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sit-ups without feet rising? | sit with your legs farther extended. it'll help to counter the torque. also, try to give yourself a quicker start to the sit-up by pressing against the ground with your back, and try to let momentum help carry your torso forward. and for the record, that's not how newton's third law works. the third law states that every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. that means that if your abs generate a force against your upper body, then your upper body also exerts a force upon your abs. it doesn't mean that the abs have to pull with the same force on either end. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does double spiking work? | when running experiments with an icp-ms, tims or other equipment, a way to measure the isotopic concentration of a sample is by 'double spiking' with known quantities of an isotope of the same element. how does this work? i can't picture how this helps to measure the sample. why not just measure without double spiking? why is it necessary? | it's unclear to me whether you're asking about basic isotope dilution or about something more complicated (spiking with multiple isotopes of the same element). isotope dilution: i measure isotopes of thorium in the ocean. i get a water sample back and want to measure 232th and 230th. the first thing i do is weigh out an aliquot of 229th - it's not naturally occurring and i know exactly how much goes into my sample. then the sample is taken through preparation (isolation of thorium from other elements). when i pass my sample into the icp-ms - all the thorium isotopes have the same ionization efficiency as each other. the data i get on the other side is "counts per second" of 229, 230, and 232 thorium. i know the ratio counts per second of 230/229 and 232/229, and i know exactly how much mass 229th i added to the sample - so i can calculate the mass of 230th and 232th present in my sample. the good thing about using ratios is that if something happens during processing - say, you spill a sample - it doesn't matter. you lose an equal amount of 229th, 230th, and 232th. so the ratio you measure in the end doesn't change even if there is sample loss while getting it ready to run on the icp-ms. something more complicated: icp-ms detectors often have mass-bias effects. you can overcome this by using two spikes the same isotope (say, 228th and 229th). since you know the ratio you added them in, you know what the count ratio should be. deviations in the count ratio can then be attributed to mass bias effects in the icp-ms, which you can then extrapolate to the other isotopes you measure like 232th and 230th (assuming a linear relationship between mass bias and mass offset). we typically calculate mass bias by simply running a uranium standard with a known 238u/235u ratio, then assume the measured deviation in this ratio is due to mass bias effects. or, as /u/dr_dickie suggests, you could just add another spike right before you run your sample on the icp-ms to calculate what your yield was. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are diodes and mosfets related? | i have to do a report on diodes and mosfets. i thought this topic was weird, because as far as i know there is no relation between these besides both being electrical components. was i wrong to think this? | you may want to do a search or look in your textbook for the term *body diode*. this is a "parasitic" diode that forms from the structure of a mosfet, and keeps the mosfet from being a totally symmetric device like it is in theory. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
this might be stupid, but is there a speed of smell? | yes. assuming there is no flow the speed will be dictated by the diffusion constant. the characteristic timescale for diffusion is equal to the characteristic length scale of the system squared divided by the diffusion coefficient. a co2 molecule, whose diffusion coefficient is about 16 mm^2 /s(wikipedia), will diffuse 1 m in about 10000 s or about 3 hrs. clearly diffusion is slow. in many cases though, flow will be present and the characteristic timescale for transport will be governed by that flow. hth! | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what formula do i use to find the correct time to cook something when it is listed at a different wattage? | my frozen dinner says that for an 1100 watt microwave, i cook it for 5 minutes. for 700 watts, i cook it for 8 minutes. i started to do the math and then realized that the methods i was trying would not work. what kind of formula do i use to find out how long i should cook it in a 900 watt microwave? | i never took math after 14, but you know that for an 1100w, it takes 5 minutes. so if you just want to work it out for a different power, you can just do t^2 = (p^1 / p^2) * t^1 t^2 = (1100 / 900) * 5 t^2 = 6.11 minutes | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the limiting factor on how fast i can tap my finger on my desk? | when i try to tap my finger on my desk as fast as possible i can't go any faster than 4 or 5 beats per second. is it my muscles, my brain or something else that won't let me change the direction of movement any faster? | so let's just say that whatever physical limit exists, we haven't found it yet. here's an example of someone playing a rhythm game at absolutely mind blowing speeds: _url_0_ on the bottom left you'll see a handcam and on the right side of that you'll see a number that shows the keys per second as he's playing. he uses 4 fingers, but even if you limit it to 2 fingers there are sections where he would be hitting over 15 times per second on 2 fingers. now, this is not even the fastest that is humanly possible. so whatever is keeping you from getting any faster is not a physical limit. edit: words, because mobile | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/Sjl19cuzbK4"
] | [
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is there ever anything going on that is not a chemical reaction? | force maybe? | yeah, seeing as a chemical reaction is defined as "a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance" everything that doesn't do that is not a chemical reaction. e.g. boiling water and melting ice involve rearrangement of the spacing between water molecules yet the water molecule does not react chemically. so you could think of a million things that aren't chemical reactions. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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nadh movement through the cytoplasm? | when nadh is produced in glycolysis, we say that it then "goes into the mitochondria" to the etc. is this the result of random motion eventually getting it there, or is there a direct path? if it's directed, are there motor proteins moving it along, or how is this accomplished? (i can find a bunch online about how nadh then just passes the electrons on to another shuttle, rather than getting into the matrix itself. this question, though, is about motion to get the nadh shuttle over to the organelle in the first place. i have the same question about pyruvic acid making it to krebs.) | as far as we know, it's just random diffusion, though the cytosol is more viscous than pure water, so it's a little slower in a cell. there hasn't been a whole lot of work on diffusion of small molecules, but [here's one from the 1980s](_url_0_) where they found that the rate of diffusion depends a lot on the conditions the cell is in. that's not to say there couldn't be some type of molecular shuttle system, but as far as we know, there isn't, and diffusion alone suffices. a thing to remember is that we are terrible at thinking about things on molecular timescales - diffusion can move molecules through a cell surprisingly quickly compared to our macroscopic experience. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/81/11/3414.short"
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moved from southern to northern hemisphere, and it feels like the sun rises in the west. is my mind playing tricks on me? | i spent my whole life living around 30° south of the equator, and then moved to around 40° north on the opposite side of the globe. now i have a disorienting feeling that the sun rises from the wrong direction. the feeling has lessened over the past 5 years, but at dusk, sometimes i'll still swear it should be dawn. is there a rational explanation for this? | in the southern hemisphere the sun arcs across the sky in the north, but in the northern hemisphere it does the opposite. suppose you're facing south and watching the sun setting in the west; you then imagine the arc that the sun made over the course of the day in front of you. in order to view that arc in the same way (with the sun in the same position) in the southern hemisphere, you need to be facing north with the sun rising in the east. so for this view, you've been accustomed to associating it with dawn. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there any other species that do dangerous things just for fun? | we humans do all sorts of things just for the "adrenaline rush". there are any other species that do similar things? | you're asking whether other species play. the answer is 'yes'. their play may not be as dangerous as ours, but that's only because they don't have the technology to do really crazy things. for most animals, dangerous fun involves fighting with thier littermates. still, we have videos of [crows snowboarding](_url_0_), [otters sliding on anything slideable](_url_1_), and cats...well, the internet is a testament to cats doing stupid and dangerous things. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMG161tFHz8",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mF6ijhSrbBQ"
] | [
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take a gum wrapper and chew on it. it hurts. squeeze it with your fingers. it gets hot. what causes this? | the aluminum in the wrapper creates a slight electric shock when placed in the acidic environment of your mouth. this creates the pain. the heat comes from the folding of the wrapper that occurs when you squeeze it. the wrinkling of the wrapper pushes aluminum against more aluminum in extremely confined spaces, creating heat. basically, all of these properties come from the aluminum in the wrapper. chew and squeeze some aluminum foil and you will get the same effects. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is a neumann boundary condition implemented in a heat transfer finite volume methode? | i am trying to set up a fvm calculation for stationary heat transfer in a simple geometrie but i have problems with the heat flux boundary condition. given geometrie (simple rectangular bar): x = 10m, y = 1m, z = 1m, conductivity = 1 w/(m*k) bc1: t(x=0) = 20 °c bc2: q(x=10) = 1w i use 5 control volumes in x direction, with a linear approximation of the temperature gradient. the inner cvs are no problem; integrating over the cv, using divergence theorem (gauss). also implementing bc1 is no problem; integrating over half of the leftmost cv how do i implement the heat flux in cv 5? thanks for the help in advance. | when you integrate over a control volume, you're integrating δu (the laplacian of u, where u is the temperature). as you say use the divergence theorem to turn this into an integral of the heat flux over all the sides of that control volume. you can then approximate the heat flux over all the sides by using the temperature gradient. either this involves two unknown temperatures (if the side is between two control volumes) or one unknown temperature and a dirichlet boundary condition (if the side is on a dirichlet boundary). at the end you're left with a simple linear equation involving a number of unknown temperatures and some other numbers. if the side is on a neumann boundary, you already know the flux across that boundary: it's given by the neumann bc. therefore you can just replace that integral with 1w directly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what scientific discovery do you think would help progress humanity as a whole the most? and why? | nuclear fusion. an immediate and outcompeting "screw you" to polluting fossil fuel companies whose only claim to legitimacy is that we currently have no other option. i have to commute to work, and i'd love to not screw over the child i want by doing what i have to do to feed him. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
/r/trees to /r/askscience | some starter questions: #1: does this article actually say thc kills leukemia cells? #2: is the concentration used during the study possible in human bloodstreams? #2b: if not, would the possible peak concentration be high enough to positively contribute, assuming #1 is true? #2c: if not, would local injections be able to get around that limitation? #3: could this explain (at least in part) why cannabis reports a much lower cancer rate than tobacco even though it contains higher levels of tar and specific carcinogens? or are the cancer types so different as to be unlikely? #4: if #1 is true, why isn't there more noise being made on this by larger cancer organizations? #5: is this a legitimate source? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[heart anatomy] purkinje fibers located in endocardium or myocardium layer? your response is highly appreciated! | it is known that endocardium is one of the three layers which constitute the heart walls. the other two layers are myocardium and pericardium. here is a picture(basic picture of heart anatomy), which shows where these three layers of heart walls are located: [first picture of this post](_url_1_) **it is also known that purkinje fibers are located in endocardium layer. more specifically in subendocardium.but there are some confusing pictures on internet and i would be really glad if you could help me explain it.** many pictures on internet that i found, show purkinje fibers location(in relation to three layers of heart walls) like this: [second picture of this post](_url_2_) now here comes the confusing part: so, if we take in consideration first picture in this post(which shows location of three layers of heart walls ) and we mark those layers in our second picture(which shows location of purkinje fibers), it looks something like this: [second picture in this post with marking of heart wall layers according to first picture](_url_0_) but this markings of layers surely must not be true, since it would mean that purkinje fibers are located in myocardium! but we know that purkinje fibers are located in endocardium and not myocardium layer. picture with proper marking of endocardium layer in relation to purkinje fiber location looks like this in my opinion: [second picture in this post with correct marking of layers](_url_3_) q:would you agree with above picture, that it shows correct marking of the endocardium layer in relation to purkinje fibers location(since we know that purkinje fibers are located in endocardium and not in myocardium)? q:why is there such a difference between marking(representation) of heart wall layers location, between the first picture in this post and second picture in this post? best regards, shdyyy | hey op, realized none of us directly addressed your questions. first, purkinje fibers are mostly located in the **subendocardial** layer, which is a component of the myocardium. the endocardium is an endothelial layer of cells distinct from the myocardium and is very, very thin. the first picture is essentially correct, although researchers in the field as well as cardiologists that i work with distinguish the epicardium as another (outermost) layer of the heart (even though it is considered a part of the pericardium). for your second picture, i believe the purkinje fibers are shown in the myocardium to emphasize the purkinje fiber network, as they are actually in close proximity to the endocardium (but not part of the endocardium). wikipedia has a [more accurate] (_url_2_) representation of this. so your third picture is actually incorrect! what you've labeled as endocardium is mostly myocardium. [here] (_url_1_) is an edited version of sarahstrattera's post which is more accurate (in my opinion). i'd wager this is a very general histological stain (h & e) so its' actually hard to distinguish the endocardium without using an endothelial-specific marker (and immunostaining) but i'm fairly confident in that the endocardium is the thinner layer. the subendocardium is a constituent of the myocardium which is unique, but still very different than the endocardium. to answer your final question, the difference in representation is actually on how they illustrated the purkinje fibers. the second picture you linked probably wanted to emphasize the fiber network but at the cost of actual placement. since the fibers are really close to the endocardium, it's likely they didn't want to have them get mixed up with the black line representing the endocardial surface. or, they were lazy. so, tl;dr: * the endocardium is a specialized layer of endothelial cells and is extremely thin, contacting the blood * the purkinje fibers are not in the endocardium but rather the subendocardial layer, which is a specialized version of the myocardium * the endocardium and subendocardium/myocardium are very distinctly different types of cells with different functions if you want some sources, you can read through [my response] (_url_0_) but this may be more pedantic than what you were asking. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imageshack.us/a/img109/7279/c4z3.jpg",
