not comparable. 4. why does it seem that the older things within the galaxy, the bigger they are, and the newer things are the smaller they are? 5. i remember back in high school science it (may) was mentioned that they couldn't explain the rotation of spiral galaxies, in the sense that it all rotated at the same speed, from the inside to the outer arm. is this understanding still true or not? if not, what is the current understanding? thank you very much. | at the moment i believe the object discussed in [this paper](_url_0_) is the oldest known object in the milky way. it is informally known as the methuselah star. age determination for stars is not as precise as we would like, but it is thought to have formed very shortly after the big bang. not exactly. some of the oldest structures in the milky way (globular clusters) provide some limits on the age of the galaxy. it is very likely that the milky way began forming almost as soon as possible in cosmological history. galaxies are dynamic, and often during their lifetime capture smaller collections of stars, so it is not easy to define a singular age, unlike a star. no. there is no reason to suspect that black holes, or any astrophysical objects, are intelligent. information, in the context of black holes, is almost certainly not in a form useful for intelligent life. this is incorrect. in the case of stars, the largest stars evolve and die the fastest. a 100 solar mass star is gone after a few million years. a star like the sun will last billions. so it is extremely likely that a large star is actually the younger object. nevertheless there is not a simple relation between age and size; you have to consider the physics of the object in question. the [galaxy rotation curve](_url_1_) tells you how fast stars are rotating around the center of a galaxy, as a function of the radius from the center. the speeds of the stars depend on the gravitational potential of the galaxy. you can make a prediction of what this potential is, and hence what the curve would look like, by measuring the matter you can see in the galaxy with a telescope. measurements of this curve, made by directly measuring the speeds of the stars in a galaxy, conflict with this prediction. this is the origin of why we think dark matter exists. it is merely matter we cannot see, which modifies the galactic potential so that the measured rotation curves make sense. the other hypothesis, modified newtonian dynamics (mond), is to invoke a scale dependence of gravity on distance, which accounts for the rotation curve. at the moment, there are some really good reasons to believe that dark matter exists. (mond has much less support behind it.) what, exactly, it is remains unknown. perhaps it is just ordinary matter too cold for us to see. perhaps dark matter is small black holes. perhaps it is a gas of weakly-interacting particles that don't interact electromagnetically. there are arguments for or against these ideas; perhaps dark matter is a mixture of these things, or something else we haven't thought of. all we know is that, short of modifying gravity, that matter has to be there. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1302.3180",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_rotation_curve"
] | [
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how come species that aren't native to a particular country such as black widows and the uk haven't accidentally or otherwise been released into the wild and reproduced? | ooooh! evolution question! you may not think so, but stay with me. think all the way back to the first cellular organisms. they were copies of the same type of cell (possibly, but that may not be the case-- we'll continue for the sake of argument). these cell species spread across the planet, dividing, eating and creating waste. since they were but one species (for the sake of argument) there were many habitats in which they were not suited to thrive. those cells died, leaving the habitats barren. over time, the population of cells grew to the point that there wasn't enough food for everybody, and certain characteristics of the weirdos made them better suited to get more food. some ate each other. others could survive in places where their comrades could not. **this had a two-fold effect:** although they became more suited to live in one location, they often would become less suited to survive in a different location. end analogy. it's important to realize that evolutionary specialization is both give and take. having sharp teeth and more trypsin makes it easier for you to live on meat, but while that's a benefit in a highly populated area, it's going to be a problem in a sparsely populated area. you could be specialized for one climate, one diet, one yearly cycle that depends on another species' yearly cycle, one habitat and one specific set of predators, but if any one of those things changes faster than you can change to adapt to it, you can't survive. and the more of those things that change at once, the lower your risk of survival. on the other side of the coin, the fact that it hasn't happened yet doesn't somehow mean that it can't happen. the world is always changing. tides get higher or lower. any number of extinction events kill of certain predators or prey. all this is to say that it's not as simple as introducing a species to a place they've never been. there are lots of factors at play. i hope this helps you figure out what you're looking to learn. cheers. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did we discover the core? | how did we learn what it's made out of and its temperature? | there were a few things that indicated the earth had a core. one was that the earth was too massive to be made up entirely of the kind of rocks found at the surface. their densities are just too low. another was meteorites, which presumably have a similar composition as the earth as a whole, contained a much higher percentage of iron then surface rocks on average. earth's magnetic field is evidence that there is likely an iron core. and finally, seismic waves interact with masses of metal differently then they do with just normal rocks. when they reach a certain point in the interior they behave in a manner which would imply it's composed of iron and nickel-iron. edit: just saw your question about temperature. this is a bit more complicated and i know less about it but there's a few ways of getting idea of the temperature. we can can come up with a reasonable estimate of how much heat was generated with the accretion of the planet and also how much radioactive material is in the earth generating heat. these two things combined with knowing how much heat is escaping to the surface along with measurements of temperature at various depths, knowledge of how insulating the different layers of the earth are, and the temperatures at which certain minerals form all help give an estimate of the temperature at the core. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do tardigrades have bones? how do they move around? | [i came across this gif recently](_url_0_) and while i'm sure it's just a simulation of how they would move it's got me wondering, do tardigrades have bones or even cartilage? can that kind of thing exist at such a small scale? how do they move around? | without going into too much detail, bones and cartilage aren't really the best mechanism at that level; they're heavy and take up too much space. the inside of a tardigrade, like most invertibrates, is goopy soup and gauzy membranes. figure 2 of [this paper](_url_0_) has a reasonable diagram of their internals. the motive structures in really small organisms are generally either strings of muscle that pull between smaller and larger sections of membrane or chitinous plates. the smaller gets reeled in towards the larger, in one movement. that's why tardigrade leg movement is so simple. it's more of a lever, doesn't even bother with knees. alternately, you can have rings of muscle that cause a contraction, followed by strands that pull the tissues back into the expanded state. think jellyfish opening and closing; squish and stretch. or the tardigrade's mouth parts extending, for that matter. even getting just a little bigger lets things get much more powerful and complex. my favorite example is *i. coleoptratus*. they're essentially powered by a tiny [toothed gear/ratchet assembly](_url_1_), forming a biological spring. | 75 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/qRAvBUu.gif"
] | [
"http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/tardigrades/1",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQk-lP2R04Y"
] | [
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"hertz" are a measure of frequency equal to one cycle per second. why are computer processors measured in hertz and what is cycling inside of them? | let's say i have a cpu with a clock speed of an even 4 gigahertz. what is cycling through this piece of metal 4 billion times per second and what happens each time a cycle is completed? | 1. the "clock cycle" is just that: the speed at which a "gate" signal cycles in a computer. think of it like a baseball diamond lit by a strobe light. everyone has to be on a base and not between one when the light turns on - otherwise there are problems (see: race conditions). so the runners - the data in this case - have to be on their base, then the strobe light turns off, they do their thing, and they move on to the next base, or state. 2. what happens? depends on the processor and the process. a registry operation often only takes one clock cycle - add, multiply, divide, subtract one registry from another. on the other hand, writing to the main memory can take hundreds or even thousands of clock cycles. the memory is common and cheap, and registries are very few - by orders of orders of magnitude. to explain this in detail would be a course in and of itself, but i suggest you look into "flip flops" and "the clock speed hoax" for further reading. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
