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how can one go about explaining how pouring air from glass to another under water works in terms of physics? | *"you ordinarily pour water from a full glass into an empty glass simply by placing the full glass above the empty glass and tipping. have you ever poured air from one glass into another? the procedure is similar. lower two glasses in water, mouths downward. let one fill with water by tilting its mouth upward. then hold the water-filled glass mouth downward above the air-filled glass. slowly tilt the lower glass and let the air escape, filling the upper glass. you will be pouring air from one glass into another!"* -how can one go about explaining this experiment in terms of physics? -what kind of physics is happening? | the density of air is less than the density of water. as such, buoyancy causes it to move opposite gravity. another explanation is that the water is falling into the air pocket, which then moves to occupy the space the water was previously in. the pouring in this instance is pretty much the same as a normal glass, except you are swapping which fluid is which, and buoyancy is providing the driving force for the poured liquid instead of gravity. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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imagine if you filled a bucket with germs and cramed as much in as the bucket could hold. enough that you could see the germs. what would it look like? | it would depend on what germ it is. if it's something cellular (bacteria, fungi, protozoa), it will look like a paste. the color will most likely be pale yellow/creamy white, but it could be a variety of colors; red, orange, greenish in some cases. even then, that would depend on what they were making at that moment. bacteria are metabolically diverse, and one species can exhibit many different colors depending on what it is encountering in its environment. if you want a really good idea, don't brush your teeth for a few days. run your fingernail over your front teeth. that crap on your fingernail? it would look like a bucket full of that. i'm speculating here, but assuming you don't completely dehyrate them, a bucket of viruses would probably look like a gelatinous blob. think halfway between raw egg white and jello. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=bacteria+colonies&client=firefox-a&hs=i7d&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=sb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=_txjU8zYO7aysATmpIDgCA&ved=0CAgQ_AUoAQ&biw=1600&bih=797",
"http://kidshealth.org/kid/talk/qa/germs.html"
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|
can someone fluent in chinese explain combustion? | 1st generation canadian here, and i'm having trouble explaining to my parents how combustion works. they drown cloths used to wipe down our stove, and then flush it down the toilet, and other ridiculous things. if possible could you make a video or even just an audio clip with pictures explaining it in cantonese/mandarin. | you are doing it the wrong way. trying to explain to them the science of combustion is like trying to preach paris hilton about virginity. just buy them sponges or wipe clothes, let them clean to their hearts content. you save money and trouble. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the social reasons that scandinavian working hours are not replicable in other developed countries? | what's special about scandinavian working hours? the [average number of hours worked](_url_0_) in scandinavian countries is below the eu average, but they're not exactly outliers either. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/studies/tn1106010s/tn1106010s-fig04.jpg"
] | [
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|
does thermal conductivity increase with pressure? | am i correct in thinking that thermal conductivity increases with pressure due to molecules being closer together? is there a term for the effect? i was reading about molten salt reactors and it suddenly dawned on me. | it depends on what temperature you are at. if you are talking about thermal conductivity at molten salt temperatures (thousands of k) then i suspect yes, conductivity will increase with pressure. at very low temperatures (4k or lower) electrons are often the primary heat conduction mechanisms because all the phonons are frozen out (for example, sapphire and diamond are much better heat conductors than copper at 4k). at low temperatures you would have to worry about the electronic properties: you would need to look at the band structure for each material. for example, if the material is a semiconductor, then the band gap will be increased as you increase pressure, which means the conductivity will be even lower. conductivity may increase with pressure for liquids or materials with ionic transport mechanisms. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do binaural beats have any substantial effect on the brain? | none that have been documented. there's no particular reason to believe the claims. they are, as best we know, nothing more than sounds that make an interesting effect when listened to. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22171868",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20123120",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22496862",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19042870"
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|
what would happen if a wire were attached at the north pole and connected it at the south pole? | would it produce a current? would it do nothing at all? | if we assume the wire is somehow fixed, such that the earth rotates through it, then yes it would produce current as it cuts the earth's magnetic field (albeit not in the most efficient orientation for doing so). if we assume it rotates with the earth (ie, it is in the same location at all times), then the simple answer is that it would not produce any current as the flux through its area never changes. however i'm not sure if the earth's field is stationary with respect to its axis of rotation, so there could still be some differential motion between the field and wire, resulting in current. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few questions about the future of medical science | 1: if we successfully clone a human does the organ transplant list go out the window (do we even need to clone a whole human)? 2: will we ever overcome the body's rejection of implants/prosthesis? 3: will transferring/copying a persons brain to a digital system ever be possible? | 1. probably nothing. genetic twins are clones of each other, so a laboratory clone of someone would just be a pair of twins born in different years. 2. probably yes. peg coated polymers can already mitigate this to a strong degree, and immunology is a very strong scientific field. 3. i dont know. someone with more knowledge on this field please chime in. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is "haldane's sieve"? | i'm a bioinf graduate student whose background is mostly neuroscience. i've just read a paper that referenced "haldane's sieve", and my usual go-to [wikipedia] doesn't seem to be able to help. it has something to do with selection against a gene(otype?) and the penetrance (?) of the gene, i think... but the nuance is lost on me at the moment. | unfortunately if a new allele arises (in one individual), whether it's beneficial or not, it is likely to disappear from the population by randomly walking back down to zero frequency. this can be due to drift (sampling variance) or draft (hitchhiking effects, e.g., clonal interference). if it is beneficial, it needs to rise to a frequency such that selection "takes off" and it starts to grow exponentially (at first). at this point, the allele is unlikely to be lost. this phenomenon, where an allele transitions from being governed by stochastic effects to being governed by deterministic selection, is what is meant by "establishment". the required number of individuals for establishment to occur scales as 1/*s*, with *s* the selective coefficient of the mutation. you can see, e.g., the first ten pages of [desai and fisher (2007)](_url_0_) for a discussion of the dynamics of this in a haploid species. now, in a diploid species, there's no particular *a priori* reason to expect beneficial alleles to be either dominant or recessive. (this is to be contrasted with deleterious alleles, which are usually recessive; as you probably know, this is because most deleterious alleles are loss-of-function mutations, and having one good copy of a gene is usually enough.) so, the question becomes: *given that you observe a beneficial trait in the population*, is it dominant or recessive? consider that recessive mutations need to drift to a higher frequency before they establish. for example, assuming panmixis, a mutant lineage with a selection coefficient *s* = 0.1 would need to reach not 10, but perhaps 100 individuals (not sure about the scaling, but something like 1/*s*^2 seems intuitive). this will take longer and have a much lower probability of happening. on the other hand, a fully dominant mutation follows roughly the dynamics outlined in the haploid case, so it's much more likely to establish than if it's recessive. thus, if you're able to observe the mutation later, it's likely that it was dominant. in practice, beneficial mutations will probably be neither fully dominant nor fully recessive, but have penetrance somewhere between these two extremes. the argument still holds, though; if you detect it later, it's more likely to have higher rather than lower penetrance. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/desai/PDFs/desaifisher07.pdf"
] | [
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if i burn 500 calories of energy by running round the block, and then i eat 500 calories worth of cake when i get home, am i any better or worse off than if i'd done neither? | your net calorie intake is the same, but you raised your heart rate, produced endorphins, exercised your muscles, etc, all of which are beneficial. so assuming you are a healthy person for whom running is not going to aggravate some existing injury, you are better off running. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you pavlov condition yourself to menstruate? | if you've had your period for a long time and have been doing the same thing every time you get it (i don't know what though) and only when you get it, is it possible to condition yourself to menstruate by doing that thing at other times? | so far there isn't any evidence to suggest that classical conditioning can activate menstruation since menstruation is induced by a hormonal cycle. now, this isn't to say it can't be indirectly activated and confused for something similar to classical conditioning. for example, sexual intercourse can induce menstruation in some cases by a set of biological processes (that i can get into if needed) so someone may think that sex is the neutral stimulus triggering menstruation, but it's actually triggering menstruation for a reason unrelated to the pairing of the stimulus to response. | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why are supercolliders built underground? | well, not all of them are. several of the cern colliders are entirely aboveground. these are the smaller and less powerful ones. the reasoning i encountered as to why the lhc and other large colliders were built underground included: 1) they are exceedingly large. the lhc is a 27 kilometer ring. it would be expensive and space-consuming to properly enclose (i.e. to protect from weathering). 2) security. the lhc needs to be kept isolated, and entrances are carefully monitored. it is much easier to keep the machine working and figure out what went wrong in an accident if no outside influences are present. 3) safety. iirc, a stray beam from the lhc could cause significant damage to the accelerator and surroundings. if i can find anything specific about the lhc beam energy, i'll come back and edit it in, but otherwise, the other two reasons stand. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does the li-liger change linnaean taxonomy? | in high school biology we were always taught that members of two different species could sometimes breed, but the hybrid would always be sterile. if two animals could produce viable offspring, they were the same species. last week [this little guy](_url_0_) was born to a lion father and a liger mother. if ligers can reproduce, how are lions and tigers different species? | good question! the key here is that it was born to a liger mother and a lion father, not two ligers. most inter-species hybrids are subject to what is called [haldane's rule](_url_1_). in plain english, what this means is that the hybrid animal with two different sex chromosomes (xy in males vs xx in females) are sterile. the reason why some females (but not all) are fertile is because they contain two copies of the same chromosome. if the inter-species breeding left the female with one messed up chromosome and one complete, whole chromosome, the complete one could be passed on to viable offspring. males, however are usually not fertile. they only have one copy of each, so their likelihood of having viable chromosomes capable of producing offspring is significantly lower. so, that is what was happening here. the liger, as it's own animal, is not a viable species because two ligers cannot be bred together to make more ligers. the liger female was bred with a lion to create another hybrid that will likely not be fertile. the same is true of the [wholphin](_url_0_) that came to be at sea life park in hawaii. she is a cross of a bottlenose dolphin and a false killer whale (this is a misnomer; just like a true killer whale, both are true dolphins. it was called a "false killer" because it's black back is easily mistaken). the wholphin, kekaimalu, is a female, just like the liger in question. she produced three offspring, only two of which lived successfully (though one died young at the age of nine). again, in this case, she, the female wholphin, produced the offspring with a male bottlenose. so, tl;dr i guess, they are distinct species because ultimately, their offspring cannot successfully reproduce. a hybrid "species" that is made up of fertile females and infertile males cannot successfully propagate a species, and so it is not a species. this is demonstrated by the fact that these hybrids are not seen in the wild. some of these animals, particularly the dolphins, would come in contact in the wild. if they are driven by the instincts to breed with another species in captivity, i find it unbelievable that it would absolutely never happen in the wild. and yet, no hybrid species have popped up. | 5 | [] | [
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/09/120921-liliger-liger-lion-tiger-big-cats-animals-science/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wholphin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldane%27s_rule"
] | [
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did water's absorption spectrum force the structure of the eyeball? | i was just looking at infrared photography and was reminded of a tidbit from college physics - that water isn't clear in the infrared spectrum - it actually absorbs light. i ended up with [these](_url_0_) [graphs](_url_1_) showing a clear spike of low-absorption right in our visible spectrum. with water's importance in the life of nearly every living thing out there, did we evolve specifically to be able to see through water? i can see that being extremely important in the ocean (where the anatomical eye first emerged i believe). i'm interested in hearing what kind of research has been done on this. | i beleive you are correct in that assumption. the [mantis shrimp](_url_0_) can apparently see 10 different colours making it have the most complex eyes on the planet. it can see in polarized and ultraviolet thus if they could see in infrared light they would see the water as opaque. not to mention you would not be able to see out of your eyes as well as aqueous and vitreous humour are both composed largely of water which would then absorb infrared and refract it onto your lenses. think about if the inside of your eye was made from a red or brown liquid. you wouldn't be able to see as well. fun fact: you can sort of see the [boundary](_url_1_) of infrared with high intensity ir lasers (protip: don't stare at it when it's crancked up to 11. tl ; dr = we wouldn't be able to see and op is correct in his/her assumption. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/images/watopt.gif",
"http://omlc.ogi.edu/spectra/water/gif/segelstein81.gif"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantis_shrimp",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared#Sensor_response_division_scheme",
"http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/basics/g17b/graphics/g17b_atmosabsorb.jpg"
] | [
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] |
is there an evolutionary basis for trolling? | first, define trolling. what the monkey was doing is called harassment, and it's to drive away undesirables. trolling as i define it is misrepresenting your self as a trap to get emotional responses from people. such as when a mentally challenged boy was disappointed upon opening a christmas present thinking it was a computer game, but discovering it was socks. a troll posted "he's going to hell because he doesn't know the true meaning of christmas". lots of christians... made a lot of indignant reply posts. but calling people names is not trolling. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
atmospheric escape: where would i end up? | what does an atmospheric escape mean? if i were a single atom of helium, escaping earth, where would i go? is there a pool of helium where it takes the least amount of energy to be, a sort of helium suburb? are helium and hydrogen the only chemicals which can escape within a human-livable period of time? | [atmospheric escape](_url_0_) space. the particles do not escape/collect because they have low energy, rather some particles have a higher energy than the average, and this may translate into sufficient kinetic energy for them to achieve escape velocity. in our atmosphere, they are the only elements that escape to a notable quantity in a human-lifespan, but even this is relative. the quantity is minor compared to the quantity that remains in the atmosphere. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape"
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is pinocytosis a form of osmotrophy, or are they distinct processes? | no. pinocytosis is a form of endocytosis, using vesicles to intake water rather than osmosis. osmosis is driven passively by a difference in concentration of solutes inside and outside of the cell. water will pass through the membrane in the direction that will equalize the concentrations inside and outside the cell: if the cell has a higher concentration than its surroundings, water will enter the cell, lowering the concentration. conversely water will exit the cell if the surroundings of the cell have a higher solute concentration than the inside. on the other hand, pinocytosis is an active process. a dimple is formed on the outside of the membrane that invaginates into the cell. the plasma membrane pinches off, forming a vesicle (bag) inside the cell. this vesicle contains water and anything else trapped in the plasma membrane as it was [pinched off into the vesicle.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinocytosis#mediaviewer/File:Pinocytosis.svg"
] | [
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|
why is "having the high ground" universally recognized as advantageous in combat? | - high ground offers an elevated vantage point with a wide field of view - soldiers fighting uphill will tire more quickly and will move more slowly - soldiers who are elevated above their enemies can get greater range out of low-speed projectiles like rocks, javelins, and grenades - projectiles will have less range when thrown uphill. - in more modern times steep/rocky terrain is difficult for tanks etc the only downside is being surrounded and cut off from supplies. source: _url_0_ | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_ground"