"http://www.prevent-stroke-and-heart-attack.com/image-files/human-heart-picture-pericardium-myocardium-endocardium.jpg",
"http://imageshack.us/a/img28/4621/y2s4.jpg",
"http://imageshack.us/a/img600/9616/9ka5.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1py981/heart_anatomy_purkinje_fibers_located_in/cd7fdai",
"http://imgur.com/30zb5f3",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundleofhis.png",
"http://www.ouhsc.edu/histology/Glass%20slides/78_06.jpg"
] | [
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what is the difference between real power, complex, average, reactive, and apparent power? | i think some must be different names for the same things? | also, power is commonly used to describe electricity, which is ac in the united states. because the current is a wave function, the power changes with time at the frequency of the wave function, which is 60 hz in the us. that's why it's typically described in terms of average power. there's a pretty good summary of these differences here: [_url_0_](_url_0_) basically: real power = power through resistors = p reactive power = power through capacitors/ inductors = q complex power = real + reactive power = p + jq apparent power = rms value of complex power = s = sqrt(p\^2 + q\^2) average power = power described as a real number rather than as a function of time & #x200b; | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/power-in-ac-circuits.html"
] | [
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what would happen if i fell into a tub of superglue? | nothing good. superglue is generally a form of [cyanoacrylate](_url_0_), a liquid that will polymerize when very small amounts of water are present. it can be used safely for many applications on the body such as wound closing in place of stitches, but that doesn't mean i would want to be dunked in it. firstly, since cyanoacrylate starts to polymerize on contact with water it would be instant catastrophy if any got into your nose, mouth, or eyes. even the sweat induced by your imminent plunge would prove exceptionally detrimental. secondly, cyanoacrylate reacts violently with cotton, leather and wool. the exothermic reaction is hot enough to cause third degree burns on people that get super glue on their clothes in normal cases, i'm not sure the extent of the reaction if you jumped into a tub full. if you did manage to get in and get out immediately without major infiltrations into your mouth, nose, and eyes and without starting all of your clothes on fire then you would quickly become encased in a thin polymer shell. an immediate acetone bath could remove the polymer, though it would likely be a sticky mess and there are other problems such as severe skin dehydration that might result. the only good thing here is that super glue is likely never left in open containers, else the whole batch will start to polymerize and you will ruin the product. i would still exercise caution around the stuff though. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanoacrylate"
] | [
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|
how does nasa's equation for transit duration make sense? | i was looking at nasa's page on the kepler satellite, and it seems like the units of their transit duration equation, shouldn't work out. _url_1_ is this just a simplified equation that doesn't show all of the units? where can the "hours" unit come from? it says that a is calculated with p^2, which is the orbit period of the planet in years, but i can't get that to work out in my layman's equations. the full page is here: _url_0_ any help would be appreciated! | i don't understand why they say m* is the mass of the star. kepler's third law is p^2 = k*a^3 where k is a constant _for the same planetary system_. using newton's laws we can see that k = (4\pi^2 )/(gm) where g is the gravitational constant and m is the mass of the star. knowing the period and distance from the star you can work out the mass of the star. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://kepler.nasa.gov/Science/about/characteristicsOfTransits/",
"http://kepler.nasa.gov/images/mws/kepler00.gif"
] | [
"http://www.studyphysics.ca/newnotes/20/unit02_circulargravitation/chp08_space/lesson34.htm"
] | [
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are there any know instances of aerial filter feeders, or is filter-feeding restricted to marine/freshwater environments? | a question from my son. he suggests that filtering airborne particulate matter, pollen, midges and like that might perhaps be a viable ecological niche, but i cannot think of a single example. any ideas? | the closest thing i can come up with are some types of [carnivorous plants](_url_0_), but i don't think that's quite what you're looking for..... | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivorous_plant#Flypaper_traps"
] | [
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] |
need help interpreting a paper on psychology/neurology. | here is the paper (in pdf form): _url_0_ what i have difficulty understanding is the term "sre" or "shared representations of emotions". the contexts that the term is used in don't make sense to me and i would really like to know what the term really means. a google search shows no relevant links using the term. any help? thanks in advanced! | "feeling an emotion and observing someone else displaying the same emotion activate the same cortical representation." for example, when you see someone that's happy, the same areas of your brain are activated as when you yourself are happy. "representation" meaning the display of activated regions of your brain. | 2 | [] | [
"http://hal.inria.fr/docs/00/16/95/90/PDF/empathy_novartis.pdf"
] | [] | [
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can someone please explain in layman's terms what exactly is the science behind this study? (genetics) | thanks! | i work in this field, so i can take a stab at it (explaining how these methods actually work, and what razib's post means), but first i want to ask: what's your background in this area? if i say "hardy-weinberg equilibrium" does that mean anything to you? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to scare poop out of someone? | [removed] | according to [this article](_url_0_), yes. one said that digested food is considered non-vital by the fight or flight response so one can can immediately discard them when the need arises. digestive responses are also linked to anxiety and fear, according to another. just like one can wet their pants when scared/shocked, one can also do #2. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://adventure-journal.com/2013/02/can-you-really-poop-your-pants-because-of-fear/"
] | [
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] |
how do these "cells in micro pyramids" circumvent existing problems in studies of cell 3d conformation? | [this article](_url_0_) claims that the development of "cages" for cells will allow the study of their 3d properties and interactions more adequately. there are two points that make me doubt the validity of such claim: * **cell imaging at that level requires the use of electron microscopy**: this means that they'll be looking at dead cells anyway. * **manipulation of surfaces at that level is not novel**: if i'm not mistaken, the possibility of ridge-like patterns that are thin enough for individual cells to fall into is not new (and this would actually allow for cell interactions at distances closer to those *in vivo* too). i've seen this article posted in quite a few places, so i can only assume it *has* very relevant consequences. can anyone help me understand them? | i do not have full access to the original article, but to clear a few things up: - the cells used are [bovine chondrocytes](_url_0_), they can be observed with a normal microscope. electron microscopy was used in the article, to get a good overview of the setup (...and because it looks cool ;) ). - the novelty in this case is not the micromanipulation of surfaces, but rather the usage of a 3d-cage in which the cells can grow. the cells might behave differently, if they can attach to surfaces in all 3 dimensions - and this can have an influence on their development. so its a new culturing technique. /edited for clarification | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121121130701.htm"
] | [
"http://www.astartebio.com/bovine-chondrocytes"
] | [
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if the neural connections in your brain were graphed as a tree, how deep would said tree be? | i know that the brain has 100 billion or so neurons, each with 7000 or so connections, however, this does not give me the 'depth' of a brain. eg. how many neurons would an electrical signal pass through (on a single path) between my motor cortex and my finger? | from mechanoreceptors in your finger to somatosensory cortex, i would guess there are maybe five synapses, at most - one in the spine, then another or two or three in the brain stem, then a thalamic nucleus, then cortex. output (from motor cortex to finger) is similar, but i know little about it. i can remember reading that there are neurons in motor cortex that run all the way down the spinal cord, so there may be just one or two synapses between motor cortex and motor neurons (driving muscles). i know more about the visual system; from photoreceptor to primary visual cortex, there are four synapses. photoreceptors synapse on bipolar cells in the retina (modulated by horizonal cells), the bipolar cells synapse on ganglion cells (modulated by amacrine cells), the ganglion cell axons run all the way into the midbrain where they synapse on thalamic neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus (modulated by feedback from cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain), and the axons of those lgn neurons run into primary visual cortex. from primary visual cortex (or somatosensory cortex), you can get just about anywhere else in the cerebral cortex in just a few more synapses, and this is what happens when you seen an object; but most of these connections are branches out from primary cortex, happening in parallel (and looping back on eachother). at this point i'm guessing, but i would say that the typical perceptual or cognitive act consists of activity through a network a couple dozen layers deep at any point in the graph, but with those layers varying in function at different points. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm interested in how happy scientists are | bsch in physics with a specialization in astrophysics. just about finished my first year of an msc in astrophysics. now that i'm done classes for the year, somewhere between 8 and 9. i'd say i reached 10 while on my first research trip in december. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would the cross sectional shape of a wire (circular, square, or even star) make a big impact on how electricity flowed through it? | i read that most of the current flows near the surface of a wire due to [eddy currents and the skin effect.](_url_0_) what would happen if you changed the shape of the wire? | the currents would probably be pushed into the areas farthest from the center, i.e. into the corners of the cross-section (the corners of the square or the triangle, whatever the cross-section is). that is only applicable to higher frequency alternating current though. for dc nothing like that happens, the current just flows though the whole cross section equally. | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.elektrisola.com/fileadmin/webdata/Pics/Litzwire/Stromverdraengung_englisch.png"
] | [] | [
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we know it's possible to accelerate a body through spacial dimensions, but can we do the same through temporal dimensions? | assuming that space and time are somewhat linked, is there an equivalent force to g-forces experienced during the former? | yes and no. the easiest way to describe it is that objects move in space time at constant "speed" c (speed of light), and that space and time are two orthogonal dimensions of the same thing. so in order for you to accelerate in "space", you slow down in "time", that's what happens with time dilation at speeds that approach c. the fastest you can go in time is if you are not moving in space, in which case you are moving at 1 s/s. so yes, you can accelerate in time with respect to another reference frame, but that acceleration seems to only be negative, so you can slow down in time by moving faster in space with respect to the observer reference frame. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is it possible that steel and concrete have the same thermal expansion rate? | steel and concrete don't have exact coefficents of linear thermal expansion, but iron and concrete have similar coefficients. from [this data page](_url_0_), concrete is 12e-6/c, while iron is 11.8e-6/c, which is why iron rebar is used with concrete. this is convenient coincidence, which causes any stresses caused by thermal change to be well within the factor of safety the structure is designed for. just for reference, the coefficient of stainless steel is 17.3e-6/c. edit: fixed my link | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansion#Thermal_expansion_coefficients_for_various_materials"
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|
what mechanically causes the decrease in blood flow to extremities? | is it just that capillaries in the extremities are not wide enough to allow flow through when constricted? is this an evolutionary trade-off? | mechanically, the decrease in blood flow to the extremities is due to constriction of blood vessels. capillaries don't constrict, because there is very little control on them. it is mostly precapillary arterioles and precapillary valves. there are a few reasons that constriction occurs (autoregulation and autonomic stimulation being the big ones). there is definitely an evolutionary trade-off. our extremities are the least important part of our body when it comes to survival, the most important being our heart, lungs, and brain. by constricting peripheral blood vessels and lowering blood flow to extremities there is more blood sent to the core as well as less heat loss. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are q-balls and how do they work? (in layman's terms) | a friend of mine recently brought up q-balls when we were discussing theoretical physics. i read a bit about them and still don't truly understand them. can any kind fellow out there help me out? for those of you who have no clue what i am talking about: _url_0_ thanks! edit: thanks to both of you for input and i do most certainly feel that i have a better understanding now! | this is not an easy subject to address in non-technical terms, but i'll try. in particle theory, we describe things with fields. fields are things which can take different values at different points in space and time. suppose we have a field theory with a charge that is conserved, but for which there is no force associated with that charge. then the lowest energy state you can come up with for a given charge will be stable, since you can't reduce the energy and keep the charge the same. in some field theories, you can write down a classical field configuration with is essentially a ball in space. throoughout the whole ball, the field has the same value at any time, but the particular value oscillates sinusoidally by going repeatedly around a circle of values. it turns out that such a configuration has a non-zero charge, and, if the potential energy function (or, equivalently, the forces) in the theory has the right form, this configuration will have the lowest energy of any configuration of that charge. this ball is called a *q-ball*. now enter quantum mechanics. quantum mechanics says these fields can also make particles. the amazing thing that can happen is that when the q-ball is stable classically, it is also the case that the particles have a higher amount of energy per unit charge than the q-ball, so that even in the quantum version of the theory, q-balls are still stable. (the name is on a pun on the phrase "cue ball," based on the fact that charge is typically labeled by the letter *q*.) there are some refinements i could add, but that's the basic idea. these have never been seen in nature; in fact, they'd be very hard to produce, because they are large, coherent (oscillating in sync) objects. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-ball"
] | [] | [
