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is there a relationship between material density and structural integrity? | when you look diamonds, which are made of carbon, they have incredibly strong covalent bonds comparable to that of carbon nanofibres. diamonds are fairly dense as well, at up to 3.5g/cm^3 . i was wondering if solids are more sound structurally as the density increases. especially at the atomic level, if a heavier atom would form stronger molecular bonds making them harder to break apart with the increase in charged particles. | the first part of your question sort of answers the second, since diamond is basically the strongest material around (other than some very exotic ones, most of which are only stable on the nanoscale). diamond is also made up of carbon, which have an atomic mass around 12. lead has an atomic mass of over 200 and is much denser than diamond, yet soft enough that you can scratch it will a fingernail. however, density on a slightly larger scale can affect strength. for example, air bubbles in concrete or steel can make them much weaker simply because the bubbles (or voids, as they're commonly called) act as stress concentrators, allowing cracks to form and grow easily in those regions. one of the common failure modes for many types of steel is called void coalescence, which is basically when voids start to form in the steel as it is deformed; the voids grow with increasing deformation and sooner or later the voids will connect with one another and cause failure. porosity is a big problem in many metals and ceramics for these reasons, so there is a lot of interest in many manufacturing sectors about finding ways to minimize the porosity of metals (during casting) and ceramics (during sintering). casting is basically pouring liquid metal into a mold, and sometimes the metal cools and hardens with bubbles in it, causing pores in the material. sintering is taking a ceramic in powder form and compressing it together into one solid part by applying large amounts of heat and pressure. ideally in a sintering operation all the powder particles bind together perfectly, but again, sometimes little voids are left afterwards. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens at either end of the electromagnetic spectrum? | the electromagnetic spectrum is often [depicted](_url_0_) as a continuous wave ranging from radio waves (long wavelengths, low frequency) to gamma rays (short wavelengths, high frequency). but what happens at either end of this spectrum when the waves at the radio wave end are so stretched out they are essentially horizontal, and those at the gamma ray end are so compressed they are essentially vertical? do the waves approach these limits but never actually reach them? if so what creates these limits? | there is a misconception that the amplitude of an electromagnetic wave is a length in the transverse dimension. the amplitude is that of the electric and magnetic fields that make up the waves, as measured along its direction of propagation. there is no upper or lower limit to the wavelength of an em wave, you can have arbitrarily long radio waves or arbitrarily high energy gamma rays. in fact, both are the same in a different reference frame. | 8 | [] | [
"http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/science/EM_spectrum_compare_level1_lg.jpg"
] | [] | [
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does staying in space has any influence on the menstrual cycle | if a woman stays for a long period of time in space (the iss for example). does it has any influence on her menstrual cycle? the weightlessness or the fact that there's no day/night in space? | no, women have menstruated fine in space, and haven't reported any changes in length. menstrual blood is forcefully expelled so gravity isn't an issue, and they had ample access to pads. from the words of astronaut rhea seddon. _url_0_ > of course the more you put, the less room you have in your drawer for your clothes and stuff. or in a drawer. i don’t even remember where they put it. i helped make that decision with the docs. we had to do worst case. tampons or pads, how many would you use if you had a heavy flow, five days or seven days of flow. because we didn’t know how it would be different up there. what’s the max that you could use? | 41 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/SeddonMR/SeddonMR_5-21-10.htm"
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how is caloric expenditure measured for humans using data such distance, incline, mass, hr, etc.? | for example, let's use the following data: mass = 76 kilogrammes speed = 5 km h^-1 time = 1 hour incline = 11.5 degrees average hr = 160 bpm using this information, the person would have travelled 5 km in total, with an elevation gain of 1.00 km and a horizontal distance of 4.90 km. where would you go with the rest of the calculations to calculate the number of kilocalories burnt in that one hour? addendum: what other information would be needed to make the calculation even more accurate? | the calorie is a unit of energy, so it has units of (mass\*distance^(2))/time^(2). using kilograms and meters will get you an answer in joules, so you'll also need a conversion factor: 1 cal = 4.184 j. and since you're going uphill, you also need to take gravity into account: g = 9.8 m/s^(2). using the incline angle, we find that the component of gravity you actually have to work against is 9.8\*sin(11.5) = about 1.95 m/s^(2). since you're moving at a constant velocity, this is the only acceleration you experience. the force working against you is therefor 76 kg * 1.95 m/s^(2) = 148.5 n. traveling 5 km/h for 1 hour, you will travel 5 km, so the energy you expend over this distance is 148.5 n * 5 km = 742.4 kj. converting, the energy you've expended in kilocalories is 742.4 kj * (1 kcal/4.184 kj) = **177.4 kcal**. **note:** of course, this is simply mechanical energy expenditure. i have no idea how heart rate factors in here. so while you burn at least that much, you may burn more. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about three phase power. | i work in a hotel and have a question about three phase power. specifically, i have a 100 amp 5 wire three phase system with cam-lock connectors. i am told that this means there is 100 amps total and not 300 amps total. is this correct? i have very little electrical knowledge, but i often uses a 30 amp 3 phase system that i treat as if it has 90 total amps (3x30). i have used well over 30 amps on this system with no problems in the past, which leads me to believe my assumption is correct. so can someone explain to me in a way in which my simple mind can comprehend whether or not the 100 amp 3 phase system is 300 amps total, and why? thanks in advance. | you have 100amps on each phase, so if your loads are properly balanced, you have 300 amps to work with, (not taking into account that breakers are only good for 80% of their rating for continuous loads). (just talking single phase / 120v circuits here) the breaker that protects your cable is a 3pole/ 100amp breaker, which is essentially 3 single pole breakers, each rated for 100amps, whose handels are mechanically held together so that if one pole trips, all three poles are simultaneously opened. your 5 wire cable is probably #2 (awg). if you only had 100 amps split between three phases, or 33 amps each phase, your cable would only need to be #8. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why doesn't three phase power not just cancel itself out? | for example, adding up sin(x)+sin(x+2pi/3)+sin(x+4pi/3) simply equals 0. these are all alternating +1 -1 and are 120 degrees out of phase with each other. when reading all it says is that dephasing allows for one voltage rising when one voltage goes down, to achieve constant power. but when you add it up, your voltage at any point in time is 0. how does this transmit "constant power". thanks | the three phases are all on different wires. in a balanced load configuration (where each phase carries the same power), it is true that adding all the voltages gives zero. this has some relevance in establishing how the circuit neutral is set up, but i'm not familiar enough with the details of that to go any further into it. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://knowledgepublications.com/doe/images/DOE_Electrical_Science_AC_Power_Connections.gif"
] | [
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what are the main complications stopping us from having supercapacitors? | we have things called supercapacitors. improving things beyond the best previous design is always difficult, otherwise the best previous design would have been better already. what exactly do you expect? from the perspective of 20 years ago, current supercaps are extremely powerful. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.rs-online.com/designspark/rel-assets/dsauto/temp/uploaded/Charge-Discharge-Supercap-vs-Battery.jpg"
] | [
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|
why isn't the y in xyy color space the same as the b in hsb color space? | i'm having trouble understanding this. xyy is just a way people represent xyz in 2d. for a given (x,y) (note: *small* x and y), different values of y will change its *brightness*, but won't actually change where the point appears on an [xy chromaticity plot](_url_0_). what that intuitively tells me is that its hue (the direction from the center gray point, for example) and its saturation (the distance from the gray point) should be independent of y (again, for a constant (x,y)). so what i'd expect is that if were talking about xyy space and you took (0.2,0.1,0.1) (a really dark blue) and (0.2,0.1,0.9) (a nice bright blue), and converted them both to hsb space and looked at the values, they'd have the same h and s values, but a different b value. yet, they don't, which you can see by messing around with [this converter](_url_1_) for example. i'd just look at the transformation it's doing, but the only actual equations i can find are [here](_url_2_), and it would involve going xyy- > xyz- > rgb- > hsb... so why aren't y (in xyy space) and b (in hsb) the same? | the converter you link to converts to hsl(=hls), which is a different space to hsb. _url_0_ i think you are correct that rgb colours that have the same h and s in *hsb* should also have the same x,y values in xyy. y and b differ however in being respectively linear and nonlinear in relation to light energy. | 3 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/CIE1931xy_blank.svg/2000px-CIE1931xy_blank.svg.png",
"http://colormine.org/convert/yxy-to-hsl",
"http://www.easyrgb.com/index.php?X=MATH"
] | [
"http://www.huevaluechroma.com/094.php"
] | [
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what are some interesting medical improvements that are being practiced today? | if you guys think this question shouldn't be here jut tell me and i'll remove it. also, if you could include any sources to what you are saying, it would be awesome. thanks! | in my humble opinion, as a microbiologist, i think one of the coolest things i've heard of being used is fecal transplants to help cure *c. difficile* infections. it truly is probiotics in action, even if we don't 100% know what is in the feces being transplanted. i also think it's awesome someone has figured out how to combat a bacterial infection without applying more drugs. not saying antibiotics don't have their place, but if we can figure out ways to cure infections without incurring more antibiotic resistance problems, i think it helps the antibiotics be more effective when we do need them. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nursingtimes.net/whats-new-in-nursing/behind-the-headlines-archive/scientists-reverse-alzheimers-in-mice/5001261.article"
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would a water "curtain" provide a plausible seal to create an airlock? | i was at a hotel the other day and i saw one of [these things.](_url_0_) (maybe if it was more of a film) it got me thinking, and i was wondering if maybe a system similar to this picture could be used as an airlock to keep air where you want it. the key point being that other things can move through it easily without needing to open many doors and such. i just wanted to know if something like that could be physically possible and if it could even have any real world applications. | nope. it does impede the exchange of gas from one side to the other, but it doesn't create a seal. gas is easily mixed in and out of moving water. for a thin sheet of falling water there will be plenty of gas moving through it. if you're talking about an airlock as in a vacuum on one side, then the answer is *definitely* no. :) | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.yeskey.com/uploadfile/z9/zhongkehongzheng2529/product/digital-water-curtain/graphics-Water-Curtain-EXPO-2010-1319674399-1.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how do non mammalian animals, such as insects and molluscs know which way is up? what mechanism is present within their body's to tell them if they are up, or upside-down. | arthropods and molluscs (as well as cephalopods, and many other invertebrates) both have balance systems but they are not "vestibular systems" in the vertebrates sense of the word. marine or aquatic invertebrates have statocysts, basically weighted structures attached to sensory nerve bundles that act as mass loaders and bend "down." what's interesting about them is that with every molt, they lose their statocyst and have to recalibrate. i'm totally not buying that tyson statement. first of all, there are plenty of vertebrates that can hang upside down and do as part of normal locomotion or resting (sloths, bats, geckos, many primates for example). they still have a "sense of being upside down" because they have orientation responses. it's just that the clinging ability and relative muscle strength of lower mass organisms (such as insects) puts them at less risk for injury based on gravity, so its not something that has to be avoided. humans are often described as inverted pendulums - the mass at the top and (often precariously) trying to maintain dynamic balance and hence, are more at risk for fall-based injury, but i've read a lot of papers on position coordination in insects and other small invertebrates and never heard of any evidence that smaller organisms don't sense and react to their position. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a solution to the three body problem? | yes. for all initial conditions, all arrangements of the three bodies and all masses there's exact one deterministic solution governing the behavior (the time evolution) of the system. however, those solutions might not be algebraic, which means that you can't them write down a simple expression in terms of common functions like x², sin(x), exp(x) etc. you can still *talk* about the solutions, show that they have certain properties (energy conservation for example) or develop algorithms that allow you to approximate the solution to your desired precision. and for some very special cases there are indeed some algebraic solutions (for example when the three bodies are the same mass and are arranged in a equilateral triangle, orbiting it's center), and for some asymptotic configurations (one of the masses is extremely lightweight) you can also find nice formulas. but in general, actually "drawing" the solution is not easy, even though there is one. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any possibility of a leviathan or thought-to-be mythical creature living in our oceans? | extremely unlikely but possible. our oceans are shockingly unexplored, more so than the moon. it is possible that there is some sort of deep sea creature that we haven't seen in modern times but that has been spotted in the past and caused all these rumours. something simple.ilar happened with the giant squid. they were largely considered to be a myth until one washed up on a beach proving their existence. is it possible that there are other large creatures such as giant squids we have not yet seen, yes, is it likely, not particularly. