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why are retinal cells organized like they are? | perhaps "why" isn't the right question. i have some experience with neurobiology, especially the visual system, at the undergrad level and the counter-intuitive arrangement of cells in the retina has always puzzled me. i know that it is as such, from anterior to posterior: axons - ganglion cells - bipolar cells - photoreceptors i also know that the joining of the axons causes the blind spot at the optic disc, and i'm sure that all of those axons and all of the cell layers on top of the photoreceptors can't be very efficient. i know that evolution is not a creative (barring mutation) or efficient force, and that it can lead to redundancies and vestigial parts, but i can't imagine how this arrangement could come to be. i suppose that the earliest "visual" system likely consisted of a photosensitive cell connected to a rudimentary nervous system, and that further development would lead to a layer of receptive cells with accessory cells and nerve fibers behind them. i don't really see how the arrangement we have could come into being. i'm very interested in any prevailing or compelling ideas about this. | firstly, i probably have about the same level of education in the eye as you (mostly high school, some undergrad) so take what i say with a grain of salt. i'm assuming your question is why the human retina is arranged so that the photoreceptors are at the very back with all the other cells/cell structures placed in front, essentially "blocking" light from getting to them- an arrangement some would characterize as being *inverted*. as it has been explained to me in the past, it has been *suggested* that if the arrangement of the retina were reversed, that light that got past the photoreceptors would be more likely to be scattered and reflected off the other layers back at the photoreceptors and (since photoreceptors are not unidirectional) thus degrade image quality by creating 'false signals.' as it stands now, any light that gets past our photoreceptors will immediately hit the pigmented layer and be absorbed. consequently blind spots exist because nerve cells need a pathway for their signals to somehow 'exit' the eye and connect back to the central nervous system and brain. presumably, achieving this through a blind spot rather than say, distributing the nerve connections evenly between all the photoreceptors was the 'better' option. **tangent alert:** but as you already understand, the result of this arrangement of the retina, there is a whole mess of cells getting in the way of our photoreceptors that should be creating a "shadow" over our retina that along with blocking our visions, we should be able to see. evolution has compensated for this using a [twofold approach](_url_0_): neurologically, our eyes and brain have evolved in such a way that we are actually insensitive to still i.e. static images. thus the static pattern of cells that overlay our retina is invisible to us as, relative to the retina, it is perfectly still and unmoving. of course this also should imply that if we stare at a still image long enough it would eventually vanish from our sight as well. the reason this doesn't happen is because of the second mechanism. even when we are staring at a still image, our eyes are in fact still constantly moving around just enough to prevent the "static image" effect from taking hold and making us go blind. thus, even though these micromovements are what allows us to stare at still images, they have no effect on the cells blocking our photoreceptors since they are moving along with the entire eye and are in effect static however as to your question as to the evolutionary significance of this, that is a much more trickier issue. according to the [wiki article on the subject](_url_1_) (noticeably lacking in citations so again, grain of salt), some invertebrates (notably squids) have retinas where the layers are reversed i.e. photoreceptors are on the "top," which suggests that other selective pressures may be at work that do not exclusively favor the arrangement found in humans. this appears to be an issue still open to a lot of debate and i'm hoping a redditor who's research lies in this area can shed some light on the matter (pun intended) that is a little more accessible than the pubmed search results. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/retina/retina.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina#Vertebrate_and_cephalopod_retina_differences",
"http://hubel.med.harvard.edu/book/b8.htm"
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can a persons dieting habbits be identified through their fingernails? | since fingernails grow relatively slow is it possible to identify changes in the chemistry of a persons nail over time and be able to identify any dieting habits. say someone eats poorly for three months, then eats healthy for the next three months. if you study that persons nail clippings over the six month period would the clippings differ dramatically (hardness, color, thickness) ? | the amount of overall nutrient availaility [does affect the thickness and growth rate of fingernails](_url_0_), so shifting into or out of malnourishment would be evident based on visual inspection alone. if you're looking at quality of food (say fast-food burgers vs. healthy home prepped) that may not hold true. it's possible to assess diet composition based on [the chemical nature of an individual's hair](_url_2_), so at least in theory yes. fingernails, being made of the same protein as hair, should be influenced by diet. the length of dietary consistency would have to be linked ot the growth rate of the fingernail to ensure an accurate representation. the method used in the lab is measuring the ratios of [isotopes](_url_1_) of carbon and nitrogen in the hair. since there isn't a change in how much carbon or nitrogen is present, just which isotope, it seems unlikely that a difference in food quality would be detectable by visual inspection alone. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/nails/WO00020",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_analysis",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2001/010102/full/news001228-7.html"
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why does oxygen starvation cause euphoria? | i have studied drugs of abuse for many years, and all i can say is the following: people and other animals enjoy altered states of consciousness. young children spin until they fall down, for fun. humans and other animals enjoy a wide variety of mind-altering drugs that do not seem to affect the "pleasure pathways" of the brain. in short, people like to feel dizzy and weird. it may be related to novelty seeking behavior - our drive to explore new things. although people and other animals like a wide variety of mind-altering drugs and behaviors (with many exceptions), only the drugs that target the "pleasure pathways" tend to cause addiction. thus, heroin and cocaine cause addiction because they boost dopamine activity in the nucleus accumbens (the "pleasure center of the brain"), but lsd does not cause addiction. (disclaimer: using lsd can be dangerous for other reasons, and some people use lsd too frequently. but it is far, far less addictive than heroin.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i am a teen looking to go into biotech. or genetic engineering. is there anything you would recommend to me? | can you be more specific - what age are you? from what country/state? are you asking what a-levels/degree to do? interesting reading? internship opportunities? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a question about most recent common ancestor (mrca) | the "identical ancestors" article on wikipedia includes the following passage: "the identical ancestors point for homo sapiens has been estimated to between 15,000 and 5,000 years ago, with an estimate of the human mrca living about 2,000 to 5,000 years ago, that is, estimating the iap to be about three times as distant as the mrca.[3] note that both the matrilineal and the patrilineal human mrcas are far more remote still, dating to some 200,000 and 338,000 years ago, respectively." _url_0_ why do the "matrilineal and the patrilinial human mrcas" date to up to 338,000 years ago, while the human mrca is dated to 2,000-5,000 years ago? what is the difference between these dates? is the older date the point at which both matrilineal and patrilinial mrcas existed together (i.e. reproduced with each other)? | so the identical common ancestors are a group of related individuals, whereas the mrca is a single individual (likely a descendent of one of the identical ancestors). the reason you can go further back in time with the identical ancestors is because there are more of them than the mrca for humans to potentially be descended from. the matrilineal and patrilineal mcras are completely different things, and should always be considered separately. matrilineal mcra refers to mitochndrial dna. this is dna found only in the mitochondria of cells and is passed on only from your mother (due to it being contained in the egg and not the sperm). it is found in both men and women. therefore, we can trace this matrilineal dna back through an unbroken chain of women for about 200,000 years. patrilineal dna refers to the y chromosome, and is found only in men. it is passed from father to son. just like the matrilineal dna, we can trace it back through an unbroken line of men to 338,000 years ago. technically, since these years are so far back, we can trace these two different types of dna back to when h. erectus was just dying off and neanderthals were still alive. the older date is not when they reproduced with each other (since we have to consider them separately) but simply how far back we can trace it. mcra must be related to all humans alive today, whereas the matrilineal and patrilineal mcras are sex specific: the individual from whom we are all descended could have been male or female, and would have its own mitochindrial dna or y chromosome we could trace back further still, to give us identical ancestors that lived much further back in time | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identical_ancestors_point"
] | [
"http://tedlab.mit.edu/~dr/Papers/Rohde-MRCA-two.pdf"
] | [
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with the right conditioning, can someone control involuntary muscle movements? eg, your pupils. | ...or even the heart? or are these so hard-wired against conscious control that it's impossible? | you cannot control smooth muscle. you can only control some skeletal muscles. there are some skeletal muscles that you, or most people, cannot control, such as the tensor tympani muscle in your ear. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in acoustics today (i'm studying architecture) i had an idea that my professor could not give me feedback on (has to do with valve amplifiers) | one of the topics in our lecture was how sound travels at different speeds within different mediums. does this mean that a given sound (let's say a normal open a on a guitar... the 5th string played without any fretting) would sound different in everyday air than it would in say a helium environment? given the answer to my previous question is a yes... i would like to bring up the idea of tube or valve amplifiers ( _url_0_ ). normally, these "tubes" contain a vacuum in which the sound is processed. however, what if you were to fill that vacuum with different gasses, would they theoretically output different notes, pitches, or even octaves of one specific note played? | it won't work at all. there is no sound passing through the tubes, only electrons. if you fill it with gas, all that will happen is the electron beam will get diverted or scatterd and it won't work as efficiently. or, more likely, you will get 300-650 volt arcs across the grids and plates in the tube and it will catch fire and not work at all. it's a really interesting thought though! source: i have built several tube amps | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve_amplifier"
] | [] | [
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] |
how do you prove that hexagonal tilling is the most optimal in terms of "border use"? | there are many ways to tile a plane, [one of them using hexagones](_url_0_). it reads on the wikipedia page that hexagones are optimal when minimising perimeter. does someone have an idea of a demonstration? | i looked at hales' paper. there are two basic ideas: 1) an optimal tiling must be convex. 2) the optimal convex tiling is hexagonal. in the first section of the paper, he notes that (2) was proven in 1943 by toth and observes that convexity allows one to work with polygons, because if the edges of a cell in the tiling are not straight lines, then one side is not convex. however, convexity is a very strong condition since it rules out everything except convex polygons. there are lots and lots of crazy tilings that aren't convex, like [this](_url_1_) and [this](_url_0_). intuition suggests that these should have "too much edge," but if there's one thing the history of mathematics has taught us, intuition is often a poor guide to subtle mathematical questions. hales sets out to prove that, indeed, this intuition is actually correct. (i haven't read the rest of the paper carefully enough to give more than a guess as to the specifics of his argument, so i'll stop here.) | 10 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexagonal_tiling"
] | [
"http://41.media.tumblr.com/fcb707c4c5be2dc5f2b51fab0a4ba582/tumblr_mncmbl3bfx1sszkooo1_1280.png",
"http://www.bridgesmathart.org/art-exhibits/bridges2007/gailiunas2.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeycomb_conjecture",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/math/9906042v2.pdf"
] | [
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could our persistent use of the same person's (hela) cell for in vitro research have a detrimental effect on the research? | i simply wonder if it could have bad side effects to have so much research performed with the same genome. | hela cells just happen to be the first cell line used in clinical research, they are by no means the only one. almost all of these cell lines suffer from a more detrimental condition than the lack of genetic diversity and that is the fact that they are cancer cells. this is usually the result of a large compilation of mutations in their genome which makes working in them complicated especially when you're testing toxicity or effects of certain chemicals on the genome. there is, however, some work going into immortalizing healthy cells from primary donors through a use of drug cocktails that induce a cancer-like phenotype without the complication of multiple genetic mutations. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you're born with your heart outside of the body, and it stops. will you be able to use your hands to squeeze and keep it going? | if you're born with your heart outside your body you'll be dead, simply, for a whole host of reasons. ignoring the hemodynamic complications this would cause and pretending it's in any way plausible what you're asking about is basically [cardiac massage](_url_0_) and while it's possible, the outcomes for cardiac massage are almost always poor. as for whether you could do it yourself, people tend to become unco-ordinated and then rapidly lose conciousness when the heart stops, so it's not going to be something you could do yourself. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation#Other"
] | [
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|