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physics question here | this is a question i have been pondering for quite some time. i cannot prove my hypothesis using physics and i need your help! hypothesis: a head on collision between two cars is much more deadly than if a single car were to hit an unmovable object. hypothetical question: what is the force, acceleration, or/and impulse experienced by the driver of each car in each situation: 1. two identical cars, head on collision, each car traveling at a rate of 60ft/s 2. a third identical car hits an unmovable, incompressable, big ass wall, at 60 ft/s go ahead an change it to m/s or whatever to make it easier. | they are equivalent situations. this is, of course, assuming the cars are exactly the same mass and are exactly head on collisions. of course, real collisions are normally not perfectly head on, so they other things can happen. but let's look at the perfect scenario. imagine two cars, one at position +x traveling to the left at -v and one at position -x traveling to the right at +v. they will meet in the middle, at position 0. after the collision, both cars will come to a complete stop, as required by the conservation of momentum, and they will crush and their center of mass must remain at location 0. so, they will decelerate- and this deceleration is what causes damage. now imagine your second scenario, with one car at +x going -v, and a wall, at 0, not moving. notice, everything will end up the same. the car comes to a stop, it's center of mass ends up at the same position, in the same time, so the same deceleration. thus, equivalent situations. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i were to 'mark' a blood cell leaving the heart, how long would it take to reach the heart again? | it would vary quite a bit depending on the exact path that blood cell took, but *on average* it would take about minute or so for a given blood cell to cycle back to the heart. maybe a bit less. an health adult human has about 5.6 liters of blood in them, and an ordinary human heart has a stroke volume of about 70 milliliters, and a standard resting heart rate is somewhere in the range of 60-100 beats per minute. sources: _url_0_ _url_1_ | 130 | [] | [] | [
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what do you call an image of an electrophoresis gel - specifically sds-page? (sec., chromatogram, electropherogram, etc) | is there a more concise way to refer to an sds-page gel image? what about a dna gel? electropherogram is not the correct term... thanks | since they are just taken with a regular camera, it really is just an "image of a gel". that said, describing them is necessarily complicated and we rarely refer to them as anything specific. when sds-page or dna gels are shown in literature it's customary to mention the type of stain used and the sample. a typical example would be something like: * "silver stained sds-page gel of *e. coli* cytoplasmic proteins" * "ethidium bromide stained agarose gel of pcr amplicons" | 6 | [] | [] | [
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how does a small gust of wind measure eye pressure? | i went to get my eyes checked about a week ago, and part of the (many) procedures was checking my eye pressure. a machine was put close to my eye and a small puff of wind was blown against my eye. predictably, this caused me to reflexively close my eyes. how could a gust of wind determine my eye (intraocular?) pressure? | this is known as [ocular tonometry](_url_1_). the basis of the measurement is something called the [imbert-fick "law"](_url_0_) which basically says that when you have a spherical thin membrane filled with liquid, then the amount of pressure required to flatten a given area on the surface of the sphere can be related to the pressure of the liquid in the sphere. the pulse of air flattens the cornea and the area flattened is measured by an optical sensor and correlated with the force of the puff of air to calculate the pressure. it is not especially accurate though. even goldman contact tonometry (which is supposed to be better than puff tonometry) will measure different pressures on different people with the same intraocular pressure. there are various reasons - the primary one being a large difference in the thickness of the cornea from person to person. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imbert-Fick_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_tonometry"
] | [
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are pterodactyl bones mostly cancellous? | in my anatomy course, we were discussing cortical bone and cancellous bone. my professor brought up that a lot of flying animals have a lot of cancellous bones in their body in order to lower the weight of their skeletons in order to be more efficient for flight. if this is the case, has it been found that flying dinosaurs have more cancellous bones than non-flying dinosaurs? did this make flying dinosaurs weaker predators for bigger land prey? | 1) pterodactyls are not dinosaurs. they are pterosaurs, an offshoot of archosauria, but not part of dinosauria. they are more like dinosaur cousins. they did live in the mesozoic, but that does not make them a dinosaur. 2) yes, pterosaur bones were exceptionally thin, hollow, and light. practically paper-thin walls in some cases. this affects their preservation, and many pterosaur bones are found totally crushed. 3) most (but not all) of the pterosaurs we know of were largely coastal, and probably fed on fish and other sealife. probably didn't go after "bigger land prey" very much. for one, pteorsaurs were exceptionally light, with even the largest barely weighing more than the largest modern (flying) birds. being too heavy makes flight all that much harder. 4) flying dinosaurs--birds--do have thin-walled hollow bones, but this trait actually long predates what most people would definitively call birds, and is common to one extent or another in many coelosaurid theropods (and maybe even earlier). | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the phase velocity of a signal in a transmission line dependent on the frame of reference? | say the dielectric constant is very high so that the phase velocity is much slower than the speed of light and that the transmission line is on a train moving at 100km per hour. if the signal is propagating in the same direction as the train, would an observer on the ground see the signal propagate at a higher velocity than someone on the train? or would they both see the signal propagating at the same speed? | the phase velocity is ω/k. the angular frequency and wave vector are the components of a four-vector, so they obey the lorentz transformation laws. if you individually transform ω and |**k**| according to some lorentz transformation (for example, a boost in the x direction), you’ll see that ω’/k’ does not equal ω/k in general. so the phase velocity is different in different frames. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if brownian motion is ceaseless, why can't it be harvested for energy? | if the entire device is at the same temperature, any work done will move randomly back and forth, and therefore will not be useful work, and thus cannot be used to provide energy. anything that is completely random isn't able to be used for energy, essentially. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
throwing boiling water into -41 c air - what is going on here? | _url_0_ | when near-boiling water is thrown, it breaks up into much smaller droplets than cold water because it is much less viscous and has a lower surface tension. these small droplets have a much higher surface area in contact with the extremely cold air, and so have time to freeze before they hit the ground. doing the same thing with cold water would not work because cold water would tend to stick together in very large drops, and so will not have time to freeze substantially before hitting the ground. [source](_url_0_) | 181 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/YcK9GZWUWqc"
] | [
"http://www.physlink.com/Education/AskExperts/ae7.cfm"
] | [
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stubborn water condensation that resists being wiped away - what's special about it, or the conditions that make it? | hi. i have a car that i park at work every day, and i often leave later than most (say... 8-10pm or later). this is in northern california, but not in a foggy, humid area. my wipers are in good condition - they have no real problem with wiping off rain with the exception of a few streaks and spots. i sometimes get condensation on the windshield when i leave at night, which, sometimes, the wipers also have no problem clearing. on some nights (i think the extra cold ones, but haven't been really scientific about it), i have really, really heavy condensation (not just a film of tiny droplets, but huge blobs of water and drops) that absolutely will not go away. wipe it off with the wipers and the condensation stays put. wipe my arm across it and like a quarter cup of water sloshes off but the windshield immediately recondenses and i end up with what looks like the same amount of water on there. the only away the condensation goes away is after a few minutes of (dangerous) highway driving with the heater on. (i don't know if it's the wind outside or the heat inside, but i assume it's a combination of both). anybody know what's going on here? what i think i know: condensation happens when warmer air with moisture in it contacts a colder surface. it makes sense why in a cold day, condensation will appear on the inside of a car when people are inside, making the air inside warm and hot, which contacts the very cold windshield. but i am unclear as to why the condensation appears on the outside of the windshield. one would expect that the windshield of the car should be either the same temperature as the outside air, or warmer, since the inside of the car was warmer for the entirety of the day. why would it cool off to colder than ambient air temperature at night? is the stubborn condensation just stubborn because the windshield is much, much, much colder than the outside air, so even after wiping off the liquid with the wipers or my arm, more water just instantly condenses on it afterwards? why would the temperature differential between the windshield and ambient air be different on different days? thanks. | spot on. this [wikipedia article](_url_0_) is quite a good start. there are 2 main mechanisms controlling the temperature of the windshield: heat transfer to/from the air, and heat transfer by radiation. start by assuming that the windshield is cooler than the air, and it is night time. when air touches the cold windshield, some of the heat from the air will warm up the windshield. but if wind is very gentle or non-existent, this effect will be very small, thus the windshield remains cold. if there's a continuous breeze, then the windshield will warm up to ambient temperature faster because air which was made cold by the windshield is continuously being replaced by fresh warm air to absorb more heat from the windshield. the other mechanism is radiation. all objects emit some radiation. the hotter it is, the more radiation it emits. this radiation carries away heat. in the afternoon, radiation from the sun heats up the windshield (until such a temperature that the heat going out of the windshield is the same as the heat going in). at night, there is no heat input so the windshield continuously cools down. this one mechanism which causes the windshield to be cooler than air. (i suck at explaining this bit. i'll leave you to read that wikipedia link, sorry) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dew"
] | [
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how scientifically founded is this: "bohm believes the reason subatomic particles are able to remain in contact with one another regardless of the distance separating them is not because they are sending some sort of mysterious signal back and forth, but because their separateness is an illusion." | in reference to _url_0_ is there any other serious scientists that truly believe we are living in a hologram/illusion? if so why has the general science not embraced this idea yet? | this hologram idea is developed starting at [bohmian mechanics](_url_0_), which constitute a *nonlocal* hidden variable model (and thus cannot be refuted by, e.g. bell's inequality) which so far has proven to be entirely consistent with observations. it's just somewhat contrived and might fail a close shave with occam's razor. on the other hand, that razor is more of a guideline than a good method to determine whether a particular theory is correct. "general" science does embrace these ideas: there are plenty of people studying the foundations of quantum mechanics and its interpretation. it's just not something that we really need to conduct our daily lab work which we get funded for. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.rense.com/general69/holoff.htm"
] | [
"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-bohm/",
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/q2/spooky_action_at_a_distance_the_nocommunication/",
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/q1/bells_theorem_no_epr_reality/",
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/r5/the_quantum_physics_sequence/"
] | [
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what causes people to be ambidextrous? | also, is it possible that humans will evolve so everyone is ambidextrous? | being ambidextrous isn't as useful as you think. it actually requires more energy to keep up, and more intricate brain organisation for basically nothing. instead of having a dominant brain hemisphere, and leaving the other one for different functions, you have both developing motoric lobes for better hand dexterity. hand dominance is a useful trait, that took a lot of years of evolution to acquire, to make the brain as effective as possible, so i dout that people would somewhat evolve backwards to regain ambidexterity. take it from an ambidexter, it's not that good. being able to write and do other stuff with both of your hands doesn't give you that many advantages, and you can't slack off when you have a hand injury, because you are expected to do everything anyways :d | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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all right askscience, let's talk about cooking | why do they say that adding something acidic (like vinegar or tomatoes) to you meat while it's cooking prevents it from getting softer? if this is the case, why do you marinade meat in vinegar in order for it to get more tender? also, when you make mayonnaise they say that you must add a bit of lemon juice (also acidic) to prevent it from "cutting"? can someone explain, in simple terms, what happens at a molecular level with things that are acidic and their interactions with non-acidic things? | i'm a food scientist, and i have to say i've never heard of either of these rules. can you give me a reference so i can see if they're even reliable sources? there's a lot of 'folk wisdom' in food that is really inaccurate. generally, though, when we add acids to food it's for one of three reasons: * flavor - the #1 reason, acids help enhance flavors by promoting the interaction between flavor molecules and your taste receptors. * preservation - low phs are dangerous or lethal to most pathogenic microorganisms, so acidifying foods is an easy and long-standing method of rendering them safe for consumption. * protein denaturation - proteins uncoil and coagulate in acid, which has much the same effect as the application of heat. ceviche is the classic example; toss fish in lime juice and watch the flesh change just as if you'd steamed it. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaise",
"http://www.jarvm.com/articles/Vol1Iss2/Polidori.htm",
"http://www.bsas.org.uk/downloads/annlproc/Pdf2001/239.pdf"
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what do the features of an electromagnetic wave diagram represent? | i'm a layperson who has recently become interested in the nature of electromagnetic radiation. based on my own internet research, it seems that physicists generally define electromagnetic radiation as self-propagating magnetic and electric fields that oscillate perpendicular to one another. this was a common diagram used to visualize the phenomenon: _url_0_ now, in some ways these kinds of diagrams only served to confuse me so i was hoping someone with an understanding of physics could help me sort through a few questions i have in regards to this diagram. 1. what do the vectors represent? are they merely representations of the strength of the magnetic or electric field at some moment in time? 2. are the z, b, and e axes all direction in three dimensional space? or is this diagram more like a graph with the b and e axes representing values of some sort? if the latter is the case, then what does it mean that the fields are perpendicular to each other? 3. in order for the magnetic and electric fields to affect a charged particle, would the charged particle need to be situated along the z axis (hit by the electromagnetic wave directly)? or would a charge particle be caught up in the field somewhere on the z-b and z-e plane as well (assuming those axes do represent positions in three dimensional space)? or, even if they don't represent positions, what is the extent of the fields created by the electromagnetic radiation? how close would a charged particle need to be to the actual line the wave is traveling along in order for it to be affected? 4. how would this manifest in reality? if there were a charged particle on the z-axis, how would it react to the oscillating intensity of the magnetic and electric field? would it bob up and down along the e-axis? how would the magnetic field affect it? i think my problem stems from a weak understanding of "fields" in general. are fields planar? or are they 3-dimensional? if they can be perpendicular to each other, i assume that each field itself must be planar but i wonder if that is just a consequence of the way the diagram is composed or some misunderstanding on my part coming from the idea of lines of force seen in some field diagrams. this is very frustrating to me, so i hope someone can help! | first things first: the electric and magnetic fields are *vector fields*. this means that their value is described by both a number and a direction at every point in space. they are not "planar" or "linear" in the sense that they do not live only on a plane or a line; they always live everywhere in space. they need not be *uniform* (i.e. that number and that direction doesn't have to be the same everywhere), and their value can be zero in some places, but they do have to have some value everywhere. 1. they represent the strength and direction of the magnetic or electric field at some moment in time at a point in space. which point that is is a matter of convention - the problem is that the field has a vector value at every point in space, but that is impossible to draw. 2. i don't like the way that this is drawn in this diagram. the axes should really all be labeled as spatial directions x,y,z, and the vectors themselves should be labeled as e and b. this would tell you that e always points in the +/- x direction, b in the +/-y direction, and the wave propagates in the z direction. 3. em fields have values everywhere in space. the wave is traveling along a direction everywhere; there is no special line. the values of e and b are drawn on a line just so that we can actually visualize it (the diagram would be a mess if we drew a vector at every point in space!). this isn't to say that the wave must be moving in the same direction at every point in space, but in the simplest case (called a plane wave), it is. 4. a charged particle on the z axis would bob up and down along the direction of the electric field and back and forth in the in the z direction. magnetic fields affect particles which are both charged and moving (in a direction that isn't along the magnetic field), so the fact that the electric field is making the particle move will mean that the magnetic field will also exert a force on the particle. | 3 | [] | [