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how hard would it be to create a new "element", as stark did so in iron man 2? also, how would we achieve that? | im basicly asking that because instead of hoping for better times, we could invest money into creating new elements that could, possibly, end up being the solution to one of the current world problems. also, could we achieve that by slamming different elements into each other or would we basicly need to pick out neutrons, protons and electrons and put them in place by ourselfs? edit: not sure if physics or chemistry. | an element is defined by how many protons the nucleus of an atom of it has - different isotopes of the same element differ in the number of neutrons. as such one can't "think up" a new element any more than they could think up a new integer. what discovering an element really means is that you manage to create it in a lab and experimentally (as opposed to theoretically) derive its properties. unfortunately as we get to bigger and bigger nuclei, the trend is that they become more and more unstable (they quickly decay into smaller elements). there is a theoretically island of stability you could look up that may permit longer lasting high atomic number elements to exist. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when using f=ma for a punch, what is inputted for mass? | is it the mass of the arm? or all the muscles involved in a punch? how does this work if someone is using a blunt weapon? | a punch is fundamentally a collision. for collisions, it is more useful to view them in the context of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum than from a force perspective. a punch before the collision has kinetic and rotational energy. in the case of a hook, we could consider the torso and arm a fairly rigid body, and therefore find the moment of inertia. in the case of the arm being extended, the moment of inertia changes, but the same concepts can be applied. when a punch lands, there is kinetic energy transferred (ie the head snapping back), and there is also deformation and friction and heat loss. the dynamics of a something like a punch are fairly complex, as you are dealing with many levers, many forces/torques, and non-ideal materials. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is modeling boiling/condensation in cfd so difficult? | so i have some basic experience in using a cfd program called cfx. i was planning on making a simulation that had condensation in a packed bed. when i went to look for examples i saw that no one had really had any (on boiling/condensation in general), and any posts about the subjected talked about how it was very difficult. i just don't get why though. why is modeling boiling/condensation so difficult in cfd. | hahaha i actually develop for cfx (although i work on turbogrid, not the solver side). changing state is very difficult to model because you don't actually model the cause-and-effect (conservation of energy is very hard to converge) instead we developed models for the 'macro' processes. they are only valid within certain ranges of conditions, and even then the convergence is limited. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://kucg.korea.ac.kr/seminar/2008/src/PA_10_18.pdf"
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can someone explain vortex shedding and natural frequencies to me in detail? | as an aerospace engineering graduate who works as a junior design engineer i am fully versed in all natures of fluid motion, sub and supersonic flow, vibration mechanics, etc. but vortex shedding is just something that doesn't click for me. i understand a vortex is just a localized pressure differential that imparts a cyclonic motion to the airstream, but what exactly induces resonance from this? for example, why did the tacoma-narrows bridge collapse from so resonant torsional vibrations? was it just from slight increases in air pressure to to vortexes actually "hitting" the sides of the bridge and causing them to move? and along the same lines, can someone describe in detail the "natural frequency" of, say, the bridge? i understand what it means and how to use it, but just the physical aspect..are all the molecular structures vibrating in perfect sync to the point of intra-molecular bonds breaking? it isn't inter-molecular, is it? why, when i have the bass really loud in my car, do at certain notes the door panels vibrate loud, but don't increase in amplitude til they shatter? | you're talking about two separate things here... vortex shedding as a fluid phenomenon is a separate physical phenomenon from structural natural frequencies -- they just happen to interact sometimes, as in the case of the tacoma-narrows bridge, where a flowfield changes the physical shape of the object it's flowing past, which in turns affects the fluid flow. this area of study is called fluid-structure interaction (fsi). i'd be careful making a statement like that. i'd say exactly the opposite -- a vortex is a cyclonic motion that imparts a pressure differential, but of course they're coupled. i'd say it that way, because when you throw particles into a flow, you can visually see vorticity from the particle paths. in the circumferential direction, there is no pressure differential that's driving the flow. tangential point, but pedants will be pedants... now, vortex *shedding* is a fluid effect that happens when, above a certain critical reynolds number, flow over a bluff body starts to [do this, the classic von karman vortex street.](_url_0_) in fact, it's not just *bluff* bodies that do this, but any body that's experiencing a force orthogonal to the flow direction, e.g. lift on an airplane wing -- this is guaranteed by kelvin's circulation theorem. if you were to measure the forces on that cylinder in the flow in the up and down direction (e.g. the lift) you'd see that it's experiencing a lift force that's oscillating about 0. now, if that cylinder is clamped down tight, it won't move cause that force isn't strong enough. but if it's loosely mounted in a wind tunnel (i run this experiment for undergrad fluids), you'll see that cylinder start vibrating like crazy because of that oscillating load on it. that's where fluid-structure interaction comes into play. the shedding on that cylinder, or any body, sheds at a certain frequency; non-dimensionalized it's called the strouhal number. the forces acting on the body by the fluid also oscillate at that same frequency. now, structural natural frequency is a different thing. canonical example is a tuning fork. you whack it on something and it vibrates, on many different frequencies -- the strongest of which is it's "natural" frequency. physically, this is a function of the time it takes for a pressure wave to move from one end to the other and back. when a pressure wave is moving through at this frequency, it keeps crossing back over itself, maintaining it's strength instead of dissipating by canceling itself out. (i haven't looked into material vibrations in many years, so some structural person can correct me.) if you apply a cyclical force to some object at that same frequency, you'll greatly excite that frequency of vibration. if you apply the load at some other frequency, the vibrations will just dissipate in the material. a simple example is the wine glass shattering test -- put a wine glass in front of a loud speaker that's playing a single frequency at the natural frequency of the glass; the thing starts vibrating like crazy until it shatters. the time this takes for a complex object like a bridge is a complicated function of physical shape, structural material, support points, etc., but all objects have a natural frequency. and typically there's many other frequencies one can excite a structure at like this (infinite in simple theory, just a handful of real ones seen in practice.) with all that in tow, the tacoma-narrows bridge incident was just a coincidence of the physical structure: the frequency of the load applied to it due to the aerodynamic vortex shedding was approximately equal to the natural frequency of the structure itself. and then it shattered like a big, expensive, steel and concrete wine glass. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IDeGDFZSYo8&t=1m0s"
] | [
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can a lyrebird really emulate these sounds this clearly? is this real? | _url_0_ i ask because i've never seen another video of them making such amazingly cool imitations other than this video. i don't feel like this should be real, but i want it to be. | [lyrebirds are indeed mimics](_url_0_) while that study didn't find any mimicry of man made noises, the video you posted is from a bbc documentary narrated by david attenborough, which are known for a very high quality standard. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjE0Kdfos4Y&feature=youtube_gdata_player"
] | [
"http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MU9960258"
] | [
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can lego bricks be turning complete? | using any of the lego bricks, including classic bricks and the gears, can one construct a turning complete machine? if so, how? could i construct an and gate, using any legos and perhaps rubber bands? what about xor, or, and other logical functions? | standard, classic lego bricks: probably not on their own because you don't have any moving components. but as long as you have some moving components, [yes](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://vimeo.com/44202270"
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what has more possible building combinations- 50 2x4 lego bricks or 100 2x2 lego bricks? | let's get some more concrete definitions in here: a **structure** of n lego bricks is defined to be n lego bricks in any combination, connected or not, touching or not. however, the bricks are all oriented flat, and at right angles to the plane. the connector holes are always on the top and bottom as expected, and the bricks are rotated at any angle. hence there is only 1 way to place the 2x2 brick and 2 ways to place the 2x4 brick, when not accounting for rotation (we are not, here). two lego bricks are said to be **connected** if either of the following hold: 1. they are directly above/below the other with at least 1 connector hole overlapping, or 2. there is a chain of blocks connected as described in (1) which go between the selected lego bricks. a **building combination** of n bricks is defined to be a **structure** of n lego bricks where all n lego bricks are connected. two **building combinations** are said to be equivalent if they contain the same number of bricks and if the entire structure of one can be rotated so that the two structures could overlap perfectly - the same size bricks in the same exact places. ----------------- so, the question has become, are there more distinct building combinations of 50 2x4 legos or of 100 2x2 legos. and i say we can ignore the "distinct" restriction right off the bat. why? it is only going to affect the result by at most a factor of 4, since there are 4 rotations, and worst case every determined structure when we count can be rotated into another. but with numbers as big as they are, a factor of 4 is likely not to make a difference. we can account for it at the end just to be sure though. next... it is actually very very hard to try counting and not count the same thing twice, or to not miscount by counting impossible structures where bricks overlap. to the point of, i'm not certain you'll be able to get an exact answer here. or even a reasonably close answer. for instance, let's suppose we restrict the problem even further, and are okay with only adding legos on top of the last lego you added - we'll make a wobbly tower. with 2x2 legos, there are 9 ways you can add a new one on top. and with 2x4 legos, there are (5 x 5) + (3 x 7) = 46 ways you can add a new one on top. with that, we can get a pretty solid estimate of 46^50 versus 9^100. but these are pretty close - only different by a factor of 10^12. with this particular restriction, it is clear that there are more for 2x2, but we can't just extrapolate and say it is clear without the restriction. another way to think about it is to try comparing how many ways with one 2x4 versus two 2x2s, two 2x4 versus four 2x2s, etc. but even that is very difficult to count without creating a computer program. my last heuristic is to compare how you can add a 2x4 to another 2x4, and see if you can mimic that with 2x2s. if you can mimic the connection, that it means we can construct a connected 2x2 structure that looks exactly the same as a 2x4 structure, just with 2x2s instead. and this heuristic is what makes me think that there are far far more 2x2 building combinations than 2x4 building combinations. if you iterate over the different ways of connecting a 2x4 brick with another 2x4 brick, you can either perfectly mimic it with 2x2 pieces instead, or else, you're left with disconnected 2x2 bricks - which mean that they can be "freely applied anywhere". those disconnected bricks are a multiplier, giving rise to a lot more combinations than would otherwise be possible when restricted to the form of a 2x4 brick. sorry i can't give a better answer - but this problem really has the feel of a problem from a computational algorithm contest, so if you really want a solid answer, try getting one of the experts there to work on it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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we used fire and electricity before we fully understood them. is there anything today that we make use of without understanding it? | in the case of quite a lot of pharmaceuticals we don't know their biochemical function we just know that if you give them to people a repeatable effect occurs with minimal secondary side effects. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_temperature_superconductivity"
] | [
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|
what kind of damage could this have caused? [nsfw] | well, that tissue is extremely elastic... as long as he didn't put weight on it too fast or bounce around he would probably be alright... *relatively* alright. he's still going to have some bruising and swelling, but maybe that's the point. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
help settle a disagreement; atmospheric pressure, buoyancy, fluid dynamics, all inside! | my question is about an auto-watering dog bowl. it's basically a big jug flipped upside down that feeds into a bowl, and as the dog drinks from the bowl more water comes out of the jug. it's my understanding that atmospheric pressure holds the water in the jug so it doesn't all come rushing out. the jug makes a loud "glug" sound as air replaces the water that comes out. i thought that putting a hole in the bottom (top when it's upside down) of the jug would allow water out as usual and allow air in that hole, preventing the noise. or would this make the water come pouring out of the bowl uncontained? my girlfriend and her sister say it won't work and that the air pressure in the jug is what keeps the water inside of it, while i think it's the atmospheric pressure on the bowl-water keeping the jug-water contained. who's right? | as the jug drains, the pressure of the air pocket within the jug decreases. the pressure differential between this and the atmospheric pressure counteracts the weight of the water in the jug, and i think you could make a reasonable case that this is what either one of you meant. however, before you make a huge mess i have to point out that poking a hole in the top won't just allow water out as usual. it will allow water out until the level in the jug and the level in the bowl are equal (because that's when there's no pressure difference due to the water's weight), so unless your jug is very very short you are going to end up with a bunch of water on the floor. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do we know what happened before the cmb was emitted? | if i've understood it right, we've only been able to observe light that was emitted 380000 years after the big bang. yet we seem to know a lot of what was/happened before, e.g. the gut force, inflation, quark confinement, helium synthesis and opaqueness. | opaqueness is the easy one. we can't see past the cmb. for the others (at least til you get to gut and inflation) is simply by using our knowledge of particle physics and gravity and seeing what scenarios fit the observations of the cmb. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why won't equal materials merge by pressing them against eachother? | i was wondering about that when i was boring. i was thinking about the article i read and the video from vsauce, that you in fact never touched anything. it's just the rejection of the atoms that you sence through your nerves. so yea, why won't my fingers or wood or metal merge when i press them against eachother (and if possible how much pressure would it need?) | it depends on the properties of the material. for most things in practical situations, you've got several layers of material that do not bond with each other, or geometries that keep molecules from contacting each other. however, if you're working with some crystalline glass or metal, you can in fact get two pieces to bond to each other, but they have to be very clean, smooth, and there has to be a good vacuum between them. the word 'touch' is a meaningful description of what we do to things. we do not suddenly stop touching things just because we understand the physics better, what happens is that we understand 'touching' to not be as simple as we previously assumed it to be. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding"