are push-ups harder or easier for tall people? | if you have two people with the same weight but one is taller than the other, is there a difference in the amount of energy they have to use to do push-ups? if you imagine the person as a lever and the fulcrum is their feet, the taller person has more leverage because their arms are further from the fulcrum, but gravity is also acting on a point further from the fulcrum. do the two cancel out, or are push-ups easier for one person? | speaking as someone who has had to grade too many military pt tests, the longer your arms are, the more effort you are exerting to move yourself back to a fully extended position. shorter people have less distance to go (as long as they aren't that genetic throwback with gorilla arms that can scratch their knees while standing straight up, no offense intended to those with such genetic issues). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the body know the distance to the object you’re looking at (and focus on it using the cornea)? | example: cameras auto-focus using an electronic rangefinder. | stereopsis is how the eyes can see the depth of a 3d object. since we have two eyes that are at a certain distance apart, this creates binocular vision. your visual cortex uses the very slight differences in the distance of the object to create depth perception. for the second part of your question, your eyes have muscles called ciliary muscles that can manipulate your lens behind the cornea. if the muscles relax, then you are able to see far away objects. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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wimps, how do they work? | how do wimps work? i read that they are comprised of both matter and antimatter. how can that be, and how would it be formed naturally if it's constantly obliterating itself whenever it touches another wimp? | no, you were misinformed if you were told they were made of matter and antimatter. wimps are matter but a form of matter that interacts due to gravity (and the weak force) but not due to other forces. we thus distinguish it from normal matter - the stuff of planets, stars gas clouds, etc - which interacts due to all 4 fundamental forces. we don't really know a great deal about wimps. scientists detected so called 'dark matter' a while ago and there were rival competing theories. other ideas, like so called ''machos' which were dark concentrations of normal matter; or modified newtonian dynamics were considered and then discarded when no evidence was there to support them. so wimps are the best explanation we have for the dark matter problem. we know from observations they don't interact with em radiation (they should really be called transparent rather than dark matter). we know they must have mass 'charge' but not electrical or other charge. we don't know much else about it other than their distribution and abundance. i honestly find dark matter hard to believe although i accept it is the best explanation for the available evidence. wimps haven't been observed in a detector, only through their gravitational effects on distant galaxies. they can bend light due to the gravitational space time distortion in the same way that any massive object can bend light. there are various searches under way at the moment to detect them in a physical detector. as they haven't so far been observed in this way they are regarded as hypothetical particles, although they are also the best explanation for the dark matter problem. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what form does the energy used to power electronics take? | every month you get a bill saying how much electricity you used to power your computer, fridge, etc. obviously the energy doesn't just disappear, so where does it go? does most of it become light or heat? | yes, most of it ends up as light and heat. the light too ends up as heat. some of that energy may also be stored. say you use it to charge a battery for instance. but that will end up as heat eventually too. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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how fast would i have to skip a stone for it to travel a mile out to sea? | so we would need to model the motion and resulting air drag of the stone (a function of shape, angle thrown, how much spun, how windy) and model the force and change in all of that from each impact with the water (again a function of all that plus angle of impact). this isn't feasible to do analytically without a ton of assumptions so it would need to be run through an iterative computer program (still with a lot of assumptions). also i can tell you that as speed increases drag due to air and (depending on the angle) the water collisions will increase which means the first skip is going to have to be a large portion of the distance. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is fact and what is fiction in the idea "you crave what your body needs"? | the idea is that if i have an iron deficiency, i crave iron-rich foods. however, i actually do have an iron deficiency and i mainly just crave chocolate and shit, not like spinach or anything. | [chocolate cravings can be a sign of magnesium deficiency](_url_0_). i have heard about this connection between anemia/magnesium deficiency and chocolate cravings before, in discussions about the effects of pms. another craving that is seen as an actual symptom of anemia is [pagophagia](_url_1_) or ice-crunching. it seems to be a common assumption that cravings indicate deficiencies... but i don't see much about that assumption being tested. any research dieticians out there? on another note... wendy's chocolate frostys are high in iron and calcium and chocolate flavor. 8/10, would recommend. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.diabeteslibrary.org/View.aspx?url=Article819",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagophagia"
] | [
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a question about evolution that no one seems to be able to answer. | okay, i was talking about evolution with one of my friends and he asked me a question that i couldn't answer, but i'm sure one of you can. it went something like this: giraffes have high blood pressure (due to their extremely strong hearts) and valves in their necks which both allow them to survive. if they lacked either one of these two things, they would die (if they bent their head down, their brain would be crushed by the blood and if they didn't have high blood pressure, the brain would not get oxygen). how did giraffes come about, through evolution from a common ancestor, if both of these adaptations would have had to come simultaneously? | easily. giraffes did not always have long necks. as the necks got longer and blood pressure got higher, there was a point where the valve was beneficial but not necessary. at this point, the valve started to spread through the population. eventually almost all giraffes had the valve and the necks could reach the modern length where the valve is necessary. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it bad to dry fire a bow | so i recently started doing archery and everyone always to never dry fire a bow (with out an arrow) because it breaks the bow. i didn't quite believe them and then i watched a friend of mine dry fire a new compound bow and it cracked the limbs and the string slipped off the cams. it was pretty impressive. can someone explain how putting the force of the bow into an arrow prevents that sort of thing from happening? also for reference: diagram of the parts of a compound bow _url_0_ and the bow is set to 45lbs (if anyone needs that for math) | not going to do any math. the issue is "backlash" of firing an empty bow. when you normally release the bow with an arrow loaded, the sting has something its pushing against until it gets to its original set point. when it is fired "dry" there is no resistance to all of that force being unleashed, the limbs of the bow snap back as fast as possible, and over extend. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.outdoorsexperience.com/compoundbowdiagram.html"
] | [] | [
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how does the human body regulate substance transfer in tissues? is the central nervous system involved? | okay, lets try to answer this seemingly innocent yet monstrous question. when we talk about transfer of 'stuff' or 'substances', you can roughly classify things based on: 1. the stuff that's transferred, and 1. the location where the transferring takes place each has its own unique physiology/processes and will be difficult to comprehensively cover in a reddit post. lets look at the 'stuff' bit first. 'stuff' can be broadly classified into small stuff (hydrophobic stuff, hydrophilic stuff, and water), and large stuff (eg proteins, bacteria) for small stuff, things are further classified into stuff that cannot be dissolved in water (hydrophobic aka water-hating), things that can be dissolved in water (hydrophilic aka water-loving), and water itself. water-hating stuff tend to just pass through cell membranes and go straight from blood to cell (and vice versa). water-loving stuff on the other hand cannot pass through cell membranes, and require assistance from protein channels. water also cannot pass through cell membranes, and instead pass through 'holes' that span across cell membranes made by certain proteins. for the larger stuff eg large proteins, the cell physically gulp it down by wrapping its membrane around it. this process is called endocytosis if you are interested in googling. for the even larger stuff like bacteria, your immune cells also can gulp it down by a process similar to endocytosis, called phagocytosis - think of it as endocytosis but magnified. next would be the location bit. in the human body there are some specific locations that are designed for things to transfer. these places include your lungs (transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide), stomach/small bowel (transfer of nutrients), large bowel (transfer of water), liver (loads of processes happen in the liver), kidneys (transfer of water and waste), sweat/tear/saliva/mucus glands (transfer of water + some other stuff). there are also place within the body that are designed to minimise stuff transferring across. these places are pretty special and require a tough 'barrier' to prevent toxins from getting across. these include the blood-brain barrier (prevents toxins from entering the brain), blood-testes barrier (ensuring immature sperm can grow in a special environment), and the placenta (prevents mum's blood from mixing with baby's blood). if you are interested in any particular 'stuff' or any particular location, feel free to comment and i'll explain more in depth :d edit: spelling | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do reaction mechanisms go from proposed to approved? | pretty much what it says in the title, i've just been wondering lately, what makes a mechanism be recognized by the scientific community as the most likely thing that happens on the molecular/atomic level when the corresponding chemical reaction takes place in real life? | the progress of chemical reactions can be observed spectroscopically in real time using many methods (e.g. pump probe methods). since molecular species exhibit unique signatures that are based on their geometry and constituent functional groups the proposed mechanisms can be confirmed. as a chemical species undergoes a transition (bond breaking and formation) how it interacts with "light" changes in time. this is just one method. time independent spectroscopic techniques can provide insight also. the distribution of final products (for instance) can tell one which proposed reaction pathway is more likely. the tricks used are almost too numerous to name. another method is the kinetic isotope effect which allows us to confirm that atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations aren't due to volcanism. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a case in which a base unit to the power of another base unit (e.g., meters^kilogram) has physical meaning? what about logarithms or roots? | it's hard to imagine exponentiation, logs, and roots as continuous operators, but clearly they must be. is it possible to get units this weird? and what would they mean? | interesting thought. i personally can’t think of any cases, and i don’t really see how raising something to the power of another unit in this way could relate to anything in the world of physics. will be keeping an eye out for other responses though | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does life expectancy peak vs body mass index (bmi) peak at about bmi = 26? | health at every size (haes) advocates say that life expectancy peaks at about bmi of 26 (bmi is an approximation of how much fat you have on your body). what i'm interested in is *why* this is the case. i know of one lung disease where people with a higher bmi had a greater chance of surviving it (sadly, i forgot the name of the disease). i'm thinking that someone has done an analysis of common causes of death and how they are related to bmi. does anyone happen to know where this information is, or want to post it here? | i suspect it is a statistical anomaly. to whit: take all the known causes of death. many of them are associated with high bmis, and a few are associated with low bmis. for certain, very low bmis are bad, and very high bmis are bad, so those affect the rest of the distribution. you may be looking to take from this that you should seek a bmi of 26, whereas what you should really take from this is that you want to avoid the diseases that are associated with very high or very low bmis. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a name? | this isn't really a science question, more of a social science question. however i'll take a gander... first names couldn't have come about before the development of language. the origins of language are highly debated but two basic ideas stand out: 1. that language developed over time from pre-linguistic systems from our pre-human ancestors and gained complexity within modern homo sapiens species. 2. that language is strictly a homo sapiens trait, which developed quickly at the onset of our speciation and is unique to us. i am more in camp 1 given the information we have at hand about proto-languages (including the possible use of gestural language). in any case modern language arose a long time ago, in the early stages of our species history some 250,000 - 100,000 years ago. moreover your question would raise a secondary question of how complex does language - or the communication of ideas - have to be to be in order to have names? we may also ask if their cultures necessitated names. just because names are possible does not mean they are used, or need to be used. i guess my answer is i don't have a clear answer to that question. this is more of a conditioning response, the animal (probably) does not "know" that is is named "calvin". part of understanding the meaning of a name involves theory of mind which is knowing that you are a separate being from other beings with your own independent thoughts. i know my thoughts differ from yours, and i also know that you have thoughts of your own. some animals have been observed to show theory of mind mainly - dolphins, apes, other primates, birds (crows, ravens, pigeons). but the depth and complexity of this knowing the self and others is unknown and debated. i am inclined to think that an animal responding to its name is more of a conditional response then an actually knowing of self. that being said... no, we do not know if animals give proper names to each other because we do not speak the communication of animals. communication is complex, and its not really solid yet whether animals actually link particular sounds up with particular meanings (semantics). so that call a means "hawk! duck down" or if call a just elicits the response to "duck down" without the animal thinking through a complex thought process - "ok hawk above me, look quickly, then jump down into the canopy for cover". lots of debate, my personal opinion is that there is some semantical meaning to animal communication systems, however it is not as complex nor as adaptive as human language. that being said animals can recognize individuals and remember individuals based on previous positive or negative acts directed towards them. patterns in fur, stripes, size, pheromones... all are cues used by animals to recognize familiar and unfamiliar individuals of the same or different species. moreover groups of animals can recognize members of their own group or members of other groups based on calls. they have no need for a name - their physiological traits and calls are their "name". i hope this clarifies things a bit... | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you ever reach the top of the hill? | i started to think as i walked zig-zag up a steep field formed as a triangle. say we have a steep hill where a field has the form of an equilateral triangle with an edge pointing upwards. the sides of the triange are full of trees. you start by the bottom of the field, walking *not* straight up, but at an angle of 45 degrees, because this hill is very steep. every time you get to the tree line, you stop, turn around, and start walking 45 degrees upwards in the opposite direction. as you get closer to the top you have to turn more and more often. here's the question: in theory, will you ever get to the top of the field? i just can't wrap my head around this one. | this is your version of [zeno's paradoxes](_url_0_) it takes less and less time to finish an interval between the turns as you get closer to the top. and while there will be infinite number of intervals, the math shows that sum of times it will take to finish them will be **finite**. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno's_paradoxes"
] | [
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] |
i really like wintergeen, and i could happily munch those little lifesavers (or similar products) at any given opportunity, but if i wanted to make things from scratch with wintergreen does it have any compounds that affect the body in a negative way in larger quantities? | i'd like to try mixing a sizeable amount of wintergreen in with other things like making my own soda as i love the cold/crisp taste or combining it with cinnamon to give things that "fire and ice" taste i get from mashing together sticks of winterfresh and big red. i know you have to be careful with some plants and how you prepare them due to compounds that can cause problems with the human body, but is there anything to be concerned about when using it as an ingredient? i've seen some mention of toxicity but that was referencing "wintergreen oil" and i'm not sure what the distinction is there. | this is too borderline a question for askscience to answer without running afoul of the medical advice guidelines. from a liability perspective, if someone said "yes it's safe" and you got very sick it's their (or reddit's) ass on the line. you should read the guidelines in the sidebar, especially about medical guidelines, and the reasoning behind them. it's a purely liability thing. maybe rephrasing the question could help? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_salicylate"
] | [
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i've seen scientists credited with 2 sometimes even 3 fields of expertise. who holds the record? | in my opinion, [john von neumann](_url_1_). major contributions to mathematics, physics, economics, computer science. i'll just copy this part from wikipedia: * abelian von neumann algebra * artificial viscosity * axiom of regularity * backward induction * duality theorem * durbin–watson statistic * game theory * ergodic theory * edvac * lattice theory * lifting theory * inner model * merge sort * middle-square method * pseudorandomness * prng * radiation implosion * operator theory * von neumann algebra * von neumann architecture * von neumann bicommutant theorem * von neumann cellular automaton * von neumann ordinals * von neumann universal constructor * von neumann entropy * von neumann regular ring * von neumann–bernays–gödel set theory * von neumann universe * von neumann conjecture * von neumann's inequality * stone–von neumann theorem * von neumann stability analysis * minimax theorem * monte carlo method * quantum statistical mechanics * von neumann extractor * von neumann ergodic theorem * direct integral * ultrastrong topology * von neumann–morgenstern utility theorem yeah, he got around. very possibly the smartest person of the 20th century. from [the legend of john von neumann](_url_0_). the g. polya mentioned was george polya, a famous mathematician. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://stepanov.lk.net/mnemo/legende.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann"
