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how do significant figures work and why do we use this method? | currently taking high school honors chemistry and i have no understanding of significant figures whatsoever. if this is the wrong subreddit, i'm hoping someone could redirect me? | significant figures help determine the maximum ~~accuracy~~ precision of the experiment/calculation. when you get to more complex calculations in real-world or laboratory settings, there will usually be one measurement that is the limiting factor in precision. let say you have a really fancy electronic scale that can measure changes of .01 grams. you want to make a solution of a powder and a liquid at a set concentration (gram per volume). you have this really fancy scale, but all you have to measure the liquid volume is a graduated cylinder with 10 ml markings. (thats not very precise compared to the scale that you have). if you take 1.02 grams of powder and put it into 50 ml of solution, you'd have a concentration of 20.4 grams per liter. but wait! you have to think about the significant digits that you're representing. yes, you may be extremely accurate in your measurement of the powder, but how accurate was your liquid measurement? the problem with giving an answer of 20.4 grams is that even though your mass measurement was extremely precise, your liquid measurement was not, and the potential error in the volume is large enough to make the numbers in the decimal regions *insignificant*. you can't give an answer of 20.4 g/l with the chance that your original volume might be off by +/- 5ml. addendum / edit: in a sense, your final answer can have as many "significant" digits as your least accurate measurement. your graduated cylinder has the largest amount of error, and because of that, it is the limiting factor as to how accurate you can represent your answer. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how come, e can be proven in so many different ways? what is so significant about 2,718..? | we don't really care about "e" itself. what we care about is the exponential function exp(x)=e^(x). further, we don't really care about the exponential function, we care about the additive rule for exponents: a^(x+y)=a^(x)a^(y). for instance, if f(x) is a (nice) function that satisfies f(x+y)=f(x)f(y) (ie, it turns addition into multiplication), then it *has to be* a function that looks like f(x)=a^(x) for some x. this is because if x and y are real, then the additive rule implies the multiplicative rule f(xy)=f(x)^(y), this means that f(x)=f(1x)=f(1)^(x), so a=f(1). this rule is key to many applications, like probability, compound interest, exponential growth/decay, thermodynamics and (if you include imaginary exponents) trigonometry, and it is also key for many theoretical things as well. this rule pops up so often because it changes addition into multiplication, and the need for this kind of manipulation pops up all over the place. in what follows i assume familiarity with calculus. the thing is, if we study the addition rule enough, you'll always get to e. if we start using calculus to study this property, then we'll find that the differential equation dy/dx=cy (with initial condition y(0)=1) is just a fancy way to state the addition rule: a differentiable function that satisfying f(x+y)=f(x)f(y) is equivalent to a function satisfying the equation f'(x)=cf(x) for some constant c (and f(0)=1). we can show this without ever coming up with the idea of exponentiation, all that is needed are derivatives and f(x+y)=f(x)f(y). the caveat about f'(x)=cf(x) that is a little ugly is that c out there. what happens if c=1? then we have the equation f'(x)=f(x), we'll call this the "best additive rule" because it's equivalent to f(x+y)=f(x)f(y), but it's in the nicest form possible. we know that f(x)=f(1)^(x), so to figure out the best solution to the best additive rule, then we just have to figure out what f(1) is for a function that satisfies f'(x)=f(x) and f(0)=1. if you recall the taylor series of a function (at x=0) is a way to write a function as an "infinite degree polynomial" using it's derivatives: * f(x) = f(0) +xf'(0)+x^(2)f''(0)/2+x^(3)f'''(0)/3!+x^(4)f''''(0)/4!+... but in our case, we have f'(x)=f(x) and so f'(0)=f(0)=1. if we take the derivative of the equation f'(x)=f(x) we'll get f''(x)=f'(x), which is f(x) and so f''(0)=f(0)=1. in this way, f^(n)(0)=1 for any derivative. so * f(x) = 1+x+x^(2)/2+x^(3)/3!+x^(4)/4!+... i can then plug in x=1 into this to get f(1)=1+1+1/2+1/6+1/24+..., or the sum of 1/n! for n=0 to infinity. this means that the "best solution to the best additive rule" is equal to f(x)=e^(x) where we set e=f(1)=1+1+1/2+1/6+1/24+.... using the function exp(x)=e^(x), we can find all the other solutions to any additive rule f'(x)=cf(x). note that if f(x)=exp(cx), then f'(x)=cf(x). if we set a=f(1)=exp(c), then f(x)=a^(x). so c is some number so that a=e^(c) and we call such a number c=log(a), the natural log of a. essentially, the reason we care about e is because exp(x)=e^(x) is a natural function that we can use it to classify all additive rules of exponents. and it appears all over the place because the additive rule is a relation that pops up in almost every applied/theoretical field of anything. | 75 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are cells liquid or solid? | what i thought was a simple question has started to really mess with me. i know that cells are mostly liquid, due to being full of room temperature water. i also get the feeling that at the molecular level they are entirely liquid, including the membrane and the proteins dissolved in it. however the cell as a whole holds a shape due to weak interactions of membrane phospholipids and cytoskeletal architecture. the rigid shape and cytoskeleton make it intuitively seems like the cell is solidified, even though all of those components are in a liquid phase. what also confuses me is the relationship and/or possible inconsistency between phase at the molecular level and the macroscopic level. is their macroscopic phase defined by interactions between the cells, regardless of whether the cells are liquid or solid at the molecular level? i've centrifuged cells that have become goopy (in between solid/liquid) and some that have become essentially solid. do certain cells behave as solids at this level because of tighter associations