the circle of life regarding "animal usefulness" | i'm going to start off by saying that i'm very much not a biologist, i work in a steel shop. a lot of what i say will probably be dead wrong, so please bear with me since this is a horribly translated thought. bees have a use in nature. as far as i know, they have a fairly well defined use in their "circle of life" which syncs with plant life. i forget what its called.. cohabitation or something of that sort? either way, i was busy getting turned into a raisin by mosquitoes the other night and i thought, "why do these things even exist?". so, where do mosquitoes fit into the circle of life? what benefits from them after they've done the blood sucking? or, are mosquitoes an evolutionary anomaly with no direct beneficiary? if mosquitoes do have a beneficiary is there any species that does not? thanks for your time. | "usefulness" is a tricky thing. the diversity of life we see is not the result of evolution for usefulness. it's not even for individual survival. it's all about reproduction. natural selection works because of differential reproductive success. if a beneficial mutation pops up in a population, organisms possessing that will reproduce more successfully. assuming the mutation can be inherited, it will be passed to the next generation. rinse and repeat. the incredible thing about natural selection is the stunning diversity it's led to over time. hence charles darwin's famous "[...from so simple a beginning...](_url_0_)" statement from the end of *on the origin of species*. the interconnectedness of it all, with organisms interacting with each other and with the various abiotic processes, is fascinating, but it doesn't mean an organism *must* be visibly useful. it means that some mutually beneficial relationships have been selected for. it may create a resource that another organism can exploit. ultimately usefulness is in the eye of he beholder, so to speak. you see no use for mosquitoes, but they're amazingly useful to [*plasmodium*](_url_1_), the protist that causes malaria. you probably see that as detrimental, but it is a resource that could be used and organisms that could have exploited it. the fish that eat larvae and birds and bats that eat adults benefit from them. that they're detrimental to us means very little to them as long as they can persist as a species. we can study ecology and try to understand at the role that a species plays in an ecosystem. in that regard, nothing is useless. nothing exists in isolation. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/past-exhibitions/darwin/endless-forms-most-beautiful/from-so-simple-a-beginning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmodium"
] | [
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what is "hastatic order"? | what is "hastatic order", and how does the compound uru2si2 figure into it? a paper in nature - [link](_url_0_) - makes the case that its the result from a "spinor order parameter", something i'm completely unfamiliar with. any explanation, preferably with an analogy, is much appreciated. | hastatic order is the term that the authors coined to describe a break of double t-symmetry. t-symmetry is the idea that physics is the same whether time goes forwards or backwards. if we're describing an object's motion as time progresses, we can "rewind" by making the time parameter progress in the other direction. the object will just "rewind," it'll follow the same path just in the opposite direction. the equations of its kinematics do not particularly care which direction time is going. double t-symmetry is the idea that if you reverse time and then reverse it again, everything should be the same. that seems like a trivial statement (reversing twice just ends up with time going forwards), but it will become important soon. magnetic fields do not obey t-symmetry (note for the scientists here that i'm using a loose definition of "t-symmetry" which is distinct from the one used in qft). if you reverse the direction of time, magnetic fields flip over. this can be explained by the fact that magnetic fields are pseudovectors, ie they arise from a cross product. pseudovectors are distinct from regular vectors in the way that they change under symmetry operations. consider two vectors, a and b, in cartesian 3-space. i'll then define a third vector, c, such that c = a x b. i then mirror a and b across some plane, for example zy. only the x components of a and b are changed (they're multiplied by -1), but all of the components of c change by a factor of -1. c is a *pseudovector* and transforms differently under symmetry operations than regular vectors. if i perform my symmetry operation again, c's original state is restored (as, of course, are a and b). so, the psuedovector transforms like everything else under a *double* symmetry operation, but not a single symmetry operation. likewise, typical magnetic fields are understood to break t-symmetry, but not double-t symmetry. so, if a pseudovector breaks t-symmetry but not double-t symmetry, what kind of object breaks double-t symmetry? spinors! a spinor is a pseudovector on steroids. when you apply a single symmetry operation to a spinor, instead of flipping over like a pseudovector, it points into imaginary space. perform the symmetry operation again, and the spinor ends up as a negative version of the original. perform the symmetry operation two more times, and you retrieve the original spinor. so, a spinor breaks double-t symmetry in the same way that a pseudovector breaks single-t, but upholds quad-t in the same way that a pseudovector obeys double-t. uru*_2_*si*_2_* has the weird magnetic property that, below a certain temperature, its response depends severely on the orientation of the field which you apply to it. the author's explanation of this is (put "simply") that the intermolecular interactions cause the field to act as a spinor rather than a pseudovector, hence breaking both single and double t-symmetry. i am unfortunately not able to access the full paper right now because my school's access service for nature is currently borked, but that's what i can distill from secondary sources. | 24 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v493/n7434/full/nature11820.html"
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why do none of the speeds of steps matter after the rate-determining step? | i'm progressing through a level chemistry in the uk, and we covered kinetics and rate equations recently. we were told that the rate of a reaction is determined by the rates of the steps up to and involved in the slowest step. an example given to demonstrate this was that if you're making a cup of tea, however quickly you pour the water into the mug once it's done, what really matters is the rates of everything up to the kettle boiling. we were also told the rate-determining step was the slowest step. but if this is the case, then returning to the tea analogy - say it consists of these steps. a) getting the tea bag and mug out b) putting water in the kettle c) putting it on to boil d) pouring the water into the mug e) waiting for the teabag to stew f) removing the teabag so clearly c) would take the longest, and would thus would be the 'rate-determining step' with b) also being in the rate equation as it is a prerequisite for c). but what if e) took only a fraction less time than c)? would it still have no effect on the rate equation? and if not, why? it seems like speeding up step e) could significantly increase the rate even if it is not the slowest step. is this just an abstraction to simplify things? | it's an approximation. in most cases, all steps but the rds are much, much faster and don't make a contribution to the observed rate law for the reaction. for everything you're likely to cover at a-level (and, speaking from experience, in a chemistry degree too) it's totally fine to assume that every other step is pretty much instant. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a strep test work? and how can it be accurate in such a short amount of time? | the rapid strep test is an immunoassay (it tests for the reaction of antibodies specific for group a streptococcus bacteria and their antigens). the swab sample is placed into conditions which allow the antibody to either bind to antigen (if present) and then react in a visible way, or not bind and be washed away. the "accuracy" of this sort of test is quantified as sensitivity (aka: how likely is it that the antigen is present and the test is able to detect it) - there are a few types of strep test, but this can be in the 90+% range for most ones use today. sensitivity is mostly limited by how well the test agent (the antibody) can bind to the test subject (the strep antigens). the main factor which limits this is the rate of bacterial evolution: the test needs to detect as many versions (aka mutants) of the bacterium as possible, but the bacterium is under neutral/positive selective pressure to change its antigens, so it is very diverse. the more specific the test gets to bacterial antigens, the less sensitive it is to changes in those antigens, so the more likely it is to miss bacteria that have mutated but are still causing disease. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do certain foods and drinks increase or decrease blood pressure? | when i google i only get lists of foods which are purported to raise or lower blood pressure, but no explanation of the mechanisms. | blood pressure is the result of a lot of factors affecting blood flow throughout the body that impact the muscle tissue of the heart. two of the biggest factors include vessel diameter and blood volume. the diameter of a blood vessel may increase or decrease because of a number of physiological or pathological factors. in the case of lowering vessel diameter, less blood can be pumped through per heartbeat. this increases the pressure of the blood against the walls of the vessels. ultimately the heart has to work extra hard to get the requisite blood to the whole body. alternatively, increased blood volume has a similar impact, but rises for different reasons. some foods are implicated in raising blood pressure usually include foods high in salt or saturated fats. salt in the blood draws water from surrounding tissue do to increased hydrostatic pressure in the blood. the water in surrounding tissues is drawn towards the salty blood, raising blood volume, therefore raising blood pressure. the way that foods in high saturated fats raise blood pressure is a lot more complicated from a biochemistry standpoint. the big picture is that saturated lipid molecules are subject to certain oxidation reactions which make them antigenic (red flag for the immune system). increasing fat intake also increases levels of ldl, a lipoprotein that can also be oxidized by various biochemical mechanisms (which usually aren’t happening at bad levels or rates). these oxidized species cause problems in the vasculature and may lead to atherogenic deposits along the vessel lining which reduce the vessel diameter. to get a more detailed explanation of this process, just look up atherosclerosis and atherogenesis. this is fairly typical mechanism for increased blood pressure. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do toddlers like to give stuff to people? | i'm trying to find something on google but all that comes up is about spoiling kids and how sharing is good. just about every small person i've met and played with always gives me things, whether it's toys, food, or random objects. they come up and say, "here, have this. and this. and this. and this." my friend sent me a video a few minutes ago of the little girl she nannies handing her all of her blocks in handfuls. it's the sweetest thing in the world to experience, but i'm stuck as to why they do it. has this been studied at all? | this has been studied a lot, and it is one of the main arguements for humans being naturally altruistic. in short, it is to our evolutionary advantage to instinctually share with everyone we know because it means when we are searching for food, everyone will get enough. when paired with a sense of violent rage towards the feeling of unfairness it creates a strong disincentive for cheaters to be selfish. this is really the crux of the debate between whether we are naturally good or evil. despite what steven pinker might tell you, the vast majority of the research supports a, fairness with justice model, indicating towards the naturally good hypothesis, however, when introduced to extreme religious ideology, the notions of justice and fairness change and lead to destrucetive behaviors. _url_2_ _url_0_ _url_1_ | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livescience.com/16460-babies-grasp-fairness-sharing.html",
"http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/2013/10/is-altruism-innate/#.Vr2u8PkrLIU",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111007161636.htm"
] | [
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can two separate events happen at the exact same time? [i.e. two raindrops hit the ground] | my family has always argued over this issue, it's one of our dinner table topics. my brother and i think it is possible. my dad and one of my other brothers think that if you were to slow down time infinitely, eventually you would witness one happening before the other. | the answer is yes and no. well... kind of... i'll explain: let's think of one raindrop, raindrop middle, falling from a cloud during a storm. let's say that from raindrop middle's point of view, there are two other drops, raindrop left and raindrop right, falling at the *exact* same time, all in a row. no matter how slow you slow time, from our drop's point of view, down they fall until splashdown at the exact same moment. perfect synchronicity achieved, problem solved, right? let's rewind back up into the cloud for a moment and look at things from a different point of view. raindrop left falls, but things are different this time. from left's point of view, middle and right will splashdown at the exact same time, but left will hit a moment before both of them. what's happening? let's forget about *time* for a second and think about *signals*. signals (like the light from a raindrop) propagate in a bunch of different ways at different speeds, depending on the type of signal and the medium they travel through. signals are the only method way have for measuring things like time, and each signal spreads like waves in a pond, hitting some points simultaneously and others at staggered intervals. the important thing to take from this is that *there is no absolute time*. every atom in existence experiences time a little differently. because there is no absolute time, there is no absolute synchronicity. it's all relative. so, like your conversation with your dad and brothers, the answer depends on your point of view. it isn't that two things can or can't happen at the exact same time. the truth is that *you* can put yourself in a place where you see things happen at the exact same time. if you get to just the right spot at just the right moment, you'll see two raindrops hit with no time between. but the guy to the left of you won't believe it because he's just seen something a little different. | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how exactly does this work? anti-gravity magnets in a copper pipe. | i'm genuinely confused by this. i thought copper wasn't magnetic? materials aren't my science but i'm intrigued by this video. | copper is not ferromagnetic, but it is a conductor. when a conductor moves through a magnetic field (or a magnetic field moves around a conductor) such as in a case of a permanent magnet falling down a copper pipe -- [eddy currents are generated.](_url_1_). the eddy currents create a fairly strong opposing electromagnetic field which slows down the magnet. in other words, these eddy currents then extract some of the kinetic energy of magnet (thereby slowing it down) and convert it to small amounts of heat in the conductor (the copper pipe). this also works with aluminum or pretty much any non-ferromagnetic (most likely diamagnetic) conductor for those who are not sure what the op is talking about [here's the video](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nrw-i5Ku0mI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_current",
"http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys08/clenslaw/default.htm"
] | [
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is it possible for a non-tetrachromat to become tetrachromatic? | i know that some people are born with a mutation that gives them extra cones that are sensitive to ultraviolet light. i'm wondering if somebody born without the mutation could obtain these cones, by any means (just out of curiosity). | this has to account for multiple factors, i cant just implant cones with nano-tech without also having to implant the required nerve connections to the brain and from there who knows what else should be done for your brain to understand that new stream of data. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do bushings reduce friction between rotating parts? | is there a clearance fit or something? on a wagon, if the axle is fixed, theres a bushing between the wheel and axle right? well how does the wheel move freely around that axle? | bushings are one of the most simple forms of bearings. they will typically have a more controlled manufacturing process so they would have better tolerances and surface finishes. the more "perfect" surface is just one way that friction can be reduced. however, the main reduction in friction comes from using a lubricant on the interface. to explain how the lubricant reduces friction i am going to use the example of a stationary axle with a moving wheel. the diameter of the axle will be slightly smaller than the hole in the wheel. the lubricant will cover the axles surface and will form a very small layer between the inside of the hole and the surface of the axle. so now instead of two solid surfaces sliding across each other, you have a layer of fluid constantly being 'sheared'. the forces required to 'shear' this fluid are much less than those required to slide two solid surfaces across each other. how bearings/bushings are lubricated really depends on the individual bearings design. but in general, the lubricant is contained in the bearing using something like seals, or the lubricant is continuously pumped through the bearing ensuring the surface stays wet. additionally bearings/bushings deteriorate over time. this happens with all moving parts in machinery, but friction is particularly brutal to the machines. so it is beneficial to use bearing/bushings because it is much cheaper to replace one small part than the whole axle. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is wolff's law the reason that athletes usually have higher bone density, or is there another cause? | so i've read somewhere that football players have stronger bones due to the nature of their sport. i've also heard a claim from various muay thai practitioners that muay thai can condition one's bones due to microfractures. the claim is that every time you do something like bumping your shin, a microfracture occurs. when the microfracture is healed, the bone is stronger(similar to muscle recovery). is there any truth to this claim, and were there any studies done on this? | oooh goodie, a bone question! finally, something that's my cup of tea. it is absolutely true that loading bone makes it stronger. we tend to think of bones as inert and static things--basically giant hangers from which our muscles and organs hang. in fact, the truth is exactly the opposite--bones are very metabolically active. your bones are constantly being broken down and built back up by two cell types which work together. osteoclasts are constantly breaking down old bone, and many osteoblasts follow the osteoclast through the bone, laying down new tissue. this new tissue is called osteoid, and it isn't nearly as mineralized as the rest of your bone. every once in a while, an osteoblast gets stuck in it's osteoid, at which point it changes to osteocyte. mineralization will progress around the osteocyte, and correspondingly over time, the surrounding osteoid will get progressively denser. this leads to a normal range of bone mineral density distribution (bmdd) (_url_3_). figure 1 of that paper shows the normal range of bmdd in a rat mandible. now, many things can alter this bmdd. giving radiation or drugs (such as bisphosphonates or parathyroid hormone, both of which are used to treat osteoporosis) can alter a person's bmdd. so can their activities. any activity that increases a load on a bone will trigger the bone to strengthen itself. but how does this work? one possibility is microfractures. this absolutely a mechanism that will be occurring in top-level athletes. their training regimens may, in fact, impart a level of damage to their bones to trigger fracture healing response mechanisms. but will this happen to you? probably not. here's why: in any material, you have two types of "damage" you can do to the material: non-plastic deformation and plastic deformation. in non-plastic deformation, you are loading a material below it's yield point, meaning that when you remove the load, the *material will go back to it's original shape, undamaged.