] | [
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|
where does a scientist obtain a positron? | after reading about positrons and electrons, i wonder where does a scientist obtain one since when a positron and an electron make contact it results in annihilation. same question goes for antiproton. additional question: why is there more protons and electrons than postirons and antiprotons? | positrons are actually fairly easy to get a hold of. there are many naturally occurring unstable isotopes that decay via positive beta decay (carbon, potassium, iodine...). the decay products of these isotopes are a positron (which we can collect) and a neutrino (which completely escapes). anti-protons are tougher to get. the only way i am aware of getting them is the [same way the fermilab's tevatron and cern's antiproton decelerator get them](_url_0_). anti-protons are usually harvested from high-energy collisions between a hadronic beam of particles (usually protons), and a collision target (in fermilab's case, nickel). from these collisions we will get all sorts of particles flying out (through struck quarks hadronizing). only some of these particles will be anti-protons, and by using a mass-spectrometer of sorts, they can be harvested from the rest of the chaff. the reason why matter is dominant over anti-matter is actually a fairly in depth question, and the discussion is being done [here](_url_1_)! | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-bd.fnal.gov/public/antiproton.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j2zvq/where_is_all_the_antimatter/"
] | [
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] |
designed a specialized air valve, now what? | solidworks works, i prefer that over nx6, google sketchup and autocad. good gui and many possibilities for stress and strength-testing. as far as product realization, my best idea is contacting an engineering university with a good entrepreneurship-department. i go to one in norway, and we regularly team up with inventors to get their idea realized, marketed and sponsored. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why have i not heard anything about anchoring the costa concordia so it would stop shifting/getting closer to sliding down the 'cliff' its on/near? | they keep mentioning the need to call off the search when the ship shifts and mention how its kind of on a cliff. is there no way to anchor it to keep it from shifting/getting closer to the edge? i would think they could utilize some of the ships own anchor points or run a couple cables around the front and rear of the ship and anchor them in the rock on the island. i know its probably not easy to procure a cable strong/long enough, but i haven't heard any mention of anchoring the ship where it is.. i'd appreciate other's perspective on this. thanks in advance. | first you would need equipment on the island to make the anchor points on land. we are talking about massive ground posts the likes of many bridges. once that was completed, you would need to reinforce the anchor points on the ship to some degree. anchor points were designed to hold a ship to dock or bottom, which is much less force than if that thing decided it was going to shift on its own as it is now. then the machinery and men to attach and tighten the chains. this is so complex and massive an idea i think you would need a civil engineer to fully explain what would need to be done in an exact manner. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has there ever been a study done that found a link between substantial social safety nets and "laziness" in a population? (xpost r/asksocialscience) | i've seen this argument many times that safety nets such as welfare and medicaid allow the lazy to suckle at the teat of the wealthy and hard working. i've always been very suspect of the argument seeing as the life of a person on substantial government assistance (at least in the us) doesn't seem particularly glamorous or desirable. is there any research to suggest that there is any truth to this or is it just a talking point that is effective at riling people up? | there is some truth to it, but like any social issue it's complex. this [paper](_url_1_) claims that the disincentive is quite small and thus can mostly be ignored (gated). here's a [paper](_url_0_) that shows that men are more likely to stay unemployed if transfer payment periods are extended. this is the [previous paper](_url_3_) from one of the same researchers that shows exactly the opposite of what they later above. [here's an in depth look at the issue](_url_2_). it's nuanced, but basically says that a stronger social safety net does produce some disincentives to work. this book/chapter looks at effective levels of transfer payments and what types of programs produce favorable results. it's worth looking at. basically, there is some evidence that transfer payments can in fact give people a disincentive to look for work. however, the effect does not appear to be overly robust/consistent across cultures, socio-economic groups, etc. there are complex social issues going on and different groups respond differently and at different levels of payment. hence, any effective social safety net program needs to cater to its users and constantly test itself to find the most effective ways to achieve its goals. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10182-005-0201-1?LI=true#page-1",
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/116863?uid=3739656&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101613596447",
"http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=x3syEfEue-0C&oi=fnd&pg=PA157&dq=social+safety+net+workforce&ots=Ofh8tHKvW_&sig=UmiWgg-mFgmiiHMhKwZ7kyJx5fI#v=onepage&q=social%20safety%20net%20workforce&f=false",
"http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=552042"
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can fads or trends propagate in non-human societies? | for example, let's say a gorilla (or another social animal) sees another gorilla getting attention from many females. let's also assume the successful gorilla has something unique about him - a limp or leaves in his hair. could the gorilla (or another social animal) decide to copy the other male in order to be more successful? are there any animals that will naturally copy another individual to appear more attractive? | yes. a small band of monkeys in japanese started salting their food. it started with one monkey washing her yams in salt water and others copying her (1965 masao kawai published in primates) people used to say- learned culture separated humans from the animals. then people started observing apes learning and passing culture/skills onto others and the next generation. like using tools (sticks to catch ants) | 41 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~insrisg/nature/nw00/birdbrain.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037663579400051H"
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can someone please explain counter-steering? | as per [this video](_url_0_) from /r/motorcycles thank you. | in short, it comes down to generating the force needed to turn, without generating a torque that will topple you. the important fact here is that a tire generates force against the ground perpendicular to the angle that the tire is touching the ground at. with that in mind, realize that the side of the bike tire that touches the ground is rounded (opposed to a car's flat tire). when you lean sideways, it changes the angle of the (normal) force; the force of the ground holding up the tire. if you are leaning right, then you have a component of the normal force that is acting to the right. this is useful because to turn right, you need a force to act in the right hand direction. how does that relate to countersteering? if you are traveling straight and need to turn right, you need a way to lean right (to bend the angle of your tire amd generate the rightward force). you do this by steering left. why? steering left will apply a force leftward onto the tire of your bike. this leftward force acts on the bottom of the front tire. since it is not acting at the center of mass (of you and your bike, somewhere around your thighs) it exerts a torque and twists the angle of your bike to the right. you are now leaning towards the right and ready to turn right. edit: if you don't countersteer, and try to turn by turning your wheel (with the bike straight up): the force acting right again acts on the bottom of the front tire. this will exert a torque on the bike and make you fall over left. you countersteer to lean over, which in turn generates the force needed to turn without generating a torque that will make you fall over. edit 2: it doesn't really pertain to the need for counter steering, but i should correct one thing: the normal force is not what generates the sideways force that forces you inward as i said above. the normal force is always straight up, perpendicular to the ground. the tire on a bike is rounded to allow the rider to lean side to side, but its shape does not affect the normal force between applied on it by the ground. the sideways force is generated by friction. assuming you are turning right: once you have countersteered and as soon as you lean right, you then turn your wheel to the right. this creates a friction force that acts to the right. the sharper you want your turn to be, the more you have to turn your wheel right and the more you have to lean. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8YmlGN--qU&feature=youtu.be"
] | [] | [
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we hear about how oil take millions of years to form but what about intermediaries? when does it become useful? | what does a deposit that isn't proper oil or from relatively recently deceased organisms look like and at what stage does it become useful for the petroleum industry? | there is such an intermediate stage, called *kerogen*. kerogen is a varying mix of long-chain and complex organic molecules. it's generally not found by itself but rather mixed in with inorganic minerals in sedimentary rocks. rocks rich in kerogen are known as *oil shale*. they may burn directly, or by heating the kerogen will be decomposed into usable oil and gas. that's been done industrially since the 19th century, but use of oil shale has really increased in recent years as supplies of "traditional" oil dwindle. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you make a generator using the movement of a slow moving object like tectonic plates? | by changing the extreme torque into a really fast moving speed. one problem i am thinking about is the base where the generator is on is also moving, so you would have to set up this contraption on a fault. it's just a idea i just hand and i want to know if it will work. | in principle yes. in practice, power is force times velocity, so if you have a tectonic plate moving at around 1 cm per year, you'll need your generator to exert 3 giganewtons of force to extract one watt. you're not likely to be able to make something survive forces strong enough to get a useful amount of energy. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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read this article on a protein in saliva that stimulates cell growth in a wound situation. article is from 2008. anyone know if synthesis of this protein has been pursued? | "we identified histatin 1 (hst1) and histatin 2 (hst2) as major wound-closing factors in human saliva." [scientific paper](_url_1_) "the compounds can be mass produced" [article](_url_0_) | it looks like they made it for the paper, so it's been synthesized. large scale synthesis will certainly have its obstacles to overcome (there are always obstacles to overcome when scaling up), but these will almost certainly not be insurmountable or even significant. just pains in the ass. however, this is one paper 4 years ago using a cell line derived from oral epithelium. it's a long, long way from a creme you can put on your cut. it needs to be validated in primary cells (cell lines and primary cells are often very different), other cell types (like skin; is this just an oral cavity thing?), and animal models (does this work when the rest of the stuff is in place?) before it becomes important to hammer out the large scale synthesis issues. right now, there's just no point in doing it because the research is so preliminary. lab-scale preps are all that is required, and those are a lot easier because you don't have to worry as much about cost. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080723094841.htm",
"http://www.fasebj.org/content/22/11/3805.abstract"
] | [] | [
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would i be able to lift a car/house/other large item made completely out of styrofoam? | the other answers list the density of polystyrene. **expanded** polystyrene is much less dense, as low as 16 kg/m^3 . for a car, i will assume it is 4.6m x 1.4m x 1.9m, (the dimensions of an audi rs5) and since a car is not a rectangular block, that it occupies about 60% of this block volume. this yields a volume of ~7 m^3 . the car would then be about 110 kg or about 250 lb. this would be difficult to lift in front of you but entirely possible if you were inside the car squatting it or had a harness. additionally, if the volume were hollowed out with interior space like a real car, its weight would be much less. a house, on the other hand, would be too heavy unless it was an extremely small house and you are a dedicated weight lifter. again, if it were hollowed out and you were only lifting material comprising walls and a roof, then yes, it is again possible. edit: added condition of only lifting walls and roof. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aqua-calc.com/page/density-table/substance/Styrofoam"
] | [
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|
why can't we test for neurotransmitter levels in the body? | it seems as though we have tests available for so many other things in the body. why can't we measure levels of neurotransmitters? this could be used to determine which antidepressant might be most effective, for example. | neurotransmitters generally pop out of one neuron and are very quickly absorbed by the next neuron. the only way to measure neurotransmitter levels in your nervous system would be to stick a measuring probe into your brain, your spinal cord, or your nerves, all of which have a very high probability of damaging something you care about, like your brain, your spinal cord, or your nerves. you can measure neurotransmitter levels in your blood, but they are largely disconnected from the neurotransmitter levels in your nervous system. you can notice long-term changes in neurotransmitter levels in blood, but those changes don't necessarily tell you much (if anything) about function of your nervous system. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does keeping your balance at heights (and on edges) work? | how do humans balance themselves at heights (esp. when on or close to edges)? is this different from when at a normal "height" and/or away from an edge? an example would be when [tightrope walking](_url_0_). is the process of keeping your balance any different from when walking on the ground (in the same way, foot infront of foot)? it is often portrayed in films that people lose their balance easier when crossing a thin bridge/wire/rope/etc. is there any merit to this? | in general, humans keep balance through the [vestibular system](_url_0_), which is part of the inner ear. this system allows us to detect linear and rotational acceleration through a series of fluid channels; the movements of the fluids are translated to electrical signals which are then fed back to the cerebellum, and this feedback loop allows us to counteract imbalances and keep stable. incidentally, high bac (blood alcohol content) affects the vestibular system and causes people to suffer vertigo and general difficulties in maintaining equilibrium. when walking on tightropes or other narrow surfaces, what happens is that any slight imbalance isn't compensated by the normal force from the surface (because there is no surface under most of the area of our feet). this requires a type of movement that is entirely different than our normal walking, to which we are not used. we then overcompensate and enter an oscillatory sort of behaviour, which is too fast for our vestibular system to accompany and we eventually lose balance and fall to our deaths (or on our butts, more likely). edit: clarified what bac refers to. | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tightrope_walking"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_system"
] | [