between cells due to electrostatic effects or protein-protein interactions? is it possible that cells are really locally liquid or solid (or even subcellularly phase divided), but that they appear in a different macroscopic phase? ar there any other examples of this? thanks | a solid is loosely defined as something which retains its volume and doesn't change its shape to fill containers, so by that definition a cell is a solid. while it certainly contains (and mostly is) liquid, it acts like a solid so we call it one. what we care about in our macroscopic description of phase of matter is the macroscopic properties, not the microscopic ones. on the microscopic level, a cell is mostly liquid with a few solid parts, but on the macroscopic level the solid parts dominate so it acts like a solid. in the same vein, a bottle of water is mostly liquid, but the solid parts dominate how the bottle behaves on a macroscopic level, so bottles of water act like solids. in general, any sort of cohesive internal solid structure - like the cytoskeleton or cell wall on an cellular level, or the connective tissue on a multicellular level - will force an object to behave like a solid even if it's mostly comprised of gas or liquid. this is because the solid parts can't change shape to fill containers, whereas the liquid and gaseous parts don't care whether they change shape or not (they don't *have* to fill containers, they just *can* and will if nothing's stopping them from it). the object thus won't change shape, and is a solid. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what originally led paleontologists to believe the oviraptor was an egg thief? | as i understand it, the oviraptor was discovered with eggs and so was presumed to have been an "egg thief". after testing the eggs, i apologize for not remember what kind of test (whether they x-rayed the eggs or did some biological test) they determined the eggs were actually oviraptor eggs, and further speculate that the oviraptor was likely not an egg thief at all, but a 'good' mother, perhaps like a miasaura, who died protecting its egg(s). my daughter who really likes dinosaurs wants to know why paleontologists didn't arrive at what seems like the obvious conclusion that if a dinosaur is found with eggs, than those eggs would more than likely be their own? i know eggs were and are a food source for many predators, but isn't it more likely you would find unhatched eggs with their mother, than with a predator who would likely have consumed that egg as soon as possible? what made 'egg thief' the original accepted theory? thanks! | well, the wikipedia page for oviraptor says that they originally thought they were protoceratops eggs. they thought they knew what those looked like, so they incorrectly assigned them as belonging to another species. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does ultrasonic diffuser work? | ok so i got one of those diffusers where you add water and essential oils. i don't believe there are any health benefits to using these things, they just smell nice and i prefer the scent to air fresheners. anyways, i'm curious about the instrument actually works and googling it only gets me to natural organic essential oil bs. so maybe someone here can tell me! i get that it is creating negative ions. is it ionizing the water or the oils? i'm guessing the water. the oil is obviously hydrophobic. wouldn't ionizing the water further decrease the interaction between oils and the water? please help! i'm feeling dumb for not being able to figure this out haha | there is a membrane that vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency. these vibrations create small water/oil droplets that then leave the diffuser. think of it more like creating fog. it is all physical change, no chemistry is occurring. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is pressure? why is it continuous? | fundamentally, what is pressure? where does it come from? is it a molecular property? why is it always continuous? | i hope you'll pardon me some very light math. you know the first law, right? du = q - p dv this is just the definition of pressure (among other things). du is the variation of total internal energy of a system, q is the heat you supply to it, and dv is the variation in volume. p is the pressure. let's restrict ourselves for a moment to transformations that have q=0, these are called adiabatic and involve no heat transfer. so rearranging a bit: p = - du/dv (in adiabatic conditions) in words this is: pressure is how much energy you need to supply to a system to make it contract by a unit volume. (with no heat exchanged). it kind of measures the "resistance" a system develops to being compressed. it generates an outwards force that seeks to enlarge the system; this force acts on the surface of the system and orthogonally outwards, and its value is f = p * a where a is the area of a given portion of the surface. (if you're clever and remember the relationship between force and potential energy, you'll be able to derive the latter equation from the former). pressure, like all thermodynamic quantities, can have a microscopic origin which is elucidated by statistical mechanics. this can vary wildly from system to system. however for *substances*, so essentially systems made by molecules, the common interpretation is the following: * there is an actual microscopic force between the molecules (for example, they don't like to compenetrate and their respective electronic clouds repel). this will clearly yield a contribution to pressure i guess you could call volumetric, since it arises from molecules literally not wanting to be packed in a smaller volume. this is the behaviour typical of a solid or liquid. * there is also a contribution from the thermal agitation of the molecule because of a nonzero temperature. molecules move randomly and bounce on the walls of the system generating a pressure. this is what you'd call an entropic force. the system wants to get a bigger volume because there are more ways to arrange molecules and so entropy is bigger. the push towards larger entropy manifests as a contribution to pressure. this is the typical behaviour of an ideal gas. typically fluids will display both. it might also not be immediate how to split the pressure into these two effects, but these are the basic ways in which pressure arises in a system of