"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/polarizedlight/emwave/electromagneticwavefigure1.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_wave"
] | [
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i know a biologically asexual reproducing woman. explain to me how this is possible. | first of all, if this anomaly actually happened, it is not asexual reproduction. she was still the result of her father and mother having sex and his sperm fertilizing her egg. also, humans have 23 chromosome pairs, not 25 (so a total of 46 not 50), so unless your friend is a zebrafish, pineapple, skunk, or fox, there are already major holes in this story. edit... what might have happened was [microchimerism](_url_0_) where a small amount of the mother's cells from the placenta are by freak occurrence absorbed into the fetus. these cells would multiply and therefore the resulting child would have their own dna (a mix of both parents) in some cells of their body, and just their mother's cells in other parts. it is *possible* this happened, and the dna test done only took a sample from cells that originated from the placental cells. the terminology of it being asexual reproduction and the genome count could be traceable to your friend misremembering what the doctors said back then and her lack of biological terminology knowledge. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchimerism"
] | [
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|
artist asks scientists; how can i make a large rigid panel for an unforgiving medium? | hi guys- i'm an artist who works in large format for my oils and acrylics. i'm learning encaustics now, but i'm limited in size because of science. encaustics are incredibly pliable and permanent, but because they are made primarily of beeswax and damar varnish they have to bond to an absorbent surface. therein lies the problem; how to construct a large flat surface that will take the wax without warping over time. sealing the back on reinforced cedar panels hasn't worked on panels larger than 24x36. any suggestions? | this could be a structural engineering problem more than a materials problem. i learned how to make lightweight rigid panels for my artwork after day-jobbing making architectural models. imagine your surface is the floor of a house. what keeps a floor from sagging or drooping under the weight of furniture and people? joists. joists are supports that are thin in one direction and wide in the other - typically 2x12 inches. they resist torque (bending) in the direction parallel to the wide side. so they are arranged under the floor with the thin sides on the top and bottom. they resist bending downward under the weight of the stuff above. build out the back side of your painting surface with joists. i would try something like 1/4 inch aircraft plywood. cut the plywood to the size of the painting surface, and using the same material cut 3-inch strips to make structural joists. the reason for using the same material is that all the parts will expand and contract the same under temperature and humidity changes. and of course you'll have to insert smaller pieces between the joists to hold them at 90 degrees to the back surface. adhere the parts with furniture glue and keep everything clamped and weighted till the glue is set. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the crater like thing surrounding the pupil of the eye? | [this thing.](_url_0_) | that contour you see in the iris that resembles a crater is made up of smooth muscles fibers which control pupil size. the predominant ones forming the circular shape are probably part of the sphincter pupillae muscle, which constricts the pupil. the other muscle present is the dilator pupillae, which consists of radially oriented fibers, like spoke in a wheel. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/oblBNsu"
] | [] | [
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how dirty are library books? | the stuff from which the pages are made, considering hundreds of people touched it and that they cannot be really cleaned up, is there any health risk? | i don't think there is any health risk, no. most bacteria don't thrive too much outside the human body (anywhere from like an hour to a day or two), especially on books, they need a certain level of humidity ( as long as you wash your your hands thoroughly after handling them everything should be fine. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do maxwell's equations predict radiation pressure? | maxwell predicted radiation pressure off of his set of equations. it was experimentally demonstrated in 1900, a few years before einstein's discovery of the photon and the birth of quantum mechanics. how is it derived just from maxwell's equations? edit: i'd like to add that einstein formulated relativity in the same _annus mirabilis_ as his discovery of the photon, 1905, so relativity isn't a solution. | it took a bit of searching. apparently it's called *maxwell-bartoli pressure* and the article on [bartoli](_url_0_) gives a little line about the argument. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolfo_Bartoli"
] | [
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is there a tangible benefit to taking a omega-3 dha supplement? | some friends of mine recently starting taking a large number of supplements, ranging from a multivitamin to b12. i have never taken anything other than a multivitamin, but was intrigued by a dha supplement that claimed to improve memory functions. is there any solid research that shows these types of supplements are beneficial? | it depends on how old you are. there was a study that came out last year that showed that patients over 55 did benefit from supplementation of dha to slow declining mental function: [journal of alzheimer's association study](_url_0_). i cant find any kind of evidence that dha would improve your baseline memory. this theory for why dha was beneficial in this study is that there is a decline in dha stores in older people i believe. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.alzheimersanddementia.com/article/S1552-5260%2810%2900040-3/abstract"
] | [
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i just did something amazing. can someone help me settle my disagreement with my wife iver just how amazing it was? | my wife and i were pulling m & ms out of a two pound bag of m & ms and trying to guess what color we had pulled out before looking at it. this quickly escalated to guessing pairs and then triplets. so, i would say, "blue, red, and red," and reach into the bag and pull out three. neither of us got the triplet but my wife guessed the pair three different times. she was getting braggy, so i declared, "i'm about to win the lottery!" i then called six colors (brown, brown, red, blue, green, and yellow). i closed my eyes and pulled six candies and holy mother of shat and fortune i pulled those six colors out. obviously, we both freaked out. now, i want to know what the probability is of doing this. my wife thinks it's 1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6 x 1/6, because there are six colors in the bag so each pull is a 1/6 chance to guess right assuming even distribution of colors. this puts it at about 1/46,656. i feel like it must be lower, because if i pulled six times, i might have pulled wrong one, but corrected it with the next pull. like the first pull could have been blue, not brown as i was guessed first, then the second pull could have been brown to "fix" the first one. since i'm drawing six, wouldn't it increase the chances of getting each one right? right? maybe? help! | you're not accounting for reordering. for a given string of six colors, there is a 1/46656 chance that you'll pull them *in that order*. but if you're just seeing if you match the colors that you say, you need to make each reordering of the same six to count as one. to do this, you need to compute 6!/6^(6). this is 5/324, which is about 1.5%. your wife got lucky, but not *that* lucky. also, [m & m colors are not uniformly distributed](_url_0_). | 46 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/6XLv27D"
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question regarding the physics of sitting down... | i actually tried google searching this for like 30min and i could find nothing more than exercise sites and, randomly, porn involving "sitting"...lol. quick question: when you sit down, is the full weight of the body sitting applied to the chair, or only the wieght of the sitter's torso doing the sitting, considering the ground is load bearing your legs. i'm looking at new office chairs, and noticed i weigh more than one of the chairs in my house is rating to load bear, and i got to thinking, and i have no idea how this works. | as others have said, some weight is resting on your feet. we could speculate as to the precise amount, but there is a really simple way to figure out--just grab a bathroom scale, sit in a chair how you typically would with your feet on the scale, and see how much the scale reads. that much weight is on your feet. the amount will vary by person (i, for example, prefer to sit in a very reclined position, taking most of the weight off of my feet), but this will give you accurate data for *you*. that said, though, i suspect that an office chair has already taken that effect into consideration when giving its weight ratings. if your full body weight is greater than the rated weight for a chair then i would not trust that chair. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how will we know when we reach perfect values for physical constants that require measurement like g or e-? | *e* does not require measurement because it is has a precise mathematical definition. *g* does, but it is not possible to achieve infinite accuracy. there is always *some* error. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it true that energy transfer during running "cannot be properly measured or currently understood"? | i have been reading about the issue of oscar pistorius and the decision of the cas regarding his eligibility for the current olympic games. this issue basically revolves around his use of the cheetah flex-foot prosthetic device, and whether or not that gives him an advantage over runners who do not use such devices. the entire paper describing the decision and events leading up to it is quite interesting overall (link at end of post), but my attention was particularly drawn to a paragraph near the end of the paper, which states the following (note that the following quote was typed by myself, since the pdf seems to be copy-protected): > 96\. in addition, while the cologne report found less energy loss in the *cheetah flex-foot* prosthesis than in the human ankle, the scientific experts all agreed that the energy "lost" in the ankle could be transferred elsewhere in the body, through tendons, ligaments and muscles etc, because the body does not like to lose energy. they agreed that such a transfer cannot be properly measured or currently understood. thus, based on current scientific knowledge, it appears to be impracticable to access definitively whether the *cheetah flex-foot* prosthesis acts as more than, or less than, the human ankle and lower leg, in terms of "spring-like" quality. i'd like to know whether the physics and medicine experts here would generally agree with this statement. i'm wondering if such measurements could in fact be made by measuring the amount of force transmitted to the ground (or something like a treadmill rigged with sensors), the amount of heat generated by the static and kinetic forces on the sole of the shoe (or bottom of the device that contacts the ground), and so on. given all the technology available to us in the present day, i'd be surprised if this was impossible to accurately measure. link to document: _url_0_ | designed systems tend to be a lot simpler than evolved ones. yes, it's very tough to account for the elastic modulus of every tendon, bone, ligament, and morsel of cartilage in a human leg, and then model how they all push and pull on one another during a stride. i think people have done some work on horses, in which case evolution has pushed the structures in question toward a much simpler configuration. dynamics problems are dramatically easier to solve if only one element of each type (tensile, compressive) is in each section of the structure; computing the dynamic balance among several passive components is difficult enough, but a living creature also has some reflexes that impose active control to transfer loads among structural elements...kind of a headache. | 3 | [] | [
"http://web.archive.org/web/20080529024602/http://www.tas-cas.org/d2wfiles/document/1085/5048/0/Pistorius+award+(scanned+published+on+CAS+website).pdf"
] | [
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/107/6/1918.full"
] | [
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if i would create a regular sized bowl with a hole the size of one water molecule in the bottom, how long would it take for me notice water outside the bowl? | i'm going to ignore single molecule wall and capillary effects as i honestly don't know how to model those in such a situation. therefore we need to just assume some kind of flow rate through that orifice. for simplicity lets start with 1 molecule per second. i'll go ahead and say you might be able notice water down there when there is about 1 milliliter of water that has escaped through the hole . 1 ml water is 1 g water is 18 g/mol that escaped water is 0.06 moles of water. 1 mole of water is 6.022 x 10^23 molecules. that 1 ml of water is therefore 3.35 x 10^22 molecules. at 1 molecule per second this would then take 3.35 x 10^22 seconds with ~32 x 10^6 seconds in a year that would be 1.05 x 10^15 years, or 1,050,000,000,000,000 years. the age of the universe is approximately 13,800,000,000 years. that means for 1 ml of water to escape through that bowl at a rate of 1 molecule per second it would take 76,000 times as long as the universe has been around so far. you can surely adjust those flow numbers up to get the time down, but you better adjust them upwards by something at least 10-20 orders of magnitude before you even begin to think you might be able to compete with how fast that water will evaporate once it goes through the hole. also, i probably missed a couple zeroes in these calculations, i apologize for any errors but i'm not sure it makes any real difference. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaporin",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC151002/#__sec3title"
] | [
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|