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what is the fundamental explanation of the seebeck effect? | what are the ranges of output power in a thermocouple, and by conservation of energy, does it mean the thermocouple transforms thermal energy into electric? if so, it (probably negligible, but still) cools the thermal source ? | i've used a thermocouple once in my life, so the numbers may be slightly off, but probably by no more than a couple of orders of magnitude. typical voltages are on the order of a millivolt. if you use a regular multimeter to measure this voltage (you shouldn't, they can't resolve a millivolt), it uses an internal resistance of typically 10 megaohm. so 1 mv^2 / 10 mohm = (10^-3 v)^2 / 10^7 ohm = 10^-13 watts. yes, correct. also correct. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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assuming dmt (or one of its analogues) is in fact endogenously produced in the brain, what could be its evolutionary function? | i have read over the submissions mentioning dmt on r/askscience and none of them have directly addressed this question. i also looked over the ama with [rick strassman](_url_2_), the main scientist to conduct dmt research in humans for some background and to clarify the status of endogenous dmt. as of right now there is research into new ways to [measure dmt through metabolites](_url_0_) and [evidence](_url_1_) that there is dmt (or analogue) in urine and tissue. strassman briefly discusses this in his book when he suggests that it may serve a neuro-protective function in near death experience. another of his suggestions has to do with "tuning in to channel normal" (to use his television analogy). to get ahead of ourselves, assuming that it is endogenously produced in the brain, what could be the evolutionary function of dmt (and its analogues)? | this is way out there.... while it doesn't seem to be immediately evolutionarily advantageous, it could provide a humane transition to post-body cognition after bodily death. look up some of what dr. stuart hameroff has to say about post-body cognition before unduly dismissing the idea. he provides an interesting argument. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.cottonwoodresearch.org/index.php/projects",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16095048",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/ajnr1/i_will_be_answering_questions_for_dr_rick/c0hwzgi"
] | [] | [
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an evolution thought experiment | i've been thinking about evolution, speciation, ancestors, etc. and i was wondering if the following is possible: say we have a population of life-form 1. suddenly, a barrier is put up which splits the population of life-form 1. one half, population 1-a, finds itself with no appreciable change in living conditions, and these conditions remain consistent for millions of years. the other half, population 1-b is presented with many changes in living conditions, forcing many adaptations over millions of years in order to survive. my understanding of evolution would lead to me guessing that population 1-b will have gone through a lot of change, and after millions of years there will be a genetically distinct specie or species that resulted from the initial population of life-form 1. population 1-a, on the other hand, won't necessarily have seen much change. perhaps so little change, in fact, that after millions of years a member of population 1-a would be able to mate successfully with a member of the original life-form 1 population from millions of years ago. i know that evolution is not constant, so this scenario seems plausible to me. i'm not sure about the details of the relationship between speciation and evolution, but i think this would be cool to think about. if life-form 1-a and life-form 1 are the same species, what would that say about the relationship between life-form 1-a and life-form 1-b? we always hear "this species and this species share a common ancestor," but since 1 and 1-a are the same species, and 1-a is extant, could we say "1-b is a descendant of 1-a, even though 1-a is still living today"? are there any topics similar to the scenario i've laid out here? thank you all in advance! | let's say, for the sake of argument, that the impossible happens: 1-a is identical to 1. that is, they are geneticaly indistinguishable. this isn't really going to happen because of things like drift, and the fact that we can't assume that 1 was perfectly suited to that original environment. but let's say it does. 1-a is still not the ancestor of 1-b, it is just very much like the common ancestor of 1-a and 1-b. say you have a brother, bratini147, and you are both from some place like rednecktopia where inbreeding is rampant*. you, however, are kidnapped by somebody from the big city and are able to marry outside your bloodline. skip ahead 25 generations. your descendants, dratini172 and bratini172, meet. bratini172 has gone through the impossible. in each generation, the child has been bred back to parent over and over again so that in the end, bratini172's genome is identical to your brother's. can you say that dratini172 is the descendant of bratini172? can you say both share a common ancestor? evolution is as much a path, or history, as it is a theory and explanation of what we see around us. *i'm a redneck by birth and upbringing, so i am fully qualified to make fun of rednecks. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_species_concept"
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how are our brains capable of coming up with concepts or scenarios that we haven't ever witnessed or heard of? | i'll avoid the concepts part of the question because the definition of concept is a bit vague, and focus on the scenario aspect. the human brain has a network of brain regions known (variously) as the default network, the social network, the theory of mind network, or most topically, the self-projection network. this network includes medial prefrontal cortex (mpfc), the precuneus, the temporoparietal junction (tpj), the medial temporal lobes (mtl) and the temporal poles. this network is involved in a variety of "self-projecting" mental activities including theory of mind (interpersonal perspective taking), episodic memory, episodic future thinking, and navigation. in other words, this network allows us to re-experience past experiences or to call up fragments from many of these experiences to construct novel simulations of future or counterfactual events. the self-projection network includes many of regions which have expanded most over evolutionary history from our most recent common ancestor with other extant primates. thus it is thought to sub-serve many exceptional human capabilities including "mental time travel", detailed planning, and theory-of-mind. for further reading on this topic, check out papers from the labs/collaborators of daniel schacter (on episodic past and future thinking), randy buckner (on the self-projection network), and jason mitchell (on psychological distance and theory of mind). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
any mycologists here? what is this mold? | i have a 0.5 m sucrose solution that has been sitting at 4 degrees celsius for about a year. this contaminate looks like a marimo moss ball but the color is more of a grayish green. here is an image of it: _url_0_ | unfortunately, it's nearly impossible to give an answer unless we are able to see the mold under a microscope. it could be one of a hundred lab contaminants i could think of off my head. iding fungus is based on macroscopic growth on agar plates, then microscopic morphology, then sometimes even chemical ids. also, it's seriously possible that's algae vs. mold. what kind of water did you prepare that with? maybe someone else can step in with a guess from experience. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/IQPNC.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
how valid is the 'little black hole' model of ball lightning, and how is that model affected by the recent scientific measurements? | scientists have recently observed optical spectra for ball lightning for the the first time. ([link](_url_0_)) there is a valid theory for ball lightning that is relatively convincing, regarding little black holes, but there are also more supported theories that are grounded in electrostatic phenomena. where do we now stand in terms of forming a reliable, testable hypothesis and collecting evidence for this phenomenon? | that is one paper, without confirmations yet from independent research, on an already controversial topic. i don't think it warrants such confident statements ("have observed"). you must use qualifiers such as "may" at this point ("may have observed something that looks like the classic description of"). it's not "relatively convincing" to *actual scientists*. first off, a lot of what we talk about black holes has not been confirmed experimentally. we're stepping on a thin ice of conjecture pretty often during such conversations. we *assume* that black holes do such-and-such things, but in reality we've only observed a few of them, of cosmic sizes, and only while performing some pretty trivial actions, such as bending trajectories and capturing gas clouds. secondly, it has been calculated that black holes lose energy via a mechanism called hawking radiation. the smaller the black hole, the more powerful the radiation. ergo, there has to be a minimal size for a black hole to be relatively stable and not disappear in an instant, in an explosion of hawking radiation. calculations indicate that any black hole heavy enough to remain stable a reasonable time is about as heavy as a hill or a mountain. any black hole less heavy than that would lose energy ever more rapidly, eventually detonating like a very large nuclear bomb. if black holes were really at the heart of the alleged ball lightning phenomena, obviously they should be stable. therefore, they will be enormously heavy. and now you have to explain an additional difficulty - how does an object as heavy as a mountain fly through the air like a leaf blown in the wind? the black hole "hypothesis" doesn't make explanation easier, it makes it more difficult. this is not science, not yet. this is a long-standing topic of pseudo-science (ball lightning), seasoned with wild assumptions (black holes). assuming the phenomenon is real, the first thing to do is wait for confirmations and additional independent research. if and when we learn more about the properties of these alleged objects, *only then* we can start hypothesizing about their nature. until then, "explaining" ball lightning by invoking black holes is a bit like explaining santa claus by invoking the tooth fairy. | 6 | [] | [
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v112/i3/e035001"
] | [] | [
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can somebody well-versed in astrophysics give a reason why this guy is right or wrong? (concerns black hole event horizons and escape velocities.) | so i was looking at [this post](_url_0_) on a blog i read about a notional black hole such that the gravitational acceleration is 1g at the event horizon. now would be a good time to read the blog post if you haven't already. i feel like he's man an incorrect assumption somewhere along the way, but i can't seem to articulate how or why he is wrong (if in fact he is). i'm curious either way. can anyone help out? | i don't know how he gets to the 1g, but it's true that the tidal forces become quite small for super massive black holes (which are a lot smaller than 1 lightyear). but you won't get anywhere with conventional intuitive physics when it comes to black holes. spacetime around a black hole is awfully twisted and distorted in four dimensions to the point where it is impossible to know what happens without doing some extensive differential geometry. physical problems are rarely something that you can solve by discussing them like this guy does. sadly, you have to do a crapton of math to arrive at the solution. in this case, what happens is that after you cross the horizon, the spacelike dimension becomes timelike. that means that hitting the singularity at the center is as inevitable as next thursday for us. "forward" becomes "towards the future". the next thing is that you shouldn't think in terms of an escape velocity with black holes. it is only a coincidence that the escape velocity of a black hole equals the speed of light. that doesn't mean anything because you can constantly accelerate. the escape velocity for earth is 11km/s, but space shuttles regularly leave earth while going much slower, because they constantly propel themselves by ejecting fuel. also, i see the inverse square law somewhere in there which is only true in the newtonian approximation. obviously, it's not valid here. | 6 | [] | [
"http://tech.neilennis.com/index.php/big-black-holes/"
] | [] | [
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why don't orcas get large, creepy external parasites? | i imagine they have some, but why not barnacles/whale lice (don't google this within an hour of eating.) | whale biologist here! orcas, and many other dolphins, do host small colonies of [whale barnacles](_url_1_) - notably *xenobalanus* and *cryptolepas* species. ditto with lice; *isocyamus delphinii* has been found on orca, along with several other small toothed whales. saying that, whale barnacles are much more common on the larger baleen whales, and rather scant, relatively speaking, on orca. why? very little is known about whale ectoparasites (i mean, if you have the time and means to get right up close and personal with a friggin' whales, why aren't you studying the actual whales?!), though there are a few hypotheses. one idea is that barnacles preferentially settle on baleen whales as, both barnacle and whale being filter feeders, the whales carry the barnacles to the most productive feeding sites. toothed whales hunting squid in the depths aren't necessarily gonna' be taking barnacles where they want to go. additionally, smaller toothed whales, such as orcas, more often inhabit coastal waters, where they're much better and more frequently able to engage in behaviours that help remove parasites - [scrubbing themselves against gravel banks](_url_3_), for example. finally, it might also be down to temperature. one study on parasitism in orca populations off the coast of south africa noted that while one group of orcas in relatively warm waters hosted colonies of *xenobalanus* barnacles, another group further south in much cooler waters didn't. now, *xenobalanus* can be found on whales in pretty much all waters across the world - including arctic and antarctic waters. curiously however, it's only the larger baleen whales that host them in colder waters - the same whales that migrate to the tropics to breed. so while adult *xenobalanus* may happily tag along on a cruise to the antarctic, perhaps the barnacle larvae can't tolerate the chilly latitudes at all - explaining why it's only whales that live at, or at least visit, warmer waters that are encrusted. orca pods don't typically stray anywhere near as much as, say, their humpback cousins; so perhaps if you and your buddies are hanging around the pole all year 'round, there's little chance a sun-lovin' barnacle baby will latch on to you and grow. given how little we know about whale barnacle lifestyles however, the above is mostly conjecture. what's more, in addition to the above, another answer arises by twisting the question to '*why do baleen whales get loads of massive parasites*'? turns out, it's thought that some species, such as humpback and gray whales, actually encourage barnacles to grow on them for defence. idea is a thick layer of barnacles can act as a deterrent against would-be-predators such as, well, orcas; preventing 'em from getting a good bite in. **tl;dr:** orcas *do* get lice, barnacles and other nasties. they do however seem to host relatively fewer than their larger krill-nomming contemporaries. might be because killer whales don't enjoy barnacle food, but do like a cheeky rub and cool waters. might also be to do with how some baleen whales take a hit to their hydrodynamics for a defence bonus, versus predatory whales wishing to max out in the hydrodynamic skill tree. _____ **^references:** [^(ford, j.k.b. & reeves, r.r. (2008)^) ^(fight or flight: antipredator strategies of baleen whales. *mammal rev*. 38 (1)^), ^50-86](_url_0_) [^(hayashi, r. (2013)^) ^(a checklist of turtle and whale barnacles (cirripedia: thoracica: coronuloidea)^). ^(*journal of the marine biological association*. 93 (1)^), ^143-182](_url_4_) [^(whitehead, t.o., rollinson, d.p. & reisinger, r.r. (2014)^) ^(pseudostalked barnacles *xenobalanus globicipitis* attached to killer whales *orcinus orca* in south african waters. *marine biodiversity*. 45 (4)^), ^873–876](_url_2_) | 97 | [] | [] | [
"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.573.6671&rep=rep1&type=pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_barnacle",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269290626_Pseudostalked_barnacles_Xenobalanus_globicipitis_attached_to_killer_whales_Orcinus_orca_in_South_African_waters",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJdjSjOGZuw",
"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/checklist-of-turtle-and-whale-barnacles-cirripedia-thoracica-coronuloidea/A1EEFE26761A36194C35D018A970000B"
] | [