particles. now typically if you have two systems in contact (like two elements of fluid) if one has a larger pressure than the other, the interface will be pushed from one to the other with a force proportional to the difference of pressures. in a certain sense the overall system will strive to equalize pressure. however if there are other forces acting this can change. in general the pressure difference will settle in a value such that the pressure force balances with the external force. in this case we speak of hydrostatic equilibrium, and therefore there will be variations in pressure. for example: earth's atmosphere; there is the gravitational force - the weight of the air itself. so there must be a pressure force to balance that and so a pressure gradient (variation). indeed air pressure decreases with altitude. so in a fluid (and other things) pressure can depend on the point. if you have hydrostatic equilibrium in a fluid, then if you have a discontinuity in the pressure then the derivative of pressure is infinite there, so it must be balanced by an infinite external force. assuming there are no infinite forces around pressure must be continuous. however this is strictly at equilibrium. examples of pressure discontinuities can be found outside of equilibrium, like shock waves such as those produced by a supersonic aircraft. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a way to trigger an endothermic reaction without moving components? | so we're a student rocketry team, and we're trying to cool off a sample of (initially liquid) bismuth in space during 2-3 minutes of microgravity (approx. 15 degrees change, from just above to a bit below the freezing point, doesn't really matter how far below the freezing point it ends up) to hopefully observe differences in the resultant crystalline structure (macro or microscale), and ideally trying to avoid moving parts for simplicity's sake. every endothermic reaction we've found pretty much involves mixing the components, then they spontaneously react. we'd love to be able to trigger this reaction in a pre-mixed compound later in flight. so far the only idea to trigger a reaction that we've been able to come up with would be to start a chemical reaction by shining a uv light on a compound, then have the products of that chemical reaction react endothermicly to cool a sample. the other option we've looked at is a heat sink, but without an atmosphere to provide convection, this may or may not be able to meet the operational constraints. thanks! | i can't think of anything that would use zero moving parts, but if you can live with one valve you can try opening a cylinder of pressurized gas and letting it escape through a coil around your bismuth container. evaporative cooling with water or ammonia could work too, but that would probably be more complicated. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_cooling"
] | [
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] |
looking at direct normal irradiance solar energy resource maps, antarctica has insanely high average dni. is this an artifact of the mapping process? | looking at global dni maps such the [swera map](_url_0_), the dni for antarctica and to a lesser extent greenland is really high. the only dni maps that map these regions are the nasa low res maps, and these are based on satellite image data. on the one hand, when you account for the long days in the summer, it could in theory make sense, but it still seems astonishingly high. i noticed when pocking around other dni maps, that satellite maps often have little mapping artifacts around bodies of water, and to a lesser extend, around cities. is this just another example? is the reflected light off of the ice sheets what's causing these absurdly high numbers? and if that's the case, why isn't the arctic as high? i know the arctic ice sheet recedes in the summer, but it doesn't disappear. where's the similar ice induced mapping artifact? on the other hand, given the extremely low humidity, low atmospheric dust and long days, is that much energy per m^2 possible? not planning a solar farm in antarctica, but it's interesting anyway. | the antarctica numbers are high because much of the continent is a desert with very little cloud cover. you get similar (or higher) year-long average values in other deserts, but with less seasonal variation. | 2 | [] | [
"http://maps.nrel.gov/SWERA"
] | [] | [
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why is the scottish great glen fault so straight? are there others like it? | it appears so straight because of its strong dip; not surprising for a strike-slip fault and a relatively short one at that. when intersecting a planar feature with irregular topography, a vertical plane will generate an apparently stright line (the trace) in planar projection; contrasts that with a [shallowly dipping plane intersecting a complex topography](_url_1_); yet this second fault might be just as straight a plane as great glen. there is no shortage of faults with straight traces. just have a look at [transform faults](_url_0_) offsetting the mid-atlantic ridge and you'll see a bundle. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://whybecausescience.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/mid-oceanic-ridge-tectonics.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Thrust_system_en.jpg"
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|
what does sunspot 1429 mean for us? is it a possible concern? | pretty much the title. will it possibly eject significantly stronger/more flares than we are used to? | would like to clarify that any effect seen at the earth is from a solar flare/coronal mass ejection. these energetic events are usually associated with sunspots but the actual sunspot itself has no influence on the earth. yep, a big sunspot(s)(group) have high magnetic fields and produce big flares, we have already seen a few x class flares (the largest category for flares) including an x5.4 which is the second biggest flare in about 5 years, the largest coming last august. on earth the consequences of these x-class flares were some mediocre radio blackouts in asia and some lovely northern lights from a fairly strong geomagnetic storm. the flares were not strong enough at earth to have any impact on the electrical grid. for a risk of destroying electrical infrastructure the flares have to be