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does placing a non-conducting ferromagnetic material between two conductors carrying ac reduce or eliminate proximity effect? | two conductors carrying ac, that are close to each other, produce a magnetic field that influences their current distribution inside each other. will placing ferromagnetic material between them confine the magnetic field inside the material, thus reducing or eliminating proximity effect? the ferromagnetic material should be laminated or non-conductive to reduce eddy-currents. also how will the ferromagnetic material influence the total magnetic field produced by the conductors? | hello there, looking at your question, it appears that you are asking about two distinct systems (1) ferrite-core ac transformers - have a look [here](_url_0_) and [here](_url_3_) (2) ferrite-core ac capacitors : have a look [here](_url_2_) judging from your question, and the reference to *current* and *interference* is related, in turn, to *emi*, or electromagnetic interference. therefore, i think you are asking about the second kind of system : ferrite-core ac capacitors. the most common type of system which uses a ferrite-core ac capacitor is known as a *choke* in electronics - see [here](_url_1_ these are commonly found on the ac cables of computer power supplies, as a means of cancelling back emi, most of us have quite a few kicking around in our houses, schools, colleges, and workplaces these days ! sequential chokes are also often used to prevent interference in a wide variety of different situations, typically when ac frequency (typically 50hz or 60hz) may interfere with other electronic circuits in-line with power loads. and, in answer to your question - the ferrite core + coil/plate combination is *designed* to eliminate the emi proximity effect - its desirable to insulate the power plate/conductor as a matter of course, or else the choke will literally fry itself in a spectacular ferrite-core short circuit ! hope this helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.mag-inc.com/design/design-guides/Transformer-Design-with-Magnetics-Ferrite-Cores",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(electronics)",
"http://eemc.nl/nl/pdf/EMI%20Suppression%20with%20Ferrites.pdf",
"http://microcontrollerslab.com/ferrite-transformer-turns-calculation/"
] | [
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could someone explain how deconvolution works? | from applicable point of view i learned that convolution is used in image processing (e.g. matrix filters), and in sound processing (e.g. echo effect). from the technical point of view both of them are relatively easy to implement (when working with quantized descreet raw data like pixels). however the reverse of this is still magic to me, how can one "unsmudge" a blurred image without knowing a transferring function? could someone explain how deconvolution does following magic: * de-echoing of audio signal * de-blurring images | you can make a guess of what the point spread function should be and go from there. many blind deconvolution methods use some kind of iterative scheme to do that. if the signal is noisy, it is even more difficult. you might have to introduce some kind of regularization scheme. maybe you want the recovered image to be smooth in a certain way, for example. there are also tricks you can play with different boundary conditions. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any credibility to the theory that a lot of human advancement has been the result of trying impress the other sex? | and are there any great examples of it? | geoff miller called this the 'scheherazade effect'. he found that output of social material (e.g. music/art) tended to peak at the artist's peak reproductive age. as with all evolutionary theories, it does not imply that the individuals are consciously attempting to maximize their darwinian fitness. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong is a bicep? | let's say this person can curl 50 pounds. if the bicep was removed from the arm and hung vertically, how much weight could it lift when contracted? | it's _biceps_. biceps means "two-headed". so the one biceps muscle in your left arm, for example, is a two-headed muscle. in any case, my biceps attaches about 6 cm from the fulcrum point of my elbow, and the distance from that fulcrum point to my palm is about 33 cm. the whole machine is a [3rd class lever](_url_0_), so if fa = fb, then the force applied by my biceps to lift 50 lb is 50*33/6 = 275 lb. according to the page i linked to: > your arm (fig. 1-6) is a third-class lever. it is this lever action that makes it possible for you to flex your arms so quickly. your elbow is the fulcrum. your biceps muscle, which ties onto your forearm about an inch below the elbow, applies the effort; your hand is the resistance, located about 18 inches from the fulcrum. in the split second it takes your biceps muscle to contract an inch, your hand has moved through an 18-inch arc. you know from experience that it takes a big pull at e to overcome a relatively small resistance at r. just to experience this principle, try closing a door by pushing on it about 3 or 4 inches from the hinges (fulcrum). **the moral is, you don’t use third-class levers to do heavy jobs; you use them to gain speed.** | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.tpub.com/machines/1b.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachialis_muscle"
] | [
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does every piece of matter in the universe really affect every other piece (even negligibly)? (physics of douglas adams's total perspective vortex) | chapter 11 of *the restaurant at the end of the universe* by douglas adams starts with a blurb on the inspiration behind the total perspective vortex--a fictional machine that gives the user a "sense of proportion" re their place in the universe. > "...since every piece of matter in the universe is in some way affected by every other piece of matter in the universe, it is in theory possible to extrapolate the whole of creation-every sun, every planet, their orbits, their composition and their economic and social history from, say, one small piece of fairy cake." i'm sure--pretty sure--that the latter sort of extrapolation is ludicrous. but i wondered about the first part. i've always assumed that the sum of forces on one body due to the presence of another body drop to ***effectively*** zero at a large enough distance. but is there some distance at which it is zero **in exact arithmetic**? (sorry if this is too broad or poorly phrased). | an important consideration here is the finite speed of the propagation of information (the speed of light), which means that an event can only influence other events in its future light-cone; therefore it has no effect on anything which is occurring simultaneously with it. a piece of cake on earth would eventually influence events on the other side of the galaxy in a negligible way, but it would take 100,000 years for the signal to propagate. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what effect does cavitation have on longitudinal waves moving through a medium? | for example, it seems like bubbles in a closed hydraulic system impede the flow of pressure waves through a brake line, but is that a general rule, a special case, or completely inaccurate? | when you're dealing with any kind of wave in a medium (pressure, electromagnetic, even just shaking a rope), there will be reflection and transmission of the wave at any interface. in your case, a bubble in a fluid, the surface of the bubble is an interface between the fluid and air, which have different densities and thus respond differently to a pressure wave. so when a pressure wave hits a bubble some of it will reflect off the surface and some will go through, and the waves that are reflected or redirected by the bubble will interfere with the original wave. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can yogurts like activia have "active cultures" but show no evidence of gas being produced in the container (the lids are not popped up, for example)? | yogurt is made over a heat source at about 115 f and becomes too acidic for most bacteria to live due to fermentation products. it is then cooled down so the heat-loving bacteria that survived become mostly inactive. they're not dead but they're also not doing much. activia markets the presence of bacteria more heavily, and has trademarked a strain of bacteria and given it the extra-healthy-sounding name bifidus regularis. if there is any evidence of the benefits of "bifidus regularis" at all it is buried too deeply in their advertising literature for me to find... | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the military myth true that you don't hear the artillery/mortar shell that kills you? | this was inspired by another question that was asked that if an atomic bomb went off near by you wouldn't see, feel or hear it. so i was just curious if there was any scientific evidence that could prove whether or not you would hear the mortar/artillery shell that kills you. | it's no myth. most artillery shells travel faster than the speed of sound. you, or the area near you, get hit before the sound reaches your ears. personal experience. while at field artillery school at fort sill oklahoma there was a battery practice firing nearby. the shells passed directly over our position before impacting several thousand yards away. we learned to look up immediately upon hearing the gun fire. we could actually see the shell pass silently overhead. a number of seconds later we could hear the sort of crackling sound the shell made while passing through the air, just like in the movies i add. the point of all of that is if we were the target we would have been hit before we even knew that a gun had been fired. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the properties of h20 that make necessary to sustain all life there is or ever was on earth? | many would speculate to say that it's not the unique characteristics of water themselves that make it the almighty life-sustaining liquid it is, but rather the fact that it's been around for so long, and it's so abundant. aquatic species were among the first complex specimens that we have discovered through fossils and tracing phylogeny. life has been evolving around water because when multicellular organisms began to evolve into complex species, water was like a big pool of opportunity to the evolutionary mechanisms. selection drives the most favorable mutations/adaptations, so since there was so much water around--the mutations that drove life as we know it (evolution), capitalized on the most abundant resource around | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how typical is our personal 'microbiota'? | is there a significant difference between two healthy people's microbes on the same continent? | that depends on how you define significant. speaking very broadly the similarity is reasonably high between two people from the same area but there are also distinct differences between each person. even people who have undergone fecal transplants (exactly like it sounds) will share many of the microbes of the donor but not all. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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engines of the future | it's all about the fuel, the energy source. gasoline is just so energy dense that it's hard to beat. the upper limits of battery technology is the bottleneck here. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engine#History"
] | [
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|
why do beats occur? | is it due to the interference of the sound waves or is it just the way our brain interprets it? if it is due to actual interference, how do binaural beats work, even though the waves never interfere? | it's a real physical effect. suppose i have two sounds: one at 100 hz and another at 105 hz. i can write time dependent air pressure p(t) at a fixed point in space as p(t) = a cos(2 pi 100 hz t) + b cos(2 pi 105 hz t) where a is the amplitude of the 100 hz sound and b is the amplitude of the 105 hz sound. at t=0 both sounds waves are at maximum amplitude, but then they start to go out of phase. while they're out of phase the amplitudes don't add constructively so the total amplitude is reduced. then every fifth of a second the first tone will have gone through 20 oscillations and the second will have gone through 21 oscillations. therefore, every fifth of a second, they're back in phase and adding constructively. therefore, you would hear a "beat" at a frequency of 5 hz. you can probably see now that the beat frequency is at the difference of the frequencies of the two tones. edit: apparently there are other ways to cause a person to perceive beats in addition to what's described here! see below. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the standard operating procedure for most injuries still rest, ice, compression, elevation(rice)? the faseb journal suggests otherwise? | is the standard operating procedure for most injuries still rest, ice, compression, elevation(rice)? this [research paper](_url_1_)[(summerized here)](_url_0_) from the faseb journal suggests otherwise? also, the paper was submitted on august 23, 2010, and published on september 16, 2010... that seems like a short amount of time for such a significant claim to be peer reviewed. is it? | [this recent paper](_url_0_) (may be paywalled - title is: "price needs updating, should we call the police?" ) examines the price protocol and suggests updating it to include "optimal loading", making the full protocol protection, optimal loading, ice, compression, elevation. out of the full protocol, it is generally recognized that the purpose of the ice is analgesic and does not directly facilitate healing. however, the price protocol is not based on rigorous large-scale rct studies. it is still the best evidence based treatment for acute sports injuries. for non-health care providers (coaches, athletes, etc), price provides the necessary base to quickly make decisions regarding most injuries, and is unlikely to result in harm. any delay in healing the ice might result in, is likely to be minimal and would require a massive trial to demonstrate. mechanism studies in mice may be relevant to direct future studies, but they are not clinically relevant - such a study should not make anyone abandon ice. | 3 | [] | [
"http://functionaltherapyca.com/publication/putting-ice-on-injuries-could-slow-healing/wppa_open/",
"http://www.fasebj.org/content/25/1/358"
] | [
"http://bjsm.bmj.com.ludwig.lub.lu.se/content/46/4/220.full"