* once you hit the yield point, plastic deformation occurs, and you will start producing micro- or macro-fractures. in plastic deformation, the material will *not* go back to it's original shape, undamaged, which makes sense since we've fractured it. here is an example stress-strain curve which shows what i'm talking about. _url_1_ . as you can see, non-plastic comes first, and then once we have a fairly high level of displacement, we get plastic deformation. this might not make sense to you if you're still thinking about bones as giant blocks of calcium. they actually have a lot more to them than that. there is a *lot* of collagen in bones, which is a fairly stretchy material. in fact, gelatin (jello) is a modified form of pig/cow collagen. combining the strength of calcium with the ductility of collagen allows bone to be very strong, yet relatively robust against plastic deformation. so if microfractures aren't how we're generally strengthening our bones, how does this process work? as it turns out, bone cells (ostecytes) can actually "feel" mechanical forces and respond to them. they do so through what are called "mechanotransductive pathways", which is a vague way of saying that they convert a mechanical stimulus or input into a biochemical or genetic effect. we know that this absolutely happens through nifty little contraptions like flexcells ( _url_0_ ) which allow us to mechanically load cell culture plates. we throw some osteoblasts on there, compare them to cells that aren't being loaded, and we see *wildly* different gene expression profiles--so we know that the cells are responding directly to mechanical stimulus. this ( _url_2_ ) is a fairly nice review on some of the more recent literature regarding osteocyte mechanotransduction, if you're interested in getting into gene names and whatnot. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.flexcellint.com/",
"http://images.tutorvista.com/content/solids-and-fluids/stress-strain-curve.gif",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12018-010-9079-x",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22976646"
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] |
what is the likelihood of the ligo gravity wave detection results being errant? | i have been lightly paying attention to the ligo events the last couple of years and i understood that their original detection and publication and subsequent detections to have all been published and vetted with a high degree of significance. however when i brought up the ligo detection tonight at a local astronomy club meeting as observational evidence of bh merger, the physics teacher in the club adamantly denied the papers/detectors validity, saying that the amount of error in the study was too high and the initial paper had been widely discredited. i'd never heard of that, and i thought the studies were still being celebrated for their success. is there a problem with the detection or their publications? | that person is mistaken. the ligo results are held in high esteem in the academic community. to give you a sense of this, the project leaders are widely seen as next-in-line for a nobel prize. the person speaking has likely mistaken ligo for the bicep2 results, which was a high profile polarization measurement claiming the detection of gravitational waves through analysis of the cmb. however, it has since been countered by arguments that the polarization they observed was not due to gravitational waves in the cmb, but due to foreground dust. [here is a longer article about bicep2 if you're interested.](_url_0_) | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2015/feb/03/galactic-dust-sounds-death-knell-for-bicep2-gravitational-wave-claim",
"https://telescoper.wordpress.com/2017/08/30/ligovirgo-update/",
"https://telescoper.wordpress.com/2017/06/17/questioning-ligo/"
] | [
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is there a theoretical 'maximum' to how much can be learned in one day? | it's not the reaching the limits of learning rate that make you tired. it's the required mental effort of inhibiting all potential distractions. human brain is finite and neural pathways are finite, so there most certainly is theoretical maximum. i have seen some estimates of how much humans can actually learn new information and it can be as low as few bits per second (bits learned defined as in information theory). if you would write down all stuff you have learned from studying, then maximally compress the information (taking into account that most of what we learn is encoded on our previous experience) and divide it by the time you spend learning it, it would be very low rate of learning. --- 1. [directed attention fatigue](_url_1_) 2. influence of mental workload on muscle endurance, fatigue, and recovery during intermittent static work. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22143842",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_attention_fatigue"
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|
we found a dead rabbit :( in the skimmer of our salt water pool. don't know how long it was in there. should we change the water? | does don't know how long it was in there mean a week or all winter? what was the condition of the carcass? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would lorentz contraction create compressive stresses in a material? would it change material properties? | side note: although uniform length contraction won't lead to any material stresses, non-uniform length contraction will. this does happen in highly curved regions of spacetime, which is like the analogy of pressing down an orange peal onto a flat surface. it doesn't have the same curvature so the material has to stretch some. this happens for a 3d object in the vicinity of a black hole, but alas, the strain is not significant compared to ordinary old tidal forces. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/54988/material-strain-from-spacetime-curvature"
] | [
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|
some metal devices feel grippy when plugged in to the mains, but why did my umbrella have the same feeling when held up at the station platform? | i found [a post]( _url_0_) which seems to describe the feeling you get when you run your finger over some metal devices. it's like it's vibrating but only when you move your finger. today i realised my metal umbrella had the same feeling but only when held around chest height towards the ceramic spacer things that you find on overhead train lines (i'm in the uk if that helps). if i lowered the umbrella to my side or held tightly with any other fingers the sensation stopped. can anyone shed some light on this? i've always been fascinated by it and not really seen many people notice it, but the fact that my umbrella wasn't plugged into a wall socket, as with most umbrellas, i was wondering how it worked. is the power for the train so great that it's transferring slightly to my umbrella? another note is that with certain coats on, i can feel the fabric or my skin tingle slightly when i stand closer to the edge of the platform. like thousands of tiny static discharges. i hope this is interesting enough to warrant an answer, i'm intrigued! | the most plausible thing that comes to mind is that the magnetic or electric field generated by the power line generates small voltages in you umbrella that cause currents, which in turn cause it to hum very slightly at the mains frequency (50 hz in great britain if wikipedia serves). this is noticeable in transformers, but i would normally expect the effect to be too small to be felt by humans for metal sheets or small rods. here's a link with some measurements: _url_0_ when you feel it next time with a metal object, if you know how to, you could try grounding it and see if the vibration remains. often, small electronic devices have ungrounded plugs, which might cause them to act as something like a capacitor. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.techpowerup.com/forums/threads/strange-vibrating-feeling-when-touching-electronic-devices.192699/"
] | [
"http://www.opensourceinstruments.com/Electronics/A3013/HTML/Hum.html",
"http://earlyradiohistory.us/1917de.htm"
] | [
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] |
how did the gamma function arise? | taking the definition from [wikipedia for factorial](_url_0_): > the factorial of a non-negative integer n, denoted by n!, is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n. so how and why are we able to extend this definition into non-integer values or even complex numbers? specifcally, how did we find the definition of the [euler integral of the second kind](_url_1_)? | integration by parts of the euler integral of the second kind shows that: γ(t) = integral from 0 to infinity x^(t-1) e^-x dx = - lim x- + 0^(t-1)*e^-0 + integral from 0 to infinity x^t/t * e^-x dx the limit is 0, the expression on the third line is 0, and the expression on the fourth line is γ(t+1) / t. therefore what's left is t γ(t) = γ(t+1). this is the functional equation of the gamma function but it's also (apart from the sometimes annoying shift right by one) the definition of the factorial n (n-1)! = n!. so to answer your questions: there is no particular reason why the euler integral of the second kind (which was "chosen" by legendre) has to be the definition of the gamma function. for example [this](_url_2_) wolfram alpha link shows an alternative definition (that euler himself used) of "fraction factorials". however gamma is a special function, and you cannot express it using exponentials alone; all definitions will involve derivatives or integrals or series (or other special functions) in some way. still, the euler integral of the second kind is perhaps the simplest starting point to prove that its solution satisfies the functional equation of the gamma function (at least for t because we can build the analytic continuation of the factorial function, or equivalently because the functional equation n (n-1)! = n! has a solution given by the euler integral of the second kind (with t=n+1). you can by the way prove that only one analytic function has f(1)=1, f(t+1) = t f(t) and also makes log(f(t)) convex. that's the [bohr-mollerup theorem](_url_0_) (which i admit i have just learnt about). more information: [leonhard euler's integral: a historical profile of the gamma function](_url_1_). | 6 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factorial",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_integral"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Mollerup_theorem",