strong and pointed roughly at the earth rather than off to the side. compare this to other recent geomagnetic storms. the halloween storm in 2003 included a gigantic x28 flare and destroyed transformers in south africa. more serious was the storms in 1989 which caused an almost complete collapse of the grid in quebec due to a fairly badly designed setup causing a cascade in circuit breakers going off once a few key components blew. the effect of these flares meant that the aurora was so strong it could be seen as far south as the tropics. so how does this happen, well the rapidly changing magnetic field of the earth induces a voltage in the ground. the electric field is actually really small, the reason why transformers are at risk is the power grid is generally earthed infrequently, so a electric field in the earth if 0.001v / m becomes 50v in a power line that runs between transformers that are 50km apart. this means in general, the most likely cause for concern, geomagnetically induced currents, don't really affect anything other than large scale power grids. the worst you can expect from an extremely bad storm is minor blackouts and i guess where you have failure in electrical systems you can have fires. other effects are minor increases in radiation, loss of satellites, increased expenditure of satellite propellant to keep them in orbit nothing to be worried about. there was a storm in 1859 (so before we had anything like the diagnosis tools we have today) called the [carrington event](_url_0_) that was very extreme, if it happened today we would see widespread damage amounting to huge financial costs. these levels of storms are estimated to have occurred roughly once every 500 years. it is likely we need an improvement to electrical infrastructure to avoid widespread disruption by this size of storm. just to reiterate, no, the sunspot group that 1429 is part of is not a cause for concern. acually, people in my field are rather pleased to be getting some new flares to look at. this isn't to say all solar flares aren't a cause for concern but we only need to worry about the very big ones (especially if they are pointed directly at the earth). even then, the biggest concern is damage to the electrical grid/satellites and not about possible loss of life. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859_solar_superstorm"
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why is paternal mdna destroyed? | wikipedia’s page on paternal mdna transmission says that except for one single case in a person who was found to have paternal mdna in his muscles, all paternal mdna from the sperm is marked to be destroyed after it enters the egg. why is this? | it's not known why. the most convincing theory is that due to the highly competitive nature of egg fertilisation, the successful sperm cell is likely to have damaged its mitochondrial dna in the process (oxidation of the dna caused by free radical production). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an economists consensus for "buying local"? | mostly curious if buying local is good in the long-run, or what happens. | your question is a bit vague. as has been mentioned, comparative advantage suggests you'll be economically rewarded by specializing (gaining a comparative advantage) in producing one item, and trade that item on the market. this is better than if you should choose to produce all you need yourself locally. wikipedia is a good source for further enlightenment on comparative advantage. however, "buying local" may also refer to a normative idea that buying locally produced goods is better than on the (global) market. the typical argument is that locally produced goods are less demanding on the environment. for example, a trawler might fish in the north sea, but send this fish to china for processing. the finished deep frozen fillets are then sent back to north european supermarkets. from a cost perspective, this is cheaper than processing the fish in local fisheries close to the north sea. however, shipping the fish back and forth across the globe means a lot of extra co2 into the atmosphere. increased co2 hurts everyone, but the commercial fishery is not exposed to these costs, hence it has no incentives to take this into account. by buying locally the consumer takes into account the *externality* that is co2 (pollution). basically, the consumer is informed that pollution is not priced into the fish fillet, and chooses not to reward the producer of this product by buying it. to answer your question, the short answer is no, there is no economical consensus for buying locally. the problem with this is that the consumer (or anyone else) does not have sufficient information about the total costs of buying locally or globally. the price system indicates that buying globally is better (because it is most often cheaper because of economies of scale and comparative advantage). the idea of buying locally reminds the consumer that he/she should take into account the externalities that the (current) price system does not. however, it is impossible, or at least very difficult to evaluate these two perspectives against each other in order to arrive at a conclusive answer as to what is “best”. one solution to this is the co2 quota price system. basically, the commercial fishery would have to purchase co2 quotas to offset the extra co2 released by shipping fish for processing to china. in this manner, the cost of increased co2 will be integrated into the cost of the processed fish fillets in the supermarket. then the consumer will be able to evaluate the product against other locally produced goods by way of the price of the product. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do economic policies like "insourcing" or "buy local" actually help in the long term? | yes, there is a big hidden cost, as is the case with most regulation. when you are hiring an american to do the same job someone in another country can do for much cheaper, the product/service will cost more, so consumers will have less free money to consume other products. this can hurt other parts of the economy in ways that aren't clear. protectionism also often leads to other countries instituting retaliatory laws that only further reduce global efficiency. tldr: more expensive workers = more expensive products | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/asksocialscience"