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as a method for speciation how does "oceanic dispersal" really work (considering how much ingenuity it takes for humans to survive long periods on rafts)? | when oceanic dispersal is given as an explanation for speciation, there is always this doubt in the back of my mind. humans have to go to such extraordinary lengths to get fresh water and food when trapped on rafts. animals (such as monkeys for example traveling from africa to south america) cannot capture rainwater, so how can they last a month on the open seas? i know continents were closer during certain periods on earth, but a month or two at sea still seems somewhat outlandish to me. | you're right, it's a tough question. but the first thing to remember is that millions of years ago, africa and south america were actually in contact, then split from tectonic movements and have been diverging ever since. so it may not have been several months. it could have been weeks or even days, depending when and where the dispersal event occurred. sure, that journey is hard, and not many creatures can survive a week without water. but what if the primates were really fortunate, and the vegetative raft contained some fruiting trees? just a bit of this fruit in the midst of a raft could sustain a few individuals. there could be other ways the journey was aided as well...other animals that died first and could be eaten, lucky arrangements of large leaves to catch rainwater, etc. yes, i'm speculating here, but it's very clear that this event _did_ happen, even if we don't know _how_. so it's certainly not a common matter. not everything can be coconut trees (the undisputed kings of worldwide oceanic dispersal). but these events are rare, as you would expect. we can be very confident that it did happen, though ... morphological and molecular data on this is conclusive - they are distant cousins and more closely related to each other than anything else in south america is related to the new world monkeys. if primates did not travel from africa to south america after the continents split, then something very much more improbable happened, something like magic or alien tampering or something for which there is zero evidence, because new world primates clearly did not evolve from anything else living in south america before they showed up. edit: it is possible that the alternative was a land bridge, instead of an oceanic raft. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has a kugelblitz ever been observed or recorded? are there conditions somewhere in the observable universe where one could occur? | do you mean a [ball lightning](_url_1_) (german name: _kugelblitz_) or do you mean an astrophysical [kugelblitz](_url_0_), a black hole created entirely by radiation? because a ball lightning [has been recorded](_url_1_#direct_measurements_of_natural_ball_lightning) in 2014, whereas a black hole formed by radiation could not not be distinguished from any other black hole by [birkhoff's theorem](_url_2_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kugelblitz_%28astrophysics%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkhoff's_theorem_%28relativity%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning#Direct_measurements_of_natural_ball_lightning"
] | [
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|
what dictates mammary placement/development in mammals? | [deleted] | posture, and whether the animal moves and or carries its young while feeding. humans can carry their children while feeding them, so it makes sense for the mammaries to be pectoral. canines and felines, on the other hand, have many young which they cannot carry and their young cannot walk like horses, so it makes sense for the mammaries to be abdominal. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would botulism leave any diagnostic trace a year after someone suffers from it? | north korea claims the american student, otto warmbier, had a case of botulism before being sedated and falling into a coma. he is now in a vegetative state. the american doctors examining him stated that they found no evidence of botulism, > [“as part of his evaluation with us, we performed electromyography and nerve conduction studies. those tests did not reveal any evidence…that would suggest active botulism at this time.“](_url_0_) but it is unclear what exactly they meant by that statement. botulin, the toxin, would presumably have left the body after 4 or 5 months, no? so of course there would be no "active botulism". so my question is, am i interpreting their statement correctly? it either means everything (he didn't have botulism), or it means nothing (because one wouldn't even expect to observe active botulism after more than a year). which one is it? | for the toxin itself? probably not, no. other findings? probably. according to this article _url_0_ botulinum toxin a is found in serum for up to 12 days, toxin b for up to 4 days, toxin a in stool for 16 days. however there are other findings, rather than just the toxin itself. in the linked autopsy, they find a bunch of things, but the following are attributed to botulinum toxin exposure: "grossly apparent diffuse muscular atrophy of the upper and lower extremeties. microscopically, sections of quadriceps and gastrocnemius muscle showed scattered degenerating muscle fibers with basophilic change along with scattered angular atrophic fibers." the autopsied man had been complaining about feeling ill for 2 weeks and was then found on his floor, brought to the er and died soon after. then examined. so you can see things other than the toxin afterwards, which might be what they refer to not finding in the case for otto warmbler. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.mediaite.com/tv/otto-warmbiers-doctors-reveal-massive-damage-to-former-prisoners-brain-no-evidence-of-botulism/"
] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20533981"
] | [
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a question about temperature | is there a specific temperature where no matter how much more heat you add no more energy is added ? if so what happens thanks for the answer in advance ! | are you asking if there is a maximum temperature? if so, there's the planck temperature, which may or may not be the hottest possible temperature - physicists are still debating that one. otherwise, your question doesn't make sense. heat is a form of energy, so if you add heat to something, you are adding energy. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fuHzC9aTik"
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] |
was the global warming "hockey stick" graph really manipulated? | i recently got interested in this question completely randomly, went to wikipedia to find out what the consensus is. at that point i [was surprised to find this](_url_1_): > the [us government] report stated that the mbh method creates a hockey-stick shape even when supplied with random input data (figure 4.4), and argues that the mbh method uses weather station data from 1902 to 1995 as a basis for calibrating other input data. "it is not clear that dr. mann and his associates even realized that their methodology was faulty at the time of writing the mbh paper. the net effect of the decentering is to preferentially choose the so-called hockey stick shapes." the only response is a link to the realclimate blog showing what the graph "would have looked like" without mbh manipulation. if their mock-up is accurate, then why hasn't there been an official correction to remove the manipulations? i don't think the scientific process ends with the "real facts" being provided by blogs. why hasn't the original, messed up version been officially redacted by the people who published it, since [data that lacks mann's "adjustment"](_url_2_) doesn't look like a hockey stick at all? i plead utter ignorance on this subject, i'm no scientist. reddit, help me out. bonus question: is the relationship between atmospheric co2 and temperature logarithmic, as claimed [here](_url_0_)? i'm pretty sure this isn't true but can't find a discussion of it anywhere that rebuts the data presented. | [here's](_url_0_) an article published in 2007: temperature reconstruction from the list of important climate reconstructions of the past six centuries (mbh means mann, bradley, hughes) | 2 | [] | [
"http://wattsupwiththat.com/2010/03/08/the-logarithmic-effect-of-carbon-dioxide/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockey_stick_controversy",
"http://i.imgur.com/TR45p.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/ccr/ammann/millennium/refs/Wahl_ClimChange2007.pdf"
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why do humans tend to raise their pinky finger while holding items like bottles or cups? | i noticed it's sort of a joke to be "fancy" by raising your pinky finger, but i catch myself and others doing it instinctively all the time when drinking or holding objects in a like manner. why do we do it, and does everyone do it if they aren't paying attention? | why do we not use all five fingers to close or open buttons, time flip light switches, or to hold a pen or pencil? we use the fingers that feel right to use without thinking about it. when gripping a cup or a glass the pinky really doesn't contribute much strength,and so can remain in its default or relaxed position, which looks like it's sticking out when seen beside the other fingers that are gripping. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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any updates on research about the (reportedly) weakening thermohaline circulation / gulf stream? | i've seen this fantastic video by kurzgesagt that talked about the ocean conveyor belt: _url_0_ the latest articles that have done research on this date till 2007 (as of wikipedia and sciencedaily...) i was just wondering if there's any update at all. | yes, modelling the future strength of the atlantic meridional overturning (amoc) is covered in the ipcc reports. according to the most recent physical science basis (2014), the amoc will very likely weaken in the 21st century, relative to the preindustrial era. however, the magnitude of this weakening is very uncertain, and a collapse is highly unlikely. [here is a link to a pdf of the chapter, search for "12.5.5.2" and you can also find the references, from both prior to 07 and more recent ones](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UuGrBhK2c7U"
] | [
"https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter12_FINAL.pdf"
] | [
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a few questions about the human heart | these are fairly easy figures to research, and the project seems to be very entry level. instead of spoon feeding some answers here are some ways to expand your search: 1) search for cardiac pressure-volume loop making sure to understand end diastolic and end systolic volumes for both atria and both ventricles to determine "empty space" and how much blood is in the heart before it beats. 2) search for cardiac output and how it is determined to determine how much blood is pumped per minute and to calculate how much blood flows per beat. 3) search for ejection fraction to lead you in the right direction for how forceful the heart beats. also look into cardiac contractility. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could a person with prosopagnosia successfully work with a police sketch artist? | i wondering if someone with prosopagnosia could build a face working only with the parts they can identify. if not, could a larger group make it work? and, if a face can be built to at least partial usage, could said person or group narrow down a range of similar faces to the one made and find the real face? | people with the disorder generally build means of remembering faces by focusing in on specific features. without the disorder, these features are automatically processed, but with it, there is specific intention to try to remember certain details like size/proportion etc. not having the disease, nor being a police sketch artist or even being able to draw a face in any way at all, i cannot answer with certainty. but it seems that the specific facial features used by these artists would be the kinds of specifics a prosopagnostic (not sure if this is a word) have to actively try to remember. so it's possible. the part of the brain damaged associated with the disease is the fusiform gyrus/cortex alternatively. it's associated with not just facial recognition, but environmental recognition as well. i suppose a similar issue would be, could a person with the disorder give driving directions to someone? i'd say they probably can, but in a much less orthodox way than you'd expect to hear without the dysfunction. -majored in psych/neuroscience. prosapagnosia was a disease was covered a lot. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the rowland circle function needed for wave dispersion spectroscopy? | i understand it has something to do with satisfying bragg's law, but i don't really understand the principle behind it. | in order to maintain the geometry for diffraction, the x-ray source, diffracting crystal, and detector must stay on the rowland circle. as one changes the angle of incidence of x-rays on the crystal (moving the source relative to the crystal), one must also shift the detector position on the rowland circle. [here](_url_0_) is a discussion with a good figure showing this. for microprobes, the detector shifts as the crystal is moved in a linear fashion away from the source, changing the incident angle. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www4.nau.edu/microanalysis/Microprobe-SEM/Signal_Detection.html#GeomWDS"
] | [
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] |
where i'm from in eastern europe it is a common belief that by sitting or walking barefoot an a cold floor you become more prone to utis. is there any truth to this? | all my life all the women in my family have been nagging me about not sitting on the ground and not walking barefoot and especially not going into cold water because i will be forever doomed with constant utis. but since there are few things i enjoy more than sitting on the floor, i need some scientific evidence to back this up. | in all likelihood - no. there is no reason this should be the case, unless you are in the habit of sitting on a terribly dirty floor while completely naked, and/or finding a way to stick your terribly dirty feet from your terribly dirty floor into a part of your anatomy they were not meant to be stuck in the "cold water" part is unlikely as well. think about all the civilizations that live on the banks of cold water bodies. | 32 | [] | [] | [
"http://americangirlsinmoscow.blogspot.com/2007/07/russian-superstitions-no-you-are-not.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golosov_Ravine"
] | [
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what is e8, and how did mathematicians discover it? | i recently saw eric weinstein, on the rubin report, talk about certain inexplicable mathematical objects, such as e8. he gives a fairly decent explanation - that it is an object, shown by math, that exists in 248 dimensions - but this still leaves me without a clear picture of what it is. in what way does this object "exist"? how did math demonstrate this to us? how does one "discover" such a thing by mathematics? | there are objects in math that pop up a lot, and we like to classify them. one such object is that of a lie group, which is something that can help find symmetries of objects. particularly, lie groups are necessarily "smooth" objects and so they are great tools that can be used in differentiable systems, like pdes or lagrangian mechanics or something. if you have a 2-variable pde that you find is invariant under rotations (a smooth symmetry of the system), then you can reduce it to a 1-variable ode, which are easier to solve. in physics, the symmetries of a system can help you find invariants of it, like energy, momentum, angular momentum. in fact, the standard model of particle physics is basically determined by the "lie group of fundamental symmetries of the universe", which is su(3)xsu(2)xu(1). so lie groups are really important so we want to know/classify them, so that when we encounter a new one we'll instantly know a lot about it based on its classification. most of the fundamental lie groups (the building-block lie groups) fall into one of four categories: a*_n_*, b*_n_*, c*_n_*, d*_n_*. each of these corresponds to a specific way that a lie group can be the symmetries of something and n is the "rank" of the lie group, which is kinda a measure of the size of the lie group. these are categories that were created by some very clever mathematicians who wanted to classify lie groups and studied how they acted and picked out these kinds of actions and wanted to prove that all lie groups followed this pattern they created. but this classification is not perfect. while most lie groups fall into these categories, not all of them do. in fact, there are exactly 5 ("fundamental") lie groups that do not. these each have a new classification invented to hold just them: g*_2_*, f*_4_*, e*_6_*, e*_7_*, e*_8_*. the only thing special about these five groups is that they don't fit into the classification scheme that we came up with to classify lie groups. it's entirely possible that we could come up with a totally different classification scheme for lie groups that does not have exceptions like this, or has different exceptions. e*_8_* is the largest of these exceptions to out classification scheme. any lie group that is larger than e*_8_* nicely fits into the scheme. so we discovered it as an exception to our classification scheme. what it actually *is* would require more than an /r/askscience post. something analogous would be a classification of prime numbers: all prime numbers have last digit 1,3,7,9. this classification is incomplete and we have the exceptional cases of 2 and 5 that do not fit into this classification scheme, where 5 is the largest one. so 5 is to the final-digit classification of prime numbers as e*_8_* is to the a*_n_*, b*_n_*, c*_n_*, d*_n_* classification of lie groups. e*_8_* is an interesting lie group with interesting properties, but any mysticism around it is likely misguided (*cough* [lisi](_url_4_) *cough*). **tl;dr/eli5:** we tried to classify some complicated objects used frequently in math, but our classification was not perfect and there were 5 exceptions to it. e*_8_* is the largest exception to our classification. ------------------------------ analogously, one of the triumphs of modern math is a complete [classification of finite simple groups](_url_2_), which does the same thing but instead of working with lie groups, which are continuous and differentiable, it does it for finite groups which are discrete and classify finite symmetries. this problem was much harder, and borrows ideas from lie groups. we finally proved that almost all finite simple groups fit into one of 18 specific infinite families of classifications, but there are a few exceptions. 