] | [
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how will it affect us economy if bill gates were to transfer all his money to some other country ? | the exact disposition of bill gates' personal wealth isn't information we can get our hands on, since he's a private citizen and it's none of our business. so instead let's make up a person with the same order of magnitude of wealth, imagine how he would store his wealth, and then answer the question based on that. so here's mr. john smith, with a net worth of $100 billion, making him very wealthy indeed. to keep things simple, let's assume he carries *no debt at all* (which is implausible in the extreme), so his net worth comes from just the sum total of the value of all his assets. what exactly are those assets? well, let's say that a *very small fraction* of that wealth is in cash. everybody needs to deal in cash transactions on a regular basis (paying for lunch, putting gas in the car and so on), so let's say that mr. smith has cash holdings with a value of … oh, let's say $100,000. just to pick a figure. that's the account he spends his money out of, to pay the electricity bill and such like that. where exactly is that money? if we imagine that it's sitting in *cash* — literal currency, like bills and coins — in a vault somewhere, we'll be quite wrong. mr. smith *could* store his cash assets that way, but he doesn't, because that's not a reasonable thing to do. instead he keeps his cash holdings in a bank account. in that form, his cash wealth (which remember, has a value of $100,000) exists as a *liability* on the books of his bank. basically, that means mr. smith goes to the first national bank of wherever and says "i will give you $100,000 if you promise i can come ask for it back whenever i want." the bank says sure, and takes his money, and in return gives him their promise that he can withdraw it at any time. that makes the bank *liable* to mr. smith for that money. if mr. smith wants to move that money overseas, it's no problem at all. he simply goes to the bank and asks for whatever cash they're liable to him for. the bank provides it in whatever form mr. smith prefers (currency, or more likely a bank check), and mr. smith goes about his merry way. the bank can do this because *banking regulations require* banks to be able to give their depositors the money they're owed whenever they're asked for it. so the bank will always be able to give mr. smith what he asks for. if the bank ever *can't* give mr. smith what he asks for (as well as all their other depositors), the bank will be *insolvent,* and a regulatory organization called the fdic will step in to conduct an orderly closure of the bank and transfer of its assets and liabilities to another institution. so all that is a very long-winded way of saying that if mr. smith wants to withdraw his cash and put it in another bank overseas, he will have no problem doing so, and there will be no effect of his doing so, because banks are regulated to make sure that's true. what about the rest of his assets? well, mr. smith keeps them, as any reasonable person would, in a diversified collection of various things of value. we can broadly divide that collection into two categories: things which are *easy* to sell, and things which are *hard* to sell. things that are easy to sell include shares of mutual funds or stocks, for example. those are things which a great many people want all the time, so if mr. smith decides to sell them, he'll have no trouble at all finding a buyer. let's imagine mr. smith owns 10,000 shares of a particular mutual fund. if he wants to, he can sell those shares at whatever the current market price is, then take the cash and deposit it in his overseas bank account. this will be very easy for mr. smith to do; it's just a phone call to his broker, who just has to put a sell order into his computer and then cut mr. smith a check for the profits. mr. smith then takes that money and sends it to his new overseas bank, where it gets credited to his account. that's generally true of all of mr. smith's *liquid* assets — that is, assets which are very easily converted into cash. he can sell them quickly and easily for pretty much their nominal value, and then take the cash from those sales and do whatever he wants with it. so now mr. smith has the $100,000 in cash he withdrew from a us bank and deposited into an overseas bank … and also some huge sum, in the billions of dollars, he had invested in securities which he liquidated and deposited in his overseas account. but what about the rest of mr. smith's assets? his home, his furniture, his car, all those things? these are called *illiquid assets*, which generally means they're hard to sell. in order to sell his house, mr. smith needs to find somebody who wants to buy it. that's not guaranteed to be an easy thing to do! in fact, mr. smith might be unable to find *any* buyer for his house without lowering his price to some small fraction of what his house is nominally worth. so either he can choose to sit on those illiquid assets until he finds a buyer for them, or he can sell them at a loss to get out quickly. since the premise of the question is that mr. smith wants to "transfer all his money to some other country," we'll assume that he wants out even if it costs him money. so we'll say he sells all his illiquid assets for pennies on the dollar. the result here is pretty obvious: mr. smith's net worth goes down! he converted assets with a certain nominal value to cash of *less* value, so he's worth less money in total. but the good news is now he has his cash, so he can send that to his new overseas bank as well and deposit it. now mr. smith has successfully moved all his money to "some other country." what's the net result on the us economy? essentially none. mr. smith's cash holdings were very small, and the bank had no problem covering their liability to him, so that doesn't have any effect. all his liquid assets — shares of stock, mutual funds, bonds and so on — were easy to sell, so other buyers snatched them up at fair market value and no significant change in wealth occurred there; assets just changed ownership. mr. smith sold off his *illiquid* assets at a loss, so he took a hit, but other parties got a bargain, so the net result there is pretty much nil as well. but of course, now mr. smith has a problem. see, all his money (less the losses he took from liquidating his holdings) is in *cash,* and that's not good. mr. smith now has to turn around and use his cash to *buy more assets,* so his money can earn him an income. in so doing, he ends up investing his money *right back into the same companies he was holding before,* because they're still the right choice for him. along the way, mr. smith has to cover certain fees incurred by selling and buying securities, so he loses some money, but the total overall net result on the economy is … well, absolutely none, really. assets changed hands, and a little wealth was created and a little wealth was destroyed, but no significant effects occurred … except for mr. smith having to do a heck of a lot of paperwork for no real reason. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the john tesh "intelligence for your life" radio show generally scientifically accurate? | it's been years since i've listened to his show, but i think it falls into the category of 'science in the media'. generally, scientific information is presented poorly in the popular media, either due to misunderstanding, the inevitable hyping, or generalization. there are generally caveats to every 'new' finding, something like a small sample size, or experimentation on model organisms (mice, etc.). for example, this is on his website: [1] the statement is a little far-reaching, particularly compared to the more moderated conclusions of an academic paper with a similar focus [2]. that being said, while it isn't entirely correct, it is not entirely incorrect either. the research does not say that it is better or worse to hold a baby on the left or the right, but simply that it happens - while the tesh quote makes it sound like the science says it is better to hold a baby on the left. the scientists are simply trying to explain a pattern, not find a 'best'. for tidbits like this, i'd generally take it the same way i would take medical advice from a non-doctor friend. probably somewhere in the 'somewhat-interesting-maybe-true-but-maybe-not' category. [1]_url_0_ [2] _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.tesh.com/topics/better-yourself-category/use-each-side-of-your-brain-to-your-advantage/cc/3/id/18251",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00318.x/full"
] | [
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|
the specific heat of water ... i'm told it's marvelous, why? | in each science class i've taken at least once a reference has been made in lecture to the high specific heat of water being the cause of lots of good things. why? and what are they? (specific processes in: body temperature, atmosphere, climate) | it's pretty high, meaning it is hard to change its temperature. that means hot water stays hot for longer than other liquids and cold water stays cold. this is awesome for keeping us warm as well as keeping the atmosphere at a fairly constant temperature. it also means we can use it to dissipate heat for instance in a car radiator. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i've always been told that liquid water in incompressable. is this true and if so, why? | if put under excessive pressure and/or gravity, can water compress any further (without fusion/fission occurring)? | it's half true. technically speaking, it is *not* true -- water is compressible. however, it resists compression so well that for the vast majority of applications, its compressibility can be completely neglected. for example, water at the bottom of the ocean is only about 2% denser than water at the surface of the ocean. keep in mind this is with *miles* of water above it, and water is very *heavy*. for comparison, your bones would be crushed before you got *anywhere* close to that depth. so unless you can generate *that* size of force to compress water, you won't have any significant deviations from "incompressible." **tl;dr: water is *technically* compressible, but *effectively* incompressible.** | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what will happen if a uti goes untreated? | will it kill you? will you suffer for a while and eventually get better? | first what is a urinary tract infection (uti). a uti is essentially just inflammation of the urinary lining in response to an infection. when detecting a uti we generally are looking for two things: bacteriuria (the presence of bacteria in the urine which generally does not have detectable bacteria) and pyuria (signs of inflammation). bacteriuria can be present without a uti. this occurs in colonization (having bacteria on the bladder lining). it is hard to look at your question using recent data because, most often, people are treated when diagnosed. there have been some studies looking at bacteriuria in women and have shown that it will go away without treatment in 60% of women within a month. in one series of 45 women left untreated, all but 2 were able to clear their bacteria by six months. interestingly, this same study found that treating with antibiotics did little to prevent the recurrence of utis. so, why treat? one is to provide expeditious symptomatic recovery. additionally, there are some bad outcomes that can result from a uti. one is pyelonephritis (infection of the kidney). generally, urine from the bladder does not go back to the kidney, so infection should not spread in most cases. a couple of conditions make it more likely to spread and as a result require more aggressive treatment. one is pregnancy, women with untreated bacteria in their urine have greatly increased rates of pyelonephritis. the other is vesico-ureteral reflux (vur), a condition in some children which results in the passage of urine from the bladder up to the kidney. another concern is sepsis. sepsis is an over-response to infection. older patients are much more at risk of this and are also more at risk of having bacteria from a urinary tract infection pass into their blood (bacteremia). a final concern is that chronic urinary tract infection may be a potential risk factor for bladder cancer, though this link is not well established in the general case. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in desi-ms where is the electric potential applied? | my lab is about to get a desi-ms system and i'm trying to understand how desi-ms works. aren't electrical potentials applied in relation to something, if so where is the other end of the potential applied in a desi system? for reference here is the patent: _url_0_ | the answer is in the patent (under "summary of invention") - the grounded counter-electrode is the ms inlet. this is the standard setup for electrospray ionization. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/patents/US7335897"
] | [] | [
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a mathy genotype-phenotype puzzle. | this will likely turn out to be a math question, but nonetheless, this subreddit seems the most appropriate place to ask it. biologists can talk about the "space of all possible genomes" (of a certain length, perhaps) created from strings of the typical alphabet {a,c,g,t}. dennett has called this the "library of mendel", which is who i was reading when this question occurred to me. each living organism possesses a genome from within that space, but (because of the [genotype/phenotype distinction](_url_0_)) a genome alone does not describe an organism. focusing on some arbitrary sexually reproducing organism, you could say that the information in the genome is "read" by the phenotype. to illustrate what i mean: a few nucleotides on a table won't become a bird, but those same nucleotides housed carefully in an egg will. and later on, that bird will take to laying similar eggs. in the book i'm reading (darwin's dangerous idea), dennett suggests a good way of thinking about this relationship: the reproductive system (or perhaps the whole phenotype) is a machine for copying the genome, which in turn provides instructions to another new phenotype. dennett seems to assume that some (probably most) genomes can't possibly have a corresponding phenotype that would reproduce them -- that the ones that do exist are special cases. my intuition is the opposite: information processing (and copying) is information processing. sure, some genomes might require very complicated, unprecedented phenotypes in order to be copied, but in principle, it's all the same thing, isn't it? finally, the question: is there any reason to think that there exist genomes for which a physically realizable copying machine (phenotype) in principle can't be built? any reason to think once can't in principle evolve? | i like this question. one thing to consider is that the machinery required for protein synthesis is also tooled via... protein synthesis. in order to stamp out a protein, you need a ribosome, which is a big complex of ribosomal proteins and rrna, all of which have to get transcribed in the first place. so a genome that doesn't code for that machinery is going to have a difficult time propagating itself, assuming that it can't access that machinery in some other way (see below). another counterexample: a single letter genome. the lower limit on a genome is astonishingly small (~2kbp in some [viruses](_url_0_)) but it's still positive. as the size of the genome decreases, the phenotype has to make up the slack. at some point, the phenotype would have to start carrying its own instructions for replication, and you're no longer talking about _the_ genome, but rather _a part of it_. in fact, this is effectively what you see with viruses: you can pare down the genome because a significant chunk of the instructions required to replicate a virus is _stored in another organism_. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotype-phenotype_distinction"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circoviridae"
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how would it feel to dive into a mafic lava flow? | how long would you live for? | mafic rocks, whether solid or liquid, have a density somewhere in the range of 2.6 - 3.3 g/cm^3 depending on compositional particulars, while the density of a human body is close to 1 g/cm^3 . furthermore, the top of such a flow is usually covered by an elastic crust of incandescent volcanic glass. so the first thing you have to realize is that diving in a mafic flow would be more like diving into the floor of a sand pit than diving in water: you'd probably hit pretty hard, depending on the total height of your fall, and you wouldn't sink at all. you'd sort of just sizzle and smoke on top of the slowly deforming flow. now the temperature; mafic flows are usually somewhere around 950° c or a bit higher. such temperatures are incompatible with life, thermal shock would be instantaneous. for comparisons sake, the pyroclastic flows and ash at the montagne pelée eruption, which killed several thousand people, were around 200° c (see: [baxter, p. j., neri, a., & todesco, m. (1998). physical modelling and human survival in pyroclastic flows. natural hazards, 17(2), 163-176.](_url_1_)). other studies showed that heat shock from a heat surge associated with a pyroclastic flow at around 250° c instantaneously killed most people in pompei, whether they were sheltered in buidings or not (see: [mastrolorenzo, g., petrone, p., pappalardo, l., & guarino, f. m. (2010). lethal thermal impact at periphery of pyroclastic surges: evidences at pompeii. plos one, 5(6), e11127.](_url_0_)). so, in a nutshell, jumping in a mafic flow would be a bit like falling to the floor of a quarry and instantaneously dying of heat shock, i suppose. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0011127",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Micol_Todesco/publication/226395675_Physical_Modelling_and_Human_Survival_in_Pyroclastic_Flows/links/54ad4dca0cf2828b29fc4422.pdf",
"hot.It",
"https://www.quora.com/How-would-it-feel-to-dive-into-a-mafic-lava-flow?share=1"