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what do the electrodes on an ekg measure? | i've been trying to learn how ekg's work and i understand what views the electrodes are detecting but i don't understand what the electrodes themselves are measuring. for example, lead i measures the positive flow of something (electrons?) from the left arm to the right arm. but if those leads are placed on the left and right wrist, how does the electrical activity of the myocytes effect the electrodes all the way at the limbs? | a pacemaker cell in the heart generates an action potential -- change of voltage through its cell membrane -- which propagates throughout the heart, and myocardial cells contract as a result. ekg picks up this flow of electrical current. lead i view will show the current that flow from right to left. lead ii will show the current that flows from upper right to lower left. this is the best view if you had to just look at a single lead because this viewing angle follows the natural tilt of how heart is sitting in our chest and therefore best represents the electrical flow. but for diagnostic purposes, multiple leads are analyzed together to get a comprehensive picture of what's going on. now off topic, why are there two identical questions? i often see that on this sub... | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do our bodies stay together? | by this i mean, what compels the atoms in our body to stay together in the perfect alignment to create our form our cells, bones, and tissue? how could those atoms perfectly align themselves in the correct formation millions of times to form us? | big question my friend. covalent bonds: atoms form together to form molecules. i am not a quantum physicist, so i can not explain this process perfectly, but simply put, atoms join together because that is what they do. that is the nature of out universe. by sharing electrons, they form a lower energy state, and they like to have low energy. this is a very strong bond. thus, water, tends to stay as water, rather than breaking down into hydrogen and oxygen. so, first we need to think of the various types of big molecules that make up your body. remembering, that generally speaking, molecules are stable, and wont break down unless acted on. and they are stable because of covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons that atoms like to do. fats: fats... you know what they are. but on a molecular level, they are long changes of carbon atoms hung together, with some hydrogen atoms. different fats have different lengths of carbon, hung together in slightly different ways. this is what makes some fats liquid at room temperature, and some solid. proteins: proteins are where you body gets exciting. these are made from little molecular building blocks called "amino acids" there are 21 different amino acids that your body uses. and each one is a group of 10-40 atoms joined together via those covalent bonds. the body knows what to do with these amino acids through various complex systems. think of them like lego blocks. they all have slightly different shapes and properties, but they all join together, dna: dna (and other nucleic acid) is also made building blocks, 4 or 5 different types. this is (generally) the information store for your cells. think of it like a book, but instead of having hundreds of thousands of different words, dna has 4. the order of those words tell the story. in this case, dna tells the body how to make protein. carbohydrates. sugars, starches. again, we have building blocks. you may have heard of glucose? well that is your sugar buidling block. this can get joined with other similar things, to make long chain sugars, that your body stores for energy (along with fats, which are also energy stores). now you know what makes up a cell, lets build one. your body is made up of millions of cells. about a 10th the width of a human hair. they are little bags, the wall of the bag is made up of those fats we talked about. slightly modified, so that they like to disolve in water at one end, and hide from water in the other. if you get enough of these fats together, the spontaneously form into little bags, much like how soapy water will spontaneously form bubbles. inside the bag, i.e. the cell, smaller little bags of fats are made, where different reactions happen. what kind of reactions? well this is where protein comes in. proteins can be made to do huge amounts of amazing things, just like lego. with a few buidling blocks, you can make almost anything. look at this video _url_0_ this is a protein in action. they have many truly amazing actions. muscle contration is because of long fibres of proteins in your muscles pulling on each other. you see because of light sensitive proteins in your retina. you name it, proteins are doing it. the other amazing thing they can do, is force chemical reactions. here they are called "enzymes". they can act in various ways, but just think about it like the protein grabbing one molecule, and another, and then forcing them together. they force them together in such a perfect way, that the form new covalent bonds. your enzymes produce a lot of the raw material for your body by forcing molecules together, or breaking them apart (there are a few things we can't make, and hence we need to eat them, like vitamins). so, now we have cells, bags of fat, with proteins working inside. finally, on those cells, other proteins can sit; trapped in the fats. these proteins can be used to make your cells rigid (otherwise they would just be floppy bags). and they can also join together with the proteins on other cells. linking all the cells together to form organs. so there you go atoms go with other atoms via covalent bonds, which are very strong, to form molecules. molecules get joined up (also via covalent bonds) to make fats, dna, protein and carbohydrates. modified fats make the cell wall, and proteins inside the bags do the molecular work, including making new things, and fixing old things. proteins of the surfaces of the cells, make the cells rigid, and join cells together to make tissues. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zOSyGTYCRFw&feature=related"
] | [
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why do curved streamlines have a pressure gradient? | hey everyone so the common theories of of lift generation are usually discarded by professors and scientists in this field as not being complete, i.e. the bernoulli explanation and also the newton explanation. the same transit time or the area pinching explanation doesn't hold, and understandably so. the correct explanation is shown as that whenever a streamline curves, there exists a pressure gradient, with minimum pressure at the center of the circular vortex and greatest outside. this pressure differential b/w streamlines when constructed over the entire wing explains lift, with the lower surface having a higher pressure than the upper surface. what i want to know is, why does there exist a pressure differential between the inside and outside streamline of a vortex? additionally, in the speed-pressure relation in bernoulli's equation, the change in speed in this case is shown as an effect of the pressure gradient, rather than a cause of it. can anyone please shed some light on that too? thanks ref paper: _url_0_ | you don't need bernoulli's equation, newton's second law is enough. if the air is to move along a curved path, there must be a [centripetal acceleration](_url_0_) toward the center of the curve: newton's second law says that acceleration must be caused by some force. if viscosity is small, that force must be the pressure force -- there are no other candidates. so the pressure gradient must be high on the outside of the curve, low on the inside to apply an inward force. | 14 | [] | [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0031-9120/38/6/001/pdf"
] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/centripetal-force-and-gravitation/centripetal-acceleration-tutoria/a/what-is-centripetal-acceleration"
] | [
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] |
what signal is being transmitted in this electrical audio through body experiment? | _url_0_ in the above experiment can anyone tell me what sort of signal is actually getting sent through the human body in the above experiment; is it effectively a radio signal? is it capacitive coupling? an electric field or static charge? is it in any way similar to inductive loop etc? how would you calssify that signal being transfered? | according to [this advice on electric safety][1], it appears that the human body is actually a reasonably good conductor: depending on circumstances, the resistance can range from 100ω to 100 kω, which yields measurable currents with, say ordinary 5v batteries. for the experiment that you are interested in, i would say that the audio signal is transferred via a simple electrical current through your body. i do not know whether the human body has a non-negligible capacitance. [1]: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Audio-transmission-through-body/"
] | [
"https://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~p616/safety/fatal_current.html"
] | [
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a loud car alarm in the distance got me thinking... | is there, or will there ever be, a way to disable loud noises from afar. maybe if the sound was of a small enough decibel level? isn't there already a way to disable loud radio/speakers from afar? can we some how apply this to any sound, like a car alarm or a loud person. i'm imagining this gun i have that shoots some sort of invisible wave at a loud noise origin. if it makes a connection, it mutes the sound some how. | yes, active noise cancellation is a real thing: a sensor detects a repetitive sound and a speaker then generates sound waves that are exactly the opposite. the effect is not uniform over space: if you set up noise-cancellation speakers (rather than headphones), the noise will be cancelled in some places but not in others. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly goes on when someone tries to "boost the signal"? | both in real life and media, i've heard radio operators and such talk about boosting the signal when things get weak. what exactly do they do to try and break through weather interference and such? | literally increase the power of the transmitter. in other words, make the electric and magnetic fields of the transmission larger by using more current in the antenna. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a glass of water has a floating arrow in it pointing north and is not touching the glass. if i turn the glass 180 degrees, the arrow will have barely moved and continue pointing north-ish. why is this? | this is because water is a liquid and therefore consists of countless tiny molecules, which are movable in relation to each other. when you turn the glass, only the molecules touching the glass will get moved by the friction force between the glass and the water. the resulting force from the water on the arrow is way smaller than the force that pulls the arrow in the north direction and therefore isn't very noticable. if you do however continue turning the glass the arrow will start to turn with the water. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if it takes 1 newton to get an object to 1km/h, does it take 2 newtons to get it to 2km/h? | sorry if this is a no-sh1t question. i have heard that the faster an object becomes, the more mass it has. this is want prevents objects from reaching c, because it would require infinite energy because the object is infinantly heavy at velocity c. | in modern physics we try to avoid the idea of mass increasing with speed. in newtonian (non-relativistic) physics we have f = ma and momentum is p = mv so you can write f = mdv/dt = dp/dt what we find in relativistic mechanics is that - for the same reasons we need length contraction and time dilation - the correct formula for momentum is p = γmv where γ is the "lorentz factor" γ = 1 / sqrt(1-(v/c)^(2)) this is essentially 1 when v is small relative to c, so we can ignore it for any calculations occuring at "low" speed and use the newtonian formula. one interpretation of this is to argue that p = mv is always true, even in relativity: rather, what we should say is that there's a "relativistic mass" m = γm*_0_* where m*_0_* is the *rest mass*, the mass of the particle when it's stationary. so, in this interpretation, mass increases with (relative) velocity. however, this is sort of a confusing approach. the rest mass is the invariant quantity, meaning it's the one that's the same no matter who's observing the object. it seems simpler to only use the rest mass, and not use relativistic mass: why juggle two ideas of mass around if we don't have to? we just say that the definition of momentum is p = γmv and m is rest mass, and that's it. no such thing as relativistic mass, (rest) mass is always the same no matter what. as for your question, recall f = dp/dt for small v, p is essentially linear with v, so it takes twice as much force to read 2 m/s as it does to reach 1 m/s. for large v, p is not linear with v: it takes more than twice as much force to reach 2\*10^8 m/s than it does to reach 1\*10^8 m/s. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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this might be a dumb question - but how do things grow? | [deleted] | basically, the extra material comes from the food we eat. food molecules are broken down and rearranged in the body, the resulting materials/molecules/atoms are processed inside cells into new proteins/fats/sugars, cells divide and multiply, and the tissues grow. that’s it in a nutshell. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does hypertension cause ocular blood vessels to narrow? | i would naturally assume that high bp would cause enlarged blood vessels. why is it the opposite? | baroreceptors, in this instance, likely have nothing to do with it...that's part of a autonomic circuit used to regulate heart rate and cardiac output relative to changes is bp. to my knowledge, there aren't any baroreceptors in the ocular arterioles. ocular vessels narrow due to something called "myogenic tone", or "pressure-induced constriction". the smooth muscle cells in these vessels are able to sense stretch caused by increases in pressure and constrict accordingly. no neural innervation is required; even a single isolated smooth muscle cell would constrict when stretched. the development of this myogenic tone protects the extremely fragile capillary bed from rupture due to high pressures, since capillaries themselves are extremely thin (1 layer of endothelial cells only) and non-contractile. pressure could get high enough to widen vessels instead, since the myogenic capability of smooth muscle reaches a plateau...but that pressure would need to be pretty dangerously high for that to happen. i could wax poetic about how this increase in tone ultimately leads to remodeling of the vessel wall, decreased distensibility, and vascular dysfunction, but i won't...unless you want me to. (c: | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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before humans, were there noticeable paths from animals using the same route repeatedly? | cannot word this correctly on google, so thought i'd try here. i was thinking of a forest, where animals might trample trees...would there be visible paths between say one pond to another? | in short, yes. animals are just as lazy as humans, and will take the easiest path across terrain. these paths are often used by multiple species, and often entail a trough in the ground and openings and damage in the vegetation.the more commonly used ones are called trails (like deer trail). you'd want to look up game trail, wildlife track, or animal path for examples. run is the term for the lesser used paths (like rabbit run). [this article](_url_0_) is more of a hunter's resource, but still a nice starting point if you want more information. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/nature/tracking.shtml"
] | [
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how do athletes seemingly tear their acls so easily during non-contact portions of their respective sports? | i've been watching the nba playoffs, and after seeing derrick rose and iman shumpert both tear their acls, i am wondering how it is possible to tear the ligament so easily without any kind of contact with another player. this also comes after hearing that mariano rivera tore his acl during a practice. i've played soccer (football, for you non-american folks) for most of my life, and i've never suffered any kind of knee injury. i never take a play off, and go all-out whenever i'm on the field, yet i've never had any kind of injury except some ankle sprains. then i see professional athletes, who are surely more conditioned that i am, getting severely injured on a simple play or during practice. how can a simple, non-contact play cause so much damage? | the others posting here have done a really good job of explaining so far, but i'll fill in with a little more information. the acl is most commonly torn when the knee bends backwards too far, or moves too far to the side. this is easily something you can do yourself, simply by turning sharply, stopping, any number of non-contact movements that create flexion at the knee can result in a torn acl. the [wiki](_url_0_) here is actually surprisingly good in comparison to most orthopedic wiki's. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterior_cruciate_ligament_injury"
] | [
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what's in that 'magic spray' that they use on athletes whenever they get injured on the field? | i noticed it was being used at the euro 2012 champsions on players who get hit hard and receive a knock, the spray seems to get the injured player up and running pretty quickly. what exactly is it and how does it work? | freeze sprays. basically little more than an alcohol (or other volatile fluid) spray that evaporates and rapidly cools the area. it provides pain relief. doesn't really do anything for the underlying problem. [e.g.](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.firstaid4sport.co.uk/category.asp?CAT_ID=HOTCOLD430&src=GPPCHotColdTherapy&gclid=CMDvwL_8wbACFU4lfAodp3HsWA"
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why is bismuth-210 more stable in its excited state than in its ground state? | _url_0_ in its ground state, bi-210 has a half life of about 5 days, but in its excited state, bi-210 has a half of 3×10^6 years. what causes this difference? | there's no reason why an isomeric state *has to* be less stable than the ground state. the ground state of bismuth-210 decays almost 100% of the time via beta decay, while the isomer decays about 100% of the time by alpha decay. the very large spin difference between the ground state and the isomeric state hinders gamma decay between them, and makes it unlikely for the isomer to beta decay into the same states that the ground state would beta decay into. and apparently there aren't any states in the daughter that the isomer can beta decay into with non-negligible rate, so the isomer is very unlikely to decay by gamma *and* beta. the only decay channel left is alpha, which is only a tiny branch of the ground state decay. so the lifetime of the isomer is much larger than that of the ground state. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html"
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do animals get jetlag the way humans do? do they recover in the same way and in the same time period? | [this](_url_0_) article highlights the fact that our circadian rhythms are programmed centrally by light - and that it involves [epigenetic](_url_1_) changes. the feeling of jet lag is a disruption in the light cycle, and returning to a normal light-dark cycle is needed to "fix" our internal clocks/relieve jet lag. if the circadian clocks of animals are regulated in the same way, then it would be reasonable to assume that they can experience similar feelings of jet lag. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://circres.ahajournals.org/content/109/4/353.full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics"