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how do toys affect a child's development? | i can generalize this to comfort objects. wikipedia has some good information: _url_0_ basically, transitional objects help children explore the world around them. for example, a child may project themselves into a stuffed animal and make up stories, stimulating their imagination. donald winnicott did a large amount of research on transitional objects and childhood development if you're interested in learning more! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_object"
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|
how hard would be to make a social network that only allows people of a certain country to post on it? | all this talk of russian trolls has me wondering if we could have a website that has servers for each country/continent, but *strictly* enforces such division. | virtually impossible. the entire point of the internet is that all of the machines that comprise it are interconnected, and any node can participate in the network. so if you put in some sort of barrier in place between two nodes, you can simply go around it by connecting into a third node that can bridge the two. an example should make this clearer. let's say we have node r1 in russia, that wants to connect to a service c1 in canada. the server running c1 has some heuristics or an ip list and blocks the connection from r1. however, that same server c1 doesn't block traffic from a machine in britain, running on node b1. if r1 has the ability to send traffic through b1, it can reach c1, bypassing the block. this is effectively what people are doing when they use a vpn service to bypass geo-locks on media services (ala netflix) -- they fake their location by passing traffic through a node that the destination considers permitted to connect, and that node forwards the retrieved data to your local, blocked node. getting past such restrictions is extremely easy these days. governments that are not concerned with the rule-of-law can do this by using botnets of infected hosts. so if aunt sally in ohio has a malware infection on her windows pc that makes it part of a botnet, the person or group that runs the botnet could simply filter their traffic through her computer, to make it appear as if it's originating from her computer. a less illegal method of achieving the same ends is via cloud services. amazon aws has server farms available in the us, india, south korea, singapore, australia, japan, canada, germany, ireland, uk, france, sweden, and brazil, and you can setup and rent a server instance in any of those zones in just a few button clicks. so if i want to mask my traffic as being from one of those countries instead, i can setup an instance in any of those zones in mere minutes, setup a vpn or proxy server, and start sending traffic from my laptop as if i'm in one of those countries instead. looking back at the example, you may think "why not just block r1 from connecting to b1 (or maybe even anything in b)?". the problem here of course if that (for example) britain also permits connections from (say) f1 in france, which permits connections from g1 in germany, which permits connections from u1 in the ukraine, which allows connections from r1 in russia. so you can setup multiple routing hops, from r1 to u1 to g1 to f1 to b1 to c2 to c1 (i added a c2 for the sake of example). all that c1 sees is that it's getting a connection request from c2, and is sharing data back-and-forth with c2. it has _no idea_ what c2 is doing with the information, or that c2 is forwarding the packets to b1, which forwards them to f1, which forwards them to g1, which forwards them to u1, which forwards them to r1. so far as it's concerned, it's just getting a connection from another server in canada, which is permitted. existing geo-blocks only really work against those who don't know anything about internet routing, or how to change how traffic is routed in and out of your system. companies like netflix, which do try to provide stringent geo-blocking on their content play a constant game of whack-a-mole, trying to detect nodes that may be forwarding data and blocking them, only for newer and different ones to crop up. determining who is a legitimate customer and who is a forwarding node is a big challenge, and hackers who know what they're doing can work around it with ease. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does herpetology still exist? | i can see why the field existed before modern biology, but i have trouble seeing a good justification aside from tradition. amphibians and reptiles are such different classes their combination into one field seems unnecessary. | there are many trashcan groups that are grouped by the retention of primitive traits. i think you are right that history dominates this field and they were grouped as being not fish or mammals or birds. they arent natural groups in that sense, but social constructs that are convenient for us. reptiles and amphibians do share a bunch of physiological traits and often live in similar habitats (but there are lots of other critters there too). furthermore they are studied in very similar ways. the people who study them also tend to have a lot in common. they also make a manageable sized group. none of these answers really mean a lot though and you are right, their differences outweigh their similarity. but its not like you can get a degree in herpetology anyways. this term is only used in a few places. for my money though, herpetology puts all the best critters into one class/journal/meeting. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long does styrofoam take to decompose? | this [proposal](_url_0_) by california to ban styrofoam food containers got me thinking. we've all grown up hearing that styrofoam (expanded polystyrene foam) takes 100, 500, 1000, a million years to decompose/biodegrade, but everything i've found about that on the internet turns up [source needed]. so, how long does styrofoam take to biodegrade/decompose? how long does this compare to un-expanded polystyrene and other materials? | in sunlight, many plastics degrade, and i expect styrofoam would turn to powder in less than 100 years. if protected from sunlight (uv radiation) i expect it could last much longer. [wikipedia](_url_2_) puts it at 500+ years, but needs a citation. [_url_0_](_url_1_) claims that with ozone *and* sun, it 'falls apart in months'. . . 'about a decade' in landfills. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44306741/ns/business-going_green/#.Tlu0EoKuDiU"