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what is plasma cosmology? | today i was introduced to "plasma cosmology" by a (seemingly) cranky redditor. this theory supposedly debunk the creationist myth (his words) known as big bang theory. could anyone kindly explain to me what that theory is? i know it's a crank theory, but i'm not knowledgeable enough to refute his [claims](_url_0_), namely > * no laboratory evidence supporting the doppler theory of redshift * that theory [expansion of space] is also totally stupid nonsense. plasma redshift explains redshifting fine without any need for expanding 'space' which is a completely non-tangible entity with no properties - space is not a thing. thanks in advance. | edit: sorry for the super long post, just wanted to be thorough in addressing that guy's two claims, because both are wrong. feel free to see the tl;dr at the bottom. i recall that this question has been asked here before with a similar situation and some different claims. the ultimate answer that was given was that plasma cosmology is, as you noted, a crank hypothesis that makes a lot of claims for which there is no observational evidence. i tried searching both r/askscience and r/sciencefaqs but was unable to find the thread i remembered. anyhow ... being unfamiliar with plasma cosmology i cannot attest to all of the claims that the theory makes. however, i can address this part of your question: the way space is modelled in physics (particularly, mathematical physics) does not make it a "completely non-tangible entity with no properties." it may not be tangible in the sense that you can reach out and touch it, but space most certainly does have properties, and you can mathematically construct different spaces with many different properties. mathematically speaking, a [space](_url_9_) is "a [set](_url_3_) with some added structure." a set is a collection of elements, and generally when talking about a space those elements are called "points." and generally the set is also an infinite set. this alone does not allow you to define very much about a space, hence the need for "additional structure." for example, without additional structure you cannot define distances between points. typically, spaces include a [metric](_url_7_) -- also known as a "distance function" -- that takes two points as arguments and assigns a proper distance between those two points. spaces with metrics are called [metric spaces](_url_7_). for example, if we imagine a 1-dimensional space, where the points are the real numbers **r**, we might have a very, very simple metric that looks something like this: *d(a, b) = |b - a|* so if we chose the points (5) and (7.3) and calculated the distance between them, we would get: *d(5, 7.3) = |7.3 - 5| = 2.3* (arbitrary units) we could of course also change the metric to add a scale factor, such as: *d(a, b) = 2.5 × |b - a|* and if we chose the same two points, (5) and (7.3), we would see that the distance is greater than with the non-scaled metric: *d(5, 7.3) = 2.5 × |7.3 - 5| = 5.75* (arbitrary units) this is overly simple of course, an actual metric is much, much more complicated and doesn't have a structure this simple, but this example captures the basic idea. things tend to naturally get more complicated when you have more dimensions. for example an equivalently simple metric for three dimensions might look something more like: *d(a, b) = | √( (b_x - a_x)^(2) + (b_y - a_y)^(2) + (b_z - a_z)^(2) )* and so on; these examples of course would only make sense for a euclidean space, but there are many different types of spaces, including [minkowski space](_url_5_) which has a time dimension in addition to the three of space, and there are all kinds of insanely weird spaces like [calabi-yau spaces](_url_4_) with folded-up dimensions and all of that jazz. and spaces can also have things such as topologies making them [topological spaces](_url_2_), and topological spaces which locally resemble euclidean spaces are called [manifolds](_url_0_) and there are a whole bunch of them, and so on. it gets very complex and since i don't understand it all myself i'm going to stop here. but my point is, in physics, "space" actually has many mathematical properties, it's not just "something that is nothing." the structure of space provides a substrate on which matter and interactions between matter can be defined, and different types of spaces yield different results in that regard. now, to bring it home ... with respect to the "expansion of space" being nonsense, it really isn't. the reason i explained about metrics above is so that i could easily point out that the expansion of space is actually a [metric expansion](_url_1_) -- meaning that the metric is *time-dependent*. there is a scale factor in the metric that changes depending on the temporal coordinate. this means, if you took two points in space, *a* and *b*, at some time *t*, and found they had some distance *ab* between them, and then later you took the distance again at some time *t'*, the distance *ab'* would be greater than *ab*. the space has "expanded" over time. any matter at these points would have gotten farther away from eachother without any local forces acting on that matter to push them away, because it is the distance itself that has increased. it's important to note that *no new points are being added* to the space, it's just that the notion of distance is larger at later times, by definition. this has consequences for physics, resulting in that phenomenon of cosmological redshift and laws such as [hubble's law](_url_8_). so yeah. the expansion of space is not "stupid nonsense," it's a very logical phenomenon, and the observational confirmation of metric expansion in our universe allows us to understand the *actual* structure of our spacetime, and limit which *mathematical* structures can accurately describe it. oh, and one last thing: there is plenty of laboratory evidence for this, and you experience it in your daily life whenever a car honks its horn while you pass. that of course is for sound waves, but it also applies to electromagnetic waves, and in fact [doppler radars](_url_6_) can detect the speeds of distant objects by measuring its em redshift. i'm fairly certain doppler radars didn't just magically drop down out of the sky for us to use, they had to be developed in a laboratory. so there is plenty of laboratory evidence for the doppler effect. **tl;dr: this guy is wrong, there is plenty of laboratory evidence for redshift due to the doppler effect, and he's dead wrong when he says space has no properties or structure. clearly he just doesn't understand how space is modelled mathematically -- so what kind of confidence can you have that he even knows anything about how "plasma cosmology" models space?** | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/atheism/comments/11h5cv/the_big_bang_theory/c6mmpa7"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_space",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_%28mathematics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi-yau_manifold",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_radar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_space",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%27s_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_%28mathematics%29"
] | [
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i saw on an episode of curious george that you can make a metal detector using a calculator and an a.m. radio. is this true and if so, why does this work? | my daughter was watching an episode of curious george and they made a metal detector by taping a calculator that was turned on to an a.m. radio that tuned to the highest frequency that was static and it functioned as a metal detector. does this really work and if so, why/how does this work? | a radio is basically a device for turning em waves into sound. when the calculator is on, the electronics will be producing electromagnetic waves as a matter of course (current flowing through a wire does this). modulating this em signal (disrupting it) by bringing it near a metal object (which, because it conducts electricity, will produce its own counteracting em field in response, which interacts with the em field from the calculator). will produce a shift in the local em field which you can hear as a frequency shift in sound through the radio. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do political beliefs tend to cluster in the same way in all countries? | in other words, is there always a correlation between, say, support for expanding welfare programs and environmental regulation, or do countries outside western europe and the anglosphere have entirely different political ideologies? | you'll find different nuances in belief throughout different countries (culture affects how you think), but generally there is a large majority of people who have similar beliefs to typical "western" beliefs. the media has a huge part in this as well. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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according to this video regarding how special relatively causes electromagnetism, what would happen if the "positively charged cat" were stationary and why? | [this] (_url_0_) video cleverly explains how special relativity plays a role in causing electromagnetism. ***actual explanation starts 1:07 however (and i can't confirm a reliable answer in the youtube comments alone) what would actually happen if the "positively charged cat" was stationary? would the cat then be attracted to the wire due to length contraction resulting in higher perceived density in negatively charged electrons? thanks in advanced! | suppose that in the proton frame the cat is stationary. in the proton frame, the electrons move at constant speed *v* to the right. now switch to the electron frame. the electrons are at rest, but both the protons and the cat move to the left at constant speed *v*. this should not be very mysterious at all. what the video is emphasizing is how each frame explains the movement of the cat. in the proton frame, the wire is electrically neutral, hence zero electric field **e**. there is current, however, so there is a non-zero magnetic field **b**. (it turns out that the magnetic field lines swirl around the wire in concentric circles, and the strength of the field decreases like 1/r, where r is the distance from the wire.) the lorentz force on a charged particle is in the proton frame, **e** = **0** and **u** = **0** since the cat is not moving initially. so there is no initial force on the cat. if the cat has initial speed of 0 and initial acceleration of 0, it never moves in this frame. the cat remains stationary. makes sense. in the electron frame, things are a bit different. first of all, the cat has a non-zero initial velocity **u**', and the magnetic field **b**' is still non-zero. so if that were the end of the story, the lorentz force on the cat would be purely magnetic and the cat would end up moving around in circles or some bizarre looking curved path. that is clearly not what should be happening. we know the cat should move at constant speed to the left. the correct explanation is that the electric field **e**' is *also* non-zero in the electron frame. the physical reason has to do with length contraction of the space between the protons and electrons, and so the wire is not electrically neutral in the electron frame. the video explains that phenomenon. it then turns out that **e**' and **b**' in the electron frame change in such a way and add together in the lorentz force law so that the cat, again, experiences zero net force in the electron frame. hence the cat must move at constant velocity, as we know it should. if you are interested in some of the detailed math, you can see [this response of mine](_url_0_). towards the end of that post, you should notice that the force on the cat (at t = 0) in the electron frame turns out to be in a radial direction. here, γ = lorentz factor, q = electric charge of cat, b = magnetic field strength in proton frame, u' = initial speed of cat in electron frame, v = relative speed of electron and proton frames. if the cat is stationary in the proton frame, then u' = v, and hence the force in the electron frame is 0, as expected. the cat just moves at constant velocity. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TKSfAkWWN0"
] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3no7yo/why_is_the_magnetic_field_generated_by_a_moving/cvpvdtz"
] | [
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is there such a thing as geometrical body that has the maximum area for a given volume? | in 3d space, a sphere is the geometrical body that has the minimum area for a given volume. is there such a thing as an...uh..anti-sphere? | the surface area to volume ratio can be arbitrarily large. thus no maximum exists. for example, look at the [menger sponge](_url_0_). you can easily show that the nth menger sponge has a higher surface area to volume ratio than the (n-1)th menger sponge. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger_sponge",
"http://library.fridoverweij.com/dictionary/dictionary.html",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio"
] | [
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should you keep moving or stand still in freezing water? | i just recently watched the titanic and it got me thinking about being in freezing water (around 4°c). should you try to be still and increase the temperature of the water around you or is it better to try and swim towards the nearest rescue boat? i'm guessing that your body isn't able to increase the surrounding water that much and it's therefore better to keep moving? any heat transfer experts want explain the pros and cons? | you should get the fuck out of the cold water. you are correct, that in still (or mostly still) water, you will lose less heat if you keep still. moving will on the other hand produce body heat. however, cold water will push you into hypothermia quickly mostly independent of how much you move which you generally won't be able to do for very long in any case. so it depends on what your goal is. if you see anywhere safe, you best move is to get there as quickly as possible. if you are hoping to be rescued at some point in the future and it is about maximising your survival time in the cold water, you should if possible curl into a ball and pray. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.boatsafe.com/nauticalknowhow/hypothermia.htm"
] | [
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how did that top post of molten metal solidifying instantly at contact happen? | i'm referring to _url_0_ i was wondering how that happened? why? | newton's law of cooling will tell you that the rate of change of temperature of a body(i.e how fast something cools) is directly proportional to the difference between the temperature of the body and its surroundings. so, in this case, the metal probably has a very high melting point, so the molten metal is _very_ hot. the difference of temperatures is so huge that the metal very quickly cools down and almost instantly solidifies. | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/bSPi5tC.jpg"
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how does taking echinacea help you fight off sickness? | although echinacea may have some immune stimulating effects, the evidence to date does not support its efficacy in treating or preventing the common cold. echinacea appears to be relatively safe, although gastrointestinal side effects and allergic reactions have been reported. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is semen a non-newtonian fluid? | this is a serious question, albeit a gross one. this is one time that i figured i should ask and suspend the scientific adventurer in me. | **a review of the physical and chemical properties of human semen and the formulation of a semen simulant** _url_0_ ... there are a ton more variables mentioned and measurments obtained. go at it. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.andrologyjournal.org/cgi/content/full/26/4/459"
] | [
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how to avoid test anxiety? | i saw a recent [thread](_url_0_) that got me thinking. how do you personally, or in theory could you force yourself to maintain optimal concentration? | to some extent, test anxiety is adaptive. it causes you to be alert and focus on the goal at hand. once test anxiety prevents you from actually performing on the test, however, it becomes maladaptive. so there's a balance to be had. in terms of "forcing optimal concentration," there are some small tricks from learning theory that help. one involves studying in the same place where you will take the test. so, for example, sit in the same seat in the classroom where you normally sit on test day, and if possible, do some active studying in that room/seat. the physical cues around you will help trigger your memory. if test anxiety is a problem, you should take steps to reduce the level of anxiety that you would with any other anxiety. that would be a) practicing mindfulness: being aware that an increased heartrate, sweating, stomachaches, and other physical symptoms of anxiety are attributable to nervousness about the test, and "talking yourself down" from it (e.g., "okay, my palms are sweating like crazy, it is just because i am nervous about this test, but i know i have studied and prepared as best as i can, and so i will concentrate on what i can do and know in the moment"). b) exposing yourself to test conditions as much as possible beforehand to habituate yourself to the cues that cause nervousness. this could involve studying time in the classroom, as mentioned above, or writing out "practice tests" that mimic real tests, practicing good study habits to reduce anxiety (studying ahead of time, getting rest, eating a good meal). | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/LifeProTips/comments/2ywfrd/lpt_due_to_test_anxiety_if_you_dont_understand/?sort=top"
] | [] | [
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my washing machine spins at 1200rpm, what sort of g force is it excreting on my clothes at that speed? also, is there a spin speed which just exerts 1g on the clothes, so is no better than them just staying still? thanks. | oh god you said "excreting" ahhaahhaaha like your washing machine is just shitting g-forces, that's hilarious. so assume your washer has a 0.5 m diameter chamber, so r=0.25 m. your centripetal acceleration is a = w^2 r where *w* is your angular velocity, which is 1200 rpm = 125.7 rad/s. therefore, a=3950 m/s^2 = 403 gs (that can't be right, that's fucking huge. someone check my arithmetic please?). do notice this is highly dependent on the radius of the chamber- a difference of a few centimeters can account for tens of gs in the final calculation. onto the second part of your question- when do we get 1 g of force on the clothes. when the machine is not rotating, your clothes experience 1 g (downward, obviously). spinning it will add a centripetal acceleration, which can only increase the net acceleration. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
quantaum teleportation and how it works? | i have read a couple things about it and the most recent was from a chapter in "beyond our future in space" by chris impey. he probably did a great job explaining it but the only i got out of it is that an object from one place can be broken down to particles and teleport to another place where the particles will be put back together. it seemed very weird. | that doesn't sound right to me. let me try to explain the textbook quantum teleportation technique (the actual experiments probably differ from this). first, we come up with an "entangled state" of two electrons, and give one to alice and one to bob. this state satisfies the property that neither alice nor bob can know whether their electron will be spin up or down when they measure the spin, and they both have a 1/2 chance of measuring up or down, but with 100% certainty they will always measure opposite values for the spin. this correlation between their measurements is the entanglement. now for the fun part. let's say alice has some other electron (it's spin state can either be up or down, or some superposition of the two). now, there's no way for alice to find out the complete state of the third electron, because once she makes a single measurement, the quantum state collapses and she can't measure any other properties to find the exact superposition it's in. however, by interacting the new electron with her entangled electron in a certain way, and by bob interacting with his electron in a certain way based on how alice measured her electron, *bob can turn his entangled electron into alice's qubit*. this is pretty incredible - it's impossible to fully determine the exact quantum state of the third electron (since measurement destroys some information), but you can completely send all of its information to a far away place by using an entangled pair. of course, once bob has the electron, he also cannot make any measurements fully determining the state either. note that when i said alice communicated results of measurements to bob, it is done classically, at subluminal speeds. the qubit cannot be teleported faster than light. also, bob's electron becomes the qubit, there was no teleportation of matter in the star trek sense. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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imaginary powers | if someone doesn't mind answering, i was wondering, what happens when you put a number up to i, for example 2^i,what happens, wolfram gives an answer, but i just dont understand how it happens, thanks, sorry for the weird way i asked | you just have to expand your definitions. the basic definition of p to the exponent n as repeated multiplication of p nth times is fine and dandy but it's only possible for integer n. to extend it to n and p real or complex, you have to use the exponential and logarithms function. for each real number it's easy to define exponential and logarithms functions as inverse of each other, with exponential function being the function that when derivated gives itself. another equally valid way to define the exponential function is to do the sum of x^(n)/n! , with n integer from 1 to infinity. and we see how that is easily applied to a complex value x. so know we know how to do exponential of a complex number, pretty cool. so, we can define exp(z), how now to define x^z ? with x a real. in your example you put x=2 and z=i. for that we define x^z as exp(z\*log(x)). et voilà, to calculate 2^i, first you calculate z\*log(x), which is i\*log(2), a complex number, then you take its exponent by calculating the sum of x^(n) /n! . in this simple case (use the euler's formula), then 2^i is exp(i\*log(2)) is cos(log(2)) + i\*sin(log(2)) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_formula"