26 exceptions, and these are called the [sporatic groups](_url_5_). just as above, these are just groups that don't fit into the nice families that we found for finite groups. however, there may be something fundamental obstructing some of these groups from being nicely classified. a fairly magical connection between the largest sporatic group, the [monster group](_url_6_), and something called the [j-invariant](_url_1_) which is from something pretty unrelated to finite simple groups, was identified by mathematician [john conway](_url_3_). they named the resulting theory [monstrous moonshine](_url_0_) because you must be on moonshine to think that something like it is real. it has been generalized to include some of the other sporatic groups, so perhaps this moonshine plays a role in classifying finite simple groups into our nice categories that we missed before? i really don't know because monstrous moonshine is complicated as fuck and it's not my field. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrous_moonshine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-invariant",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horton_Conway",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Exceptionally_Simple_Theory_of_Everything",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporadic_group",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_group"
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what are "knots" in reference to the birth of stars? | i was reading on nasa's website about the birth of stars and it said this: > turbulence deep within these clouds gives rise to knots with sufficient mass that the gas and dust can begin to collapse under its own gravitational attraction. what do they mean by knots? i read in another article that knots are slightly analogous to sperm in that it's a sort of race to see which knot can cause the star to explode first. | knot1 nät/ noun noun: knot; plural noun: knots 1. {irrelevant in this context} 2. a tangled mass in something. the "knots" are "tangled masses" of matter, in this case gas & dust. the best illustration of them i could find was on nasa's website. they don't go into what they are too much, but the picture shows several. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
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can we fix the blind spot? | i saw a billboard for the 2012 camry that touted its "blind spot detection" technology. is such technology even needed? couldn't we just add a third set of mirrors positioned to give the driver a view of this spot? i put this in /r/askscience because i'm assuming this is somehow not possible due to some geometrical constraint. i mean, if it were possible...wouldn't auto manufacturers much rather make simple mirrors instead of relatively complex technology? | you're right. you can even buy little stick-on mirrors that have a convex shape, allowing you to see the presence of something in the blind spot. but that doesn't sell cars. telling people that they have a radar that keeps their family safe does. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any scientific evidence to prove that each individual perceives everything the same? | its a bit of a mindfuck but i have been wondering about this for a while. how do we know if everyone sees the world the same. how do i know that i see the colour blue as blue whereas you may see it as green. how do we know that say for instance, when someone speaks to me there is a part of my brain that translates it from their language to mine automatically. strange question i know, and i guess we will really never know but hey, worth a shot. | actually, there is very good reason to believe that while there may be some differences in perception from person to person, and large differences when dichromacy or other forms of color blindness is considered, people do not see colors very differently from one another. that is, as long as neither one of us is colorblind, i do not see red where you see blue or purple where you see green. how can this ever be proven? lets drop the philosophy 101 crap about there being no way to "know" what's going on in somebody else's head. if you hand out samples of phenylthiocarbamide to 30 people, and half of them say they taste nothing and half run to the sink to wash out their mouths, i can say say that i *do* know something about what it's like to be the person who just tasted the stuff. yeah, they could be putting on a show, or i could be a brain in a jar, but that doesn't mean we don't have hard evidence that the people who tasted the chemical felt pretty much the same thing, on the inside, because everything about their behavior and their description of what they tasted matches. that's considered evidence, and for science, that's the best we can ever get. next, let's consider sound. is it possible that i could be walking around hearing high notes where you hear low notes? could my sound spectrum be inversed from yours? no. because there's a smooth transition from beats so low you can tell that it's made of vibrations in the air to a high sharp pitch. it would be impossible to invert it without losing that smooth transition. colors! as long as your wiring is standard, green acts as opponent to red, red and green combine to make yellow, which acts as opponent* to blue, black is opponent to white, which is hard to distinguish from yellow. there is a structure behind how colors are related to each other, it's based on how neurons are physically connected to each other, and switching any colors would screw up the map. when the map does get screwed up, you can tell scientifically- color blindness tests, for example. (* opponent= stare at one color, look away and see the other) so could i see blue where you see green? sure, if it's just a change on the margin, and maybe if we did we'd draw the lines this chart a little differently: _url_0_ . it's a change, but it's observable, not part of the higher mysteries. we'd also draw different charts based on what language we speak. or what system we were asked to use. in one of my favorite psych experiments, which i learned about in school but can't recall the name of, first one researcher showed that people from an area in iran whose language described colors differently labeled colors in a completely different way, and therefore must be perceiving differently. years later, the theory was destroyed when it was shown that anyone could label colors in this unusual way if they were told about the other naming system and asked to use it. oops. but back to your proposition. could we look at that same chart and see something completely different? not without being able to to tell. what if your blue was my green and vice versa? we agree there's a big area called blue. it's opponent to the upper left area is called yellow. now when these two colors are placed next to each other in a gradient, what do we see? with blue and yellow, we see gray, the color of rocks and halfway between black and white. with green and yellow, it's yellow-green, and we do not stop in gray along the way. that's an observable, scientifically recordable difference that would occur if blue and green were switched. therefore, we can know! | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgs.xkcd.com/blag/satfaces_map_1024.png",
"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/private-language/"
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what unit of measure is used to determine all distances? | obviously you can break down all long distance measurements into inches and fractions of inches, but with millions of measurement devices being distributed around the world, how do we know that they are all calibrated equally? is there some destictive unit that all measurement is broken down to? | the international standard for the meter was, until 1960, actually marked out on a specific bar of platinum-iridium alloy held by a government agency in france. now it's based on the speed of light, which is defined to be 299,792,458 m/s. this of course depends on having an accurate standard for a second, which comes from atomic physics. in practice, of course, the rulers you buy at a stationer's aren't calibrated with lasers and atomic clocks, but they all in principle refer back to this same standard. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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dropped book energy dispersal | lets say i drop a book. the book hits the floor. according to thermodynamics energy can never be destroyed or created so where does it go? i understand that some of it goes into vibrations in the floor and some goes into sound but what happens to the rest of it? does it just disperse into the floor? | yes it mostly goes into the floor. i suppose you could visualize this by dropping a book onto a trampoline, where you can see the "floor" deform and vibrate. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is electricity "standardized"? how do they keep it in the same parameters as people join and leave the grid? | i assume that delivering electricity on town level is a quite complicated task - it should keep up to a standard, as people join+ leave. how is this done? | i assume by "leave and join the grid" you're referring to power demand changing as people turn devices off and on, etc. basically, the demand causes fluctuations in the network which are measured and corrected for: as demand increases, additional supply is turned on, and when demand decreases, generators are shut down. this is possible because the voltage and frequency *aren't* constant, but are allowed to vary within certain tolerances (about ±5% for voltage and ±1% for frequency; the exact standard varies around the world like the voltages and frequencies themselves). normally, not everybody is going to turn on the lights at exactly the same moment, so the grid operator can see that demand is rising before the parameters exceed the tolerances. this isn't always the case, though: at the ends of very popular tv shows, for example, millions of people might decide to boil water to make tea within the space of a few seconds. apparently the british grid regulator has a tv in the control room to see exactly when this is going to happen. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is painting on tree trunks okay for tree health? | there is a tree at my university that everyone paints on as a sort of billboard/advertising space, and it really bothers me. i'm curious as to what negative effects, if any, this has on the health of the tree. they paint with either housepainting paint/primer, or spraypaint, and it's starting to layer up on the trunk. it seems like it'd be bad for it, but i would like some scientific reasons to argue against painting it. thanks in advance. | the bark on trees isn't especially useful for gas exchange, or photosynthesis since it is dead on the outermost layers. the harm will be minimal, but only so much better than carving your name in it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is it possible that olympics world record event times continue to get lower and lower? is it caused by an increase in technique, diet, or something else altogether? | it should be noted that, since there is no way for them to go up, they *must* continue to go down. it's not statistically surprising that the lowest value ever measured will continue to decline, simply due to fluctuations, even if the average remains the same. just looking at records is insufficient to conclude that atheletes are getting faster. you have to look at average finish times in events such as the world championship to get a more accurate picture of athlete fitness. now, i don't mean to deny that there has been some development in some disciplines. however, you should realize that your conclusion that athletes become faster does not follow from record times becoming lower. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the most advanced insulators against cold? | is it possible to keep perishable food at a near constant temperature at sub zero temperatures (-30c) for 24-48 hours? | the best insulator possible is going to be some sort of near-perfect vacuum contained inside of a highly reflective container. this is the principle behind a thermos flask, a double-walled container with vacuum trapped between the walls. thermal energy is actually just the jiggling around of molecules and atoms. in order to lose or gain thermal energy, that can happen a few ways: it can be transformed and lost as long-wave radiation (eg, infrared), or if things get really hot, black-body radiation, or it can be gained by absorbing this radiation, or it can be mechanically transferred between molecules that come into "contact" with each other. you can prevent the direct transfer of thermal energy by making sure that whatever you want to keep hot or cold is kept in a vacuum, so that there is very little other matter for it to exchange thermal energy with. and you can reflect long-wave radiation away from an object, or back onto an object, in order to keep it cool or hot, respectively. so if you could make a container out of a material that is highly reflective to far ir radiation, and then put a near-perfect vacuum in it, with your food floating around in the middle, i'm guessing you could keep that food cold for quite a long time. maybe even days. it's harder to keep things hot, though, since when things heat up you start getting things happening like water turning into steam - this actually uses up a lot of thermal energy and dissipates it around the container. so yes, i suspect you can keep something sub zero for days and days. but you wouldn't have as much luck keeping it hot. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"