] | [
"Answers.com",
"http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_long_does_it_take_styrofoam_to_degrade",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation#Approximated_time_for_compounds_to_biodegrade"
] | [
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why does a superconductor exhibit diamagnetism and what is the mechanism behind its perfect conductivity? | i was told its diamagnetism is because of the meissner effect but what is the reason for it? also, i understand cooling decreases the resistivity of a conductor but even at very low temperatures, the bulk of the material probably should offer some resistance shouldn't it? | disclaimer: been many, many years since i studied this. feel free to correct me if i make mistakes, am completely wrong or just using outdated science!! in order to gain a better understanding of this, i recommend reading about the bcs theory of superconductors, as it was from this theory that the first accurate explanations for the meissner effect were garnered. to make short of the theory, it states that electrons are attracted to the positive lattice of nucleii in the material. these establish "waves" in the lattice, where the lattice breaks from it's normal even distribution, forming regions of higher positive charge, attracting another electron to this region and establishing a link between the two electrons (which will have opposite spins to one another). the electrons now act like one linked particle (called a cooper pair), a boson (neutral spin). when the material is cooled sufficiently the electrons will all do this at once forming a bose-einstein condensate. now all the electrons have dropped from their energy levels, seemingly breaking the pauli exclusion principle (no two electrons can occupy the same orbital unless they have opposite spin, and seeing as there are only two spin states there can only be two electrons per orbital). every electron in the lattice is now in the lowest energy orbital possible, all of them are linked. now it takes a surprising amount of energy to stop something from superconducting, you'd expect that if you just bumped out of the electrons out of it's pairing that any neat properties would disappear, but because they're all linked you can't just break one pair, you have to put enough energy in to raise all the electrons to proper orbitals (all the electrons in a lattice interact in any material, so all the electrons of the same spin will occupy different orbitals, requiring different amounts of energy to get them there, this is why large lattice based structures generally form in very, very high energy environments e.g. diamond). an external magnetic field will exert a torque on electrons in the material, attempting to align them with the field, this would break the cooper pairings and so they will only switch when the field is of sufficient strength. until this point "frustrated" loops form in the superconducting material, loops of current near the surface (generally between 20nm an 100nm deep) that form an opposing magnetic field. i fear i can't recall the source of energy that accelerates these loops, it may be in one of my old books (probably explained in far more detail in the paper "[imaging spontaneous currents in superconducting arrays of π-junctions"](_url_0_) which is freely available for viewing). the currents will accelerate or decelerate in order to set up a perfectly opposing magnetic field, thereby expelling the magnetic field from the superconducting material. regarding your second point, any resistance in a material is due to electrons (which normally follow all kinds of crazy, interesting paths in lattices) "colliding" nucleii and losing some of their energy (transferring their momentum into vibration of the lattice, heat). in a superconductor the cooper pairs perfectly interact with their associated phonon in the lattice and are as such moved in "lanes" (only a figure of speech), never colliding with nucleii in the lattice. with nothing to collide against there is nothing providing resistance to the cooper pairs carrying the current. i hope that at least answers some of your questions, i also hope somebody with a fresher mind than mine can build on this and correct any mistakes i've made! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0708/0708.0230.pdf"
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why is wool clothing prone to having static electricity? | human hands (usually too moist) **very positive** rabbit fur glass human hair nylon wool fur lead silk aluminum paper cotton steel **neutral** wood amber hard rubber nickel, copper brass, silver gold, platinum polyester styrene (styrofoam) saran wrap polyurethane polyethylene (like scotch tape) polypropylene vinyl (pvc) silicon teflon **very negative** if you rub something from the list against something else on the list then the one that is higher up will become positively charged and the one lower down will become negatively charged, the further they are away on the list the greater the effect is. wool is very high on the list so has a very strong effect (lots of static) especially if it is rubbed against something near the bottom like styrofoam or pvc. cotton is in the middle near steel which is nutral and will have a much smaller effect no matter what you rub it against. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some good scientific skeptical viewpoints for the article, "300-million-year-old ufo tooth-wheel found in russian city of vladivostok"? | there is not a single piece of scientific source material quoted in that article. there's not even a genuine picture. there is no quoted named individual. no reputable source, no trust in anything it says. i.e., i don't believe a man was looking at his coal, let alone that he found anything in it, let alone there was any analysis conducted, let alone this mystery object was 300 million years old. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is it so difficult to span large bodies of water? | for example i was reading about the troubles with bridging huge fjords in norway and i was thinking: "why can't we just build floating bridges?" surely its difficult, but not impossible with modern technologies. but, i realize i don't know anything about modern structural technologies. so, my question is: "what technologies do we have for bridging long spans of water and for technologies we do have, why is it so hard to extend it to super large spans?" thanks. | the problem of floating bridges are currents. the faster the water flows, the more stress is on the bridge, for normal bridges the stress is a lot less. in general the cost of bridges depends on how long their legs(?) are, so in fjords that means how deep the water is, which can be very costly in some cases. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you tell if an object's radius is below it's schwarzschild radius? | i was looking at how it was determined that sagittarius a is a supermassive black hole. after finding the mass you can also determine its schwarzschild radius - but, as the title states, how can you know that it isn't just a gigantic object with that mass, that isn't compressed below its schwarzschild radius? | well firstly, sagitarius a has a mass of 10^(6) solar masses. there are no stars that can exist with that kind of mass. actually nothing can exist with that kind of mass. gravitation will be too strong and any object of such a mass must necessarily collapse into a black hole. secondly, if it was not a black hole we would be able to see something there. although in the case of sagitarius a this is actually more difficult because there are a lot of gas clouds in between us, that will block all the visible light coming towards us. but we would still expect to see something in the ir region, but we don't see anything that resembles a star. thirdly, active black holes will emit quite characteristic radiation. this radiation would not be expected by other non-black hole objects like stars. [open access paper on observations of sgr a*](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2011/04/aa15157-10.pdf"
] | [
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[biology] question about glycolyis | is there a different energetic payoff for compounds that enter glycolysis later in the cycle than glucose? specifically i'm thinking about fructose. i know fructose from adipose tissue can enter as f-6-p (through conversion by hexokinase) so it skips the first "payment" from step one. also, fructose from the liver skips the "investment phase" entirely and goes straight to gap/g-3-p/dhap, but it is at the cost of 1 atp. wouldn't that mean that conversion of fructose to pyruvate would yield one extra atp molecule than conversion of one molecule of glucose? because that doesn't sound right to me.... thanks! | the conversion of of fructose to fructose 6-phosphate consumes 1 atp. after fructose 6-phosphate enters the glycolysis cycle it proceeds like the fructose 6-phosphate from glucose. using glucose the conversion from glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate is a reversible enzymatic reaction which doesn't require atp. so technically the yield and costs are the same. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what effects the load of a peltier junction? | that is does it draw more amps if both sides are kept close to the same temperature? if you keep the cold side warm enough and the hot side cool enough while under load will it draw more amps than it would if each side were allowed to have a moderate temperature differential? | take a look at this [datasheet](_url_0_) you'll see curves that relate cooling load, current, and delta t. when you force the cold side to be hot, effectively you're increasing the cooling load beyond what the unit can handle. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.marlow.com/media/marlow/product/downloads/sp2402-01ab/sp2402.pdf"
] | [
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what conclusion can be drawn from statistically insignificant results? (layman question and text provided) | hello guys, i just wanted to ask you if somebody could give me very basic (layman) explanation about one question. if for example you did an experiment on yourself where you tried a drug to see if it helps you with your condition, you took it 100.000 times but it only helped you 3 times. what conclusion can you draw from this? is the result statistically not significant and therefore the hypothesis that a drug helps you can be rejected (so you can conclude that this drug doesn't help you). i know this is a very lame example, but try to give me an explanation for this particular scenario. it seems logical for me to conclude that a drug doesn't help, but i want to see it backed up by science. thanks in advance! | the example you gave is not quite enough to explain the meaning of statistical significance. you took the drug 100 times and it helped you 3 times so it worked 3% of the time and there is not much else to say about it. to use statistical significance you have to compare the drug to something. so you would also have to take a placebo 100 times. let's say the placebo "helped" (you got better) 1 time. now you have 2 sets of figures: drug worked 3% of the time, placebo worked 1% of the time - and with this you can do some maths. basically the question statistical significance attempts to answer is: is this 3% vs 1% difference due to chance, or to the drug actually having some effect? now we have to back up a bit and explain what is meant by "chance". "chance" arises because you cannot take the drug (or the placebo) every day forever. if you could, by some stretch of the imagination, take the drug every day forever and find that it worked (say) 6% of the time, and then (maybe in a parallel universe) take the placebo every day forever and find that it worked 4% of the time, there would be no need for statistical analysis: the drug works better, 6% vs 4%, no further calculation required. unfortunately you can't do that - we have to analyze the 100 times you took the drug and the 100 times you took the placebo - and so, statistical analysis. the "by chance" refers to the fact that the 100 times you took the drug and the 100 times you took the placebo can be considered *samples* of the situation in which you took the drug or placebo everyday forever. let's say that the "actual" response rate when taking the drug everyday forever is 6% (nb we have no way of knowing the "actual" figure, this is just for illustration) - a sample of 100 from this scenario could produce a response rate of 5% or 6% or 4 % or 3% or 2% or indeed any number. it is more likely to be close to the "actual" 6% than not, but it *could* be anything from 0 to 100%. in short, the response rate in your sample of 100 is affected by chance, because of the fact that you can only take samples, and never know the "actual" response rate. what statistical significance does is this: it assumes that the "actual" (everyday forever) response rate to drug and placebo are *the same*, then it asks *what is the probability p that the figures we got (3% vs 1%) are purely because of the fact that we are restricted to taking samples of 100?