"http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Chauvenet/Davis.pdf",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Integral%5B%28-Log%5Bx%5D%29%5E%28n-1%29,%7Bx,0,1%7D%5D"
] | [
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why is multicollinearity a problem? | recently in classes i've been learning about multicollinearity, and from what i'm understanding it's when independent variables in a regression have a high correlation with one another. why would this be a problem, and could you maybe give a real life scenario example showing how this affects the data? thank you! | let's suppose you want to in estimate how leg length correlates with how high someone can jump. for 100 people of various heights you ask them to jump and touch the highest spot on a wall they can, and then you look at the height reached vs. leg length. you also measure the length of your test subjects' arms, and you look at the height reached vs. arm length. you see positive correlations in both cases, and want to see how arm and leg length differently contributed to being able to jump and reach a higher height. however your data of arm length vs. leg length is highly correlated. this causes a multicollinearity and means it will be hard for you to separate the effects of these two independent variables on the dependent variable, the total height someone was able to reach by jumping. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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on an evolutionary scale, what happens to organisms when the environmental pressure is removed? | have there been any experiments done that test what happens to organisms that do not experience competition, environmental pressure etc. what happens when the natural selection part of evolution disappears? do the organisms still tend to create variation or do they rather remain unchanged? | the other answers here are effectively talking about what happens in populations that are under stabilizing selection to maintain the same body form over long periods of evolutionary time. this is quite different from what would happen if all selection were actually removed. if there is truly no selection, then evolution will be a result of genetic drift (random fluctuations in allele frequencies) and mutation, assuming that there is no migration. over long time scales, drift will remove variation within a population, causing an allele at any given locus to become fixed (the only allele present in the population) with a probability equal to that allele's frequency in the population (e.g., if the frequency of allele a in the population is 10%, then by drift alone, the probability of a becoming fixed is 10%). when new mutations are introduced, most of them will go to extinction, because the probability of extinction of an allele when only drift is acting is 1- the fixation probability, which is 1 - the frequency of the allele. so, because new mutations have low frequencies (1/the total number of gene copies in the population), they tend to go extinct. however, not all do, and some will go to fixation. new mutations become fixed in the population at a frequency that is equal to the mutation rate. tl;dr: variation will still be introduced via mutation, and the fate of mutations will be determined by a random process. so if two populations were isolated from one another, they would diverge even in the absence of any selection. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is the mains electricity sine wave kept pure with today's modern appliances? | with the increase of dc to dc conversation in lamps, tvs etc, the current is drawn at the top & bottom of the waveform. when lots of these appliances are combined this would distort the waveform & flatten the top & bottom as the capacitors charged up. so how do they manage to refine the waveform back to being a purer sine wave with these appliances in use? | the extremely low impedance of the source is one way, but distortion of the waveform is definitely a problem and that's why the utility company charges large customers for reactive power as well as real power. in addition, power factor correction is extensively used to ensure that otherwise nonlinear devices draw current near a power factor of 1.0. i believe active pfc is a requirement for energy star certification | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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michaelis-menten kinetics: does measuring apparent km and vmax take into account competing reactions? | i am learning about why it is important to measure km and vmax for each experimental setup because measuring the "apparent" km and vmax includes enzyme inhibitions that one might not be aware of. however, what if there are entire reactions going on that are consuming the product or substrate that are not known. are these accurately aggregated into the km and vmax measurements? here are some of the links that i read through: _url_1_ _url_0_ | the 'proper' km and vmax is that where you don't have competing reactions (and where the thing actually follows mm kinetics, which it doesn't, necessarily). it's all in the mathematical derivation of the model. so if you measure something and fit that data to determine km and vmax, you're determining the 'apparent' values, which may or may not be the real ones depending on inhibition, competition, non-mm behavior and other things. in short, what could be considered experimental error or 'noise', plus the error stemming from how closely the actual kinetics follow the simplified mm model. there are few (if any) reactions that _exactly_ follow mm kinetics, so the 'correct' values are the ones that'd be the closest possible fit. that is, without the experimental error. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor",
"http://www.bio.upenn.edu/media/pdf/courses/F02/BIOL202/Handouts/BIOL202.ApparentKmandVmax.pdf"
] | [
"http://www.mdpi.com/2218-1989/2/4/818"
] | [
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is there any research to suggest that babies look to their parents to see how to react? | for example, is there any proof to suggest that if a baby falls and the parents react as if they're horrified the baby does the same and associates falling as bad thing, but if the parents just laugh and smile the baby just giggles and moves on? | yes, babies do take their cues from others! in my book "[experimenting with babies](_url_0_)," i describe a 2003 study in which an adult describes some objects in either a neutral tone or a fearful tone. then the babies get to choose which object to play with. by about 12 months, babies avoid the objects described in a fearful tone. by picking up on a fearful emotional state, they're learning to avoid objects that could harm them, which is a very useful developmental skill. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.experimentingwithbabies.com"
] | [
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what would happen if you took a basketball 10,000 feet under the ocean and released it? | would it be crushed? would it rise towards the surface? how fast would it rise? would it shoot hundreds of feet into the air when it reached the surface? | at 10,000 feet underwater, the basketball (normally inflated to around 8 psi) would be subjected to about 4,400 psi of pressure due to the water depth. chances of the basketball surviving this experience are not good. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i blasted a mushroom growing in my yard with water from my hose, and the water instantly evaporated upon contact. why is this? | the water didn't evaporate, you saw the [dispersal of the fungal spores.](_url_0_). it can be quite dramatic, because when the water pressure hit mushroom, it literally exploded from the contact, the spores became a cloud of spores. those spores then spread out over large distances. i'm sure it was quite cool to look at it. just a recommendation, some of the spores can be allergenic, poisonous, or noxious. be careful. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal_spore#Dispersal"
] | [
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|
spacesuits of the future - how do the spacesuits of today combat the low temps and high radiation of space and how can they be adapted as more humans (hopefully) spend extended periods in space | i am currently researching a short sci-fi novel set on a very cold planet (around minus 230 degrees c). i want to really get the science correct, or best speculative guess on how humanity would possibly overcome working in these extreme low temperatures. one thing i am particularly stuck on is whether on not it would be feasible to have people working outdoors in the equivalent of spacesuits and what features the suits might need. for example i know that spacesuits today are heated with hot water that circulates around the suit, similar to how a layer of hot water builds up between a diving wet suit and skin. is there any material available that is thin enough, but with high enough insulating properties, that it could be used in space more like a dry suit - i.e something that completely traps body heat and eliminates the need for internal heating? what infers insulating properties to a material? any answers greatly appreciated thanks very much in advance | one thing you may want to look at is the possibility of skintight suits. basically, nowadays we design suits to have uniform pressure along the entire body. this means pressurizing the entire body and the entire suit to 1 atm. thing is, our skin doesn't really need to be kept in constant contact with air. as long as we provide it with enough pressure not to swell, it'll be fine. suits are being designed which are skintight, using the pressure of the material itself to keep the body pressurized. essentially the entire body except the head would be in a vacuum. then all you'd need is an oxygen tank to supply oxygen to the head and you're golden. if you're writing a book, this could be a way to design more simple and easily maneuverable spacesuits as opposed to the bulky ones we have now. these suits would also work on normal earth-gravity environments, which would be impossible for the type of spacesuits used on the moon due to high weight. in addition, this eliminates the problem of suit depressurization. see [this wikipedia article](_url_0_) for more info | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_suit#Skintight_suits"