] | [
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|
with an electromagnetic wave, what is actually waving? | whenever an electromagnetic wave is depicted it's always an up and down motion over time. what is the vertical component? is it actually moving up and down in space? or, is the y-axis simply a measurement of some value? | an electromagnetic wave is a coupling of an oscillatory electric field with an oscillatory magnetic field, the relationship between which is given by maxwell's equations. those [3d depictions](_url_0_) we usually see are really just showing the propagation of a wave along a single dimension, with the amplitude along the other two axes representing the amplitude of the fields at that point. so there is nothing actually going up and down in space; as to which axes represent what, that depends on the actual graph, it's not standard. | 5 | [] | [] | [
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what happens when you take log with a negative base? | y=logbase-e(x) | part of the problem is that the logarithm for a negative base doesn't really give what you expect. consider how we would calculate log*_(-2)_*(4). since (-2)^(2) = 4, we would probably want this answer to be 2, to be consistent with log, as defined on positive real numbers. well... let's see what happens. use the change of base formula to write now we have to choose a branch of the logarithm. the reason is that w = log(z) is supposed to be a number such that e^(w) = z. if z is non-zero, then there are infinitely many such w, because the exponential is periodic. all such such solutions differ by an integer multiple of 2πi. to choose the branch cut, we first have to write a complex number z in polar form: where θ has some restricted range to get a good definition of the logarithm. in particular, we must restrict θ to some half-open interval of length 2π. so then the logarithm is given by where log means the usual logarithm on positive real numbers. (the standard primary branch restricts θ to (-π,π].) let's go back to logarithm with a negative base. we have the following: the standard branch has θ(4) = 0 and θ(-2) = π. so the number above is certainly not the expected value of 2. so how could we get a value of 2? well, you can show that we would need to choose a branch cut such that but since |θ(4)-θ(-2)| = π (the angular difference between positive and negative real axis), we would have to take a branch such that θ(4) = -2π and θ(-2) = -π. (or a branch such that θ(4) = 2π and θ(-2) = π.) in other words, θ is restricted to the interval [-2π,0) (or the interval (0,2π]). among other things, this implies that which is not simply log(4). so if we want our negative base logarithm to give what we expect, then the normal logarithm on positive real numbers has a nonzero imaginary part. so... not what we want. if you carry out the argument further, you will run into problems with other pairs of base and exponents. for instance, you will find that both the real and imaginary parts of log*_(-2)_*(z) are not continuous. *a fortiori*, they are not differentiable, and so the entire function cannot be analytic. this is very bad since you really can't do any type of analysis with such a logarithm. **summary:** so the moral here is that it's possible to define a logarithm for any base z with z ≠ 0 and |z| ≠ 1. (the latter requirement is not absolute, but there are plenty more problems if you try to define a logarithm with a base such that |z| = 1.) but that definition is not going to be consistent with usual logarithm defined on positive real numbers. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the earth were drained of water and reduced to the size of a cue ball, would i feel a rough texture? | could i feel the rifts and valleys on an earth the size of a pool ball? would it feel smooth? my mind says yes, but i don't have the science to back it up. | the earth has a diameter of about 12,735 kilometers (on average, see below for more on this). using the smoothness ratio from above, the earth would be an acceptable pool ball if it had no bumps (mountains) or pits (trenches) more than 12,735 km x 0.00222 = about 28 km in size. the highest point on earth is the top of mt. everest, at 8.85 km. the deepest point on earth is the marianas trench, at about 11 km deep. hey, those are within the tolerances! so for once, an urban legend is correct. if you shrank the earth down to the size of a billiard ball, it would be smoother soure: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://skeptics.stackexchange.com/questions/10763/is-earth-as-smooth-as-a-billiard-ball",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2008/09/08/ten-things-you-dont-know-about-the-earth/#.UQsckPVEIZI"
] | [
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does it really take 20 minutes for your brain to know your stomach is full? | my family always tells me that and i'm not too sure if it's true | there are quite a few satiety (fullness) signals that reach the brain, all of which are integrated together to form a perception of being full. the first signals from the stomach come much earlier than 20 minutes, but it can take up to 20 minutes for all the signals the stomach sends to reach as it sends signals through various nerves and peptide horomones. the slowest of them take up to 20 minutes to reach the brain. not all of the signals are from your stomach though. you get some signals from taste, smell, sight etc… when eating and then further on in your intestines and liver, additional horomones are sent to the brain to indicate further digestion. in the long term, the brain also gets signals from the blood and fat tissue, the levels of glucose and leptin in your blood help control how full or hungry you feel when not currently eating. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm not five, but i'm not a scientist either. can you gently explain this? why does my ankle crack--loudly? | had a major sprain twenty years ago in my teens, and ever since my ankle builds up a kind of mildly uncomfortable pressure about once a day, where if i flex and twist my ankle it makes a loud crack. about as loud as you can click your tongue. takes the pressure off right away. what causes this? what is that noise? | not even slightly my field, but this happens to me too and a doctor friend once explained it. it's apparently caused by nitrogen coming out of solution in your joint fluid, which causes [discharge cavitation](_url_0_) -- essentially a shockwave in the liquid caused the the rapid formation and collapse of a bubble. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavitation",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2HpUllRNRy0"
] | [
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how much angular momentum does blood flowing through the aortic arch have? | i am not sure if i am thinking about it right but it seems as though the fact that the blood arcs from front to back changing its flow direction by 180 degrees means there would be a significant amount of angular momentum in the system. i don't well understand how angular momentum works in fluids, but my question arose because i was envisioning the aortic arch as acting a bit like a gyroscope, with weird things happening during sideways rotation. would there be some resistance to torquing the arch? | i don't have numbers in front of me, but determing the volume of the aortic arch, determine peak flow, find mass of the blood in the aortic arch at this time, determine velocity, and you should be able to calculate angular momentum and any resulting gyroscopic forces. i would wager that the pressure differential between the heart and the rest of the body is more than enough to overcome any forces imparted by movement. that said, a person's movement certainly has some effect on blood pressure throughout the body, an easy example being when you stand up too fast. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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measuring an organism's sense of curiosity | i am curious about curiosity: is there a scale that scientists use to measure an organism's sense of curiosity? for example, is there some scale by which we can say that an octopus is more curious about its environment than, say, an ant? if so, does curiosity strongly correlate to anything, such as number of neurons? are there any brain structures that seem to be associated with a sense of curiosity? what is the simplest organism that seems to have a sense of (human-like) curiosity? | this is sort-of addressed via measures of "boldness" or "exploratory behavior" basically, you release the animal in a new environment (like an open room) or present it with some object it has never seen before. then you measure the amount of time it takes it to emerge into and explore the environment or interact with the object. it's not exactly the same as what you are thinking of in regards to curiosity, but it _is_ easy to measure straightforwardly and consistently. typically, some individuals in a species are more "curious" than others. total amount of curiosity of this sort (and in general, i expect) probably has much more to do with the ecology of the organism than its intellect or anything else. if a species lives in an environment where every day it eats the same things, where food, water, and other things are reliable and similar all the time, it probably won't be curious. if a creature has a diverse diet, encounters new environments regularly, or otherwise makes a living off of dealing with new things, it will probably be more curious. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there any facts that animals (probably monkeys?) cheated, broke the rules or disobey them during experiments in order to get an advantage? | i wonder if some of them tried to outsmart either their inmates or the experimenters. | dolphins were rewarded with food for collecting trash. dolphin rips a small piece of paper off of the trash everytime they wanted a treat instead of searching for multiple pieces of trash. _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.littlethings.com/brilliant-kelly-the-dolphin-fools-trainers/2"
] | [
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if you could raise your blood ph level, would there be any negative health effects? | i was watching [this interview](_url_2_) with wim hof, who uses a hyperventilation technique to increase his blood ph level. according to a study, he had a blood ph level of 7.75, well above the average range of 7.35-7.45. he claims to have raised his blood ph level even higher, to 8.0. would there be any negative health effects to having a blood ph level that high? i've attempted to look into this, but i haven't found any reputable sources. there are sources like [this](_url_0_) which say that blood ph levels as high as hof claims to have can cause death. i've seen other sources saying alkalosis can have negative effects, but there doesn't seem to be much consistency among any of the information. edit: here's the study: _url_1_ | the technical term for hyperventilating to increase ph levels is known as respiratory alkalosis. there are no serious side effects of respiratory alkalosis because your body has compensatory mechanisms to fix the issue over time. all you really get is some shortlasting effects that'll go away. the only thing i can think of that may be somewhat dangerous (though really unlikely) is arrhythmias from it. edit: didn't really wanna write out all the side effects, so i just googled them for you. [_url_0_](_url_0_). this source says that the only major problem is that cerebral vasoconstriction may be an issue in sickle cell patients. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.normalbreathing.com/CO2-blood-pH-respiratory-alkalosis.php",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/111/20/7379.full",
"https://youtu.be/389c31dD9xg?t=893"
] | [
"http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/AcidBaseBook/ab6_4.php"
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why are crush injuries so dangerous? | what makes crush injuries unique? what makes treating, say, a crushed leg different than a compound fracture in the leg? are crush injuries inherently more difficult to treat? | crushed legs can cause fat embolism. with a crushed leg, your blood vessels are exposed to the fat in your bone marrow, which could block up your blood vessels, and cause complications to the lungs, heart, and brain. that is what fat embolism syndrome does. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does avogadro's law hold? | the [wikipedia article](_url_0_) claims that avogadro's law is an experimental law and that it is only approximately true. i would like to know if there is a physical theory explaining the law and if it is possible to predict the deviations from avogadro's law for a given gas. additionally, is it known what led avogadro to his formulation of the principle? your speculations about this would be very welcome! | avogadro's law holds because a perfectly ideal gas behaves *exactly* like a huge number of rigid macroscopic particles flying around and colliding (billiard balls, air hockey pucks, etc.). for a given temperature, pressure, and volume, the only other quantity of interest is the number of particles. their masses do not matter because this is already taken into account in the temperature (average kinetic energy), so all systems of "ideal gasses" (or billiard balls) with the same p, v, t and particle number behave in the same way. deviations result when there is an interaction between the particles, for example an attractive intermolecular force. in this case, the ideal gas law is modified. one of the simplest modifications that gives decent predictions is the [van der waals law](_url_0_). edit: i do not know the exact history of the law, but by analyzing different gasses one can see that the ratio pv/t is *proportional*, but not equal, to mass. this means that if i double the amount of gas, the quantity pv/t doubles, but different gasses with different masses can have the same pv/t value. this shows that this quantity is measuring something that has to do with how much stuff you have, but not mass directly. this leads to the prediction that pv/t is a measure of particle number. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro%27s_Law"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation"
] | [
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] |
how much time would a flight attendant 'gain' over their career? | so i was talking to my aunt who said that she was on a plane that was the last flight of one of the attendants before she retired. she also commented that the attendant in question "looked every minute of 60 years old." now i know that because of time dilation, she would have 'gained' a small amount of time by travelling at high velocities, but how much? assuming that she was working as a flight attendant full-time for at least 30 years, would she have gained a few seconds or a minute of time or what? would she legitimately be "every minute of 60?" | there have been several tests that measured time dilation due to flight. [a recent one](_url_0_) measured a shift of 246 ns on a trip from london - la - auckland - hong kong - london. let's assume a flight attendant makes a journey roughly equivalent to that twice a week, 45 weeks a year, for 40 years. that's 246 ns * 2 * 45 * 40 = .0008856 seconds. edit: just reviewed the [original experiment](_url_1_) and forgot to include directional effects. eastward you actually lose time, westward gain (-40 and 275ns, respectively). assuming her east/west flight time roughly evened out over her career, the actual net gain would be the average, or 117.5ns. that gives a total dilation of .000423 seconds. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.npl.co.uk/news/time-flies",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafele%E2%80%93Keating_experiment"
] | [
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does dual n back training really help with increasing fluid intelligence? | this is a hotly debated finding. it's important to make sure you understand the terms that are being used here. the n-back task is a measure of working memory. we've long known that practicing working memory tasks improved performance on that same task, but until recently there hasn't been convincing evidence that there is any transfer of that ability to other tasks. new research in the past few years has shown that working memory training can transfer to other tasks, which therefore would support the idea that you are actually improving/increasing working memory *ability*, not just learning the task. this is pretty cool stuff, imo. now, as for your question, it's important to note that measures of fluid intelligence are *highly dependent* on working memory. so, it is not clear that the relative improvements in fluid intelligence aren't just the same transfer of improved working memory. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
the “dark side of the moon” stuff is b.s., right? | you always hear that old myth, “we know more about the dark side of the moon than our own oceans.” but i remember learning that the moon doesn’t just move around the earth, but it also rotates on its own axis? so no part of the moon is 100% dark 100% of the time? or did my 5th grade gym coach/ makeshift science teacher have it all wrong? | there are two ways to interpret the term "dark side of the moon". first, there's the literal interpretation of "dark" meaning "without light". in this interpretation, there is no dark side of the moon, because all sides of the moon are periodically exposed to sunlight. but the more common interpretation is that the dark side refers to a side of the moon that is never visible from earth. and this is something that actually happens. no matter where you are on earth, there's a large part of the moon that you'll never be able to see. the only way we know what's going on that side is by sending spacecraft to the moon to take a look on the other side. now you say "the moon doesn’t just move around the earth, but it also rotates on its own axis". this is also true. however, the rotation of the moon around its axis takes exactly the same amount of time as its orbit around the earth. as a result, these two sync up perfectly and we're only seeing one side of the moon from earth. you may be thinking: "rotation and orbit exactly the same duration, that can't be a coincidence." and you would be right, it isn't. this is a result of a phenomenon called [tidal locking](_url_0_), which is caused by tidal forces altering the speed of rotation and orbit until the two are synchronized. | 48 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_locking"