] | [
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under the same temperature, will brownian movements take a random particle further away from its starting point in low pressure/high volume or the opposite conditions (or neither...)? | so here's the situation: two balloons, same amount of the same gas, in perfect-gas-conditions. one balloon is under significant more atmospheric pressure than the other, but with the same room temperature. if we tracked a given particle inside each of the balloons, would it cover significantly less space in one case than in the other? or would pressure difference compensate difference in volume (available space)? | the rms displacement of the gas molecules is proportional to the diffusion coefficient d. in the most simple model, the diffusion coefficient is proportional to temperature, but doesn’t depend explicitly on pressure. but for a real gas, d could in general depend on both. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain how the marching cubes algorithm works | i have looked around and i cannot seem to find a good explanation for how the marching cubes algorithm works. any help would be appreciated. | the marching cubes algorithm is for when you have a three-dimensional data set and you want to find the "boundaries" between regions of this set. imagine you are a doctor examining a ct scan of a patient's head, like in [this](_url_0_) video. the machine is going to give you a data set showing the density (approximately) of the tissue within a three-dimensional volume. let's say this volume is a cube, subdivided into some number of smaller cubes in a regular grid. each one of these small cubes is called a voxel (volumetric pixel) and has a single density value associated with it. now it's not too hard to visualize the whole set by cutting two-dimensional slices through it and examining those (first part of the video), this is a good way of visualizing the internal structures. but it's not too intuitive. it would be great if you could visualize a certain structure in 3d by somehow "peeling away" all the outer bits that obscure your view of it. you can do this by only visualizing pixels whose values fall within a certain range. at around 20s into the video, you can see them showing only the skull by removing all the points below a certain density (they show what happens as you vary this threshold value as well). now we have a simple binary relation in our data, each voxel is either "in" or "out." they define a three-dimensional shape by telling us which regions are solid and which ones are empty. the problem is that this is not the type of data set that computer graphics can work with directly. really, computers can only draw triangles. for an object to be drawn, it first needs to be defined in terms of an interconnected set of triangles called a *mesh*. note that while the object may encompass a three-dimensional volume, the mesh is just a two-dimensional surface. what the marching cubes algorithm does is give us a mesh representing the surface that divides the inside of an object from the outside. to do this, we again break down the volume into a number of cubes, where each of the eight corners of the cube is at the center of a voxel. we are going to draw a certain arrangement of triangles based on what combination of corner types we have. since there are 8 corners and each one can be either empty or filled, there are 2^8 = 256 types of cubes we need to account for. two of these (all eight corners the same) are either entirely outside or entirely within the object, so they aren't part of the boundary surface and don't need to be dealt with. it turns out that if you account for symmetries (geometric ones like rotations and reflections, as well as inversion between inside and outside) the remaining 254 can be reduced to just 15 distinct cases. if we make triangles [like this](_url_1_) for each of these types of cubes, then they will all fit together into a nice continuous mesh with no holes or gaps that can be drawn by a computer. that's it really, it just resolves the surface by breaking it down into combinations of a small number of known cases. talsemguy touches on using octrees to store and render the data more efficiently, but that doesn't directly have anything to do with the marching cubes algorithm. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6nAW1oVUouo&feature=related",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/MarchingCubes.svg",
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is there any substance that burns more easily at lower tempratures than at higher ones? | i feel like there shouldn't be. and to clarify, i am not thinking something that will transition or react to become something else that is more flammable when cold, but a substance with the exact same chemical composition that burns better at lower tempratures. | there actually are many common fuels - in fact gasoline is one of them - that burn more easily at lower temperatures than higher temperatures, but we have to be a bit more precise about what we mean by "burns more easily" and "low temperatures". in combustions science, we characterize how easily a mixture burns at a given temperature using the *ignition delay time*. basically the idea is that you mix your fuel with air, then you heat it up to the desired temperature, then you wait until it spontaneously combusts. short delay times between when you reach the desired temperature and when the mixture combusts (indicated usually by a large rapid increase in temperature or pressure in your container) indicates that the mixture burns more easily. for a simple fuel like hydrogen, if the mixture starts out at 300k (room temp) combustion will essentially never be initiated and the ignition delay time is infinite. if you heat the mixture up to 700k or so, then it will ignite in a few milliseconds. as you go to higher and higher temperatures, the ignition delay time always decreases. this is the trend you would expect - your fuel burns more easily at higher temperatures. the interesting situation where this becomes relevant to your question is for large hydrocarbon fuels like gasoline. for these fuels, at 300k again the fuel will never ignite. around 600k ignition takes a ~1 millisecond. around 1000k ignition takes maybe 10 milliseconds. then at temperatures greater than 1000k ignition rapidly speeds up and can take less than 1 millisecond. so we see at "low" temperatures (700k, warmer than temperature of your oven) the fuel is more reactive than at mid-range temperatures (1000k), but not as reactive as at high temperatures (1300-2000k). this phenomenon is known in combustion as low temperature chemistry and is actually of critical importance in every day life - [engine knock](_url_0_) in gasoline automobile engines is caused when the fuel in the engine ignites before the spark plug goes off due to low temperature chemistry. therefore, we actually want to burn gasoline that minimizes the importance of low temperature chemistry, which is why gas used to be leaded and is now diluted slightly with ethanol. i haven't yet mentioned the cause of this interesting behavior where cooler mixtures burn more rapidly than warmer ones because it is actually quite complicated. in short, there are two different chemical reaction pathways by combustion can occur. one is only possible for large fuel molecules and occurs between 600-900k. the other is possible for all fuels (and is typically the dominant pathway) but requires higher temperatures of > 1000k. in between, reaction is slower because neither pathway is at its maximum. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_knocking"
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] |
is everything on earth really related? | is it proven or at least widely accepted that everything evolved from an original single organism, or did multiple different organisms form in the primordial soup with some evolving into separate "trees" of life? is this even something that would be possible to really prove? | everything shares a genetic code. everything builds with left-handed amino acids and eats right-handed sugars. the fact that everything shares common building blocks is strong circumstantial evidence that everything alive today is related. whether there were other competing ways of doing things is unknowable. mad cow disease is the nearest thing to an exception to our relatedness. it is a misfolded brain protein that causes other proteins like it to misfold in the same way. it is a self-replicating thing (it is not technically alive because it has no metabolism of its own), and it is made from parts that were not already self-replicating by themselves (but came from a self-replicating thing, by which i mean any mammal), and the fatal misfold can happen spontaneously. it is not really part of the tree of life, but it is not really alive either even though it has some life-like characteristics. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the food, medicine, drink that we take go to specific parts of our system? | examples like, when eating food. how does the food that we take distribute specific nutrients to specific parts of our system? when we take our vitamins, how do the vitamins get properly distributed to certain parts of the system like if the vitamins is specialised in nourishing bones, eyesight, hair growth, skin nourishment, or even viagra? it just blows my mind on how all the different substances we take end up doing what it's supposed to do, whether its for remedy or nourishment. | for the most part, they don't get *properly* distributed, they just get distributed. how or whether a cell in that tissue uses any particular molecule in the interstitial fluid is up to that cell. that said, things aren't evenly distributed, since certain organs and tissues get more blood flow than others, so that can have an effect on biodistribution. also, hydrophobicity of a molecule, charge, and size all play a role in what biological compartments a molecule ends up in. for example, some molecules are more likely to stick to serum proteins like albumin and get filtered out by the liver, while others are more likely to get filtered out by the kidneys. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
reddit, could you help me develop a curriculum for myself? | i'll just jump right into it. i have always had a strong interest in physics/astronomy/cosmology, etc. i originally went to school as a physics major with the hope of eventually having a career in research/theoretical physics or a related field. as reality sunk in, i realized i was buried under a mountain of student loan debt and that the career path i was on wouldn't have me actually making money until the phd level. this just wasn't practical for me and i decided to switch to a field that would be lucrative straight out of undergrad. however, i have not lost my interest in the field and would really like to develop a curriculum for myself so that i may pursue my interest in the field during my free time. i want to give myself a solid foundation in physics/mathematics/chemistry (unfortunately necessary, i'd imagine) and develop a curriculum that would eventually lead me to studying advanced physics (i.e. quantum mechanics, string theory, etc.) and cosmology. basically, i'd like to leverage your experience studying the subject in school, at university and thereafter to come up with a legitimate plan to teach myself these subjects. i'd like to find the best textbooks/other course material to purchase (if not available freely) and develop a realistic sequence in which to study the various topics to eventually bring me to my end goal of some of the more relevant and cutting edge theories being developed today. i realize this may seem ambitious or these topics may be hard to teach oneself without assistance, but i'm willing to put in the work and time to give it my best shot. i started the pursuit of these topics in my freshman year in an honors program at a major univeristy, so i do have a solid foundation in entry level physics, chemistry and calculus off which i can build, if that helps. | physics, not necessarily in order, with textbook recommendations. basic physics-giancolli "modern" physics-serway thermodynamics and statistical mechanics-schroeder electromagnetism-jackson mathematical methods-boas advanced mechanics-goldstein wave mechanics-eisberg quantum mechanics-griffiths and then if you want to specialize: solid state physics-kittel general relativity-hartle fluid mechanics-cimbala? squishy physics-jones and when you're ready: quantum field theory-peskin & shroeder string theory-zweibach | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/books.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_susskind#Lectures",
"http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~hooft101/theorist.html",
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/",
"http://www.amazon.com/Street-Fighting-Mathematics-Educated-Guessing-Opportunistic/dp/026251429X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1314836223&sr=8-1",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4CdbBHzw8yQ",
"http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Modern-Astrophysics-Bradley-Carroll/dp/0201547309"
] | [
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what would happen if i hit something in time? | obviously, this is sort of a hypothetical question, but i just got this crazy idea. when most people talk about the universe, they're talking 4 dimensional: length, height, width, and that stupid one, time. now, if i'm moving really fast lengthwise, and hit something that's not moving, i'll get knocked away, jostled a bit atleast, maybe even break a couple bones. but what would happen, as i'm making my merry, uncontrollable way into the future, if i somehow hit something that wasn't moving in time? | i would check out the article on [minkowski space](_url_0_) for the subtleties, but generally speaking, objects don't "not move" in time. it is my understanding that objects do not "cease to move" in time. an object can exist at one point in time and not another, or it can *not be changing* with respect to time. in these cases, running into an object that is not changing in time is like running into one that is not moving in space. if you get a chance, though, ask this question to r/trees. i suspect you'll get some really fascinating speculation. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"
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why do some forces decrease at a rate not proportional to 1/r^2? | such as the strong force or the negative electric force acting on a neutral object. it seems as if all forces should be proportional to the inverse of area since they should be proportional to the area of the sphere carved out by the radius. | your question probably stems from a common but incorrect explanation you have been given in the past. as is well known, the area of a sphere grows as r^(2), where r is the radius. this is a geometrical property of three-dimensional euclidean space. consequently, if you have some conserved quantity spreading out over increasing radii, you will see it spread out over a surface area that grows as r^(2), and so its density will go as 1/r^(2). thus, for example, the intensity of the light from a point source that goes out equally in all directions will decrease as 1/r^(2). (intensity is proportional to the energy.) the classical 1/r^(2) behavior of the coulomb force law, however, does not arise from this geometrical fact. it arises from the physical properties of the force carriers. in particular, if the force carrier is massless, the corresponding classical fundamental force goes as 1/r^(2). if you're familiar with gauss's law in electromagnetism, you can understand it as the statement that this physical scaling coincides with the geometrical scaling. (thus, the form of newton's gravitational force law is an indication that the prospective graviton, if it exists, is massless.) but this makes it clear that there are other ways a force can behave. for example, if the force carrier is massive, the force will drop off exponentially. the w and z bosons are massive, and so the weak force drops off exponentially with distance. even if the force carrier is massless, quantum mechanics tells us that there are modifications to the 1/r^(2) form, and depending on the relative importance of quantum effects, these modifications can be quite dramatic; the strong force, for example, once the separation between particles gets to be about 10^(-15) meters, stays essentially constant as the separation increases further. and, of course, there are non-fundamental forces that arise from (potentially complicated) interactions of other objects -- the tension in ropes, friction between two surfaces, or, at a simpler level, the net electric force between objects that are not point charges. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there no solution to the 3-body problem? | i'm an undergrad physics major who's currently taking a differential equations class, and i was wondering why we can explicitly solve for 2, but systems with three and more bodies are unsolvable (in most cases, as it seems that systems with certain symmetries to be exploited can be solved.) | [there is a solution](_url_0_), it's just not a very useful one. sundman's solution is a really slowly converging power series, and it converges so slowly that it just makes more sense to integrate the orbits numerically. there are also simplified solutions in special cases, like lagrange points. | 30 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.02312.pdf"
] | [
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is there a magnetic field surrounding electric pole wires and if so, does it have any significant affect? | i was leaving the gym last night and it was pretty quiet and all i could hear was the crackling sound of electricity passing through wires of the electric poles. this made me remember something i learned about in physics about how electric currents create a force field (or magnetic field...same thing?) around the wire where current is flowing. does this mean that there is a force field surrounding the electric pole wires? if this force field exists, how strong is it and are there any implications or precautions taken because of this? | yes, military land navigation courses teach to stay 50 meters away power lines so as to not throw your compass off. any wire with electrons moving in it will have some sort of magnetic field around it. even your car has a magnetic field, although much much less than a power line and that is much much less than the earth. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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low interest rates world wide during the 'credit crisis'... how does that make sense? | simple supply and demand would mean that during a credit crisis (shortage of supply in credit) the price of credit (interest rates) would go up. yet from 2008 onwards interest rates world wide were extremely low. how can there be a credit crisis when interest rates are so low? sure it was intervention from central banks that drove interest rates down. but why wasn't the wider economy able to use this cheap credit to get it out of the 'credit crisis'? seems to me to be a contradiction. what am i missing? | 1) there is a multitude of interest rates. the central bank-set rate does not automatically translate into lower rates for companies; indeed, if you look at indicators of this kind of spreads you will find that they skyrocketed during the critical days of the 2008 financial crisis. 2) shortages of credit do not always manifest in terms of rising interest rates but in terms of reduced lending (credit rationing). the most famous paper on this field is the one by [stiglitz](_url_0_) but there is a large body of literature since then. 3) as people expect to get into recession, companies reduce investment and this also reduces demand for credit. 4) in the macroeconomic sense (central bank-set interest rate), do not confuse a "low" numerical value of the interest rate with "cheap credit". high interest rates can still be low in relative terms (1970's stagflation) and low interest rates can still be high (arguably today). low/high rates are always relative to the macroeconomic state. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://socsci2.ucsd.edu/~aronatas/project/academic/Stiglitz%20credit.pdf"