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is there a difference between ground to air lighting and air to ground lighting? | is there any kind of fundamental difference other than where the charge originates? is there a difference of effect between impact on the area of the ground if it is a target area or a origin area for lighting? | upward cloud-ground strikes are uncommon, and mainly occur on sharp objects or topographic features. this is because lightning initiates where the electric field is the strongest, which is generally between the charged layers of the cloud, or between the lower (negative) charge layer in the cloud and the ground. as far as the effect it has, lightning is lightning. it doesn't matter whether the leaders go upward or downward; it's still about 20 ka flowing through the strike. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i sneezed in a one man mercury capsule , would the capsule start to pitch? | two separate ways i can think of this. one) its a closed system. the capsule will not move in any way unless something is ejected. as everything is inside the capsule both before and after the sneeze, nothing changes. two) its an expulsion of energy and that energy has to go someplace. the capsule would pitch but by a very very tiny amount. | one is correct, it's a closed system. nothing is ejected so the craft won't move. where does the energy go? well your snot flies out of your nose, hits the other side of the capsule and makes whatever it hits slightly warmer. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does thermal imaging work? | a more in-depth explanation would be appreciated. | there are more wavelengths (colors) of light than the eye can see. bigger wavelengths are "redder" and shorter wavelengths are "bluer." thermal imaging uses detectors that can "see" colors that are "redder" than what your eye can see. so what does this have to do with heat? everything with temperature gives off light. how much and what color is based off of temperature. this is called blackbody radiation. when you see a chunk of metal heat up, turn red, then orange, then white, that is blackbody radiation. it's not just metal either, anything reaching those same temperatures will glow the same colors. hotter objects will give off more light as well as shorter wavelength ("bluer") light. even when something isn't glowing, it's still giving off blackbody radiation, it's just in colors and intensities that you can't see. we've developed detectors that are sensitive to those colors and intensities. we can see the heat glow off of things that aren't hot enough to glow visible red. this is thermal imaging. edit: thermal imaging is so effective for finding living things (and most manmade vehicles) because they tend to be so much warmer than their surroundings. even though these things and the surrounding environment are all too cold to emit visible blackbody radiation, the living things still pump out far more infrared radiation than the surrounding environment. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbolometer"
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what is the science behind simplynoise making me productive. | you get less distracted by your surroundings because it basically drowns out all the sound around you. (you probably noticed that you scare quite easily if some sound does come trough) so it makes your surrounding more calm and serene, and if you are calm you work better. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can erbium be used to stop a nuclear reaction? | i saw on periodicvideos that erbium is a nuclear poison. it was described as killing any nuclear fission dead. if that is true, at what scale can it do this. is it possible to produce a sort of safety kill switch for nuclear reactors? or is the amount of erbium required just too massive? or is there a reaction that makes this unfeasible? i had never heard of a nuclear poison before. | the particular situations you're referring to (fission reactors or weapons) rely on chain reactions involving neutron-induced fission. neutron-induced fission reactions often release more neutrons, which can further cause more fission, and so on. if you are able to remove neutrons from the system, for example by absorption, you can "poison" the chain reaction and stop it from continuing. certain materials have very high probabilities to capture neutrons, and once those neutrons have been captured, they no longer contribute to the fission chain reaction. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do non-quantitative sciences get away with being non-quantitative? | why didn't physics evolve this way (or did it?) for example, any serious physics textbook wouldn't say "objects fall to earth qed". i know this doesn't give a complete picture of the system, but does biology give a complete picture of a cell? if not, is it that it's unnecessary, or hasn't been possible (or isn't yet possible) due to physics/technology not being developed enough? | i don't understand your above "examples." science is a mixture of math and observation. it is true that we can observe objects fall to earth, but then we can describe characteristics of that fall using mathematical relationships. similarly, we can observe a cell, or the molecules of a cell, but we can also describe characteristics of that cell mathematically. for instance the volume to surface area ratio and how that limits cell growth. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there no closed-form solution for n-body problems? | in physics, there is a closed-form, exact solution to the two-body problem. why does such a solution not exist for three, four, and n-bodies? we can very accurately simulate them with numerical integration, but there is no perfect solution for anything above two bodies. is it possible they *do* exist and we have yet to discover them? or is there some fundamental restriction that prevents them from being solved? | when we say there is no closed form that means we can not write the solution in terms of a combination of elementary math functions. there is always an exact solution, but the solution is a function that contains a non-elementary function. the reason you can't write most many body solutions in terms of elementary functions is the same reason you can't perfectly fit a round peg through a square hole. they are fundamentally different shapes and likewise the solution to the many body equations have features which normal math functions do not have. for instance you can't find a finite polynomial such that for all x. 1/x = a+bx+.....c_n x^n where n is a positive integer and a,b,c,etc. are constants. why is that? well for one 1/x is a discontinuous function that diverges to infinity at x=0 while a normal polynomial does not have this feature. it's impossible to get a finite polynomial to have this feature since you can show f(0)=a for any finite length of polynomial under normal mathematical conditions. it's impossible to get the two functions to match because they have fundamentally different properties which conflict with each other. likewise the many body function is a unique function that has unique properties that normal functions can not replicate exactly. and i might also add even in the case that some equation might have an elementary solution, the actual function might be way too complex to reasonably use in any meaningful way. but because this function does exist and we also would like to get an answer from it, we can approximate it by using one of many numerical methods. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00048987"
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is power law fitting an invalid form of analysis? | my question concerns power-law fitting of empirical data. for instance this recent (very high profile) paper fits tc to to a power law: _url_0_ for all superconductors. can't almost anything be fit with a power law according to this paper: _url_1_ making this form of analysis invalid? or does this just count for probability distributions? | it is not invalid, but it can be misleading especially when derived from a linear regression of data in a log-log plot, and even more so when the data only spans a couple orders of magnitude along either axis. incidentally, the first paper you posted, in figure 4a, does seem to include data spanning 4 orders of magnitude in both axes, which is encouraging. however, as stated in the second paper you posted, even if you have a lot of data, what looks like a power law can be, for example, a lognormal distribution. i recommend looking more closely at the abstract of the clauset, shalizi, newman paper for the real break down. excerpt from abstract: "commonly used methods for analyzing power-law data, such as least-squares fitting, can produce substantially inaccurate estimates of parameters for power-law distributions, and even in cases where such methods return accurate answers they are still unsatisfactory because they give no indication of whether the data obey a power law at all. **here we present a principled statistical framework for discerning and quantifying power-law behavior in empirical data.** our approach combines maximum-likelihood fitting methods with goodness-of-fit tests based on the kolmogorov-smirnov statistic and likelihood ratios." in summary: power law fits can be valid, and they are really nice when they are, but you have to be very, very careful before saying so. moreover, as a reader, you have to look closely at any such claims to see if the authors are practicing due diligence. | 13 | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1407/1407.5945.pdf",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/0706.1062.pdf"
] | [] | [
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are there any anti-biotics/medicine not being used now as to preserve them for the future? | ok since i know that most diseases and germs and what not evolve constantly and gain new resistances to antibiotics/medicines is there any proven effective medicine kept in storage for when these germs become too strong to our regular medicines? this question is probably very loose and non specific so forgive me in advance. | as you rightly infer, there is a massive concerted effort in medicine globally to be judicious with antibiotic use for this exact reason. there are now a whole raft of highly resistant organisms that can only be treated with a narrow range of extremely potent antibiotics and therefore the use of these antibiotics is carefully restricted to very specific cases. the best antibiotics we have access to (both new and old), are used very carefully, and conservatively - generally only with the advice of an infectious disease specialist. but they are not kept 'waiting in the wings' when they could be used to save a life today. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would having a stronger core affect childbirth? | would having great core strength prior to becoming pregnant and then maintaining this strength (somewhat) ease childbirth/make it quicker/easier? | no, kegel muscles are what is responsible for pushing the baby out in conjunction with the dilation of the cervix. since the dilation of the cervix is involuntary, it really is up to chance for how long it takes. however, kegel exercises are often done by women in preparation for birth so that once their cervix is dilated fully, they have the strength to push the baby out faster. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is that sinking feeling in your stomach when you go over a hill quickly, and more importantly, why does it seem to disappear with age? | your body has two ways of knowing if it is falling and needs to catch itself. you've fallen enough in your life to allow you brain know that when these two alarms go off you should fire involuntary muscle reflexes to catch yourself and avoid getting hurt. first are your proprioceptive nerves. example: they literally let your brain know where you hands are in relation to the rest of your body. close your eyes and touch your nose. people with damage to their spine can have trouble doing this because those nerve could be cut. or if they are drunk ;) and nerve connections get repressed. secondly your body uses cranial nerve 8 which attaches to your inner ear's vestibular labyrinth/system. this system tells your body specifically what direction your head is moving or spinning. for example: the little organs in your inner ear are hollow labyrinth like tubes with fluid inside, as your head moves the liquid shifts and brushes past sensitive little hairs on the labyrinth walls. these signals tell your brain that you spinning, spin too much and these signals get stronger and trigger a nausea reflex, ***barf***. put proprioception and vestibular signals together and you have a method of telling your brain you are falling. the brain will anxiously responds and involuntarily activates your sympathetic (fight or flight) response. when you go over the bump does you heart rate increase a little or just the sinking feeling? "why does it go away when you're older?" two options i can think of; first would be that you've conditioned yourself to not care when you fall. falling is scarier when you're younger. i snowboard, the thrill of a jump is still there but the fear is all but gone because i now consciously know that falling in soft snow doesnt hurt. second option is that with age we loose sensitivity in our inner ear organs because of slow degradation of those little hairs. if our brain receives a weaker impulse it will give a weaker sympathetic response. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why doesn't concentration affect the rate constant? | from the arrhenius equation, it seems the a (or frequency factor) is partially describing the frequency of collisions. wouldn't a increase with an increasing number of one or both of the reactants? | i mean, substitute the arrhenius equation into a rate law: d[a]/dt = -c*[a]*[b]*exponential part = -(prefactor)*exponential part so there is a dependence on concentration in the prefactor. but we want a number that applies for all concentration conditions, so we divide those out to get a rate **constant**. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry/Kinetics/Modeling_Reaction_Kinetics/Temperature_Dependence_of_Reaction_Rates/The_Arrhenius_Law/The_Arrhenius_Law%3A_Pre-exponential_Factors",
"https://imgur.com/a/8MBcRHe"
] | [
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] |
how do scientists manipulate microscopic situations? | recently, [scientists took a picture of the double helix in dna](_url_0_). the guy who took the picture of the double helix is enzo di fabrazio. apparently, he created a pattern of pillars that repel water and drilled holes in the bed of the nanopillars. how do scientists manipulate these tiny scenarios? | i don't have access to the paper, so i'll have to guess. most likely these pillars were created by a fairly conventional silicon micro-fabrication process. the scale bar in the sem image (showing the pillars) is 1 micron, so these are reasonably large features. this pattern could easily have been produced using photo-lithograph . this 2-d pattern would be etched down into the silicon using a reactive ion etch (the scalloping looks very much like drie). the novel technique here seems to be "drilling" holes in the substrate to allow tem imaging of the dna strand. this could be done with a laser, or a focused ion beam system. the lack of taper and the rough side-walls don't look like an etch to me. could someone with access please check the methods section? i'd like to know how they did it. | 2 | [] | [
"http://io9.com/5964239/scientists-snap-a-picture-of-dnas-double-helix-for-the-very-first-time"
] | [] | [
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last year back in november this void was found in khufu’s great pyramid of giza. does anyone have any follow up information about this, like what was inside? i can’t find anymore information on that void that was found, and it seemed like a huge discovery. | [void in pyramid](_url_0_) | situations like this are very sensitive to cultural and legal concerns of relevant stake holders. the pyramids have huge national significance for egypt. you will understand that no one wants to be held responsible for messing up one of the greatest surviving monuments of the ancient world out of reckless curiosity, right? a few of the reports that initially broke the news alluded to plans for non-invasive/minimal-impact attempts to explore the detected void. it'll probably take a while for any such initiative to be worked out and approved by whatever cultural antiquity authority is in charge of protecting the thing. | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.bbc.com/news/amp/science-environment-41845445"
] | [] | [
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radon could be in the apartment i am thinking about renting out with friends. am i in danger if it states the following? | that looks like the standard radon warning you'll find. some states require that statement on rental contracts. it is pretty standard, but if you're still concerned get in contact with the [georgia department of community affairs](_url_1_). they can also sell you [radon detection tests](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fcs.uga.edu/ext/housing/radon/radon_test.html",
"http://www.dca.ga.gov/development/EnvironmentalManagement/programs/radon.asp"
] | [
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|