] | [
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after reading an ama of a man being raped, op said that there was no way of testing if man raped the woman or the woman raped the man. does science *only* show the occurrence of intercourse? | i was under the impression that forceful penetration into the vagina results often results in characteristic superficial injuries that would presumably not be present if a woman raped a man, but this would not be conclusive evidence either way. in what i've heard of men being raped by women the man is sometimes drugged, since the woman usually wouldn't be powerful enough otherwise. testing for this could provide some circumstantial evidence. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can non-locality avoid violating causality? | i was watching a pbs space time video talking about the quantum eraser experiment. in the [video](_url_0_) the host mentions around the 9:30 mark that non-locality doesn't violate causality and that this is tied to the phenomena of quantum entanglement where instantaneous "communication" takes place between two entangled particles. how can this avoid violating causality when you have information traveling instantaneously? | the trick is information is never actually transmitted via entanglement. thus, causality is never broken since you can't actually influence anyone outside your lightcone. in other words, entanglement can only ever produce correlated results, but each result is truly independent and random and you'd never know something profoundly weird occurred until you met with the person with the rest of the entangled system and compared notes. in the classical example of bob and alice each with a photon of entangled spin, because simultaneity is not unique, it isn't clear which photon "communicated" with the other as there will be frames of reference where bob measures his photon first and other frames of reference where alice measures her photon first. since no frame is truly preferred, the "communication" has no direction. we just know that each event of measurement is independent and random, but together must be consistent. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ORLN_KwAgs&ab_channel=PBSSpaceTime"
] | [] | [
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is there a term for the self organizing of these reservoir covering balls? how does this occur? | **imagine in question:** _url_0_ what causes the balls to organize into neat rows as they are in this photograph? i encountered that imagine in an earlier thread about covering reservoirs and thought it would be too off-topic to discuss in the thread itself. thanks in advance! | the general name of the process is [self-assembly](_url_0_) and happens on all scales, for example, you can even see similar assemblies of [nanometer sized objects](_url_1_) or even atoms in crystals. the reason such an organization occurs is because this arrangement, called [close packing](_url_2_) allows the space between the constituent particles to be minimized. this effect is especially important when the building blocks interact strongly with each other. in this case, i doubt that's the case since the spheres don't really attract or repel each other appreciably. rather, buoyancy pushes the spheres upwards towards the configuration minimizing their potential energy and after repeatedly bouncing into each other, they settle into their stablest arrangement, which is what you observe. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/vfTcj.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-assembly",
"http://www.kurzweilai.net/images/QuantumDots.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_packed"
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how are we sure our physics equations work everywhere else in the universe? | how do we know all the equations and theories we have developed apply to places billions of light years away? this might be a dumb question but was very curious. | we can look at the emission lines of elements we know here on earth in the spectra of distant stars. since the structure of an atom depends on the physical laws and all constants (speed of light, planck's constant etc) this provides a very stringent test on the variations allowed. so far we have not found any anomalies. i'd go further, the assumption that the same laws hold everywhere is a fundamental symmetry with consequences that can be tested, such as conservation of momentum. again, i'm not aware of any deviation. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_searches_for_Lorentz_violation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_group"
] | [
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if i were able to tune an rf transmitter at 555thz whould the antena glow green ? | this might sound stupid, but green is in the visible part of the electromagnetic spetrum it should make sense (555thz, ie 540nm, is greenish). would it work like that, and, if not, why ? thanks in advance ! | well, yes, if electromagnetic radiation is produced at that frequency, it would look green. in fact, emissive species that radiate green light can to a decent approximation be treated as a classical damped dipole oscillating at that frequency, very similar to a dipole antenna. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.technologyreview.com/view/514151/nano-scale-optical-antennas-could-have-a-big-impact/"
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why does it take more than 12 hours to get to the other side of the world? | because you are travelling the same speed as the earth when you first get airborne and have to accelerate in the other direction. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do iguanas from the mainland still occasionally wash up on the galapagos? | marine iguanas living on the galapagos island evolved from iguanas living on the south american continent that were washed out to sea and survived on rafts of some sort. do they still very occasionally wash up? i know its a very slim chance that even one makes it so it could be hundreds of years between individual washing up but that just raises more questions about how an entire breeding population was able to make it. some people have said that the first inhabitants may have been pregnant but is it possible for a pregnant female to spend weeks (possibly months) at sea with little water and no food but still be able to give birth? and if she was able to lay eggs after all that wouldn't there be some genetic indication that this species had been sort of inbred at one point or at least had a very slow/low rate of new genetic diversity? sorry lots of questions i obviously don't expect all of them to be answered but i was watching a documentary about the galapagos and it left a few questions unanswered. i tried looking this up online but couldn't really find much. | we don't actually know how iguanas got to the galapagos, so you're starting with a big assumption here. they are not known to wash up on the shores of the islands. there are two genera that live there today, a marine iguana and a land iguana. while they are each others' closest relatives, they seem to have diverged before the current islands of the galapagos even existed. the current islands are 5-6 million years old, but the volcanic system is much older. molecular clocks put the divergence between the genera at 11 million years. this isn't a date that set in stone, but it is substantially older than we'd expect to see ([here's a source with background info](_url_1_); may be paywalled). this means there's some conflicting information. the age of the divergence suggests two dispersal events, but the fact that they're each others' closest relatives makes it seem more likely they dispersed and then diverged. that would mean a dispersal that happened before the current islands that make up the galapagos existed. it's pretty likely that some islands are now submerged. however, the geology of that region is extremely complex. three tectonic plates intersect there, along with a couple of very small microplates that are moving around (it's called the [galapagos triple junction](_url_0_); sorry about the paywall). the volcanism also appears to be driven by a hotspot, not unlike hawaii. given the very complicated history of the area and the oddity of how the two types of iguanas we see there are related to each other, i don't think we can really say we even know how iguanas got to the islands in the first place. it's definitely interesting, and it's pretty incredible! | 62 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00338224",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-294X.1997.00209.x/abstract",
"http://www.scielo.br/img/revistas/zool/v26n3/07fig02.jpg",
"https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/-lHSJXvKB7NU/UUYPBvtbPMI/AAAAAAAAFiY/Ylts8zfySNg/s912/DSC06085.JPG"
] | [