] | [
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is a w boson created as a result of an increase of energy? | so i know that in beta decay, a w boson is released, but its mass is much greater than the hadron itself. is it created as a result of an increase in energy that creates the w boson? | the energy of the initial and final states in beta decay, as in other processes, have the same energy. the w boson that appeas as an intermediate particle in the standard desecription of the process is a so-called virtual particle. in particle physics, our calculational scheme known as perturbation theory tells us that we can calculate what happens using intermediate states known as virtual particles which have the energy, momentum, and other conserved quantities you'd expect; but this also means they have the 'wrong' mass. we say they are *off mass-shell*. these virtual particle that appear in calculations are never actually observed. any w boson you actually detect will have the expected mass of 80.4 gev/c^(2), or just under 86 proton masses. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we magnify things a billion times -- what's the limiting factor? | the resolution is the limiting factor. if you think of a digital image; it's made up of pixels. normally the pixels are so small you don't notice them even if you magnify the image a bit. but, eventually, the pixels become visible and the image becomes blurry. it's the same with microscopes. they work by passing light through objects and seeing how the light is absorbed, but if the objects in question are smaller than the wavelength of the light, the light just passes over them. so, you can zoom in up to that level, but if you try to go further, you just get a blurry mess. resolution can be improved by using shorter wavelength light, or even electrons (since electrons exhibit wave properties, as per quantum mechanics); this is how transmission electron microscopes work. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do decomposers become more aggressive in the spring? | if dead animals/plants are thawing out as spring arrives, would this create an abundance of food for decomposers and would they become more aggressive to take advantage of it? | in one study they found that the specific saprotroph was affected by seasonal temperature and precipitation, so in some sense, yes, but more specifically it will be in terms of precipitation and yearly temperature trends, as well as the type of saprotroph. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://andrewsforest.oregonstate.edu/pubs/pdf/pub2800.pdf"
] | [
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at what point is a pet to low of intelligence to bond with its owner? | just a clarification that pet birds are not of low intelligence at all. despite the phrase "bird brains" scientists are beginning to learn that many birds are actually quite intelligent. corvids (crows and ravens) can use tools, for instance, and parrots are often quoted as being as intelligent as a 4-6 year old child (depending on whom you ask and what parameters used). birds certainly seem to bond with their owners (which i'm defining as recognizing the owner, soliciting attention, and acting distressed when the owners leave), unless you have several, in which case they may bond more closely with each other than with you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the math behind the microgravity on the iss? | i've read that the reason astronauts are weightless on the iss is because the centrifugal force is equal to gravity. can anyone do the math to back this up? | 1.set coordinate system to earth 2.idealize the iss as a point mass, neglect friction and gravitational influences of other planets, approximate that the orbit of the mass is a perfect circle around earth 3.the tangential speed of the mass is kinematically preset 4.cut the mass free and draw in all forces (d'alembert's principle) 5.gravitationforce points to earth, fictitious force points exactly the opposite way 6.set up the dynamic equilibrium f_g - ma = 0 7.f_g is the gravitaional force f_g = g*(m1*m2)/r² 8.rearrange "ma" with the centripetal force formula, ma = mw²r , while w is the angular velocity 9.this equation must be correct to achieve microgravity g*m1 = w²r³ or g*m1 = v²r g: gravitationconstant, m1: mass of earth, r: gap between mass and middlepoint of earth, v: tangential speed, w: angular speed edit:typos, oh and btw, centrifugal force is not a real force, its actually the fictitious force | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the relativistic adiabatic index 4/3? | i was told that in the relativistic limit the adiabatic index approaches 4/3 for a monoatomic gas instead of 5/3 in the non\-relativistic case. i was told this occurs due to a reduction in degree of freedom but this may be incomplete and does not quite explain the new expression since adiabatic index = \(n \+ 2\)/n where n is the # of degrees of freedom. thus i am wondering both quantitatively and qualitatively, why does the adiabatic index decrease, and to 4/3 specifically, in the relativistic regime for a monoatomic gas? | the formula for adiabatic index in terms of number of degrees of freedom relies on the assumption that the energy is quadratic in the variable associated to the degree of freedom. this works well for non-relativistic gasses because all the commonly encountered degrees of freedom are decently approximated by quadratic kinetic/potential energy terms. i believe you can derive the adiabatic index from equipartition theorem directly. for general power laws, the equipartition theorem predicts that the average amount of energy in a given degree of freedom is inversely proportional to the exponent in the energy term. [at high momentum the relativistic kinetic energy term is approximately linear in momentum, so you expect each kinetic degree of freedom to behave as if it were two ordinary quadratic degrees of freedom,](_url_0_) hence a monatomic gas in the relativistic regime looks as if it has 6 quadratic degrees of freedom and you get an adiabatic index of 4/3. i'm not sure whether or not that counts as a qualitative explanation, but i'm also not sure what a qualitative explanation would be. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equipartition_theorem#Extreme_relativistic_ideal_gases"
] | [
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what are the physical implications of maxwell’s relations (of thermodynamics)? | [for example](_url_0_), the one derived from enthalpy: (∂t/∂p)_s = (∂v/∂s)_p the answer i’m looking for is not “the rate of change in temperature respective to pressure at constant entropy is equal to the rate in change of volume wrt entropy at constant pressure”. this i already know. what i’m trying to understand is more so the physical implications of these equations. for example, the constant pressure heat capacity cp is defined similarly through a partial derivative as (∂h/∂t)_p. what this directly represents is the change in heat respective to the change in temperature while holding pressure constant, however in a gas it is much more significant when understood in terms of intermolecular interactions; complex gas molecules can absorb some of the incoming energy through their vibrational states/bonds/etc, which therefore lessens the change in temperature due because not all of the incoming energy goes to influencing δt. i am primarily trying to understand this in terms of gases, as the course i’m taking is physical chemistry rather than thermo, and so the vast majority of what we’ve been discussing involves gases. however, any interpretation would help greatly. | they allow you to express quantities that are difficult or impossible to measure in terms of ones that aren’t, namely, the molar heat capacity, coefficient of thermal expansion, and isothermal compressibility. they follow from the definition of the four thermodynamic functions and the mathematical requirement that the mixed partial second derivatives of continuous functions be equal. apart from their usefulness and the fact that they aren’t intuitive, i don’t know that they really “mean” anything in an analytic sense. when you define arbitrary functions in the form of the four thermodynamic functions that constrain the behavior of a system, you’d have the same equivalences with whatever arbitrary variables you chose. | 3 | [] | [
"http://chem331001fall09.pbworks.com/f/1256155658/RUA%20Lecture%2010%20Maxwell.jpg"
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what happens to water when it gets down so far? | when rivers erode the rock beneath them they move downwards, obviously. i was wondering when does this stop, surely they will erode any rock in time. | given enough time, rivers will erode down to the level of their mouths (generally sea level, unless they empty into an inland lake). when the entire length of the river erodes down to that level, there's no gravitational energy to erode further since the water isn't falling downhill; the river essentially becomes an inlet of the ocean. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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askscience panel of scientists xiv | **please read this entire post carefully and format your application appropriately.** this post is for new panelist recruitment! the previous one is [here](/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/). the panel is an informal group of redditors who are **either professional scientists or those in training to become so**. all panelists have at least a graduate-level familiarity within their declared field of expertise and answer questions from related areas of study. a panelist's expertise is summarized in a color-coded askscience flair. membership in the panel comes with access to a panelist subreddit. it is a place for panelists to interact with each other, voice concerns to the moderators, and where the moderators make announcements to the whole panel. it's a good place to network with people who share your interests! --- **you are eligible to join the panel if you:** * are studying for at least an msc. or equivalent degree in the sciences, and, * are able to communicate your knowledge of your field at a level accessible to various audiences. ------------------ **instructions for formatting your panelist application:** * choose exactly one general field from the side-bar (physics, engineering, social sciences, etc.). * state your specific field in one word or phrase (neuropathology, quantum chemistry, etc.) * succinctly describe your particular area of research in a few words (carbon nanotube dielectric properties, myelin sheath degradation in parkinsons patients, etc.) * give us a brief synopsis of your education: are you a research scientist for three decades, or a first-year ph.d. student? * provide links to comments you've made in askscience which you feel are indicative of your scholarship. applications will not be approved without several comments made in /r/askscience itself. ----------------- ideally, these comments should clearly indicate your fluency in the fundamentals of your discipline as well as your expertise. we favor comments that contain citations so we can assess its correctness without specific domain knowledge. here's an example application: username: /u/foretopsail general field: anthropology specific field: maritime archaeology particular areas of research include historical archaeology, archaeometry, and ship construction. education: ma in archaeology, researcher for several years. comments: 1, 2, 3, 4. please do not give us personally identifiable information and please follow the template. we're not going to do real-life background checks - we're just asking for reddit's best behavior. however, several moderators are tasked with monitoring panelist activity, and your credentials will be checked against the academic content of your posts on a continuing basis. you can submit your application by replying to this post. | username: /u/nuclear_physicist general field: nuclear physics specific field: experimental nuclear physics particular areas of research include resonant laser ionization spectroscopy, beta-delayed fission and nuclear structure physics education: bsc physics, msc physics, finishing third year of phd research comments:[1](_url_0_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
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"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4qbr32/what_are_bell_states_and_what_do_they_have_to_do/d4squpy",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4ornev/can_the_wavefunction_of_a_particle_be_considered/d4f7c1c",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4qbr32/what_are_bell_states_and_what_do_they_have_to_do/d4srbfo",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4npkr7/quantum_mechanics_how_does_the_true_randomness/d4csd0f",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/43jfo0/why_do_flashing_lights_cause_seizures/czj883v",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/43l2d4/why_are_we_more_sensitive_to_movement_nearer_the/czj8i2k",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/43l7v3/how_does_nutrition_effect_the_cognitive/czj8opi",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/43erih/how_much_of_a_risk_is_viral_infection_during/czj9euh",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3yz9mk/hypothetically_can_period_8_have_a_further_sub/cyi6ejn",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3zs0p7/what_makes_octaves_in_music_sound_similar/cyp7evx",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3zr68i/do_electromagnets_generate_x_rays/cyp7zth",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/40nwxl/if_gravity_works_by_warping_space_why_doesnt/cywmnf8",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3yhruk/how_long_does_the_universe_have_left/cyh8dt5",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4108d3/could_life_exist_in_the_moon_of_a_giant_gas/cyz1b3w",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4234fq/does_special_relativity_preclude_multiple_time/cz7muqh",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4m2qym/is_there_such_a_thing_as_cosmic_ray_panel_research/d3sbqp7",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4nmj0l/does_time_in_geostationary_satellites_always_run/d45adax",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4oh0b3/why_does_this_twophoton_system_have_mass/d4ds9eq",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2tf3p3/is_it_possible_to_containstore_light/cnynwe0",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3xe4gn/if_we_could_theoretically_break_the_speed_of/cy3y7jf"
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if the ultimate tensile strength of steel is 58,000 psi, does that mean it would compress in a water bath at 90,000 psi? | well tensile strength and compressive strength are two very different things. the tensile strength deals with if you were trying to pull it apart (like pulling on two ends of a steel beam). compressive strength deals with compressing the steel either on a certain side or completely around the steel. compressing in a certain direction would deform the steel in a manner that deals with poisson's ratio. if you had micro fractures in your steel and compressed it in a bath at 90,000 psi, those fractures may begin to extend. once they do begin to extend, the steel will fail and fracture. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about cardiac muscle cells. your response would be highly appreciated! | hi. i would be really glad, if you could help me with below questions. **1.** i was reading on one website, about sympathetic nerve fibers, which innervates the heart. it is written, that those sympathetic nerve fibers terminates(ends) on heart in **three locations**: sa node, av node, cardiac muscle cells. i undertand what effect sympathetic nerve fibers have on sa and av node. as we know these two nodes are responsible for setting up heart rhytm(contraction of the heart), by generating electrical impulses. therefore sympathetic nerve fibers effect on this two nodes is, that they increase the contraction of heart(increase heart rate). **q: what i dont understand is, what effect sympathetic nerve fibers have on cardiac muscle cells(since fibers according to website, also terminate/ends there)?** **2.** on many websites it is written, that cardiac muscle(and their cells) **dont need** any neural/electrical impulse for contraction. in other words cardiac muscle(cells) are myogenic(which means cells contract on its own, so they dont require any neural/electrical stimulation as i said before). however then i found one website, which **contradicts** above statement, which is made on many websites(that all cardiac muscle cells dont need any neural impulse for contraction). this website claims, that only some of cardiac muscle cells dont need neural impulse for contraction, while others do need it. link to website: _url_0_ **quote of that statement on website:** "some of the cardiac muscle cells are auto-rhythmic, i.e they contract even in the absence of neuronal innervation (known as pacemaker cells)." so now i am confused what is true. **q: is it true that all cells of cardiac muscle dont require neural/electrical impulse for its contraction? or does it mean that only some cells(i.e pacemaker cells), dont require it, while others do?** your response would be highly appreciated! best regards, shdyyy | the sympathetic nervous system has two effects, one of which you have alluded to earlier. chronotropy is the concept of increasing rate, where inotropy is the increase in contractility (i.e., the force of contraction of the heart). chronotropy primarily stems from the sa and av nodes, and sympathetic versus parasympathetic tones regulate the chronotropic effects. inotropy primarily comes from the cardiomyocytes themselves. the mechanism is not 100% fully understood, but appears to be related to the regulation of calcium release within these muscle cells with increased sympathetic tone. source: _url_0_ i think the word "some" is misleading in your link. **all** cardiac cells have inherent pacing, called automaticity. however, the fastest to depolarize acts as the pacemaker, because it forces all other cardiomyocytes to depolarize before they can act as the pacemaker. so the sa node, which has an inherent rate of about 60-100bpm, will outpace a junctional rhythm, which has a rate of about 40-60bpm. for most circumstances, the automaticity of various parts of the heart along the conduction chain dictate that the physiologic pathway is in order of descending rate (i.e., sa node is faster than the atria, which is faster than the av node, which is faster than the ventricles); there are some pathologic conditions which do change this though. so to answer your question, all cardiomyocytes do require an electrical impulse for contaction, but do not require direct neural intervention. that's why heart transplants will work. the surgeon does not reattach the autonomic nervous system; rather the heart will respond to a combination of its own pacing, catecholamines within the blood, and changes in venous return of blood which alter its frank-starling curve (which is another discussion in and of itself). source: _url_1_ | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~sjjgsca/MuscleCardiac.html"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20671242",