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how do squirrels and other tree-traipsing animals know a branch will support their weight? | or do they? | i would hazard an educated guess that they do just what we do.....estimate through experience weather a branch will support their weight before they put their full weight on it. keep in mind also that squirrels are quite a bit more dextrous and lighter than us, so if they do fall it is much less likely to cause them injury or permanent harm. they don't always get it right either.....many times i have seen branches break off under squirrels and a fall result. the squirrel usually recovers quickly and runs off, or climbs back up the tree. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there such a thing as negative water pressure? has it been studied? | i got this question by pondering luke skywalker suspended in some kind of water tank while convalescing (_url_0_). you know when you're in the tub with a cup, and you completely submerge the cup, filling it with water (no air) and then turn it upside down and raise the bottom of the cup above water level? it would seem to me that there would be some kind of negative water pressure in the cup. imagine doing that on a massive scale, in a large swimming pool. when i dive down 10+ feet in a swimming pool, my ears start to hurt from the pressure. if, in such a pool, there were a similar inverted, giant glass - sealed at the top - filled with water (that is, the water is in the glass only because of vacuum, like the bathtub cup) that rose 10+ feet above the surface of the rest of the water, what would it feel like to swim up in it? would my ears hurt just as much, except in the opposite direction? are there any possible therapies or treatments or scientific phenomenon that occur, or occur more readily, in such a vacuum like, negative water-pressure environment? have there ever been studies or research conducted in this direction? | no, the pressure just goes below the atmospheric pressure. it would feel a bit like in an airplane that rises rapidly. yes, the ears could hurt a bit. [here is a very small version](_url_0_). [and one for fish](_url_1_). go into a swimming pool on a mountain and you have the same result: nothing special. the effects of lower air pressure in general are well-studied. if you try to make the column of water too high, you reach (nearly) zero pressure at about 10 meters (if your pool is at sea level). that's how mercury barometers measure air pressure - by the height of this column. mercury is used because it has a high density, so the column is shorter. | 16 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/pHKlbVS.gif"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fSt8mPdxwk",
"http://igin.com/images/koipond.945.jpg"
] | [
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if there were a contraption that could evenly stretch a perfect rubber band (think inflating a balloon with a rubber band around it) how would the rubber band break? | for this hypothetical, the rubber band and the stretching mechanism are both perfect with no weak spots. the rubber band is stretched evenly into a larger and larger circle. does it disintegrate at the breaking point? or does it break into strips because there is more pressure out than up and down? are there any real-life examples to help guess what would happen in this hypothetical? | when you talk about a perfect rubber band you depart from reality. if the material were perfectly homogeneous, in theory it would reach its fracture stress everywhere simultaneously and the whole thing would disintegrate. and that fracture stress would be much, much higher than a usual rubber band's (see: nanomaterial strength, esp. carbon nanotubes). but in real life, no matter how perfect you try to make it, a macroscopic specimen will never be perfectly homogeneous, meaning there will be a particular location it will break. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?safe=active&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1152&bih=560&ei=VrgUWvf3GqbMjwTUur6wAQ&q=rubber+band+physics&oq=rubber+band+physics&gs_l=img.3...114.4268.0.4497.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1ac.1.64.img..0.0.0....0.jEH726Dj7uE#imgrc=EJKIDqCzX9Fm_M",
"http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-yQhBznOJNsI/UUnOX8-tK-I/AAAAAAAAFuM/MdRHwyGscPg/s1600/rodecker_paul_tangle_mess.jpg",
"http://electron6.phys.utk.edu/101/CH8/8.1/rubber.gif"
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evolution question: ability to pass on traits - 2 heads | so today a baby with two heads was born ([source](_url_0_)). is this child now more likely to have descendents who have two heads, in comparison to myself (with one head)? | conjoined twins are caused by a partial division of the egg, or the egg re-fusing after it has split. it is generally accepted that this is a fluke and not a genetic condition. so no. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.news.com.au/top-stories/twins-born-with-two-heads-and-one-body-both-healthy-and-both-have-an-amazing-appetite/story-e6frfkp9-1226228115501"
] | [] | [
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what makes clownfish "immune" to anemones? | [deleted] | everything you would want to know can be found [here](_url_0_): in short, the two species are mutually beneficial to one another so evolution found a way. first, the clownfish evolved to know not to eat off the anemones so they don't get struck in the mouth, and the anemone evolved to know not to strike the clownfish. clownfish also have a thicker-than-average mucous layer that protects their body from nematocyst strikes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.asknature.org/strategy/fb410d8500af30a5daf5b647954b7fa5"
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why can't they replace a meniscus? | they can, but they don't. it's relatively experimental so i'll provide some educated speculation. * firstly, the predominant cause for age and use-related joint pain is osteoarthritis.this is due to wear and damage to the cartilage on the bone ends and in severe cases there is bone rubbing on bone ([diagram of joint](_url_0_)). definitive treatment is joint replacement where the ends of the bone and the cartilage is replaced by a metal or ceramic prosthesis. this is a simple explanation. the fact that symptoms (pain) does not always correlate with the severity of joint damage as shown by radiology suggests that there is more to the disease than just cartilage wear. * in contrast the meniscus is a fibrous cartilagenous crescent shaped pads that partly divide the joint cavity are only present in some joints in humans. similar to the cartilage they are involved in joint movement (reduction of friction). they can be injured acutely (a traumatic tear) or they can cause chronic joint pain (degenerative disease or chronic tears). the acute injuries can be treated conservatively or by surgical repair or tear or partial removal of the meniscus. however with chronic and/or degenerative damage it appears that surgical procedures are of no benefit (when looking at the population as a whole). * so there isn't really a good reason to replace a meniscus. most joint pain is chronic degenerative pain where the meniscus either isn't involved and/or the meniscus pathology has little correlation with symptoms. acute injuries of the meniscus where there is a a definitive injury to the meniscus that correlates with symptoms is a minority of cases of joint pain. similarly meniscal injuries where an intervention to repair the meniscal injury leads to improvement is a minority of cases. * there is some controversy in this area so i'm sure that someone else will provide another opinion. there is artificial material available for artificial meniscus replacement and there is also cadaver material available for transplant. there was a review on the topic in ***clinics sports medicine 2009 43(1), 143-156***. it appears that although there are some materials available for partial and complete meniscus replacement the procedure is limited by a lack of technical ability and also a lack of evidence for long term benefit. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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what would the dicovery of the graviton mean ? | when and if the graviton is ever discovered what would that prove ? and what would be its utility ? | right now, low-energy quantum gravity can be described using the effective quantum field theory (qft) of gravitons. this gives general relativity in the classical limit, and in addition it gives some interesting new predictions like hawking radiation. unfortunately, the theory only works away from strong curvature (black hole singularities, the big bang), while the corrections at energies we can access are *extremely* small. for example, you can calculate the correction to einstein's calculation of the perihelion shift of mercury, and find that the quantum correction is something like 10^90 times smaller than the correction einstein calculated. so it seems unlikely that we would ever detect individual gravitons. now, this effective qft seems to be pretty much the unique description of low-energy gravity, so if anything, it would be extremely surprising if gravitons did **not** exist. it would mean that quantum gravity is already not understood at low energies, and we would need to throw out a lot of our understanding. especially now that we are sure there are gravitational waves, which should be modeled quantum mechanically as coherent states of gravitons. so discovering a graviton would really just confirm how we expect low-energy gravity to work. (maybe i should stress again that this is all at low-energies; at high energies the theory likely looks nothing like gravitons at all). nothing as far as i know. but i can't even imagine how how we would ever detect or discover a graviton in the first place, let alone conceive of applications. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do hearts know how hard to pump? | considering the varied speeds at which hearts pump, depending on how fit you are, how exactly do they pump at exactly the right speed? | hearts basically pump at whatever rate is necessary to maintain the necessary perfusion of body tissues. this is generally determined by the blood pressure at various [key sensory regions](_url_0_), which then results in [feedback loops](_url_2_) that modulate heart rate. remember that the heart has its own pacemaker that sets its beat. however, this pacemaker is subject to regulation by other factors (primarily [catecholamines such as epinephrine/norepinephrine](_url_3_) (aka adrenaline/noradrenaline) and the [vagus nerve](_url_1_)). vagal stimulation acts as a 'brake' on heart rate, while adrenergic stimulation via epinephrine increases both the heart rate as well as how 'hard' the heart squeezes down to pump the blood. i said above that this rate is dependent on the blood pressure, which is itself dependent on the cardiac output and the vascular resistance. the former is just a measure of how much blood volume the heart can pump per unit time, while the latter is a measure of how hard it is to pump that blood. cardiac output can be further broken down into stroke volume (how much blood each pump of the heart ejects) and heart rate. so to put it together, pressure = stroke volume * heart rate * resistance (this is a variant of [ohm's law](_url_4_). given this equation, you can see how heart rate may go down if stroke volume goes up (eg a strong, healthy heart) to maintain the same blood pressure. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroreceptor#Arterial_.28high-pressure.29_baroreceptors",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nerve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback_loop#Biology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinephrine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank-Starling_law_of_the_heart"
] | [
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] |
what is the difference between a blazar and a grb? | the emission in both comes from ultrarelativistic jets (jets with lorentz factor blazars are jets coming from a supermassive black holes at the center of galaxies that are continuously accreting matter, and they are quasi-stable objects that can radiate for long periods of time. grbs are short, catastrophic events lasting from 0.2-2000 seconds that result from the collapse of a massive star or the collision of a neutron star with another neutron star or a black hole. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do i stop crystalization in a non-hygroscopic sweetner? | **tl;dr:** how do i prevent erythritol from recrystalizing in drinks, candies, baked goods, etc? i've asked this in askcullinary and nobody could help me. it dawned on me it may be more of a science question. my diabetic father is eating himself to death. i am desperate to make some low carb deserts that will fool him and hopefully convince him to switch to some of my recipes i'm trying to work on. [erythritol](_url_0_)(wikipedia) is the best candidate so far, there is absolutely no aftertaste. i'll spare you all a description, you can click the link for more info. please correct me if i'm asking the wrong questions. unlike sugar the erythritol does not readily absorb water, it repels it. that seems to cause it to easily crystalize. for example, when adding them to a cheesecake it will be fantastic at first. twenty-four hours later and the sugar has recrystalized and the treat now feels as though it has sand inside it. gummy-bears were awesome for about 10 minutes, then opaque speckles apeared which started growing till the whole candy became crunchy. i've heard of mixing sugar with corn syrup and the long molecular chains disrupt the sugar recrystalizing. this (even if it worked) isn't an option because of the carbs. i've heard cream of tartar can help prevent sugar from crystalizing. is this because of the acidity? i'm willing to do tests, but i was hoping i could get some direction instead of baking $20-$30 failures every day. | amateur candy-maker/chemist here. the usual mo is to add glucose/corn syrup/inverted sugar to a sucrose mixture to stop crystalization. corn syrup is glucose, mostly. the similar-but-not-quite-the-same structure of sucrose to glucose or other sugars means the crystals can't form efficiently. even with sucrose being hygroscopic there will still be sugar crystals if you don't have the correct recipe and technique (which is tricky to do at home). cream of tartar is an acid, as you noted, and the hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose is acid-catalyzed. so basically by adding cream of tartar you make your own invert sugar out of sucrose instead of adding it. it will do nothing useful to erythritol. swapping out one chemical for another is always going to cause problems, as you're finding out. but you could try to mix a few sugar alcohols together to keep any single one from crystallizing out. or stick to confections like hard candy or fudge where you want crystals. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythritol"
] | [] | [
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what is a mixed state, as opposed to a superposition state and how is it possible to engineer experimentally? | short answer: a mixed state is a way of representing purely classical uncertainty within the same formalism as quantum uncertainty. classical uncertainty is the kind we're used to from everyday life, nothing up my quantum sleeves. if i tell you i have a quarter in one of my hands, guess which?, then your subjective state of knowledge is a mixed state of "it's in the left hand" and "it's in the right hand." what makes quantum mixed states interesting is the contrast with a coherent superposition, e.g. "left *plus* right." at the macro level of quarters in hands, this leads to all sorts of weird schrodinger's cat type paradoxes, so it's easier to think about a single two-level system, like a spin. in some basis (call it z), a spin can be |up let's say you have the state |up similarly if you have |up on the other hand, let's say you prepare *either* |up another way in which mixed states arise is through considering only half of an entangled pair. there's definite information in the correlations between the two particles, but with access to only one of them, it behaves in the unpredictable way described above. what makes mixed states weird in qm is (among other things) that there's no unique decomposition (think reverse engineering) into pure states. that "up or down" state is identical in every respect to a "right or left" state, or a 50-50 combination of any two orthogonal states. this leads some people (ok, myself included) to think of the density matrix formalism as more fundamental than the state-vector formalism, which among other things can't assign a state to the subsystems of an entangled pair. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the differences between how ibm's deep blue was programmed when it beat kasparov vs. google's deepmind when it beat lee se-dol? | did deep blue use "learning" methods like deepmind? what exactly are "genetic algorithms?" why aren't we using this technology to make cpu's far more complicated but faster than what humans design? | fyi the program is named "alphago", and the company that designed it is google deepmind. deep blue used machine learning methods (albeit simpler methods), but they didn't use the same kind of machine learning as alphago. ibm themselves say [no, deep blue does not use artificial intelligence](_url_1_). however, deep blue did use a board evaluation function composed of many parameters, and these parameters were determined by "[analyzing thousands of master games](_url_0_)." that's a form of machine learning in my book. [alphago uses two deep neural networks](_url_2_) to make two different decisions: what move to make (i.e. where to place a stone) on a given board, and as a judge of how good a board is (similar to deep blue's evaluation function). these deep neural networks were trained through reinforcement learning by playing millions of games against itself. so i think i'd say 'yes and no'. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Blue_\\(chess_computer\\)",