what currently supports and contradicts the "big bounce theory" in modern physics? | what theories would suggest that this is the model? does the big bounce theory suggest a multiverse at various times or would it be possible to have a multiverse concurrently? what would the bicept 2 findings suggest if they are validated? thanks!!!! | first i'd like to address this word: multiverse . there are a wide variety of meanings to this word. so caution when you talk of it, or hear others talk of it, you may be meaning different things. the bicep2 findings, but let's say more generally "polarization of b-modes in the early universe" whether bicep2 found them or not, would support "inflation" to explain the uniformity of the early universe. ie, the temperature of the early universe is remarkably uniform, even between places that would never have had the opportunity to "communicate" their temperatures to one another. so we suppose that very early in the universe, it grew at an extremely rapid pace, "freezing" temperatures into place across wide swaths of space. if inflation happened, then early gravitational waves in the universe would be frozen in place and amplified during the inflation. so we should see their effects "frozen" in the cmb as well, the "b-mode polarization" results. so whether the bicep2 results support a "big bounce" is somewhat dependent upon whether that bounce includes inflation or not. and then to circle back around to multiverse. if b-mode polarization is found, or some other evidence of inflation, then there is an *idea* that is scientific, called "chaotic inflation." suppose the inflationary period ended at different times in different ways around the universe. so let's say our part of the universe "stopped" inflating, but the area around it kept on inflating for even a fraction of a second longer. there could be so much space between our part of the universe and the next part of the universe to have matter that light could never cross it, ever. you could, if you wished, call these little pockets or bubbles of matter "universes" and the "multiverse" being the whole of space-time, with pockets of material "universes" separated by uncrossable distances of space between them. note, it's unlikely that this will ever be a theory supported by data... but it's an interesting idea none the less. --- as for your real, initial question, about "big bounce" i'm just not aware, generally, of any very solid data supporting it. it's an idea that's out there, but doesn't have tons of support. that doesn't mean it's wrong, just... we don't have any compelling reason to believe that our universe is the result of a previous universe collapsing upon itself. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does a person with wernickes aphasia produce speech with appropriate grammatical structure? | yes, they do, but not all the time. wernicke's area is critical for the comprehension and association of meaning to words, and so the "word salad" that you hear from patients with receptive or fluent aphasia has normal intonation and speech pattern, but is jumbled. sometimes that jumble just means that they will insert imaginary words and leave out pieces, which can still give you a grammatically sound sentence. it is when they change the tense of the sentence or leave out key words that the grammar dissolves. this is a pretty excellent example of the fluency you can see, where often the grammar is perfect, but the meaning is gone: _url_0_ | 31 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oef68YabD0"
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|
what is going on in the mind of someone who has stopped trusting others due to abuse? also, how do we get this same person to open up and move out of their shell? | ##this thread requires sources in all top level answers **what is happening?** we require that all top level answers *must* include at least *some* sources to support their statements. if an answer does not have a source attached for support, the post will be removed. **what qualifies as a source?** a source should be external corroboration that independently verifies your statements. these include, but are not limited to: journal articles, textbooks and educational websites. for more information, check out our [**guidelines**](_url_1_) on the issue. ___ here are some examples of acceptable sources: * source: fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene. r. r. nair et. al. * source: landau and lifshitz. mechanics. p. 14 * _url_0_ self-referencing sources ***will be removed!*** * source: me * source: my cousin's wife * source: petroleum engineer ___ ***how do i safely format my answer?*** simply answer the question as you normally would, but somewhere in the text include an external link supporting your statements. any link style will do. if your source is a text citation and not a website, use the tag "source:" followed by your citation. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/breast/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/sources"
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|
is it possible for the human body to reject its own organ?? | i know it's possible to reject a doner organ due to any incompatible genetic code, something wrong with the organ etc. but i've never heard of the body rejecting its own organ. | it depends on how you think of it. autoimmune diseases are instances of the body attacking itself, as it will reject a particular transplanted organ. in people with type 1 diabetes, the pancreas won't produce or secrete insulin and glycogen, so the organ is basically non-functional. that's why they take insulin and monitor blood glucose. autoimmune diseases may be treated with immunosuppressants, like organ transplantations, to decrease the negative effects on the healthy parts of the body. the reason why transplanted organs are "attacked" by the immune system is because there are foreign cells that the immune will see as potential invaders. in pregnant women with a negative blood type, for example ab-, if they have a fetus that is, say, ab+ (or any other positive blood type), the body will recognize the fetus as "foreign" and develop the cells to attack it. in subsequent pregnancies in a negative individual with a positive fetus, the mother's body then has the immune cells to fight this "foreign body" and may even end the pregnancy. this could be seen as an instance of the body "rejecting" its own organ. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are some true solutions like kmno4 solution colored even when the particle size is miniscule? | in suspensions, we can see the particles, in colloidal solutions, we usually can't see the particles but they have an effect like red color of gold sol or opaque nature of milk. my question is, why do true solutions like kmno4 have color as opposed to say salt solutions? | in your examples, the colour is due to how light interacts with the particles in the liquid - for example, due to the [tyndall effect](_url_1_) in milk (or just plain scattering giving rise to its opacity), or from other, size-dependent effects like [quantum confinement](_url_3_) in colloidal gold (which is completely different from other scattering phenomena). in a true solution, the colour you observe is due to [molecular absorption](_url_2_). the molecular orbitals have specific energy differences such that photons of that energy will be absorbed. this is the mechanism by which organic dyes and many other metallic dyes are coloured. in other words, you do not need actual, non-solvated particles for something to be coloured. a molecule itself can have its own [absorption spectrum](_url_0_), and this is the basis of many spectroscopic techniques. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_spectrum",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyndall_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dots#Quantum_confinement_in_semiconductors"
] | [
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a question about gravitation and energy. | i tried to look it up, but i think i lack the correct terms and knowledge to find what i'm looking for. my question comes in response to this post by robotrollcall. it may turn out to be a silly question, well actually several questions. original comment: _url_0_ here, he goes into discussing energy as the source of gravitation. this, while making sense, also leaves me wanting to know more. so for my questions: light (emr), i realize it is said to have no mass. but why? it has energy and this energy differs with frequency, what am i missing here? i'm not sure how right i am, but light is affected by the gravitation of a black hole, or is it not. if it is, does this term "no mass" mean simply no matter, but still gravitation? i'm very confused after reading that post. if emr does have gravitation, does this mean more energetic em waves act differently near extreme gravitational sources (eg. black holes)? does a capacitor weigh more when fully energized? if not, why? what of molecules, does the energy removed / added to bond the atoms together also add / remove gravitation? i realize that these questions may either be answered in one fell swoop if there is some aspect i'm missing from energy / gravitation as exampling in this post, so in that case, just ignore those questions. | mass is a property of a particle, and for photons (light particles) this property is zero. one can have energy without having mass, and a photon is a classic example. one consequence of this is that, like any massless particles, photons are constrained to move at the speed of light. a particle with mass can move at any speed below the speed of light (and if you accelerate it, its mass is related to how much it accelerates, of course), but a particle without mass can *only* move at that one speed. mass and energy are, however, two sides of the same coin, an idea made famous by einstein's e=mc^2 . this doesn't mean that they're the same thing, just that they're related. one example of this is that both mass and energy are able to gravitate. this is why light does, in fact, have a gravitational field. for all intents and purposes, however, this gravitation is negligible. the only instance that i'm aware of in which the gravitation from light is important is when the energy from the light in the universe actually "outweighs" the mass from normal (and dark matter). this was the case for the first few thousand years of the history of our universe, and during that period the expansion of the universe was driven by the gravitational properties of light. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j81b2/whats_in_a_black_hole/c2a1tvw"
] | [] | [
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what is the mass of all of the neutrinos currently passing through my body? the earth? | fun question! most of the detectable neutrinos around here come from the sun, where they're produced by nuclear processes. at this range, we get about 65 billion neutrinos per square centimeter per second. most of these neutrinos are moving very near the speed of light. now, suppose we turn off the solar neutrinos, take a single cubic-centimeter volume, and then turn them on again. the amount of neutrinos contained within that volume at any given time can be found by asking: after neutrinos start entering the volume, how long does it take before they start leaving? in this case, that's (1 cm) / *c*, which is about 3.3×10^-11 seconds. multiplying this by the neutrino flux, and by our 1 cm^2 area, gives about 2—so at a given instant, there are about two solar neutrinos per cubic centimeter. now, a human body is about 7×10^4 cm^3 in volume, so we can figure on about 140,000 solar neutrinos being present in our body at any given instant. how massive are these neutrinos? that's a really hard question. we haven't been able to measure the neutrino mass very well, so i will take a conservative estimate: cosmological arguments suggest that the sum of the neutrino species' masses is less than 0.3 ev, so i will just take m=0.1 ev. plugging in, and converting to more familiar units, this is about 2.5×10^-32 kg. this is about 3% of the mass of a single electron. but that's at a single instant. what if you wait a second, and count all the neutrinos that come your way? well, let's assume that your body is about 30 cm thick. then it takes about one nanosecond for a neutrino to pass through you, so you get this many neutrinos a billion times every second. this corresponds to about 140 trillion neutrinos, with a combined mass of 2.5×10^-23 kg. that's the same as the mass of 27 million electrons. okay, but i started out by saying that this accounts for most of the *detectable* neutrinos. what about the rest? cosmological arguments suggest the existence of a cosmic neutrino background, much like the cosmic microwave background. direct observational evidence for such a background is still lacking—and indeed, it would be monstrously difficult to detect—but let's assume it's there. then cosmological estimates put the density at 330 neutrinos per cubic centimeter. that's about 160 times more than what we get from the sun! if we re-roll the numbers, this corresponds to about 4×10^-30 kg in your body at any instant (about five electrons' worth). now, what about the earth, instead of just your body? the volume of the earth is about 1.1×10^27 cm^3, which is roughly 1.5×10^22 times larger than yours. so count on about 4×10^-10 kg of solar neutrinos, or 6×10^-8 kg of cosmic background neutrinos. short answer: neutrinos are *really* light. i'd appreciate a math check from anyone interested. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
today i went blind in one eye after a mall massage. | go to see your doctor, theres a number of innocent explanations for this but there are a few more sinister possibilities. how old are you? | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i have a 1kg weight and a 10kg weight. if i pick them up in each hand using the same amount of strength, the 1kg will 'rise' faster yet, when i let them go, they fall at the same rate...what gives? | if any object of any weight falls at the same rate (ignoring air resistance etc) due to gravity, then how the hell can things even be lighter/heavier than each other? | when you lift them up "using the same strength", you apply the same upward force *f* to each block. the only two forces acting on either block are your lift force and gravity. by newton's second law, where *m* is the mass of the block, *g* is gravitational acceleration, and *a* is the net acceleration. solving for *a* gives note that *f* and *g* are the same for both blocks. but *m* is different. as you decrease *m*, the first term *f*/*m* gets larger. so the lighter block has a larger acceleration. now when you simply drop the blocks, it's the same situation, except *f* = 0, so our original equation is just solving for *a* then gives *a* = -*g*, a formula that does not depend on *m*. in other words, both blocks have the same acceleration. the ultimate reason that the mass doesn't matter is that both gravity *and* the net force are proportional to the mass of that object. so the mass just cancels out of the equation. --- now if you are asking *why* all objects fall under gravity in the same way, that is a much deeper question. there is probably not a satisfactory answer to why that happens, but the phenomenon itself is precisely described by the *equivalence principle*. the principle forms the basis of general relativity and allows a purely geometrical description of gravity. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what formed the patterns on the surface of this rockface? | i was looking around the park when i found an intriguing pattern on the rockface. the rock face borders a small river, and i believe the rock is a silurian sandstone. _url_0_ _url_1_ location: -37.77513,145.035942 (darebin parklands, victoria australia) thanks! | it's called boxwork. it is rather rare. " the boxwork fins once filled cracks in the rock before the host cave formed. as the walls of the cave began to dissolve away, the more resistant vein and crack fillings did not, or at least dissolved at a slower rate than the surrounding rock, leaving the calcite fins projecting from the cave surfaces." --_url_0_ | 91 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/XSN4t.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/RT1dI.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxwork"
] | [