"http://lifeinthefastlane.com/ecg-library/junctional-escape-rhythm/"
] | [
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how do chimeras avoid rejecting their own organs? | since they have two different genetic codes, why does their body not reject the 'invader' cells? & nbsp; edit: spelling. | the immune system cells that are responsible for attacking invading material - b and t cells - go through an education process as they mature. briefly put, once they've built their key "invader detector" proteins (antibodies or t cell receptors), they're exposed to a whole bunch of "self" antigens - basically, any protein being made by your body. any immune cell that reacts to a self protein gets whacked like a mob informant. the library of "self" antigens isn't built from dna; it's just a collection of stuff that's actually being made by your body. whatever stuff is in your body is counted as "self", regardless of what genome it came from. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hearing up two rods of the same material with different starting temperature | when two rods of the same size and material but different starting temperature like 0 degrees and 10 degrees will they get heated up at the same rate or will the colder one get heated up. then when they both have the same temperature they get heated up at the same rate? | the larger the temperature difference, the faster heat will exchange. as the temperatures get get closer, the rate will slow. so in your system, if one rod is zero and another is at ten and your placing them in a pot of boiling water, (everything else equal) the one at zero will get to ten before the onestarting at ten gets to twenty. that said, both will get to twenty in less time than it will take to get from ninety to one hundered. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are some examples of beneficial microorganisms? | what beneficial microorganisms out there are of environmental and/or commercial importance? what benefits do these microorganisms provide? | microbiologist here. microorganisms are unbelievably important for human and environmental health, and without them, life as we know it wouldn't exist. some examples to answer your question: *e. coli* is used to produce synthetic insulin (_url_2_) *s. cerevisiae* is the yeast (a type of fungus) responsible for making all alcoholic beverages, and has been invaluable for biological research bacteria in the soil such as those in the genii *nitrobacter*, *nitrosomonas*, and *nitrosoccoccus* are responsible for converting the nitrogen in the air into nitrogen that can be used by living creatures. nitrogen-oxidizing bacteria are also used in wastewater treatment plants to (_url_3_) speaking of which, microbes are invaluable to wastewater treatment plants (_url_4_) *cyanobacteria* are nitrogen fixers and also produce oxygen as a waste product. the oxygen that we breathe today was originally produced by microbes in this phylum billions of years ago. (_url_7_) microbes in the human gut are important for the development of the immune system, metabolism, and synthesis of vital nutrients. (_url_8_, _url_6_, _url_0_, _url_1_) a short (albeit unusual) video about the importance of the microbes for human health may be found here: _url_5_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri2316",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2012.01.035",
"http://www.diabeteswellbeing.com/synthetic-insulin.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrification",
"http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV149/methods.htm",
"http://youtu.be/VOdZwBzNtbA",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0712038105",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2005.04.008"
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olivine in rhyolite | today we where out chasing rocks and found something that stumped all of us. we found a rhyolite outcrop with veins and some crystals of olivine. a bit of research dug up that fayalite (or iron rich olivine) can form in rhyolite which has low levels of volitales, especially water. i was wondering does anyone here know more about the formation, properties or any other aspects of this combination? | *note - i'm not a geochemist, and my geochem is pretty rusty so there's bound to be more and better information available from our tame geochemists on the panel* my interpretation would be that rhyolites are produced in high-level magma chambers through formation of residual melt as fractional crystallisation occurs. that fractional crystallisation will form a zoned magma chamber, with olivines as phenocrysts. mixing or indeed vein injection might be triggered between zones in that magma chamber by injections of new melt batches. what i would expect to find under a microscope is possible reaction rims on the olivines if they are surrounded by rhyolitic groundmass. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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random process with known initial point | suppose i have a stochastic process with a known power spectral density. suppose i know the value of the process at time t=0. what is the conditional probability distribution of the process at a later time t? how do you even think about this? i feel like there must be some sort of diffusion equation that tells you the answer but i don't know how to find it. i *do* know how to solve a discrete random walk problem and i feel like it is intimately related to my present question. if someone could provide a specific example that would really help. thanks! | the spectral density alone is not enough to determine the probability distribution at time t given an initial value. for difussion processes, the fokker planck equation can be solved to get the distribution at any time t given any initial distribution. fixing the value at time 0 corresponds to a delta function for the initial distribution. more generally, chapman-kolmogorov equations give you this for markov processes. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my 5 year old asked me "daddy, how does a medicine know where to go once it gets to the stomach?" after watching me take a pill for a headache. that got me thinking and now i'm curious cause we always take it so normal on the everyday life. | medicine doesn't "know" where to go (at least, not yet). ingested chemicals are dissolved in the body and reach areas they are able to go. in your case, a pain-reliever (like an nsaid) dissolved in your stomach, was absorbed into your blood stream, was distributed across the systems in your body, including crossing the blood-brain barrier, and had an effect on your brain. because it had an effect on your brain and you felt its effect, you perceived that it "knew" where to go when in reality it went many places, you were just unable to perceive all of them. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
big rip, big freeze or big crunch? | years ago, i used to watch lots of documentaries about astronomy on the discovery channel. when it came to discussing the ultimate fate of the universe, there were three main hypotheses: - the big rip: the expansion of space eventually gets so fast that molecular and atomic bonds are ripped apart, destroying all objects in the universe. - the big crunch: gravity eventually overpowers the expansion of space. all the matter in the universe is compressed into one point, like a reversed big bang. - the big freeze: the expansion of space slows down and stagnates, and the universe becomes a cold, featureless wasteland. which out of these scenarios is the most likely to happen, based on current-day knowledge? are there any alternative hypotheses which have scientific merit? | the big freeze is almost certainly what's going to happen based on our current understanding of the universe. there are a few different criteria that determine which of these scenarios will occur. the two most important are the density of the universe (and thus the curvature of the universe) and what's known as the *equation of state parameter* for dark energy. the density of the universe can tell us [how space is curved](_url_0_): positively curved (like the surface of a sphere, where parallel lines will converge), negatively curved (like a saddle shape, where parallel lines will diverge), or "flat" (note that this doesn't mean the universe is pancake-shaped, only that parallel lines stay parallel forever). if the universe's average density is greater than the critical density, the universe is positively curved; if less, then negatively curved; and if it's exactly equal to the critical density it will so far, the universe [appears to be flat to within the best precision that current cosmological observations can muster](_url_2_), and most cosmologists regard it as a safe bet that it's flat. this more or less rules out big crunch but doesn't discriminate between big rip and big freeze. on to the [equation of state parameter](_url_1_), written as *w*. this is a number which basically tells us how the density of a component of the universe changes as the universe changes in size. first, the scale factor, *a*, is the ratio of the universe's linear size at any time to its size at the present time. the current scale factor is 1, and it was smaller in the past, and will be larger in the future. in a big crunch scenario, you'd see the scale factor stop growing and start shrinking again. the density of a component of the universe (at least in a flat universe) scales as & rho; = a^(-3-3w). radiation has w=1/3, matter has w=0, and standard dark energy (aka "cosmological constant") has w=-1. thus, matter's energy density in the universe scales as the inverse cube of the linear size of the universe (this is exactly how matter's density normally behaves in an everyday context), radiation scales as the negative fourth power of linear size (because redshift causes photons to lose energy), and standard dark energy does not change in density. **however**, if you have a dark energy component with w < -1, often referred to as quintessence, its density will actually increase as the universe expands, which will eventually cause a big rip scenario. however, our best cosmological measurements do not suggest that this is the case, and it's a somewhat more exotic sort of physics than standard dark energy would imply. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe#Curvature_of_Universe",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_state_(cosmology\\)",
"http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/april-2015/our-flat-universe?email_issue=725"
] | [
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why do we hate waiting so much? what is the factor which separates waiting from resting and relaxing?? | waiting combines two unpleasant things: frustrated (blocked) progress and loss of control. the frustration-aggression hypothesis has good support, though i don't know as much about scientific support for negative reactions to loss of control. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it actually possible to run across water? | countless times in movies, tv shows, comic books, etc... i have seen characters with super speed being able to run across water. they have no special footwear, they are just able to run really fast and some how run on top of the water. what i want to know is if it is actually possible to be running fast enough to actually run across water. [an example from the incredibles](_url_0_) | according various [online calculations](_url_0_) a person would need to run at about 80km/h in order to generate enough thrust against the water. smaller animals, like like basilisk lizard , have less mass and a higher power to weight ratio and can briefly run across the water. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5v2qBBD-gE#t=130"
] | [
"http://sciencefocus.com/qa/how-fast-would-i-have-run-run-over-water"
] | [
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what is interaction-free detection? | what does it mean, how does it work? in another thread, a discussion came up about the double slit experiment and how measurement could influence outcomes, and a consensus was emerging that it only influences outcomes because the measurement process influences the photons physically (not like consciousness plays a role). then someone comes along and says not necessarily, interaction free detection is a thing. what is this thing, and how does it relate to the whole measurement vs. outcome discussion in quantum mechanics. maybe this is not for the layman, but if there's an explainer who can say anything useful, i'd be appreciative. perhaps explaining the [elitzur-vaidman bomb testing problem](_url_0_) would be a nice start. | this is a little bit of a semantic problem. interaction free detection is not possible, in the sense that an measuring device must become entangled with the system it wishes to measure for a measurement to occur. what the other user was likely talking about is non-demolition measurement, where the quantum state of an object is measured, without "destroying" or altering the quantum state. lets use the example you suggested to explain this. when the photon passes through the first mirror, it is in a 50:50 superposition of left and right path. when it interacts with the bomb, if the bomb is a dud, there is no interaction, and the global state of both quantum systems (photon + bomb) is unaffected. if the bomb is live, then the right path superposition component becomes entangled with the bomb exploding, and the left path component with bomb not exploding. now if the bomb is "observed" to explode (additional objects in the environment are affected by the explosion) then the state of the global system has collapsed to |right path the experiment i've described so far explains the difference in observations (interference vs. no interference), when the bomb is not there vs. when it is there. this is exactly the double-slit experiment. the unique thing about the elitzur-vaidman bomb detector is that when the bomb is there, and it is observed to explode, then the photon is also absorbed (therefore destroyed). as a result of the photon being absorbed, it is possible to distinguish between the two situations when the bomb is there, based on whether or not any of the photon detectors click. | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elitzur%E2%80%93Vaidman_bomb-testing_problem"
] | [] | [
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how do you solve this gre sample math question? | i have absolutely no idea because it states "more than twice as many". any explanation or help would be appreciated. (question from gre site) each employee of a certain company is in either department x or department y, and there are more than twice as many employees in department x as in department y. the average (arithmetic mean) salary is $25,000 for the employees in department x and $35,000 for the employees in department y. which of the following amounts could be the average salary for all of the employees of the company? indicate all such amounts. a) $26,000 b) $28,000 c) $29,000 d) $30,000 e) $31,000 f) $32,000 g) $34,000 | means that the number of x employees, nx, is greater than 2 times the number of y employees, ny: nx the arithmatic means are: (1) mx = sum(sx)/nx = 25k (2) my = sum(sy)/ny = 35k where s is the salary of employee i and the sums go over all employees in the respective departments entire company (3) mtot = (sum(sx) + sum(sy))/(nx + ny) or solving for the sums in (1) and (2) (3a) mtot = (25k*nx +35k*ny)/(nx + ny) plug in nx = 2*ny to get the limit on the maximum mtot mtot = (50k + 35k)* ny/(3*ny) = 28.3k so the answers are a) 26k and b) 28k | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly happens for an orca to get a collapsed dorsal fin? | what causes the dorsal fin to collapse, and even if it isn't an indication of health why is it so much more prevalent with captive orcas? | the dorsal fins are usually held up by collagen and the current hypothesis is that the dorsal fin collapses because of some change to the structure of the collagen in the fin. however, it's not exactly known why this occurs though it seems to be largely part of the captive experience that does it. it could be the diet change, overexposure to air, less activity, etc. it's an area in need of more research though. few wild orcas have shown collapse or signs but usually have some sort of stressor such as recently been beached or interspecies fights precede the collapse. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is the jump made from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms, and how does specialization of functions occur? | i was trying to explain evolution, but got stuck on this early phase of life - i realized i couldn't fully explain it. can r/askscience help me out? | there are lots of theories, some good, some bad. the one i lean towards currently is biofilms. biofilms are complex communities of bacteria. they can be single or multispecies (the crap on your teeth in a multispecies biofilm, for example). i'll stick with single species because they're simpler. take one bug in some stuff it can grow in. call him phil. phil makes all kinds of stuff, but one things he makes is a kind of "hi there" signal called a quorum sensing (qs) molecule. there are many qs signals even for a single species, but for the sake of simplicity i'll refer to them all as "qs". as far as phil is concerned, this doesn't do much. the qs diffuses away and that's it. phil is pissing in the wind, so to speak. for the sake of simplicity, let's say phil happens to make a decision that many bugs make and he adheres to a surface. this is the beginning. eventually, phil will strive for the ultimate goal of all living things everywhere; he makes phil jr. phil jr also eats stuff & makes stuff (e.g., qs) and he cranks them out next to dad. mom. sister. whatever. anyway, phil and phil jr both make qs, and just in case you suck at math, they collectively make roughly twice as much. unfortunately, this just means the qs diffuses away even faster, reducing the increase. but the increase is there. phil jr strives for the dream, just as phil does the same, for a second time. meet phil iii & iv. eat, divide, repeat. meet phil v-cclvi. pretty soon that qs level has gone up a good bit. now things start to happen. different instances of phil start to shift their physiology, depending on where they are in the growing wad of bugs. guys in the middle have low oxygen, low nutrients, and get exposed to more qs, so they do one thing (like make different classes of qs). gradients set up all over, guys on the outside make one thing and act one way, guys on the inside do other things and act differently. phil has become phil, and phil is talking to itself. all kinds of things happen now; you get a gooey matrix, you get sedentary bugs that have lost the machinery they use to get around. the biofilm is able to regulate internal ph, ion concentrations, and osmotic gradients. it is protected against things like ameobas and even planarians by shear size; biofilms can be big, centimeters in scale. they even reproduce. they form complex structures, such as channels, to allow waste products out and nutrients in to the middle of the biofilm. some parts will form cavities, areas without the gooey martix, and bacteria will divide into this area...flagellated bacteria, planktonic forms. at some point, this cavity will "bleb" out and the bugs will swim free, off to colonize some other place and make phil jr. this is *one way* that multicellular life *could have* started. biofilms exist today, and they certainly existed in the distant past. what i have described here is a simplified form of the current understanding of how biofilms currently work. biofilms are very robust, and well-adapted to certiain environments. the ability to rapidly form a biofilm in a new area would give an advantage over other biofilms trying to colonize that same area; so it's easy to envisage the advantage presented by some alteration that allows full-fledged minature biofilms to bleb out instead of individual bugs. or just something that coordinates the swimming of the released planktonic bacteria so that they wind up attaching close to each other, giving the new biofilm a head start in hitting that critical qs concentration. just to be clear: this is a gross oversimplification. biofilms are incredibly complex, and this is a simplified version of the general form. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/331789/title/Multicellular_life_arises_in_a_test_tube"