"https://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.3.3a.html",
"http://www.nature.com.sci-hub.io/nature/journal/v529/n7587/full/nature16961.html"
] | [
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is being squeamish when faced with the sight of blood or guts learned in life, or is it a natural reaction? | & if blood was naturally purple instead of red, would we still react the same squeamish way? | [here's an interesting article](_url_0_) that might answer your question. "blood-injury phobia" may actually be an evolved trait. it appears that one psychologist hypothesizes that fainting at the sight of blood may either cause you to appear dead, or reduce bleeding after injury. i'm not sure i buy that, but it is an interesting hypothesis. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webmd.com/mental-health/features/swoon-at-the-sight-of-blood"
] | [
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it's said that automatic nerves disorder is one of the reason of high blood pressure, is it true? | somebody told me that automatic nerves disorder can cause anxiety, anger, and high blood _url_0_ if it is possible that the patient of high blood pressure eat some medicine to cure automatic nerves disorder, and the to low down the blood pressure? | it's autonomic nervous system. it does regulate our blood pressure by constricting/dilating our blood vessels as well as affecting your cardiac output. but dysfunction in the autonomic nervous system is not a common cause of hypertension ie high blood pressure. but if someone develops a very high pressure rather suddenly it should be considered as well as kidney problems. | 2 | [] | [
"pressure.so"
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what is transition energy? | so what is transition energy? i am specifically interested in transition metals. | in chemistry, transition energy is the amount of energy it takes to cause an electron to transition from one energy level to another. typically you'll only see this for hydrogen because it only has one electron, and anything beyond that gets complicated really quickly. the name "transition metal" actually has nothing to do with transition energy. a transition metal is just any element with a partially filled d-orbital. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do stones skip? | i asked a few scientists and they all just say "water surface pressure" but if that's true, why don't stones skip when you drop them on water, and why is the angle best for throwing 20 degrees from the water? anyone have any idea? | we tend to think of water as very mushy (it is a liquid, after all). we can jump in it, swim around, push the water around as much as we like. although it is liquid, it is still matter and does resist being pushed around to some extent. this is more noticeable if you hit the water at higher speeds. ever do a belly flop? the water sure feels like it has some sort of surface in that case. it hurts even more at higher speeds, (people die jumping off of high bridges into water). the water molecules aren't able to move out of your way quickly, so you feel alot of resistance when entering the water. note we don't bounce though, and neither would a rock if you dropped it straight in. the water isn't solid enough, it absorbs your impact rather than springing you back (like the ground might). but, if we are skimming along the water at a high speed, we are able to stay above the water (think of water skiiing). at those speeds, the water's resistance is strong enough to keep us afloat. same for the stone, thrown horizontally and fast enough it will bounce off the surface of the water. each bounce slows it down though, so it will eventually not have enough horizontal speed to keep bouncing and it will fall into the water. as to the 20 degrees, that came from this paper _url_0_ . the paper sadly does not offer a physical explanation of why 20 degrees is the magic angle, but only says that this angle is ideal regardless of the speed it is thrown and the spin of the rock. i suspect that if the impact angle is too small, the rock doesn't bounce as high each hop, and ends up not being escape the water sooner. too high an angle means the water has to offer more resistance against the rock in order to overcome the rock's downward momentum. 20 degrees is just the perfect balance where the rock isn't moving too fast downward, but gets enough height from the hop so that the next hop is successful as well. edit: a word | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6969/full/427029a.html"
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why don't scientists use natural units more often? | why don't we normalize certain fundamental physical constants like the speed of light, the gravitational constant, charge of an electron, etc. to values that are easier to work with. it seems foolish to have an electron's charge be -1.6 x 10^-19 c when we could create a new unit and set it equal to 1. the same goes for mass, why use the international prototype kilogram as the base unit for kilogram when we could set it to something based on nature. i know this has been done to some extent with planck units but i still don't encounter it much. my thinking is that if we did this more often it would eliminate the need for various constants that reconcile our arbitrary metric units with natural ones. | funnily enough, someone beat you to this observation. when you're doing certain things in physics, it's quite common to use the electron volt: _url_2_ basically, people use the most convenient units. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_unit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_units",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_volt"
] | [
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why are women who have had hysterectomies restricted from lifting? | i did some preliminary research on google scholar and based on the abstracts (the research was paywalled) of a couple of studies and one metanalysis done in 2013, i found that there seems to be no conclusive research on the effects of post-operative activity on hysterectomy patients. the actual restrictions (weight limits and length of restriction) seem to vary greatly from patient to patient. there must be a reason for them (increased risk of hernia? increased risk of adhesions?) what are the mechanics behind these? i did find a website (can't confirm the reliability) for kidney donors which mentions a lifting restriction because of risk of incisional hernia. | in the sense of recovery after abdominal surgery, general recommendations for hysterectomy won't differ substantially from any other form of abdominal surgery. generally, recovery needs to be long enough to let a significant portion of healing of the abdominal wall occur. typical recommendations for this length of time are 6 weeks. you're correct in that the risks are related to incisional complications such as hernia or dehisence. adhesions are an unavoidable part of the healing process for any intraabdominal procedure. based on your questioning, it sounds like you're asking about your own recovery or for someone you know. in that case, the correct answer is: talk to your doctor. they can and should be able to inform you about appropriate procedures for recovery postoperatively. there's no reason a patient post-hysterectomy should not be able to begin weight training after appropriate recovery. | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2jt6d0/is_scar_tissue_stronger_than_regular_skin/"
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will a strong enough electric field permanently break an intermolecular dipole dipole attraction? | suppose i've got borosilicate (mostly composed of sio2 & b2o3), and due to the diboron trioxide has dipole moment. now the dipole moment creates dipole dipole attraction with a whole lot of other molecules. i'm trying to get rid of these other molecules. if a place the borosilicate in an electric field, the dipole moment of the 'other molecules' will experience torque towards the direction of the electric field. if the bond direction is perpendicular to the electric field will this cause intermolecular bond to permanently rupture? & #x200b; | i don't think i understand your question. if you've got a massively strong electric field, that could force dipole molecules to turn, which would likely break their associated bonds. "permanently" is the confusing part though- if you shut off the field, the opposite poles will still attract each other. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any species besides humans that confidentially communicates secrets to other members of its kind? | humans communicate confidentially because they want to preserve privacy, protect financial information, et cetera. we'll do this using ciphers or cryptography and the like. is there anything else alive that does this? and i'm speaking about things of exactly the same type; let's say we have three elephants standing right next to each other, can two of the elephants tell each other something without the third elephant finding out or overhearing it? so i believe elephants don't do this, of course, but i'm just laying some groundwork for my question. is there anything else alive besides humans that does this? or do we possess a unique need for this type of communication? been thinking about this for a long time; haven't nailed an answer down yet! | yes. it has been spotted in gorillas and chimpanzees in captivity and the source below is the first report of it in the wild by a monkey. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24770588"
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care to recommend astrophysics/astronomy books a step above popular books, but below textbooks? | i've read most of the main popular books about astrophysics and most of them tell the same story. i'm looking for something just a little bit deeper. i don't really want a whole lot of math or anything like that. | you don't need math to read a full on textbook. you might not get the derivations but the physical meaning behind the equations is explained iby the accompanying text in a good textbook. that said [astronomy today](_url_1_) is a very basic astronomy textbook with nice colour pictures, stories etc. it is very light on maths. my undergrad course used [an introduction to modern astrophysics](_url_0_) for the early years. this is a lot more in depth, with more equations than astronomy today (and its in black and white) but, at 1500 or so pages it basically contains an overview of the entirity if astrophysics, decently written too. i fear that neither of these are what you are looking for but if you want to move on from pop science books then full blown textbooks are your next step. as overviews of the entire of astronomy they are prevented from getting too heavy on maths and derivations which works in their favour. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.co.uk/Introduction-Modern-Astrophysics-International/dp/0321442849/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1326422722&sr=1-1",
"http://www.amazon.co.uk/Astronomy-Today-Eric-Chaisson/dp/0321727355/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1326422643&sr=8-1"
] | [
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what are some examples of forces driving current human evolution? | i searched around and found a lot of questions about what traits we've evolved in relative recent human history, but not any questions about what forces are driving these evolutions. i feel like in a wild setting adaptations would be favored that would promote survival or promote mate selection, but it seems today that we're mostly at the top of the food chain. what things are still pushing us to evolve? are we evolving faster or slower than we have been for say the last million years? | there's a book by two anthropologists, called the 10.000 year explosion, which argues that our higher population density since the neolithic revolution has led to accelerated evolution in our species, with a rate of change anywhere up to 100-fold faster than during the paleolithic era. there are still factors that drive us to evolve. [one study looked at a village in canada, it found that the age at first childbirth appeared to be decreasing, which was argued to be indicative of genetic change.](_url_0_) there is other evidence that parts of our genome are still changing. [studies find that convicted criminals have a much higher fertility rate than comparisons.](_url_1_) the authors conclude that criminality is an adaptive trait in industrialized society, which means that we are gradually evolving to become more criminal. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.com/2011/10/recent-human-evolution/",
"http://www.ehbonline.org/article/S1090-5138(14\\)00077-4/abstract",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920840/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/11/science/an-evolutionary-battle-against-bacteria.html?_r=0"
] | [
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claim: science is based on a subjective value-judgement in regard to the importance of evidence and the irrational belief that our sensory perception furnishes us with an accurate representation of the world. what is wrong with this statement? | this claim arises from the belief that it is wrong to assume that our senses are the only insight into physical reality. while this may not be untrue (i present to you dark matter, which we are only able to detect through its interaction with objects that we can detect), it is certainly a flawed way of looking at science. science's only purpose is to answer *real* questions about the real world. how do we, as humans, do this? through our five senses. the purpose of science isn't necessarily to uncover universal truth in everything, but to merely uncover truth as we experience it. so yeah, while we may not be able to, as of yet, detect certain phenomena/ things not within the range of our five senses, who cares? not a person thinks that science shouldn't be used to aid in technological/scientific development, and technological/scientific developments are employed by our senses. and subjective-value judgement is a, pardon my french, retarded statement. the person's argument that science is based on a subjective value judgement is in itself a subjective value judgement, so he can go stick that argument where the sun don't shine. hope that did something for ya. not really *scientific* though. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
lily zombie growing in basement w/no sun, very minimal, very intermittent incandescent light and no h2o... is this normal? | my friend had a lily that seemed to have died and she placed it in her basement which contains no windows. a couple months later... an apparently nocturnal plant burst forth. it looks normal other than a loss of color... its yellowish-white and about 18 inches tall. i can post some pics as soon as i get home. edit: thanks guys! i figured the color was due to lack of chlorophyll just didn't realize the bulbs stores enough energy /nutrients to develop. interesting... it will see sun, i'll see to it. :) | bring the poor thing into the light! lilies, and many plants can have a dormant phase. it's possible that the dark cool basement triggered a 'winter', and the plant is trying to grow again. it is using the energy in the bulb to keep growing without light, but it won't last forever. it is white because it is not wasting energy to produce chloroplasts (which are green and do the photosynthesis) until there is light to use. many plants will try to grow without light, if you leave a box on your lawn, you'll see strange long, white grass growing underneath, desperately trying to reach the light. | 103 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do molecules or atoms have "lagrangian points"? | **short answer:** no. **long answer:** lagrangian points exist for any two-body system orbiting each other under the influence of a central force. (a central force is a force that points along the line segment connecting the two bodies.) these points are points at which a body with negligible mass (or charge or whatever) could be placed and maintain a stable position relative to the other two objects. note that this is a purely mathematical construction. now suppose orbits at the atomic level were classical like the earth-sun system. so imagine an electron orbiting a proton, under the influence of the coulomb force. (gravity is far too weak to matter anyway, but you can include it if you want.) any object that is small enough to be able exist in an orbit at one of the lagrange points would certainly have to have an electric charge comparable to that of the electron and proton (since the electron and proton themselves each have the fundamental charge). so the system effectively becomes a three-body system. the crucial part of defining lagrange points is that the third object has *negligible* mass (in the case of gravity) so as not to effect the other two massive bodies. the third object is meant to be passive and sort of just come along for the ride. so even if atomic orbits were classical, lagrange points would still not be well-defined anyway. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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