benificial autocanibalistism in extreme survival situation? | so the hypothetical situation is this: you are stranded on a rock in the middle of the ocean with no food (this includes a lack of all flora and fauna inhabitting said rock) but ample rainwater. the rock has worn away in a manner where it is impossible to fish without permanently returning to the ocean, which would be a problem if you had a boat but you don't. given that you have the supplies and know how to amputate a limb with minimum loss of blood, and nullify any infection would there be any benefit in doing so and eating said limb? i know this is kind of strange but once a question pops in my head it is hard to let go... | layman here but this is an easy one to tackle. your cells do that automatically as part of their normal metabolic processes: they often breaks down complex molecules they're "made of" to extract energy in order to sustain themselves if the calories intake is insufficient (some cell cannibalism/dead cell recycling is also involved). that's why you get thinner after not eating. severing a limb would definitely be far less efficient than that. one may argue that it would save on future energy consumption (less body mass to maintain) but, given the short time you'd have left, energy expenditure for just shock+healing would vastly outweight the benefits. that aside, your body cannot synthesize essential amino acids, minerals and so on. your severed limb would be out of those much needed substances just as much as the rest of your body would be. there are probably tons of other implications a qualified panelist would mention (and i hope some will turn up). | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any animals (other than humans) who may take environmental factors into consideration before reproducing? | humans often take money, living conditions or their lifestyle into account before having a baby, however are there any other animals who take things like surrounding predators or access to food/water into consideration before reproducing? | if you think about your question in the general sense, it would be difficult to find a species that does *not* reproduce only in favorable environments. for example, when c. elegans roundworms are in an environment lacking food, they will develop into "dauers," which are basically the worm equivalent of a spore. they become heat-resistant, dessication-resistant, aging-resistant, etc., and do not need to eat for up to a month (or more?). they move around until they find an environment that does have food (like a rotting apple), then continue their normal development program and create tons of babies. evolutionarily, there's no point having children if they are sure to perish. most organisms have a similar program to worms in which they delay the normal reproductive process if environmental conditions are unfavorable (usually meaning low food), although the ability of mammals to delay this process is more subtle than something like the dauer stage described above. conversely, consider that if the environment *is* favorable it is in the best interests of the organism to reproduce as quickly and as often as possible. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does energy also follow the law of gravitation? if so, have we observed this happening either directly or indirectly? | yes, we can observe this happening with light from distant stars and galaxies. when a very massive object is in or near the path between the source of that light and earth, the image of the distant star/galaxy is distorted by the gravity of the massive object. this phenomenon is called "gravitational lensing". | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
force carriers | i'm a bit confused as to how force carriers work. it is my understanding that forces exist because of the exchange of gauge bosons. but how do these exchanges occur? does an electron (which has electric charge), for instance, constantly emit photons (the mediator of the electromagnetic force) every which way? does it emit a single photon in the presence of another particle that also has an electric charge? | you asked about virtual particles before,and i [gave](_url_0_) a brief explanation then. but i'll try again. starting with standard quantum mechanics: say you want to solve the schrödinger equation for a helium atom. you can't do that, because the electron-electron interaction makes it analytically unsolvable. (here, we're just using an entirely classical coulomb potential. so the electrical force is infinitely fast and there are no virtual photons or anything) but without the e-e interaction, you can solve, since that's just a hydrogenic atom. so what you can do then, is solve it that way, and use your hydrogenic 'non-interacting' states as a _basis_. a set of functions which you use to describe your real wave function. using a mathematical method known as perturbation theory, you can then re-introduce the interaction and get an approximation of the real wave function, expressed in terms of your basis. so you're basically calculating a set of 'corrections' to your original function in terms of contributions from the other, excited states of the 'non-interacting' function. in theory, you'd need to calculate the contributions from _every_ state, of which there are of course an infinite number, but in practice, the series converges quickly, as long as the interaction is small. this is a common textbook example of how to apply perturbation theory. (usually they only go with the first-order correction) now if you skip ahead to the advanced subject of quantum field theory, a lot of stuff is different; for instance you're describing your system with a lagrangian instead of a hamiltonian, and don't really have a wave function in the ordinary sense. the problem you're typically trying to solve is a scattering problem; say, two electrons scattering off each other. and now, you don't have a classical field, but a fully quantum-mechanical, relativistic one. so now you have a third quantum object involved, namely the em field. in a manner analogous to the quantum harmonic oscillator, the em field also has quantized states. which is what photons are. just like with they helium atom, the interactions are causing a problem. because you have the electrons interacting with the field, and the field interacting back with the electrons. again, you take the same perturbation approach and describe the interactions in terms of these kinds of non-interacting states. i.e. "bare particles" and the "vacuum field". here you run into a problem - which is that some of the integral terms in the perturbation series diverge; they have infinite energy. this was solved by 'renormalization', which basically amounted to ignoring them. (which was controversial, but works) richard feynman came up with a set of 'rules', through which you could draw schematic diagrams (feynman diagrams), which represented the perturbation terms that contributed to the result. the connections in the diagram tell you what the integral you needed to calculate looked like. and since that integral is expressed in terms of excited states of your field and particles, it can be _interpreted_ as interactions between these 'virtual' excited states, and in the case of the field a state equals a particles, so 'virtual particles' then. so you draw your feynman diagrams to know which terms you want to include (to whatever accuracy you want your result), and you calculate those integrals, and you get your result. again, you'd need an infinite number, in-principle, but seldom need more than a handful. so in the jargon of qft and particle physics, they often talk about interactions as occurring in terms of virtual particle interactions. because that's what the mathematics of perturbation theory "looks like". but does that mean the perturbation series is _actually_ a causal description of how the interaction occurs? not really; it's a way of visualizing it in simpler terms. there isn't actually such a thing as a 'non-interacting' particle. it's the _sum_ of the series, not the individual terms, that is measurable. there are also non-perturbative field theories which describe the same things without involving virtual particles in any sense. on the other hand, 'virtual' particles and virtual states do represent _something_. just as they do in the original helium example. because they're not arbitrary, just idealized; they're determined by intrinsic properties of the field (or in the helium case, of how electrons act). photon properties reflect how the em field works, and so the interactions of virtual particles reflect the properties of em interactions. that's basically all people are saying when they say that em interactions are 'mediated' by virtual particles, though. it's an interpretation, a way of visualizing the interaction. but if you follow what i just said, you'll realize it's not at all as 'deep' as it sounds. a particle (real or virtual) and its field are not actually distinct things. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mfxun/the_speed_of_light_permeabilitypermittivity/c30llae"
] | [
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in scientific modelling (that involves a large set of entities), why is it valid to suppose that we have a homogeneous sample? | i was reading a paper about breach probability for network nodes and they were supposing that all nodes are identical to make it simple. are the result we get from this model useful and valid? and is their a mathematical proof to back it up? i was thinking that maybe they take the smallest entity and consider that all bigger entities can be converted to that small entity (example: smallest entity is a person using computer at home, and then large data centers can be just considered like just 2000 desktop computers) and then we can only talk about desktop computers and say everything is identical. thanks for your time. | part of this comes down to a philosophical question about what scientific models are. the standard answer a scientist will give you is to quote statistician george e.p. box: "all models are wrong, but some are useful." scientific models are based on assumptions. these models make predictions about the behavior of whatever system they're supposed to model. if the data disagree with those predictions, that tells you at least one of your assumptions is wrong in a significant way. if they don't, that doesn't mean the assumptions are *right*––in fact, strictly speaking, they probably are not––but you do have a little more justification for accepting that they're close to correct. think about it this way. let a be a set of assumptions of a model and e be a prediction. a entails e. suppose you fail to observe e: ~e therefore entails ~a, so at least one of your assumptions is significantly wrong. on the other hand, e does not entail a. however, by bayes' theorem, e makes a more likely to be true. so observing e does not mean a is right, but it does give you more confidence in a. i don't know a whole lot about networks, but the assumption of identical nodes is probably in the context of a null model. observed deviations from the null model's predictions tell you that at least one of the model's assumptions does not describe the network under consideration. your nodes might be different in some significant way, or some other feature of the network might not be germane to the model. this is basically how all frequentist statistical testing works: if the data are extremely unlikely (or the value of some summary statistic is extremely unlikely) given the null hypothesis, you reject the null hypothesis. you might not know *which* part of the null hypothesis you're supposed to reject, but careful experimental design is supposed to single out some aspect of it. here's a simple example from biology. suppose we assume that bacteria grow continuously, and the rate at which a colony grows is proportional to its size. let n be a colony's size and t be time relative to the present. then dn/dt = rn where r is a constant. this has a well known solution, n(t) = ce^rt , where c = n(0), the current size. suppose you start a colony in a petri dish. much to your dismay, you discover that while its early growth agrees quite well with this model, its later growth peters out: it now occupies most of the space in the dish and has consumed most of the medium. there's a density-dependent limiting factor: the growth rate is better thought of as not only proportional to the size but also to the number of bacteria currently in the dish, as well as some kind of carrying capacity. a model like dn/dt = rn(1-n/k), with k a carrying capacity, is probably a better fit (and still not a perfect one: the colony's size will eventually decline, since the medium doesn't replenish). in this way, your assumption of constant growth rate was wrong. now suppose you start a different colony. you check the dish tomorrow, and the bacteria are dead. this is because the assumption of continuous growth is wrong. bacteria grow discretely: there's no such thing as "fractional" bacteria. moreover, birth and death are somewhat random, and at low population sizes, stochastic effects due to this randomness become important, meaning a population can occasionally die out randomly. something like a branching process model might be more appropriate to describe them. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could we model expansion of ideologies or ideas like we model epidemics? | i'd be interested in having some insight as how things like "pro-change movements", trends in fashion, changes in customs, or even extremist ideologies like those of isis play on a large scale. | yes we can. a small but persistent minority of social scientists have been interested in formal, quantitative models of cultural transmission since the late 70s, albeit often in isolation and under a number of slightly different schools. the first suggestion that the spread of ideas could be formally modelled was richard dawkins' well known *meme* concept. as he defined it in *the selfish gene* (1976), a meme is the cultural equivalent of a gene – a discrete unit of information that is transmitted between human brains. but dawkins never intended memes to be much more than an illustrative analogy and never really pursued it as a systematic field of study. the closest he came was a short 1991 paper, *[viruses of the mind](_url_0_)*, where he suggested one reason religious ideologies are so common is that the memes that compose them are particularly good at spreading. but he never got as far as formally modelling this process. there was an abortive attempt to pursue "memetics" as a field of study in the late 1990s, by a somewhat ragtag group including [parapsychologist susan blackmore](_url_6_) (*the meme machine*) and the [original creator of microsoft word](_url_1_) (another *viruses of the mind*), but this didn't go much beyond restating and elaborating on dawkin's analogy and again didn't involve any formal modelling. it fizzled out, and the main reason the meme concept still has so much traction is the cache it has in popular culture – it's often remarked that memetics is not great science but is a very good meme. a less well known but more substantial approach to cultural transmission can be traced back to seminal works by cavelli-sforza and feldman (1981) and boyd and richerson (1985). both books developed theoretical frameworks for modelling the spread of cultural transmission that borrowed heavily from population genetics and evolutionary biology (cavalli-sforza is a population geneticist who studied under the father of evolutionary statistics, r. a. fisher; feldman and richerson are both computational biologists; boyd is an evolutionary anthropologist). and the latter especially focused on how culture forms a parallel darwinian inheritance system closely intertwined with the more familiar genetic one. these basic models (well, i say basic – both sets of authors couldn't resist exploring the theory of cultural transmission well beyond our ability to empirically verify it even now) have been quietly built upon by the authors and a small group of other social scientists since, under unmemelike names like gene-culture coevolution and [dual inheritance theory](_url_3_). a good readable introduction to this school of thought is richerson and boyd's *not by genes alone*. there's another school, associated with french anthropologist dan sperber, that's worth mentioning because it explicitly uses the analogy with epidemics you asked about. the difference between sperber's "epidemiology of representations" and american cultural transmission theory is that, as in the study of disease, the nature of the ecologies through which the replicator spreads (in this case human brains) is seen as just as important as the dynamics of transmission. sperber and the french school have concentrated on the investigating the quirks of human cognitive "ecology" that produce universal biases in culture, and haven't devoted so much energy to quantitative models (not that they are in any way exclusive). still, some very interesting findings on cognitive affects on ideology have come out of this school – see in particular scott atran and pascal boyer's work on the cognitive roots of religion (*in gods we trust*, *religion explained*). happily, in recent years these various schools have started to gain a bit more momentum and coalesce under the umbrella of "cultural evolution". an excellent book on this newly emerging field is *cultural evolution* by alex mesoudi. because a majority of cultural evolution theorists have backgrounds in anthropology, their work (when it isn't purely theoretical) tends to look at traditional or prehistoric societies rather than the more sociological questions you asked about. that said, a few studies have tried to apply cultural transmission theory to contemporary phenomena, mainly because it's so much easier to get data about them. alex bentley's work on drift models of things like [baby names](_url_5_), [dog breeds](_url_7_) and [academic vocabulary](_url_2_) spring to mind. there's also a wide literature on modelling cultural phenomena using phylogenetic (i.e. "family tree") methods from evolutionary biology, which has been applied to everything from prehistoric spear heads to folk tales. i'd particularly recommend [this recent paper](_url_4_) by jamie tehrani on the cultural evolution of *little red riding hood*. as much as i'm a fan it's still probably fair to say that the insights we've gained from cultural transmission modelling with respect to specific cultural phenomena have been quite modest. although they've been around in one form or another for decades, in many ways cultural evolution studies are only just starting to get off the ground, and we're still in the stage of exploring first principles. the big questions are still quite a way off. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://vserver1.cscs.lsa.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Dawkins/viruses-of-the-mind.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Brodie_(programmer\\)",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0003057",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0078871",