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why is it difficult to unscrew a tight lugnut? i understand why its difficult to make it tighter, because there's something in the way, but why is going backwards also difficult? | i feel like i'm missing something. there is nothing behind a lugnut keeping it from coming off. so what are the physics at play? i asked myself this while working on my car's tires and struggling to get the lugnuts off. | if something is tightly screwed, it might not budge until you exert a certain amount of force; i heard this referred to as “breaking the torque.” the force you have to overcome is the force of friction between the screw and the nut. imagine pushing a very heavy cart. you have to exert a certain amount of force for it to begin to move and the you can exert a smaller amount of force to maintain its movement. we can translate that concept to the rotation of a nut around a screw. when the nut is tightly fastening something, an additional frictional force needs to be overcome between the nut and the object. additionally, the frictional force is dependent on the normal force, or the force of the nut perpendicular to the screw (basically how tightly the nut is hugging the screw). this frictional force can increase as the metal expands and contracts due to temperature change. | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a pacemaker work? | hi there. first, it helps to understand how your heart works. some of the cells that make up your heart are able to create electrical impulses. these impulses are what cause the heart to contract. in a "normal" heart, these impulses are triggered by these cells in at very regular tempo, or "pace". the sa node (located in the right atrium), in a healthy heart, is the location of a group of cells that normally "paces" the heart. but in diseased hearts, for many reasons (unable to create an impulse, unable to transmit that impulse to the rest of the heart, etc), the sa node may not be able to do its job correctly leading to slow heart rates (bradycardia), irregular heart rates (arrhythmia), or no heart rate. luckily, there are other cells in your heart that can "pace" the heart, too, including the av node, purkinje fibers, etc. so there is a backup system in place. it's a larger problem when those back-up systems also fail. so, if they do fail, you can place a pacemaker to do the job of the sa node and drive the heart. it uses electricity to send that impulse to the heart, and sets its rhythm with a few little wires that reside within the heart. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how to deal with a person who has a pacemaker and needs to do an fmri? | depends on the model of the pacemaker. many newer generation devices are mri compatible. in more extreme cases—if the device is not compatible and the mri is absolutely critical, the patient may require a lead and/or generator exchange. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is the midgut of an earthworm not lined with cuticle? | is it because cuticle would prevent the absorbing of nutrients? just need to clarify. | that's the gist. it's also that the midgut is derived from the endoderm, and the foregut and hindgut, which are cuticle-lined, are derived from the ectoderm. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would anything happen if i managed to nano-coat myself and go swimming? | i have seen a couple videos of waterproof nano solutions and i was wondering what would happen if someone got coated in it (and could survive, for the purpose of the question) and got in a pool. would they sink? would they skip across the water if they dived? would you even be able to push against the water to swim at all? thanks | they actually make bathing suits like this. basically what happens is when you're in the water nothing all that interesting goes on, but when you get out you'd instantly dry off. it's pretty neat to see. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a management theory along the lines of keeping workers mildly frustrated will improve productivity or stifle change to keep the status quo? | i recall hearing something about this, in that keeping lower level employees frustrated and middle management tied with meaningless tasks allows higher level management to operate largely independently? | why would you ever want to stifle change? i worked for 20 years for one company that primarily grew through the acquisition of small regional competitors. the employees that they would keep from each of these acquisitions were the ones that were open to change. they would replace many of the acquisition's systems with their own, but at the same time would hold off on that replacement long enough to observe and understand the acquisition's systems to see if they had any good ideas worth stealing (they used to say worth incorporating into their systems, but they were just stealing good ideas). as for the employees that were most vocal in their opposition to changing to the parent company's system, those were the first people let go. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible to estimate the density of a body based on the time it takes to sink through 1m of water? | with only a video of an object sinking into 1m of water from which the time of descent can be measured can an accurate estimate of the density of the object be derived or is more information needed? | you also need to know its size, shape and surface properties. a smooth iron sphere of 1m diameter will not sink at the same rate as a smooth iron sphere of 1mm diameter. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
would this matter to energy converter work in principle? | _url_0_ | yup. some people have thought of it too (though there's variations). it's really sci-fi-ish, but there's nothing wrong with it theoretically and is in fact maximally efficient. | 7 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/iZiRHhv"
] | [] | [
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earth-mars orbital resonance question. | please bear with me as i set up the back-story for my question. i was listening to a radio program that was discussing the calendars of ancient cultures, and one of the speakers stated that most ancient cultures based their calendars on a 360-day year. however, at some point a few thousand years ago all the major civilizations switched their calendars to a 364-365 day year(or some variation). here is citation: _url_0_ the same radio speaker went on to say that most people assume that those ancient civilizations just got it wrong with the 360-day calendars, and that as their astronomy got better they were able to create more accurate calendars. however, he believes that we don't give them enough credit to count the number of days in a year. so, he hypothesizes that there actually were 360 days in the year, and that something happened to the orbit of the earth to lengthen its year. he uses a possible earth-mars resonance pattern to explain the 360-day calendars, and then states that something must have disrupted that resonance causing earth to settle into it's current longer year. this would explain why most civilizations began switching to the newer calendars at about the same time. so my question to you: regardless of what you think about his theory, is it possible that the orbits of earth and mars were in resonance as recently as a few thousand years ago, but that resonance has since been disturbed? also, as a follow up question, how likely is it that their two orbits could come into resonance sometime in the future, and what effects would that have on the two planets? | this seems unlikely. the closest major resonance is the 1:2 (in the time it takes mars to orbit once earth would orbit twice). for the 1:2 resonance the period ratio would be 0.5, while the current period ratio is 0.531. if mars kept it's current semi-major axis then for earth to be at resonance with mars earth's semi-major axis would have to be 0.9997 au. from laskar et al. 2004 (a & a 428, 261-285), that's just outside of what is expected for variation of earth's semi-major axis. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-ancient.html"
] | [] | [
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how viscous is the tar in the la brea tar pits? | my [four year old](_url_0_) daughter saw an imax [movie](_url_1_) about mammoths and such and it included some cgi of a mammoth, saber toothed cat and wolves getting trapped in the la brea tar pits. i am now facing a torrent of questions about what tar pits can "suck down" (ships, huge dinosaurs, the sun, a bath, godzilla, etc.) i want to buy a catering sized container of something goopy (but kid safe) so she can "get" how tar can trap animals. i tried googling this but the recent stir about the pitch drop experiment swamps (!) the results. how viscous is the contents of a tar pit? what food or kid safe substance is a good approximation? | according to the la brea tar pit website it's basically asphalt - very long chain hydrocarbons which form the heaviest fraction in crude oil reserves. the best thing to demonstrate the viscosity is probably treacle (molasses if you're in the us). | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/h29GCN8.jpg",
"http://www.titansoftheiceage.com/"
] | [] | [
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can anyone simply explain the mechanisms that protect the small intestine from the digestive juices released by the biliary system and pancreas? | i will assume that you are talking about the acidic chyme that comes out of the stomach after its digested all of the food. in this case there is a small tube that is between the stomach and the actual beginning of the intestine, it is called the duodenum. when the chyme (the mixture of the acid, food and the other digestive enzymes from the stomach) enter this tube, the pancreas releases naco3, this is basically baking soda and is a base so it neutralises the chyme to a ph of about 8. from here it is safe for it to enter the small intestine where the nutrients will be absorbed into the bloodstream. here's a visual: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://sites.google.com/site/isami16/22_13Duodenum_L.jpg"
] | [
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|
parachuting from space | is it possible that if an astronaut where to get separated from their space shuttle in space while on a space walk that they could just re-enter the atmosphere and parachute to earth like nothing happened? | you can indeed parachute from space. what is key is that you are traveling radially towards the center of the earth (i.e. going straight up to get into space and then straight down to return). if you are in orbit about the earth you aren't just in space, but are hurtling extremely fast around the earth actually in free fall towards it. use this link to learn what orbit actually entails. _url_0_ now use this to learn about parachuting from space. _url_1_ it's therefore not really feasible as a way to return from orbit (you would need to first somehow decelerate) but might be an option for aborting a mission in relatively early stages. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/how-orbits-work/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diving"
] | [
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] |