] | [
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i've heard that one of the main benefits of aerobic exercise is raising your heartbeat. if you kept yourself in a frequent state of heart-pounding terror, would that have similar benefits? | the phrase "target heart rate" suggests to me some kind of goal, like the target of your exercise is to raise your bpm. to what extent is that accurate? aside from the obvious muscle-building and calorie-burning benefits, is a faster-beating-heart in and of itself beneficial? if so, are other non-exercise activities that raise your heartbeat into this target zone also beneficial? examples could include scary movies, hyperventilating, intense video games, dating. | [this past thread should answer your question](_url_0_). the short answer is that a stress-response (terror) causes heart rate to increase and blood vessels to constrict, whereas exercise causes your heart rate to increase and your blood vessels to dilate. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jfwlz/whats_the_difference_between_your_heart_rate/"
] | [
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how is it possible that electricity won't flow unless there is something at the other end, "pulling", it? | and what would happen if you took a wire that was four light years long and hooked it up to a battery, then put a ground on the other end? when would the electricity start flowing? | because v=ir. or for this case, i=v/r. when you're talking about electricity 'flowing', you're talking about current. that's what i represents in this equation. v is voltage, or the potential difference created when you separate a charge across a resistor r. basically, you can't have electricity as a point source. there needs to be a voltage difference between two locations in order for the current to flow. if there's only one point, then there's no potential difference, so no flow of current. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why where the alpha particles expected to pass straight through the plum pudding model? | everytime i've heard about this experiment, right from grade 5 upto my analytical mechanics exam today, they say how the alpha particles were expected to pass straight through the foil but not all did. and then using binet's equation and central potential we derive the neuclus model of the atom. but absolutely no one has ever explained why can't the same be explained through plum pudding model? even if electons were embedded into a positively charge pudding, one can derive the same central potential equations assuming atoms are rigid and nothing can pass through them; which they should be because it was called the "plum pudding model" not the "corn soup model" | i am not sure if i correctly understand your problem, but let me try. you can not assume central potential if you are inside of "soup" of charged particles, this can be used only if you are external to it. lets think about gravitation. to calculate it, you can assume that whole mass of earth is in center, and also using earth's radius calculate gravitation force. but this works only if you are on earth surface. if you are deep under surface, you should take to equation only mass of soil **below** you, i.e. having smaller radius. the mass that is above you, pulls you up, exactly balancing gravitation from mass on the other side of earth above your current radius. so if being "inside" centralization not works. so if gold is "soup" forces from particles on right hand side should exactly balance forces from particles on left hand side, and so on. so all alpha particles should go straight forward (some randomization obviously happens). if some were bended this means that some particles on, for example", right hand side were **nearer** then particles on left hand side. as force depends on distance, one of particles was impacting alpha more and changed its trajectory. force depends on distance with square dependency, so very strong. so if we have centralization of charge, then alpha particles that have a "luck" of travelling close to center have trajectory bended strongly, one that travels in distance - almost none. if we have "soup" that, because of some randomization of charges, almost each alpha particle would be affected, but in small quantity, because of right and left forces contradicting each other. so amount of strongly curved trajectories to amount of almost straight passes allows us to make conclude on centralization of charge. equal distribution of paths proofs equal "soup" model, strong diversity - suggest strong diversity in density of charge. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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"short/long-sleeves" survival in africa. | numbers game. if the odds of dying from a severed limb without professional medical attention are 999/1000 (for example; i don't know the real #s), and there are 20,000 limb severance incidents... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question from a quantum physics newb | please correct any parts of my question if my understanding is wrong. i apologize in advance if i sound like an idiot, this is all new to me. i just came across the double-slit experiment and the idea that subatomic particles are everywhere at once and are only in a single place if they are interfered with by looking at them, and i heard something about a theory that if you're not looking at a chair, for example, then the chair isn't there. i also read something about objects that are big enough obey the more natural laws of physics, and not the randomness of quantum mechanics. so i guess my question is, which is it? is it both? is the chair everywhere until i look at it? or is it just the subatomic particles that make up the chair behaving differently if i don't look at it? my head hurts. | the only reason to make this argument would be philosophically. quantum mechanics does not say that the chair disappears if nobody is looking. furthermore, quantum mechanics doesn't require that an "observer" be a human being, or even a living organism. now, to the double slit experiment. this experiment doesn't say that particles are everywhere until you look. this experiment showed that as an electron passed through the double slit it interfered with itself like a wave would (see [this example]( _url_0_) of how a wave passes through a double slit). however, when you add a particle detector at the slits to "get a closer look" at what is going on, the electron acts differently. the electron doesn't act like a wave anymore, it acts like a particle. this is where you get the idea that particles behave differently if they are observed or not. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://aetherwavetheory.info/images/blog/quantum_split.jpg"
] | [
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how long does it take between a session of cardio and the actual loss of weight? | i read in an ask science post a bit ago that it takes around 2 days for food to be turned into fat (i think?) so i was curious how long it takes for one to lose weight after exercising? | instantly. in fact, you're losing weight from the moment you stop eating / drinking until the moment you start again. exercise simply increases the rate at which that process occurs (although not by a huge proportion). every time you exhale, you're breathing out carbon that's been taken from the food you've eaten and broken down. the energy from that process is used to create the atp that powers your body. when you exercise, you're increasing the rate of atp usage and therefore the rate of atp generation. even if you're not exercising however, you're still losing weight. your cells are going about their normal business, using up atp. the biggest spikes in your rate of weight loss will come when you expel water -- urination, defecation, sweating, vomiting (obviously this isn't part of a healthy weight loss routine), etc. otherwise it's just a fairly constantly stream of carbon flowing out of your nose! edit: note that you won't necessarily start losing *fat* instantly, only weight. in order to lose fat, you only need to expend more calories than you consume. you can do that eating 1500 kcal a day and sitting on your arse, or 3000 kcal a day with an extremely high exercise regime. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you stood at the bottom of the deepest mine in the world in complete silence, would it compare with the quietest room in the world? | [this](_url_1_) is the room, and [this](_url_0_) is the mine. if there was no machinery running, and if you were completely alone, what would you hear 3.9 km under the earth? | unless the walls have the sort of sound-trapping effects of the quietest room in the world, there would be echoes, especially off of any flat surfaces from the mine's walls. the quietest room in the world has foam walls with ridges that function like maxwell traps (can you say maxwell trap for nonelectromagnetics?), to dissipate the energy rather than reflect it. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TauTona",
"http://www.cbc.ca/news/yourcommunity/2012/04/can-you-handle-total-silence.html"
] | [] | [
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what is a virtual state? | i am a chemistry major and when dealing with raman spectroscopy, my professor keeps mentioning excitation to a virtual state but cannot explain exactly what a virtual state is. i was under the impression that energy was quantized so that only certain energy levels were available. feel free to use math in your explanation. i should (hopefully) be able to understand it. | there are two things that could appropriately be named "virtual states" in this context, and i'm not sure which one(s) your chemistry professor is referring to. so let's do both. the first is sort of analogous to virtual particles in nuclear/high energy physics. they are just intermediate states in some time-dependent process. what is raman scattering? it's inelastic scatting of light off of matter. so some atom starts off in some initial state (say the ground state), you shoot some light at it, and it ends up in an excited state, and the light scatters away. how does the atom get from the ground state to the excited state? does it go directly there, or does it go there in multiple steps, jumping between intermediate discrete energy levels? if the latter, those intermediate states could be called "virtual". the other option is more complicated. if you have some quantum potential well like [this](_url_0_), you've got the possibility of bound states with negative energies, and you've got scattering states with positive energy. but there's also an in-between case called [*resonances*](_url_1_). these have positive energy, but they're not quite scattering states. they have some probability to escape to infinity, but their wavefunctions are localized due to the presence of some kind of barrier. in order to escape, they have to tunnel out of the barrier. virtual states are basically what happens to bound states in the case where there is no barrier, and you make the depth of the potential well very small. they are kind of like resonances in that they have wavefunctions localized near the well, but they are like scattering states in that they freely escape. examples of virtual states would be some s-wave neutron orbitals in certain nuclei. neutrons have no charge, so they have no coulomb barrier to hold them inside the nucleus. if they also have no orbital angular momentum, there is no centrifugal barrier to hold them in either. in the limit where the depth of the nuclear potential well goes to zero, the bound s-wave neutron orbitals will at some point become virtual states instead of bound states. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://inspirehep.net/record/1395982/files/NN-Potential.png",
"http://philschatz.com/physics-book/resources/Figure_32_07_03.jpg"
] | [
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what causes the river in this photo i took on the routeburn track to be so blue? | [imgur link](_url_0_) it reminds me of the colour of icebergs but there is no ice or snow here. | there are a lot of glaciers on the western side of nz's south island, so i wouldn't find it too hard to believe that this is a glacial-fed river (even if the glaciers weren't in the immediate area you were in). glacial melt also has that color that you associate with glaciers themselves, that pleasant light teal-ish color. the color comes fromminiscule bits of ground-up rock, [rock flour](_url_0_), formed by the glacier scraping along its path. the rock flour refracts sunlight, resulting in that teal color. | 8 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/q4BJyax"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_flour",
"http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm"
] | [
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] |
i explained time dilation in an r/askreddit thread, and a followup question had me and my prof stumped. care to help? | [original explanation \(very simplified hehe\)](_url_1_) [hard question](_url_0_) it boils down to this: time depends on the observer, so what if i were to send my perspective of what is going on to an observer who is feeling time running slower? what would they see? | the thing about relativity is it's not really quite so simple as "you see their clock run slow". rather, it's that once you account for the speed of light delay, you *discover* that their clock is running slow. well, you see it running slow as well, but not at the rate given by the lorentz factor. so [here](_url_0_) is a spacetime diagram in which one observer is at rest (red line on far left) and another is traveling at 4/5 the speed of light (purple line). the scale is 1 second per step in the vertical direction and one light-second per step in the horizontal direction. the orange lines represent light traveling from the moving ship to the stationary one (where they are presumably immediately captured, processed, and retransmitted), and the green lines represent the outgoing speed-of-light signal that will be received by the traveler. so the first orange light pulse reaches the stationary observer one second after the traveler passes, and it shows the clock on the ship as reading 1/3 of a second (*not* the 0.6 seconds you get from applying a simple lorentz transformation to the 1 second mark). that image is transmitted at light speed to the traveler, who receives it when her clock reads 3 seconds. meanwhile, at the 2 second mark according to the stationary observer, a second light pulse arrives. the clock on the traveling ship now appears to be at 2/3 seconds. that signal is retransmitted, and arrives at the traveling ship when it's clock reads 6 seconds (a bit outside the frame). interpolating between those two signals and assuming a continuous feed, we find that the traveler is watching her own clock tick at a rate of 1/9 the speed it's ticking on the wall. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/ubyxy/what_concept_or_idea_do_you_find_impossible_to/c4u78b5",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/ubyxy/what_concept_or_idea_do_you_find_impossible_to/c4u3qyz"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/YRw1i.png"
] | [
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radio receiver, tesla/moray free energy question | edit this must be why we don't have free power today. look at your closed minded reactions to this post. you ask why moray couldn't get funding for his device, well maybe they reacted to him in this same way. if we refuse to even consider the notion of free energy then we will never obtain it. the vibrational energy is all around us, all we have to do is use it. that is why it is free. moray had a phd in electrical engineering. and tesla was the father of a huge percentage of our technology today, with many of his patents still classified. these great men both held the same concept on this subject. i believe these men are not wrong. there are many weird things about ultra high frequency that we do not know, and i guess refuse to find out. all of everything is vibrational energy, frequency. we live in a sea of vibration, we live in a resonance cavity. light is vibration, heat is vibration, radiation is vibration, each of your body parts have a frequency. nasa says the frequency of the eyeball is 20hz. the only reason you see anything in front of you is because the atoms are moving at a certain frequency. your thoughts have frequencies in the alpha, beta, delta ranges. electricity is nothing but an energy vibration traveling through the electrons of a conductor (not a flow but a vibratory wave). i know you are not taught this, but why is a current only induced when there is a change in the magnetic field? like plucking a string on a guitar and watching the flow of vibration go down the wire. this is how tesla understood energy and he apparently understood it better than we do. the concept is simple, everything is vibration, just tune in to a natural source and allow resonance to move the energy to you from the source. like this _url_0_ since i couldn't get any answers i hope i at least provoked thought on this subject. peace edit. about moray _url_2_ book by moray explaining this _url_4_ click tomas moray then "beyond the light rays" 1st edition. and yes light has a vibrational frequency and it is not the top of the spectrum _url_3_ ......................... site with old newspaper articles from moray's device being verified by engineers. _url_1_ | "frequency above the speed of light" makes no sense. frequencies are of the dimension [s^-1 ] whereas velocities are of the dimension [m*s^-1 ]. this is like saying: "the horse runs faster than the dog is tall." | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiHOqMOJTH4",
"http://www.only1egg-productions.org/AltSci/SOE/indexSOE.html",
"http://www.cheniere.org/books/excalibur/moray.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_%28frequency%29",
"http://www.tesla.hu/"
] | [] | [