"http://sites.bio.indiana.edu/~hahnlab/Publications/HahnBentley2003.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Blackmore",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_5/S353.full.pdf"
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] |
how does being in space for months affect an astronaut's circadian rythm? | this is a question that is still being studied with astronauts on the iss as far as i can tell, but it seems like there is a negative impact on sleep patterns. humans have a natural circadian rhythm of just over 24 hours, and we're kept in sync with the actual length of days by the light/dark cycle of day and night. studies show that exposure to light at night, like from lamps or electronic screens, confuses the body and makes it harder to sleep. now consider the fact that astronauts experience a full day/night cycle in just 90 minutes as they orbit the earth. it's been found that [astronauts don't sleep enough](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.space.com/26829-astronauts-space-station-sleep-deprivation.html"
] | [
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|
what is the formula to convert gigabytes to gibibits and which is right, google or ddg? | as asked in title, and why does [google come up with 16 gib](_url_0_) and [ddg/wolframalpha come up with 14.9 gib](_url_1_)? | google is wrong, wolfram alpha is right. a gigabyte is 10^9 bytes. a gibibit is 2^30 bit. the giga- prefix is defined in base 10, the gibi- prefix in base 2. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.google.no/search?q=gibibit+converter&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a&channel=fflb#hl=en&client=firefox-a&hs=Qs9&rls=org.mozilla:en-US%3Aofficial&channel=fflb&sclient=psy-ab&q=2GB+in+gibibits&oq=2GB+in+gibibits&gs_l=serp.3...7493.7556.0.7996.2.2.0.0.0.1.137.225.1j1.2.0.les%3B..0.0...1c.1.W5sHBZsqL_E&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&fp=58f465a66cc1be8&biw=1280&bih=911",
"https://duckduckgo.com/?q=2GB+in+Gib"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_prefix"
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] |
do we have any idea what the infamous "bloop" was? | [this](_url_0_) | not a peer reviewed paper, but there probably isn't one on the subject. i'm likely to to get hit hard for this, but [here's a link](_url_1_) to a short (14:48) skeptical podcast on the subject. when approaching an unknown, we first have to establish that there's actually something requiring explanation. should we determine (after carefully ruling out all the obvious sources of error) that the anomaly really does appear to be something real, then we can look at various possible explanations, in an attempt to eliminate those things we understand fairly well, insofar as that is possible. if none of those are able to adequately explain the anomaly, we don't (or at least shouldn't) reach for an unknown as an explanation; that would constitute an argument from ignorance. we are left with "i don't know what happened." this might be unsatisfying for a fan of mystery stories, but it is nonetheless a wiser and more intellectually honest course of action, if you're willing to look at this from a scientific perspective. [tl;dr] there's no particularly good reason to assume it was a gigantic unknown creature, or cthulhu, or anything like that. it's an unknown, like [the wow signal.](_url_0_) that's about all we can say for sure. [a few edits for grammar and composition, and yes, i am indeed overly pedantic for doing so] | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloop"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wow_signal",
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4177"
] | [
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droughts and icecaps | why is it that we have droughts/reduced rainfall here in the uk while being told that the polar icecaps are receding? why does the increased amount of "liquid" water freed from, say, glacial melt and the polar regions not translate to increased rainfall? | just because it isn't raining on you doesn't mean it isn't raining somewhere else. moisture in the air also does not automatically equal rain. that would be humidity. it takes other weather patterns, frontal systems, etc to determine when and where rain falls from the sky. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if humanity disappeared from the face of the planet (a la "the quiet earth" or the rapture) how long would basic utilities (water, gas, electric) keep running on their own? (plus more questions) | how long would fuel stay good in gas station pumps? how long would it take for large scale agriculture animals like cows, pigs and chickens to die down or completely die off? how about for farming crops like corn? how long would it take for all traces of human civilisation to disappear from the surface of the planet due to natural forces like erosion and plant growth? i have read and watched a great deal of fiction that touch on these topics ([wastelands: stories of the apocalypse](_url_0_) was a great read). i'd like to know what would really happen if humanity just died off or seemingly disappeared from the face of the planet. | there was a whole show made about this called life after people. it's on netflix, can't find a link as i'm on my phone. the short answer to your question is: not very long. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastelands:_Stories_of_the_Apocalypse"
] | [] | [
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does anyone have any good books or articles about how to use the scientific method to make big life decisions? i.e. career decisions... | i'm not convinced that it's possible - at least, not using the scientific method as it's [typically taught](_url_0_), because that requires repeated observations and modifications of your hypothesis to fit the data. so, unless you're able to make your major life decisions repeatedly to compare outcomes, you may be out of luck. however, there are many mathematical and statistical tools commonly used in science that could be applied well. the first that comes to my mind is [bayesian statistics](_url_1_), which is a type of statistical analysis that requires large data sets but, unlike traditional statistics, *doesn't* necessarily require an experiment to be repeatable many times. it can be more readily applied to populations as the outcome of a single experiment. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_statistics"
] | [
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|
rhinoceros knees | the [wikipedia article on rhinos](_url_0_) opens with "rhinoceros, often abbreviated as rhino, is a group of five extant species of **knee-less**, odd-toed ungulates in the family rhinocerotidae." but when i look at [this picture](_url_1_) of a rhino skeleton, it looks like they have knees. is wikipedia wrong on this, or are what i think are knees not actually knees? | the patella is what most people would call the 'knee cap'. check [this](_url_3_) image. that's something the images of rhino skeletons i can find don't have. [horses are similiar](_url_2_) [history](_url_0_) camels and many ungulates have something called a [stifle joint](_url_1_) in their hind legs. it's possible that a rhino has this style of joint in it's forelimbs as well, but i can't find anything about that yet. **since the forelimbs are an evolutionary structure more similiar to our arms, and the bones are named to align with such, the forelimbs would contain an elbow in the middle, and a wrist at the distal end. the rear contains a stifle joint, not a knee, so i'm confident we can say they truly are knee-less** it appears that the joint functions in a structurally different manner as a result of ungulate evolutionary patterns. i definitely don't know much about rhino anatomy however, so hopefully someone more educated can contribute more information. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros",
"http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/images/White-rhino-skeleton_i1244128765.php?type=tax_images&taxon=5&sort_order=desc&sort_key=year"
] | [
"http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app46/app46-277.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stifle_joint",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Horseanatomy.png",
"http://www.mdguidelines.com/images/Illustrations/patel_ch.jpg"
] | [
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is second-option bias real? | second-option bias is described by rationalwiki as "a well-documented phenomenon among fringe and counterculture groups in which they assume that any widely-held opinion among the general population must be untrue, and therefore, the prevailing contrary opinion must be right. it could be considered a form of "hipsterism" in which it is assumed that anything popular is wrong, but the workings behind the idea are more complex."" however, i haven't seen any sources other than the aforementioned or reddit. is there any academic recognition of this phenomenon or something equivalent? | first i'm hearing of it, and [google scholar](_url_0_) doesn't seem to yield anything useful. this strikes me as something that would fall outside of psychology research, as it'd be hard to observe in a lab setting. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=second-option%20bias&btnG=Search&as_sdt=800000000001&as_sdtp=on"
] | [
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hourglass on the moon. will it run slower? on the jupiter? | thank you | well this has been here 12 hours and no answer, so i try to outline something of it and ask some questions myself. there are a number of factors 1) the rate at which the sand flows. how is that affected by gravity? 2) the gravity of the surface will cause time dilation; lower gravity results in time running faster, and higher gravity in time running slower. 3) the speed of the planet (relative to earth) will also result in time dilation; time would slow as speed increased. 4) would the speed of rotation (corolis effect) make a difference? obviously stuff like temperature would also have an effect, but surely that would be very small? in short, this is a pretty complex question needing some serious maths to figure out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we perceive some inanimate objects as "cool looking"? | i understand the evolutionary reason why we find certain men/women attractive: generally the healthier looking women, and the more powerful man. but, why do we perceive a motorcycle to look "cool", while our bbq grill does not? | because your society has taught you that motorcycles are cool. it sounds like a smart ass answer but it is basically the truth. ask a tribal culture what looks nice and they might say a certain tree. [aesthetics](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics"
] | [
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why do we read this wrongly?dont we process each word before confirming it as a word? | this is the picture [_url_0_] sorry couldn't get a better example | when you're reading something, your brain begins to think ahead and process what it expects to come next. "dig bick" is not a common phrase, so its easy to see how your brain could expect something else and mix it up | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.lovethispic.com/uploaded_images/99566-You-Read-That-Wrong.jpg"
] | [] | [
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the decline effect | so i was reading an article called "the truth wears off" about the controversies of the scientific method and how there is a problem with science due to an effect called "the decline effect", which is essentially statisical regression to a mean.this article enraged me, but after looking it to it more i found other people were just as annoyed. so i started to think maybe this effect is limited to certain sciences such as psychology and ecology which are comprised of very complex systems. i'm wondering if anyone has head of such an effect in other fields such as physics, math chemistry...etc? article _url_0_ sorry for the grammar/spelling. | it's a well-known problem in statistical literature, though it's hard to study directly since the test subjects would be practicing scientists! there are loads of "observational" data in repeated experiments of the past, however. for instance, if you look up the resistivity of a neuron membrane, the value was confidently measured then shown wrong over and over as the accepted value fell over many years. it turns out improved technology had reduced the "leakage" caused by poorly made electrodes, but that leakage wasn't considered in publication. blame is usually cast at social sciences and psychology because it is really so easy to read results incorrectly and be overconfident. worse, people often fall prey to a very insidious confirmation bias that occurs in statistical testing. for instance, an experiment is considered significant if its results are unlikely to a certain measure. it's not always well understood that if you then make slight variations on that same experiment and try again you need to increase the stringency of your significance test otherwise you're nearly guaranteed to publish an incorrect result. oftentimes the decline effect is explained in those terms. positive results are certainly more likely to see publication than negative results and therefore there is a "selection pressure" which causes plausible and exciting results to become public... even when fallacious. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/12/13/101213fa_fact_lehrer"
] | [] | [
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would a coil wound with hollow wire be less lossy at high frequency? would it behave better in other respects, compared to a similar inductance wound with standard wire? | [**diagram of wires described with list of cases for consideration**](_url_2_) it is known that solenoidal inductors can exhibit self resonance^[1] (due to stray capacitance), and frequency dependent ac resistive losses^[2] that are sensitive to fabrication of the particular coil. consider some nice copper wire having a standard resistivity ρ, cross sectional area 2πa, and no abnormalities or defects. **simply put, if i fashioned two real world helical inductors, having in common all features and geometric properties except that one of them is wound of wire having the cross section of a washer of inner radius b and outer radius a - that is, the wire itself is a hollow cylinder,^[3] would the rf losses in the hollow wire coil be smaller in a certain bandwidth (due to increased surface area for surface current)?** the contrary argument is no due to the proximity effect, but i want to believe that if the skin dept is less than half the difference in radii; skin depth < (a-b)/2 then the current has effectively more metal available to it in the hollow wire, giving that one a higher q. * ^[1] _url_0_ due to parasitic capacitance of the inductor's turns having proximity to one another ^[2] _url_1_ ...q = lω/r; thus a decrease in q is a loss equivalent to an increase in r in many applications; proximity effect can be interpreted as resistive increase) ^[3] ...meaning, the inductor has *less mass*, but increased *boundary surface area having relative permeability μ/μ0; suppose first that the inner radius is half the outer radius *************************************** if further quantification is necessary, we should consider a few cases; | i'm a bit rusty on this stuff but i believe the first diagram you linked is incorrect in that it implies that the current will be forced to both the inner and outer surfaces of the hollow conductor. from the integral form of ampere's law it's easy to see that the field inside a radially-symmetric, infinite, cylindrical shell of current is zero because the enclosed current density is zero for contours with radius less than the radius of the shell. then for a cylindrical shell of current with thickness < < radius the field will increase approximately linearly from inner surface to outer surface. given that, when you add a conductor into the mix there will be no tendency for the current to concentrate on the inner surface, only the outer surface. in other words, the ac current density will increase monotonically from inner surface to outer. if that is true then removing the center of a solid conductor to make it hollow will never actually increase the effective cross-section. at best it will result in a negligible decrease in effective cross-section which gives you an increase in "efficiency" in terms of effective cross-section per actual cross-section. if you're trying to make low-loss inductors you should also look into litz wire. | 2 | [] | [
"http://hamwaves.com/antennas/inductance.html",
"http://hamwaves.com/antennas/inductance/effective_diameter.pdf",
"http://imgur.com/5scdysS"
] | [] | [