the bullet block experiment. why do the blocks jump the same height? | from [this](_url_0_) video. a block of wood is shot from the bottom, in the center, by a rifle. the block "jumps" a certain height. the same rifle is used to shoot another identical block, but this time, off-center. both blocks travel the same height. why? clearly, one of the blocks has rotational energy that is converted from the kinetic energy of the bullet, but both bullets had to have had the same (or about the same) amount of kinetic energy. the spinning block should have traveled a smaller distance. where did the extra height come from? | it's an [inelastic collision](_url_0_), and mechanical energy need not be conserved. mechanical energy as in kinetic + potential + rotational kinetic. energy as a total naturally is conserved but that includes the block heating and sound etc. momentum however is conserved, and you can see this in the video. the rotation of one block doesn't add any momentum to it, only the movement of its centre of mass is relevant. so if it didn't jump as high as the non-rotating block, then momentum would not have been conserved which would be strange. if you guess some figures for the muzzle velocity and the bullet mass and assume that mechanical energy is conserved, then the block should jump much higher. so it's obvious that most of the mechanical energy is lost when the bullet hits the block, in the rotating block just a little bit less is lost. probably the bullet penetrated deeper into the non-rotating block. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N8HrMZB6_dU"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inelastic_collision"
] | [
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] |
austin eubanks, a columbine survivor, says "in order to heal [emotional trauma], you have to feel it." are there scientific studies that back up this assertion? are there any exceptions to this rule? | austin's statement mirrors conventional wisdom regarding recovery from trauma, but i'd like to dig in further. what's the science on this? are there scenarios where allowing oneself to experience and confront emotional trauma might be counterproductive? what about timing? austin confronted his grief after years of self-medicating his emotions. could he have recovered sooner if he confronted his grief immediately after the shooting? or is it possible that trauma victims might need time for grief to subside to a manageable level before confronting it? *can* grief subside while one is medicating it? if you can't feel it, can you still heal in some way? would appreciate any links to empirical research regarding these questions! | "prolonged exposure therapy" has the person relive the event with a therapist over and over again until it eventually becomes mundane. at least, that's the theory, and studies seem to show that it is effective. there are various tweaks on this, but overall it seems to work. this article seems to support it: _url_0_ but overall it seems that therapy is just better than no therapy in all cases, regardless of type. so in the end it's probably just a matter of degrees of change/recovery. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2977927/"
] | [
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image formation by a single positive lens: why to explain the formation of the image of an object located at "infinity"? | studying the geometry of image formation by a lens i always find in all the books two example: the case in which the object is near the lens and the case in which the object is distant as if located at infinity. why they explain this last case? | it is an important case, because for telescopes e.g. there is no difference if you assume the star is some 1000light years away or if you assume it is at infinity. the light will go the exact same way in the lense system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we have models to predict how rocks fracture? | more precisely, say i wanted to simulate whacking a smooth, round pebble with a hammer so that a crack appears. do our current models of rocks fracturing precisely predict the exact geometric shape of these cracks that appear? what are good references for this? | rocks are not homogenous isotropic materials. cracks propagate as microscopic tips. when they interact with grains or crystals it can deflect the crack. so without a perfect 3d model of the rock at micro scale it is impossible to perfectly predict crack propagation. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.academia.edu/9137532/DERIVATION_OF_GRIFFITHS_EQUATION"
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the limitations of the huygens-fresnel principle in wave propagation | i recently learned about the huygens-fresnel principle while studying physics in high-school. however, there were several points that bothered me. i have tried to research these questions, but nothing has come up to sate my curiosity. for reference: _url_1_ questions: 1) from my understanding, the propagation of the wave is a result of the overlap between the spherical waves which surround a point on a part of the wave. in this case, why does the propagation only travel outwards? why doesn't it travels inwards or "backwards" so to speak back towards the slit? 2) according to the principle, the propagation of the wave should be propagated in the outward direction, but it should also always touch the barrier of the slit, kind of like this: _url_0_ in most diagrams and reality, however, the sides of the propagated wave start to taper off? why does that happen? thanks in advance! | to understand shadows, consider this: the waves to the right of the slit (if the wave is traveling right) are the result of the sum of the waves from the points in the slit. if you go straight out from the center of the slit, consider all the waves you'd get from each point: the waves from the center of the slit reach you first, followed shortly by the waves from the edges. if the difference in those two travel times is low enough, you'll get all the waves arriving at the same point in their cycle and adding constructively. so the wave keeps traveling perpendicular to the slit without much trouble. but with your point off to the side, things are different. each point from the slit is still contributing, but now instead of being roughly equidistant to the point in question, there are a range of phases contributing (since each wave took a different amount of time to arrive despite being in phase with each other initially). if there's enough difference (if the period of the wave is short enough to be comparable to the difference in travel time), then there will be waves which are at opposite points in their cycles and canceling each other out, leaving a shadow of low amplitude. you can also see that the shadowing effect depends on both the wavelength and the width of the slit, because the wavelength determines the wave period and the width of the slit determines how different the travel times will be. thanks for prompting me to think about this, i actually found out why the wavelength hitting a slit matters, in terms of huygen's principle :) regarding the travel direction of the waves, it's a bit subtle. the waves obey the [wave equation](_url_0_), which basically says that the vertical acceleration of any point on the lake is proportional to the curvature (second derivative) at that point (with water in a lake you can think of this as low points being filled in and high points dropping). every solution of this equation happens to be the sum of an outgoing and incoming wave for each point on the lake. also, the sum of any two waves which are solutions to the equation produce another solution, which is why waves can be superposed without bumping into each other (and this is the basis of huygen's principle) when you consider a point to be a "source" (for the purposes of the huygens principle), all you're doing is specifying the amplitude of that point at that instant. what happens to the incoming waves at that instant? they actually pass through that point and become outgoing waves. the outgoing waves keep spreading until they hit some kind of boundary that doesn't follow the wave equation. [this gif](_url_1_) shows a traveling wave. knowing the rule for acceleration of each point, you can work out why each point behaves as it does (i'll describe the right-moving wave). on the front end of the wave, there is some positive curvature (curving upwards away from the point) and so that point is accelerated upward (the next moment this creates more curvature for the point to its right). a ways up there is a point where the wave goes from being curved up to being curved down. this is the point where there is no acceleration and the point has reached its maximum upward speed. at the top, the curvature is negative and the point slows down and turns back around. as it nears the edge the positive curvature pushes up again, slowing it down, until it reaches zero once again and the wave has passed. this illustrates how a wave travels in obedience of the wave equation, and why it doesn't change direction until it hits something. | 2 | [] | [
"https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ_9n-cpW9xVlKCCZg4gPmhSXXMWNHvK_ZZnJmHFKfqNCh4YDrJqg",
"http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/C/c33e2bffc162212e1d9aa769ad3ae54f/diffract.gif"
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what force allows rocks to be skipped? | so i'm imagining dropping a flat rock, flat side down, into a pond. it will just fall in, and there will be a splash. i imagine that if the rock is spun, and dropped into the pond, it would do the same thing. but if it is spun, and given horizontal momentum, it skips. this to me implies that the water is pushing upwards on the rock during contact in such a way that it was not before. i am not sure why surface tension would behave as such, or if there is something else acting here. anyway, thats as much of it as i could puzzle out, and i'm not even certain its 100% correct. anyone want to explain whats going on when you skip rocks? | it is just basically newton's third law, much as what you'd expect in this case. the reason a rock skips along the surface a few times before sinking is then due to the horizontal velocity combined with its tilt. that's why spherical stones just sink immediately while "flat" stones skip across the surface. if you could throw a spherical stone with sufficient force, it would also skip a few times along the surface before sinking. it is just that the less "flat" of a stone, the more the stone decelerates each time it hits the water surface. it is not just surface effects why rocks skip, it's generally because water is very good at reflecting objects (ie it's relatively incompressible). a spherical stone will simply weigh more per contact area than a flat stone. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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