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why is pykrete so strong? | pykerete is just ice with sawdust added, giving much higher hardness and resistance to melting over normal ice. but why would it work like that? i would think adding the sawdust would prevent the formation of the crystalline structure of ice due to hydrogen-bonding, weakening the structure overall. | drop a crystal from the second floor vs. a piece of wood. there are several different material properties contributing to what would be colloquially called strength. hardness, tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength are all different and independent properties that one might call "strong". in the case of pykrete, preventing the formation of large crystals is actually the goal, as crystals tend to shatter easily. the wood pulp will prevent cracks from propagating which increases shear strength, and i suspect the increased elasticity is what helps with compressive strength. the hardness will be lowered, but since most applications will involve a multitude of forces, getting a material with overall more "balanced" properties will make it more useful. for example, you could make phone screens out of crystal (say sapphire or diamond) and it would be scratch-proof but shatter pretty much every time when dropped. or you could make a phone screen out of pet or plexiglass and you could throw it against a wall without shattering the screen, but it would get scratched just from carrying it in your pocket. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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video from nova on extracting your dna. how does this work? | [this video](_url_0_) shows you how to visualize your dna but it doesn't really explain how it works. it's very cool but i don't really understand how you are able to see it. can someone explain? | so i'll get you as far as i understand on a cursory overview of the video. pretty much every cell in your body has a compartment called a nucleus, in which is contained your entire genetic code. now each cell only activates certain parts of that, making corresponding proteins, but it has the whole thing nonetheless. by gargling the salt water and spitting it out, you have rubbed off some of the cells that form the inner lining of your cheek. cells are surrounded by a membrane of molecules called phospholipids. these essentially look like spheres with two legs. the legs hate being in water, while the spheres like being in water. if you imagine two layers of these guys (legs facing legs, and spheres facing out) you have what is called a bilayer. now imagine this wrapping around to form the outside of a sphere. this is what the membrane of your cells looks like. by adding soap (which is hydrophobic, so it hates water) you are essentially dissolving the membrane, causing the contents of the cell to leak out. now, i'm not exactly sure what the alcohol does, but it seems like for some reason the food coloring is reacting preferentially with the dna, causing you to be able to visualize it? maybe some else could look up what is in food coloring and determine whether it interacts with dna? chemicals like ethidium bromide are typically used in labs, but it is extremely carcinogenic, so it wouldn't be in food coloring... | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=au0cSnYl36M"
] | [] | [
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sherlock s2e3: would that work? (spoilers) | in the episode, moriarty essentially proves that the crown jewels are not as protected as everyone thought by fucking with the system, bringing down the security systems and then sitting in the throne. the way he gets access to it is by, with gum, sticking a very tiny diamond onto the glass barrier around the jewels and smashing into it with a fire extinguisher. i understand the principles behind it: diamonds are the toughest natural substance and thus can scratch or break anything, (though i don't know much about high security glass) but my question is whether the method is sound. assuming the glass is supposed to be some super sturdy protective glass and not just the safety glass that they really used, would a tiny tiny diamond (like smaller than a pinky fingernail) hit with the force of a person swinging a fire extinguisher be enough to break high security glass? | this would not work on polycarbonate protective "glass", which is what i assume something like the crown jewels would probably be stored under, because it is more like a plastic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any potential theoretical justifications for the value of the weinberg angle? | for the uninitiated, _url_0_ i'm fully prepared to stick it in the "we don't know yet" box like the electrons mass or any other free parameter. | guts predict definite values for the weinberg angle. this is because guts require the su(2) and u(1) couplings to unify at some energy, and the weinberg angle is defined in terms of the ratio of these couplings. for example su(5) apparently predicts sin^2 θ_w = 3/8. this is then modified by renormalization group running between the gut scale and the scale at which we can do experiments. check out the last chapter of [srednicki's textbook](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weinberg_angle"
] | [
"http://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~mark/ms-qft-DRAFT.pdf"
] | [
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] |
atmosphere/weather question | are weather patterns caused more because of differential thermodynamics or the physical rotation of a planet (specifically earth)? | when you say "weather patterns" what do you mean? the determining factor as to whether or not the rotation of the earth (coriolis force) impacts a given weather event is the scale of that weather event and its mean velocity relative to the surface of the earth. a fast moving small scale storm will be deflected to the right (northern hemisphere) due to coriolis force. however, it won't affect the "intensity" of the storm. a hurricane, on the other hand, has a much larger scale -- and is affected by the coriolis force. in short, large scale and/or fast moving storms are influenced by the rotation of the earth. small scale or slow moving storms are less influenced by the rotation of the earth. hope this answers your question, happy to clarify further if necessary. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does catalysators reduce the activation energy? my teacher couldn't answer my question. | my teacher said that the way catalysators work (partly paraphrased and translated into english) is that they "bond" to the atoms, and guide the atoms into eachother. this reduces the activation energy required to have reactants turn into products, which in turn speeds up the reaction. i asked him: "doesn't the activation energy stay the same, but it's the atoms that crash into each other more often and just right, so it's more often the atoms reach the required energy and that is the reason it goes faster?" he responded with "that makes sense and i can see why you think that way, but i don't know how to contradict you or tell you why you're wrong, so.... yeah...on to the next question". can anyone help me out? :) | so what you're describing is generally the effect of temperature on reactions. generally speaking, heat leads to (or really *is*) more molecular movement, and more movement = more collisions = faster reaction. what a catalyst does is stabilize the [transition state](_url_0_) of a reaction. the transition state is the point of greatest instability during the reaction, and the degree of that instability is what determines the activation energy. a catalyst provides a favorable environment in which that transition state can form. for example, many protein catalysts (enzymes) have sites that are partially charged one way or the other and can weakly bond to exposed charges that form in the transition state, which helps to lower the system's energy as a whole. lowered activation energy leads to faster reactions. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_state"
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please tell me major things that old physics books have misinformed me on. | i recently started reading *feynman's lectures on physics*, and a few years ago i read *asimov's guide to science*. they're both absolutely classic science texts from which i can/have learned a ton, but i also know there are some caveats in learning out-of-date information. some of them i can catch from my own knowledge (feynman said that we don't know the intermediate between dna and protein; asimov said that we don't have solid evidence smoking causes cancer and that freon is a natural wonder with no detrimental effects), but i know very little physics and incorrect facts in these fields i am likely to miss. just curious, what are some big things that have changed, especially in physics (about which i know the least)? thanks! | the feynman lectures took place in the early 1960s, and a lot of little things have been learned since then, but not too many big things. the structure of protons and neutrons was just being discovered in this decade, which lead to quantum chromodynamics, the theory of quarks (partons according to feynman) and their interactions. this makes up part of the *standard model,* which was formalised in the 1970s. we have since discovered that neutrinos have mass and oscillate between flavours. the biggest discovery was perhaps in the 1990s, when we realized that the expansion of the universe is accelerating and that the cosmological constant/dark energy exists. there are also lots of discoveries in condensed matter like high temperature superconductivity and fractional quantum hall states. nanotechnology was basically the brainchild of feynman and it's been moving along since then. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
science - help me settle a evolution related debate with my father in law. | how long have we known that africa is the origin of the human race? follow up question, have they ever extracted dna from a fossil? | charles darwin speculated that anatomically modern humans came from africa and then walked to all the current places we currently are in the 1870s, but it wasn't until the 1980s that we took dna of modern-day humans and compared it to the dna found in ancient specimens of early human's bones that we knew for sure. however, there was also speciation and hybridization that occurred in the meantime - it is now known that neanderthals (an extinct member of the homo genus [the homo genus denotes all those proto-humans, like homo habilis, homo neanderthalensis, etc]) so that answers both of your questions. when you say "fossil", the answer is yes, we do it all the time. other than that: _url_3_ _url_1_ _url_2_ _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Homo_sapiens",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_anthropology",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans"
] | [
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i've recently become interested in the rise of multidrug resistant pathogens, especially staphylococcus aureus. do you have any suggested readings? | i should mention that i am a junior level biology undergrad who is quite capable of understanding microbiology related scientific papers (i.e. hit me with your best shot). i have read wikipedia and some papers i found on pubmed. i'm posting this to see if there are any little known excellent papers on mrsa. | well, i wrote a paper on the topic a year or two ago - here's my bibliography. not all of them are exactly relevant to your question, but there should be some worthwhile reads in the mix: anderson, d.i., levins, b.r., 1999. the biological cost of antibiotic resistance. current opinion in microbiol. 2(5):489-493. boles m.o., girven r.j., 1976. the structures of ampicillin: a comparison of the anhydrate and trihydrate forms. acta cryst. b32:2279–2284. cohen, m.l., 1992. epidemiology of drug resistance: implications for a post-antimicrobial era. science. 257(5073):1021. cross, a.s., opal, s., kopecko, d. j., 1983. progressive increase in antibiotic resistance of gram-negative bacterial isolates. arch intern med. 143(11):2075-2080. curtis, n.a.c., et al., 1973. r-factor mediated resistance to penicillins which does not involve a β lactamase. j gen microbiol. 79: 163-166. de stasio e.a., et al., 1989. mutations in 16s ribosomal rna disrupt antibiotic--rna interactions. embo j. 8(4):1213-6. dever, l.a., dermondy, t.s., 1991. mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. arch intern med. 151(5):886-895. garcia-bustos, j., tomasz, a., 1990. a biological price of antibiotic resistance: major changes in the peptidoglycan structure of penicillin-resistant pneumococci. proc natl acad sci usa. 87(14): 5415-5419. georgopapadakou, n.h., et al., 1982. penicillin-binding proteins in a staphylococcus aureus strain resistant to specific -lactam antibiotics. antimicrob agents chemotherap. 22(1): 172-175 goossens, h., et al., 2005. outpatient antibiotic use in europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. the lancet. 365(9459):579-587. hancock, r.e.w., 1998. resistance mechanisms in pseudomonas aeruginosa and other nonfermentive gram negative bacteria. clin infect dis. 27(1):s93-s99. harbottle, h., et al., 2006. genetics of antimicrobial resistance. anim biotechnol. 17(2):111-24. hudault, s., et al., 2001. escherichia coli strains colonising the gastrointestinal tract protect germfree mice against salmonella typhimurium infection. gut. 49(1): 47–55. karlowsky, j.a., et al., 2002. trends in antimicrobial resistance among urinary tract infection isolates of escherichia coli from female outpatients in the united states. antimicrob agents chemother. 46(8): 2540–2545. karmali, m.a., 2004. infection by shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli: an overview. mol biotechnol. 26(2):117-22. knudsen, e.t., et al., 1967. carbenicillin: a new semisynthetic penicillin active against pseudomonas pyocyanea. brit. med j. 3: 75-76. manness, m.j., sparling, p.f., 1973. multiple antibiotic resistance due to a single mutation in neisseria gonorrhoeae. j infect dis. 128:321–330. medieros, a.a., et al. 1974. characterization and prevalence of the different mechanisms of resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics in clinical isolates of escherichia coli. antimicrob agents chemother. 6(6): 791-801 meier, a., et al., 1996. correlation of molecular resistance mechanisms and phenotypic resistance levels in streptomycin-resistant mycobacterium tuberculosis. antimicrob agents chemother. 40(11):2452-2454. mendelman, p., et al., 1984. characterization of non-β-lactamase-mediated ampicillin resistance in haemophilus influenza. antimicrob agents chemother. 26(2):235-244 parr, t.r., bryan, l.e., 1984. mechanism of resistance of an ampicillin-resistant, beta lactamase-negative clinical isolate of haemophilus influenzae type b to beta-lactam antibiotics. antimicrob agents chemother. 25(6): 747–753. philippon a., arlet, g. & lagrange, p.h., 1993. origin and impact of plasmid-mediated extended spectrum beta-lactamases. eur j clin microbiol infect dis. 13(1):s17-s29. regna, p.p., et al., 1946. the stability of streptomycin. j biol chem. 165: 631-638. reid, g., et al., 2001. can bacterial interference prevent infection?. trends in microbiol. 9(9):424-428. sachithanadam, s., et al, 1978. isolation of beta-lactamase from a penicillin-susceptible strain of staphylococcus aureus. antimicrob agents chemotherap. 13(2): 289-292. sharma, d., et al., 2007. mutational analysis of s12 protein and implications for the accuracy of decoding by the ribosome. j mol biol. 374(4): 1065-1076. singer, m., et al., 1989. a collection of strains containing genetically linked alternating antibiotic resistance elements for genetic mapping of escherichia coli. microbiol mol biol rev. 53(1): 1-24 stapley, e.o., 1958. cross resistance studies and antibtioic identification. app microbiol. 6:392-398. suginaka, h., et al., 1974. penicillin-resistant mechanisms in pseudomonas aeruginosa: effects of penicillin g and carbenicillin on transpeptidase and d-alanine carboxypeptidase activities. antimicrob agents chemother. 6(6): 672-675. tipper, d.j., strominger, j.l., 1965. mechanism of action of penicillins: a proposal based on their structural similarity to acyl-d-alanyl-d-alanine. proc natl acad sci usa. 54(4): 1133–1141 watanabe, t., 1959. cross resistance of salmonella typhimurium to streptomycin and kanamycin. j bacteriol. 78:148-149. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hey askscience, my grandad past away in 2004 and left me this. besides it being a periodic table can you tell me what else is on it or what it all means? he was working on it during his last decade of his life. thanks! | element: average molecular weight: isotopic molecular weight: degree's: mass bundles: total mass: it looks like nuclear chemistry, i am not familiar with some of the nomenclature he is using. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
i encountered this periodic table. could someone explain a few details? | i think i understand the idea of a left-step table, and it looks very elegant to me, but could someone eli5 the numbered tables under/right of it? i have some basic understanding of things like how orbitals fill up, but i still easily lose view of the big picture, and can't seem to find a pattern in all the numbers. _url_1_ thanks a lot! (i found the picture on the school intranet, but i'm almost 100% sure [this page](_url_0_) is the original source) | the stuff on the bottom is just a load of bs attempting to cobble together a new series of quantum numbers that has no physical meaning. it's numerology disguised as chemistry/physics. | 15 | [] | [
"http://www40.brinkster.com/maks47/",
"http://i.imgur.com/E06gvqf.jpg"
] | [] | [
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there was a study recently published that concluded americans were more cocky and less educated (overall) than many other developed nations. | can anyone help me find it? | this was the article that went round reddit. note that it doesn't have any sources, or say where the numbers are coming from. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.education.com/magazine/article/waiting-superman-means-parents/"
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] |
how much truth is there to the 'it's good to run your battery down and charge it up again' claim? | i hear this quite often. people are told that they should run down their batteries to let them charge up again, because it isn't 'good' for the battery to always be fully charged. is this even remotely true, or is it more an urban myth? | there was a thread on this a few days ago: [is there any harm in charging a device at 50%? 11%? 90%? etc.](_url_0_) i was going to say you should have searched for previous threads, but i'll admit i had a hard time trying to find it again, myself. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lgr10/is_there_any_harm_in_charging_a_device_at_50_11/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_effect"
] | [
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can you explain the idea of a universal basic income? why or why wouldn't this be a good idea? | in the past week, i've discovered and looked over the basic income policy as a replacement for programs like welfare. so far, what i've read seems to establish more pros than cons; however, i may be missing something because it seems to good to be true. | this is a complex topic, but to summarize a few high-level points: * it would be simpler to administer, since you don't have to worry about eligibility and a lot of other challenges * depending on how it's implemented, it can avoid problems where poor people experience very high effective marginal tax rates because program eligibility phases out with income. for example, if i'm getting a health care subsidy because of my income, the loss of that subsidy as my income increases is effectively a tax on that income in the sense that it feels the same as a tax. * economically it can be very efficient; we can expect that people will know best what they should spend their only money on in order to maximize their happiness some of the downsides: * it can reduce the incentive to work. in the extreme case, imagine that the basic income is enough to live comfortably; many people may choose to simply live on the basic income and eschew work. this results in lower labor participation, lower productivity, and lower gdp * it can be very expensive. extending a program like this to everyone without means testing avoids the problem of effective high marginal tax rates but means that the program applies to many more people * simply giving people money may not allow them to spend it most effectively in a way that will improve their situation. you need other programs to provide training, education, etc. to provide the knowledge needed. you can literally write whole books on this though. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is freezing rna at -80c better than freezing at -20c? | in my lab, i've been told by many people to to freeze my rna probes for in situs at -80c instead of -20c because it'll "be more stable" and "last longer". is this just lab superstition, or is there a good reason for it? | they're correct. from what i remember being told, rna is so damn unstable and prone to thawing out accidentally that shoving it in the -80 essentially decreases the chances of it getting to that unstable temperature point and catalyzing its own degradation. again, this is recall from ~3rd year, but we keep our in situ probes in the -80 as well, and so does everyone else i know. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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