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yaawwwnnnn | why are yawns contagious? | i read an article about a year ago where it was postulated that yawning is a social cue to indicate a change in level of activity. you yawn when you are tired, but you also yawn after you wake up. it was believed that the yawn would pass among the social group to alert each other of this change. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does science discover truth? | there are a few resources for you: [philosophy for kids](_url_2_) [junior skeptic magazine](_url_1_) i have an 11-year old who is very interested in discussing philosophy, and sometimes talking and learning together is the best approach. there's not as much of a 'right answer' as it is a process of inquiry. also, if it fits with your worldview, mcgowan's book on [parenting beyond belief](_url_0_) is also really helpful. good luck and enjoy the ride! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0814410960/ref=pd_lpo_k2_dp_sr_2?pf_rd_p=486539851&pf_rd_s=lpo-top-stripe-1&pf_rd_t=201&pf_rd_i=1430314257&pf_rd_m=ATVPDKIKX0DER&pf_rd_r=1RM6P0NJCYX229JRKB6E",
"http://www.skeptic.com/junior_skeptic/",
"http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Kids-Questions-Wonder-Everything/dp/1882664701"
] | [
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|
is the total force of air pressure higher on a flat surface or a wavy surface? | if you have a flat surface finding the force from air pressure is easy. it's just the air pressure multiplied by the surface area. but if you have a wavy surface there is more surface area. but the air pressure is not pushing straight down all in the same direction because it's not flat. let's say you have a block of metal. let's say it's 1 meter cubed. now let's say you machine that block down. you take the top surface and cut a sine wave into it. let's say with an amplitude of .5 meters so the bottom half of the block remains unchanged. and let's say it goes through 10 periods from one end of the cube to the other. the total surface area of the top of the cube is increased. would that change the air pressure on it in any way? how would you go about setting up an integral to find the total force acting on the top of this new cube? edit: i just realized that if it were possible to increase the force exerted on one of an objects side, that the net forces on it would be unequal. this would cause the object to move without an increase in entropy, because the pressure of the environment wouldn't change after work is done on the object. it's actually very interesting that any object created has to have a total net force of zero from air pressure. no matter what shape it has. that's kind of insaine. still though how would you set up an equation for the total force on the curvy side? | i think you want to look at the problem in terms of vectors. on a flat surface air hits strait on and bounces strait back (yay newton). but on any angled surface a force strait down goes off in an equal angle. so if we break it into components x and y, x is down y is left right. the sideways components arnt measured on the scale or w/e is measuring the downward x reactions. so the total downward force of a gas is preserved as a perfectly flat surface even if it's irregular. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i have to wake up in 30 minutes, is it worth going to sleep now? at what point (if any) would it be better to just power through the night? | studies suggest that 20 minute naps are ideal for a quick energy boost. if you go beyond that you have a high chance of waking up in a deeper sleep state and end up with something called 'sleep inertia', which is something that makes you feel groggy. waking up in sleep stage 1 is ideal. reference: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep#Stages"
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|
could someone help me understand cpt? | so i'm reading a brief history of time by hawking and i am kind of lost when he comes to discuss cpt. so i understand it was believed until 1956 that the laws of physics were believed to follow cpt symmetry. the book states: "there is a mathematical theorem that says any theory that obeys quantum mechanics and relatively must always obey the combined symmetry cpt. in other words, the universe would have to behave the same if one replaced particles with antiparticles, took the mirror image, and reversed the direction of time". i understand this as well. it goes on... "...cronin and fitch showed that if one replaces particles with antiparticles and takes the mirror image but does not reverse the direction of time, then the universe does not behave the same. the laws of physics, therefore, must change if one reverses the direction of time - they do not obey he symmetry t. can anyone help me wrap my head around that conclusion? to me, it's obvious to me that if two out of the three conditions are met, you wouldn't expect the universe to behave the same way. moreover why would the laws change rather than behave the same way if t was reversed? is it a matter of the fact that the first two conditions aren't met, so we wouldn't even need the third in order to determine the universe wouldn't behave in the same way? | the laws do not change under cpt symmetry. the laws do change under cp symmetry. so suppose we apply a cp-transformation, and *then* a t-transformation. the first changes the laws. the second now changes them back because the combination cpt does not change the laws. so t must by itself change the laws. if t did not change the laws, then cp+t would be change+no change = change, in violation of cpt symmetry. hence if a combination of 2 has a violation, then the third must by itself also exhibit the same violation. if you already accept that cpt is a fundamental symmetry and we have experimentally determined that there are cp violations, then the fact that cp-violations correspond to t-violations is really just like "a double negative makes a positive". there's not any additional deep physical meaning. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a mathematical formula for working out restriction mapping?! arbitrarily attempting them until one of them fits seems a bit silly to me! | was told to just try all the possible conformations, but that seems stupid to me! is there perhaps a mathematical formula that could help me with it?! | i think i'd know the answer to this question if i had a better idea of what the exact question was. what exactly is your problem? what are you trying to map, which enzymes,... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what new techniques have been introduced in the interrogation process of high value targets, in the past decade or two ? | i would like to answer this. the new thing is sensory deprivation. riding the awesome line between torture and extreme questioning, this can be a few things. the target is placed in a room with fogged windows (that don't actually lead outside, but look like they do) and temperature regulation. the interrogator controls the lights in the room, the 'outside' lights, the temperature, everything. the target will have no idea what time of day it is, when they should sleep, and even if they are keeping track as best they can, they can be prevented from sleeping comfortably by dropping or raising the temperature in the room. meals are brought with calculated randomness. it is best to start by syncing the lights and meals to real times of day, then subtly and slowly change them till they are absurd. bring two meals in quick succession, then withhold a meal for 12 hours. bring one in the middle of the 'night.' make 'days' pass with no meals, but make this day a 15 hour period and then bring only one, then wait another few 'days.' again, these aren't real days, the interrogator simulates them with the lights and temperature. it has been shown that people subjected to this revert to a childlike state, wanting to please the people responsible for now every aspect of their life fervently. they act like children, their vocabulary usually diminishes, and they are very responsive to any questions asked of them. the same way a little kid wants to please their parents (hopefully) since they rely on them to live, the target will try to please the interrogator, their parent and god of their little world, because they feel the interrogator is responsible for their life and everything in it. philosopher henry shue critiques this technique. he's a prof at oxford but came to my university recently. he references a lot of studies on this in his papers. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
tied by the arms and feet and pulled apart, what part of the human body gives out first? | i just saw a movie that opens with this scenario: * a guy has his hands chained to one car, and his feet chained to another. * the cars drive in opposite directions. * the guy is split in two mid-torso. it seems much more likely to me that either his arms or legs would be torn off. what would happen in reality? | strictly anatomically speaking, it would make sense that the hip would be more difficult to "tear off" purely on the basis of more muscle and tendon mass surrounding the joint. the difference being comparable to tearing off a turkey wing from a raw bird compared to trying to remove the leg. (feel free to try this yourself if you want). i will also add that shoulder dislocations are significantly more common than hip dislocations (the latter would require a tremendous amount of force, ie. auto accident). of course i haven't studied this in detail but this is my best educated assumption. i'm sure there are other factors involved such as the angle at which the joint is pulled, etc. so to sum up, the arms would separate first in my opinion. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to mix explosive chemicals with cement and have out blow up like in batman. | in batman the dark knight rises, the young cop(can't recall his name) says the cement that has been poured around the city is laced with explosives. is it actual possible for the cement to be able to detonate, but still retain its normal durability. sorry for typos i am using my phone.=( | no. cement/concrete is has very tight tolerances for water percentage, air entrapment, various and sundry other additives (flyash and fiberglass being two common ones). these are measured very closely, and any deviation has very measurable effects on the strength of the cement. that's just the strength. throwing any random junk in there will leave you with weaker concrete. throwing in enough "explosives" (whatever that might be) to have any hope of blowing out of its concrete encasement would leave you with unusable junk. that's strength. chemically the hydration of concrete is a specific exothermic reaction. i don't want to write a giant essay on it, but [here](_url_0_) is a relatively simple slide show presentation. warning, pdf. as you can see there are a whole bunch of reactions going on there. without specifically knowing what exactly the chemical composition of the included batman explosive is we can't tell exactly what it would do, however we can safely speculate that it will have a pronounced effect on the hydration process. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://people.ce.gatech.edu/~kk92/hyd07.pdf"
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if i have a pimple on my nose and am looking at it in a mirror that is 30cm away. am i seeing the pimple the same way that a person who is 30cm away or 60cm away? | is there depth within the mirror that is measured? | the pimple would appear to be 60cm away. there's a nice diagram [here](_url_0_) showing the formation of the image behind a mirror. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nightlase.com.au/education/optics/"
] | [
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what are the advantages and disadvantages of plantigrade, digitigrade, and unguligrade feet? | part of it has to do with the number of joints in the limb. more levers allow you to move the distal end of the limb more quickly. more levers come from having more joints; unguligrade animals have the most joints and so have the biomechanical advantage when it comes to running fast. the tradeoff is in structural support and muscle connections; it's harder to build a really strong, muscular unguligrade limb. compare plantigrade bears to unguligrade deer to get an idea of what the differences might be and how they play out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
optical pattern caused by two sheets of glass in contact, what is it called and what is causing it? | an image of the pattern can be seen here: _url_0_ it doesn't photograph particularly well, but appears to have rainbow colours. it changes shape/position as you tilt the sample or as you apply stress to the sample. it disappears as soon as the samples are not touching. thanks in advance for the help! | this is [thin-film interference](_url_0_) caused by the light waves reflecting off the glass surface and the slight phase difference in between the reflected waves across the very thin air gap between the two glass plates. the rainbow pattern comes from the fact that constructive and destructive interference occurs only between waves of the same wavelength, and the result of the interference depends on the wavelength in comparison to the thickness of the air film. under monochromatic light (try it, like a laser reflecting off some paper sheet), you'd see very defined light and dark bands of light. the sizes and spacing all depend on the air film thickness and the wavelength of light. since different colors have different wavelengths, the overall result given an incoming white light is a rainbow-like pattern. there's a classic physics demonstration/problem where one can measure the thickness of a human hair by making a wedge-shape with two glass plates, with the hair at one end, holding them separate. knowing the wavelength of light and the separation between the dark and light interference bands, you can get a pretty accurate measurement of the thickness of the hair at the end of the wedge. | 12 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/l3sDLXU"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_interference"
] | [
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what exactly is it about lack of sleep that creates or worsens undereye bags? | that location of skin is thinnest on the body. what you are seeing is happening to all of the skin but most visible due to the thinness. sleep is when many of the adrenal hormones (glucocorticoids, epinephrine) are replenished. without sleep there is a lack of these hormones. these hormones also police blood pressure, without enough the veins sag, causing the dark color (the blue combines w skin tone to create dark). there is also dehydration going on in sleep deprivation. all these factors contribute to create circles which eventually become bags. edit: i got gold for askscience!? this is my nerd dream. thank you so much! | 1,491 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/bags-under-eyes/basics/causes/con-20034185"
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|
would it be possible to build a 2m tall tower using one piece of 8.5x11in paper and 25cm of tape? | i imagine the easiest way to do this would be using telescopic tubes. anything less and you might get a slight bend where they join and this could cause it to fall over. as it is, thats a pretty tall order without having something at the top keeping it upright. you would also have to make sure there were no dents and everything is perfectly balanced for it to stand upright by itself. some kind of tripod at the bottom would help. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why should copd patients wait an hour after eating to exercise? | i've found a few places that recommend waiting between eating and exercising, but i can't find an explanation. | because copd patients already have trouble breathing, this can be further hindered after a large meal. this is because food sits in the stomach for a time after consumption while it is being digested. with a large meal, there is more food, so less space for things like the diaphragm and lungs. if somebody with copd wanted to exercise, their body would require more oxygen, which required deeper breaths to accomodate for. this may not be possible if an individuals lungs are restricted by a full or bloated stomach. [_url_0_](_url_0_) (link reviewed by md) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.verywellhealth.com/shortness-of-breath-or-wheezing-after-eating-1324160"
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why does it feel like i am wearing something even though it has already been removed? | as an example: i wear watches a lot and when i take them off it feels like it is still on my wrist, even though it has already been removed. | i only have a bit of a neurological background, and i don't have a source, but i would assume that your brain gets accustomed to the fact of wearing something, and ignores the sensation of wearing it so it wouldn't bother you. it's like how your brain ignores your nose. it's actually really in the way of your vision, and if we'd notice it all the time, it'd be really annoying. the same thing with your watch, or with glasses. sometimes, i can feel my glasses on my face and it's really annoying if i think about it, so my brain ignores that feeling. anyways, to answer your question. your brain spends the whole day ignoring the sensation of your watch on your wrist or your glasses on your face (therefore your brain acknowledges it's there). if this happens often, your brain gets into the habit of making you "forget your watch is there". therefore, even when you're not wearing a watch, your brain thinks you are (out of habit), so it's basically convincing another part of your brain that you're wearing a watch. that's why you get the sensation. it's kind of like the placebo effect. basically, your brain is so used to you wearing a watch, even when you're not wearing one, it manages to convince you that you're wearing one, which is where the sensation comes from ("if i am wearing a watch, then i must feel it on my wrist"). no idea if that was well explained or not. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