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why are opals iridescent? | inspired by [this gif](_url_0_), i realize that while i work with crystals, i have no idea where the colours and brilliance of opals come from. what's going on inside these gemstones? | deep down those, the bright colors you see are a result of optical interference. what gives rise to the iridescence of opals is the fact that they contain 3d domains of silica spheres that are packed [something like this](_url_3_). the important details about this structure is that you have a periodic ordering with a feature size on the order of a few hundred nanometers. this length scale is about the same as that of visible light, which is why such materials are called [photonic crystals](_url_4_) (or light crystals). a direct result of this periodicity is that these crystals will cause visible light to interfere with itself as it passes through the crystal. as a result, certain sharp bands will be reflected (where you get constructive interference) while much of the rest of the visible spectrum will simply be transmitted. in other words, photonic crystals rely on the same kind of interference that give oil slicks [their vivid color](_url_0_), just with more control and definition. moreover, just as in the case of the oil slick, the color of the light reflected from a photonic crystal will depend on the angle between the light, the crystal, and your eyes, [as you can see here](_url_1_). now of course naturally occurring opals are not perfect crystals. instead, you will find a messier patchwork of irregular crystalline domains. as a result, they will shimmer in different colors in a complicated way as you move them around, [as shown in your gif](_url_2_). nevertheless, the basic physics of what you see is the same as what i describe above. | 105 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Damnthatsinteresting/comments/4dmy2w/ethiopian_welo_opal/"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/TpgRJjZ",
"http://i.imgur.com/eE3k0R8.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/GmgHRBB.gifv",
"http://i.imgur.com/VUA6r81.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_crystal"
] | [
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is time affected on the surface of a very quickly rotating pulsar? if so, how? | i have several other questions in a similar vein but i guess they depend on the answer to this one. | yes, time is affected. of course (as you probably already know,) *you* would *always* feel time moving at the same rate for yourself. if you looked at your watch, the second hand would always tick away at one second per second. to an outside observer, say someone in orbit, it would look like time was passing more slowly for you. this is due to the differential in gravitational acceleration experienced between you and your outside observer (in relativity, accelerations cause time to slow down .) also, being near the equator would have an effect on how time appears to an outside observer. if he's orbiting the equator, he will see your watch speed up slightly as you turn towards him and slow down slightly as you rotate away. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any functional differences between band and segmented neutrophils? | here's one for the immunologists out there. i'm a medical lab scientist (cls, med tech, whatever nomenclature you want to use) and cbcs with manual diffs are a daily thing for me. i understand that band neutrophils are at a just slightly more immature stage than segmented, but i have been wondering about this question lately. in school, i was taught to think of them as the exact same functionally. to extend my question a bit, say a patient is experiencing a left shift and has begun pumping out myelocytes into peripheral circulation. how would these myelocytes stack up next to segmented neutrophils in terms of immune activity? | immunologist here. bands are less differentiated and contain less granules. less granules = less myeloperoxidase = less o2 dependent killing ability, than their mature counterparts. bands have larger, less segmented nuclei because they still have quite a few genes that need to be expressed to continue to mature. the size of the nucleus is limiting the amount of granules it can fit in the cell. once the cell is done maturing, it turns off transcription of the genes it no longer needs and the nucleus shrinks and becomes segmented. this allows neutrophils to focus only on creating the enzymes it needs for killing and fit more granules into the cell. the cytokines released in an inflammatory reaction are mobilizing as many bands as it can, it doesn't care how well they can kill via 02 dependent killing, they just need more men on the field. an analogous example would be the marines lowering boot camp length to push a greater presence of men out on the field. hope that helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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blood pressure differences between the right and left ventricles, one lower than the other? | the right ventricle, has lesser workload, quite reasonably, as it supplies blood to the lungs whereas the left ventricle has a larger workload as it pumps the blood to the whole body. does it mean that if i measure the blood pressure in the lungs, would it be lower than the rest of the body? | yes, that's exactly what it means. here's a picture illustrating the differences in blood pressure throughout your body. i've seen other sources say that the pulmonary artery pressure is 12, and the pulmonary vein pressure is 4, so the pressure of the blood vessels in the lungs would be something between the two. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/33/flashcards/602033/jpg/systemic_and_pulmonary_circulation1325973195329.jpg"
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[biology] weird spiral of tiny stems growing on my porch ornament. any idea what this group of things are? | i walked out on my front porch a few weeks ago and saw a pattern on my spinning football thing that i have hanging out front. from a distance it looked like some sort of etching into the metal that could have been maybe a signature from the artist or company or something. i am simply amazed at how near perfect the spiral is that i thought it was machine made, but upon closer inspection it is a growth of some sort. they are just tiny stems with little balls on top of them. any idea what they are askscience? [the picture of them](_url_0_) thanks! | the only naturally growing thing i could locate even close is whitefly eggs, which are sometimes laid in a spiral pattern. but no pictures looked too similar to that, and they lay them on the underside of *leaves generally. not on awesome metal steelers objects. sorry for speculating. i zero'd myself out in punishment. *fixed where it said eggs before | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/YNGTd.jpg"
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what is an ev/coulomb^2? | when massing particles, why do they use ev/c^2 and not just ev? also, how do they calculate the values for quarks and what not and arrive at that suffix? | that's not a coulomb, it's the speed of light c. it's an easy way to express the mass. for example, the [energy-momentum relation](_url_0_). it contains part of the infamous e = mc^2 equation. if i flip it around, then i have m = e/c^2, so you might be able to see where this notation comes into play. in this equation, you can see that for a particle with mass in ev/c^2 (often closer to mev/c^2), the energy is just in ev. so an electron at rest has a mass of 0.511 mev/c^2 and a total energy of 0.511 mev. it's more convenient, for example, in the full equation, because then you have (0.511 mev/c^2 x c^2)^2 for the rightmost term, which is then just (0.511 mev)^2. makes everyone's lives a lot easier. therefore, sometimes you will also see momentum in units of ev/c or mev/c. so, you can figure out the mass a bunch of different ways. i think what people do in practice is that they know both the energy and the velocity of the particles, which are two quantities you often hear about at particle accelerators. from this, you can work out the mass. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%E2%80%93momentum_relation"
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could someone explain to me the driving force behind the stacking effect? | when researching [solar updraft towers](_url_2_) i was a little confused about the principles behind the [staking effect](_url_0_). i understand that warm air is less dense than cooler air and more buoyant which would cause an upward force. i read that the longer the "chimney" was the more power could be generated. i either assumed or was told that this was simply because the air higher up in our atmosphere is both cooler and has less moisture. but then i watched [this](_url_1_) video where a man demonstrates the stacking effect in the room with a pipe and is able to measure a differential in presure from the top to the bottom. which confused me as i assumed that there wouldn't be a substantial change in the air environment from the top of the room to the bottom. | atmospheric pressure is related to the weight of the column of air above you. if i look at the column of air above a one-meter square at sea level, then that column will weigh (neglecting variations due to weather and such) 101325 newtons. so now, take a look at [this picture](_url_0_). the columns of air above the stack and above the space immediately outside the stack will weigh roughly the same, so the difference in pressure at the bottom (roughly) comes from the difference in weight between air inside of the stack and air outside the stack. so, with everything else (i.e. difference in average density) being equal, the difference in pressure at the bottom of the stack will increase as the height of the stack because there is a longer stretch where the average density of the air is different. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_effect",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1MQP_E4rhFw",
"http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2008/10/solar-updraft-towers-variations-and-research-53742"
] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Chimney_effect.svg"
] | [
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very basic question. does the strength of bonds between atoms like c-c or si-si (silanes) change with pressure surrounding them? atmospheric, gravitational push-pull, even below a huge mind moggling ocean.. etc? | the strength of the bond doesn't change, but equilibrium distances between atoms can get compressed under high pressure. (like, when you compress a spring, the spring doesn't get more or less 'strong', but its equilibrium length changes) you'd be surprised how little the pressure-volume term contributes to the total energy though. for most thermodynamic analyses, the pv term is completely negligible, because the scale of chemical reactions (electron transfer) is about one or two orders of magnitude greater. even when equilibrium distances get compressed, it's only by several percent. the forces from electrons are much stronger than external pressure. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://img.tfd.com/ggse/fc/gsed_0001_0016_0_img4144.png"
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|
i've heard you can use resonance to destroy large buildings or bridges. and i've seen the videos of galloping gertie. but have we ever actually used resonance on purpose to destroy a large structure? if so, what was the mechanism used and do you have video? | 'engineering' | the main story, and i stress story, is tesla's use of a devise that could shake buildings. i have not read any convincing account that this was a real device. nor have i heard of a system to use resonance to destroy/demolish real structures or objects. in my field (environmental engineering) the closest i have seen is quick clay. this is flocculated and settled clay, which is sort of a crystalline structure created by static charge, and is very weak. it can be disrupted by vibration or shock, which causes it to liquefy. the best video of this that i have seen is this one: [quick clay, norway](_url_0_) which shows how the disruption of the clay at the edge of a lake, lead to successive failures up the valley and the liquidification of acres of land. at one point, not sure where, you can see whole houses sliding along as the clay around them liquefies. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3q-qfNlEP4A"
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in blue planet ii, the cuttlefish makes hyponsis sound effects when it's changing color to distract prey! is this accurate? | i saw some articles claiming that after some criticism the bbc team called the sound effects used generally "representative" of nature but i was a little doubtful. | i'm a bit perplexed by this question, do you have a source on the bbc claiming this sound effect is representative of sounds the cuttlefish makes? i've just watched a clip of it, and the short answer is no, they don't make these sounds. the colour changing doesn't make any sound, that is achieved using cells called chromatophores. in cephalopods these are basically pigment filled sacks surround by muscles which contract around the sack to change it's shape. so there's no, appreciable, sound involved in that process. they also do not perform any vocalisations. kind of weird that the bbc ruined that scene with those terrible sound effects. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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epidural vs subdural hematoma | why exactly does an epidural hematoma tend to be less lethal than a subdural hematoma? | you have it backwards. epidurals are *more* lethal. epidural bleeds are from ruptured arteries. arteries are at higher pressure and create big hematomas (classically described as lenticulate or lens-shaped) quickly. this can compress and herniate the brain. subdural bleeds are from ruptured veins. they can produce large hematomas, but generally do over long periods of time and/or repeated traumas. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong would a vacuum's suction need to be to start pulling hair off of a person? | so hypothetically we have a person who sticks his head under a vacuum. how strong would that vacuum's suction have to be to basically remove all (or nearly all) the hair it was under? | one thing that you must understand is that there is no actual "suction" from a vacuum. what you are experience is the push of the air trying to get into where the vacuum is. so even if your whole body was in a vacuum, you wouldn't pull the hair off anything. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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watched a short documentary about a man who uses "chi energy." can anyone here offer some insight about what's going on in this video? | _url_0_ full-doc: _url_1_ | it's a magic trick. i don't do magic so i can't tell you exactly how he does it. he must palm something and drop it into the paper as he's crumpling it. why would he need to crumple it in the 1st place if he can just light it on fire with his energy? | 13 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/gid-Ag082lo",
"http://youtu.be/6MC6DC8X5wA"
] | [] | [
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is there any validity to this bedtime calculator, which calculates when you should go to bed based on sleep cycles? | _url_0_ i saw this earlier, but having somewhat limited knowledge in the area of sleeping and its effect on the body, thought i'd better check it out with r/askscience. | the precision is way too high. i've heard of sleep cycles like this, but there's no way everyone has sleep cycles of the exact same length. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.stumbleupon.com/su/1Ihd4K/sleepyti.me/"
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what would be a good field of science to "self teach" that would tie in with my simulation programming experience? | may be the wrong place to post this, but couldn't really find a better place. basically, i'm bored with programming and want to study a branch of science in my spare time. i have no clue which branch i'd like to pursue, but i'd like to be able to use my simulation programming knowledge to "enhance" my choice. don't ask me which field i'm most interested in, because every new science/physics class i had in school i absolutely loved and can't pick a favorite... i know thats no help at all! i guess what i'm asking is: what is an easier field of science/physics to learn on my own? (i don't mean easy as in a simple field, but easier to learn without sitting in a formal classroom). how could it benefit from my programming skills? | classical mechanics. you can learn about hamiltonians, lagrangians, the n-body problem, constraints, rigid bodies, etc. the simulation side of things is just as interesting as the theory. there are many algorithms for approximating the n-body problem each with their own strengths and weaknesses. prerequisites are a strong multivariable calculus and linear algebra background. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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