okay, so i don't know anything about physics, but this question has been on my mind. | as light approaches a black hole from an angle (not a direct approach), does the black hole alter the direction of the light? would such an alteration in trajectory cause the light to slow down? and for my followup and actual question, if the trajectory of a non-direct approach is altered and the speed is slowed down, would a direct approach cause light to accelerate as it approaches the black hole? | what you're looking for is called [gravitational lensing](_url_0_)... and nothing can go faster than the speed of light (without funky quantum mechanical [jibber](_url_2_) [jabber](_url_1_)). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"
] | [
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question about the wow signal....? | i've been reading about this recently and one thing confuses me (other than what the hell was it?!). why did scientists work on the assumption that alien contact would likely be made with the same frequency that hydrogen resonates at (1420 mhz). this is surely illogical being that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. like saying "most of space is dark so we'll send a 'black light' out so they know it's from intelligent life". it could easily be brushed over by potential listeners as a natural phenomenon? and wouldn't a signal at that frequency have all kinds of phasing/polarity issues with all the background noise from hydrogen? surely it would be more logical to think they would send another frequency that is not gonna be chewed up by interfering atoms on its way across the void? sorry for the layman's terms, i'm no physicist! | the spectrum around 1420mhz is critically important to astronomy. hydrogen is very common, so we can use 1420mhz to image all sorts of heavenly objects. it's logical to assume that any civilization curious about the universe will also build radio telescopes for this purpose. so, they'd already have a bunch of ears to the sky listening at that frequency, regardless of whether or not they're looking for et signals. the general idea is that a digital data signal from intelligent life would behave much differently than anything we normally see out there. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when i'm watching boxing fights do mirror neurons in my brain fire and does this translate to my boxing skill? | given that i train amateur boxing a few times a week. | if you already train and actually know what you're doing (unlike when people watch james bond and think that they could be a special agent) maybe you'll pick up technique watching fights that you'll try out later, even without consciously deciding on it. that happens when i do archery, i see a new way of doing things and i try it out without even realizing that i'm doing it, often to my advantage. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is abnormal strength in the face of danger real? what is the science behind it? | there are a number of claims of people exhibiting extreme strength in the face of danger, even when it is uncharacteristic. are these claims real? if so, is there a scientific explanation? | adrenaline. it speeds up bodily processes and limits the production of lactic acid. fatigue slows down, and muscles bypass the brains' signals of excessive strain. your muscles hurt because your brain tells you that you're reaching a healthy limit, and obviously doesn't want to hurt itself. you have the extra strength already, your brain just puts a threshold on it and limits you. an adrenaline rush like that lets you ignore those signals momentarily. ever play a game, fall down, and get back up and continue, only to realize afterwards you cut your leg or something and it's just starting to hurt? it's kinda like that | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i was shown a magnet today which seemed to have a unusual field. can anyone explain? | i was shown a magnet which was disk shaped (similar size to a penny). on the flat side it seemed that the centre had a different polarity to the edge. (north in the centre, south on the edge). this meant that a small neodymium magnet could be attracted to the centre but when displaced slightly towards the edge, would fire off. on the reverse, the opposite was true. the neodymium magnet was attracted to the edge but repelled from the centre. i've never come across anything like this and am struggling to find any more information online. | you can make just about any magnet you want as long as there are some regions that are north polarity and other regions that are south polarity. think of taking a hundred little permanent bar magnets. you can glue those magnets together how every you want and create all sorts of complicated composite magnet structures. for your example, take a bunch of little bar magnets and glue them so that all of their north poles touch at some central point and all of their south poles form the outer rim of a circular disc. now do the same thing again with other little magnets, but this time, glue the south poles together at the center, leaving the north poles to form the other edge of the disc. glue these two discs together concentrically and you get a magnet that you are describing. in practice, we don't usually make complicted magnets by gluing together little magnet. rather, a complicted desired magnetic field pattern is created using electrical currents in wires. a magnetic material is heated up and placed in the field pattern. the magnetic domains in the material line up with the magnetic field pattern and get stuck that way when the material cools. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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at what granularity do weather / climate simulations begin to break down? | the question often pops up that if we can't accurately predict the weather next week then how can scientists tell us what will happen decades away? the reply i've heard most often is that the longer the time period the more accurately climate / weather can be predicted. for example, we can't tell you the temps for every day of the summer of 2030, but we can tell you the median temperature of the summer of 2030. if this is the case, at what granularity do weather predictions start to become inaccurate? | fundamentally, forecasting the weather and estimating future climate are two completely different types of scientific and mathematical problems. consider this. what do you think the weather will be on may 26, 2018 - one year from today? depending on where you live, that's either an easy or a hard question. if you live in san diego, i can probably nail your forecast. if you live in boston, maybe not. *but*, i can tell you things that are likely to be true. for instance, i bet that in boston, it will be warmer on may 26, 2018 than on march 26, 2018. but i won't be able to tell you with any certainty if it's going to rain or anything like that. assessing future climate change is a *boundary value problem*. what matters is the inputs to the climate system - solar energy, greenhouse gases, etc. the climate slowly responds to changes in these factors, in more-or-less predictable ways. in fact, to predict future climate change, you don't need to simulate a 3d atmosphere; you can resolve the vast majority of the problem with just a single column approximation of the atmosphere. weather, instead, is an *initial conditions* problem. given the state of the atmosphere at time a, what will it be at time b? for a complex, non-linear system like the atmosphere, small errors in how you think the atmosphere looks at time a can make huge impacts on your answer for time b. this gets to the crux of your question - weather predictions diverge from the "truth" over time because we start with an incomplete representation of the atmosphere in our models. with the current generation of weather models, this divergence really kicks up after 3-5 days, depending on the particular weather system we care about (note that big storms like sandy were extremely well forecast nearly 7 full days in advance; answering *why* would be a topic for another thread, but can be nearly fully answered with a semester of graduate-level geophysical fluid dynamics). but, then, what do models diverge *to*? a picture is helpful. check out the plot on the righthand side of [this web page](_url_3_). this is showing two contours of a weather field that forecasters like to look at. the contours are thick because there are actually ~30 different simulations (all of the same model with the same data, with some random noise added) being analyzed at the same time. this first plot shows the simulations right after they begin - they nearly all agree! [48 hours into the forecast](_url_2_), the contours are starting to get broader as different models start to simulate slightly different solutions. [another two days into the forecast](_url_0_) and there are big differences; these plots are dynamic, but while i'm looking at them (morning of friday, may 26), the red contours are crazy because some models are simulating a storm forming in the western usa and others aren't. [yet another two days in](_url_1_), and things are just a total mess. but there's something important about that last "spaghetti" plot. if you average all the red and blue curves, you should get a curve that looks like the real-world, long-term average. that is, the model ensemble has *diverged to climatology* - no individual forecast has much certainty any more, but if we average over all the forecasts, we should get a sane answer that is similar to the expected value for the forecast period looking at similar periods in the past. again, this happens anywhere between 3-5 days into a forecast, sometimes shorter, sometimes longer. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/map/images/ens/spag_f096_us.html",
"https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/map/images/ens/spag_f144_us.html",
"https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/map/images/ens/spag_f048_us.html",
"https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/map/images/ens/spag_f000_us.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method"
] | [
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if earth was cut in half, what colours would the cross section be? | [deleted] | very similar to the colors depicted in [pictures of a cross section of the earth](_url_2_), because the colors will be that of a [black body](_url_0_). each layer will have the same color as this [chart](_url_3_); the core for example is ~7400 kelvin which "white hot" while parts of the mantle are a dull red. pretty much the same colors you see [here](_url_1_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VydPQuLyEns",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=cross-section+of+earth",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Blackbody-colours-vertical.svg"
] | [
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] |
say i dug a hole from south america all the way to china and jumped through. where would i end up and how long would it take to get to the other side of the hole? | you would end up in china, you dug the hole to there and got out the other side. but you wouldn't get there, with the combination of friction and gravity if you were never able to touch the wall of the hole or at least couldn't exert force on it, you would oscillate in the hole until you came to rest at the center. the acceleration if gravity would change as you pass through but it would be identical but in opposing directions on either half of the hole. so it would flip directions and pull you back the other way once you pass the center. since you are losing energy due to friction you wouldn't reach the end of the tunnel (assuming initial velocity ~0) and then you would fall back towards where you came from. one you pass the center again it will switch back and you will be stuck in this pattern until friction slows you down to a stop. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1308.1342v1.pdf"
] | [
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|
what would happen if we were to put a calibrated kitchen scale on another planet? | on a side note, those scales they use at the doctor's would give you the same value no matter what planet you are on. this is due to the counter-weight side being affected in the same way from the planet's gravity as the person who is being weighed. [image](_url_0_) or for that matter, any scale that uses a balance system instead of a spring system would read the same values on another planet. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_KjQ9uZ23cVY/TJgcA91PInI/AAAAAAAAAMk/KIP44aunsUw/s1600/doctor-scale.jpg"
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can the human brain think of two unrelated things simultaneously, or does it just appear that way? | somehow my boyfriend and i got on this subject a while ago and we took opposing stances. he believes that humans are perfectly capable of thinking of two different, unrelated things simultaneously. that we are efficient mental multitaskers. however, i believe that it only appears that way on the surface. that technically speaking our brains are operating and "processing data" much more quickly than we can consciously detect, perhaps within fractions of a second, creating the illusion of thinking of two or more things at once. of course neither one of us actually knows for certain, so that's where you come in, askscience. enlighten us! | it might depend a lot on what you define as "thinking", possibly rendering an answer impossible. consider the traditional epiphany - you're doing something unrelated to your problem, when suddenly the answer arrives. your mind was working on the problem the whole time, even if not consciously, while you were consciously involved in a different task. if you're talking about something like focus, or pondering something, no, we cannot focus on multiple things. studies have shown we can not multitask that well, but we just switch rapidly back and forth between two tasks, our performance suffering for it. and it also depends on what you mean by "2" thoughts. let's say i imagine a scene from a movie that has a song playing in it. the two are related. now i imagine the same scene with a different song playing in it, one not in the original film. am i thinking of two different things? or does it only count as one thought? where would the line be that i am now thinking 2 thoughts simultaneously instead of having it count as 1? or i'm sure you've had a song stuck in your head before, and you thought other things while that song was in your head. would the song stuck in your head and the other things you're considering in your mind count as 1 or 2 thoughts? | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what paths does the principle of least action minimize over? | i have a question about the principle of least action. here is my current understanding: a particle will take the path through time that minimizes the time integral of its (kinetic energy - potential energy). here's my confusion: what if we have a particle momentarily suspended above the earth, with no kinetic energy and letting its potential energy be zero. so in that case t-v=0, and if it were to stay suspended it would remain zero, so the integral would be zero for any time interval. but it doesn't stay there, it goes into free fall, so that its kinetic energy becomes positive and its potential energy becomes negative. but now the lagrangian is positive, so the action calculated by integrating the lagrangian is also positive. so it seems like in this case the action is not minimized. it does occur to me that the scenario in which the particle remains floating may not be a path that is accessible to the particle, so that of all the possible paths, the one it takes in free fall does minimize the action. that leads me to a different question: what are these paths that are possible paths for the particle that it does not take as they do not minimize the action? why are these paths possible and yet not taken, while the particle remaining suspended not possible? | hamilton's principle is better named "the principle of **stationary** action" because to derive the euler-lagrange equation, we only demand that ds=0, a condition that can obviously also be satisfied by maxima and saddle points. i believe it has historically been called the principle of least action because it was argued to be intuitive that only minima are possible. but more modern perspectives do not grant this. the principle of stationary action is a solution to the problem as to what path q(t) will a particle take between two points q*_1_*=q(t*_1_*) and q*_2_*=q(t*_2_*) given a lagrangian that fully captures the mechanics of the system. that's it. so **any** path connecting those two points is considered in the integration. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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