* the maths will then crank out a figure - say p=0.06. this means that the probability that you got the 3% and 1% figures despite the "actual" figures being equal is 0.06. before turning the maths crank you should have already decided on what "p" you would consider statistically significant. let's say it was p=0.05. that being the case, the figures show that there is no statistically significant difference between the drug and the placebo. in other words you have concluded that the figures your experiment has produced have come about by chance and the *"actual" figures for drug and placebo could be identical*. tl;dr: "statistically not significant" means that the figures your experiment produced could have come about by the fact you that have to sample, rather than from an "actual" difference between the the two treatments. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we know how similar our perceptions are or are not? | for example: as a human with normal color vision, i see red. what i call red, others also call red. but do they see red the same way? does their brain reconstruct a similar perception as mine? do we know how similar or different people's perceptions of things like color are? edit to add: i know there are all kinds of philosophical musings on the subjectivity of experience and such, but what i'd like to know is if the data point us in any particular direction on this one. edit2: wow, this generated a ton of response. i guess data was a poor choice of words here, what i meant to say is that i was looking for clues and tests people had tried rather than pure argumentation. the perceptual tests mentioned where people are asked to place boundaries in a gradient is a good example. anywhat, thanks for the contributions and discussion. | as a vision scientist, i love this question! you are asking about the difference between sensation (the photons that stimulate your retina) and perception (what you experience, also called phenomenology). this [fantastic pdf chapter](_url_1_) from mit clarifies the problem. in a nutshell, the things we can ask about color are these: (1) are colors "real"? (2) do we all see the same things? the debate about whether language influences perception is an excellent one. recent evidence actually suggests that language categories for color do not influence color *perception*, but can influence, say, color memory. [roberson, hanley, & pack (2009)](_url_0_) tested whether speakers of english or korean perceived color boundaries differently. they don't. perception itself is the same regardless of language. what changes between the two languages are the descriptions or categorizations of these colors. | 247 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027709001395",
"http://mit.edu/abyrne/www/ColourVision.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4b71rT9fU-I",
"http://organizations.utep.edu/Portals/1475/nagel_bat.pdf",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/123/4/394/",
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Eye#Perception_of_colours"
] | [
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4 questions regarding the earth and the atmosphere. | i’ve been trying to visualize this for while, and i’m hoping you guys can help me out. i’m assuming these two inexplicable circumstances: i. earth’s rotation is now such that the same side of the planet is always facing the sun. ii. earth’s atmosphere has instantly and entirely vanished. obviously, the vast majority of us would die quickly. i suppose the astronauts on the iss would last a bit longer and watch it unfold for a while, but i’m not asking how to survive this. my 4 questions are these: 1. what would happen to aquatic life? i suppose the sea mammals that need to come up for air wouldn’t fair much better than the land mammals, but what about the creatures living further down in the deep? 2. what would happen to a rain forest on the dark side of earth? would everything freeze and be preserved, or boil because of the vacuum and fall apart? i assume the earth itself would continue radiating some heat, but about how cold could it get? 3. what would happen to a rain forest on the sunlit side of earth? about how quickly would all of the life to be turned to dust and/or evaporate? would the land be strewn with charred trees and skeletons for a while? about how hot could it actually get? 4. what would the new atmosphere that would start forming immediately be like? would it be all water vapor at first? | 1. with the reduced vapor pressure from lack of atmosphere, the oceans would begin to boil off, and the oxygen would begin to bubble out. as expected, sea mammals would all likely die, but so would many fish and other sea creatures that need the dissolved oxygen to live. in addition to that, the increased/reduced temperatures from the change in rotation would kill many of the remaining sea creatures. if that wasn't enough, the oceans evaporating would seriously increase the salinity of the remaining water, killing just about everything. however, the oceans are vast and we don't know everything about them so it is possible that some creatures would survive. 2. the earth would indeed have significant thermal mass, but i'll say it would get very cold, but before it got that cold, again, the drop in pressure would result in virtually all surface water boiling off. you'd essentially get a freeze-dried rainforest. forgive the lack of accurate figures, but the dark side of the earth would definitely be below freezing, and probably much colder still. with no atmosphere, there would be very little to bring heat to that side of the earth. 3. again, it would get very dry very quickly without an atmosphere, and with the added bonus of heat, it would become quite a wasteland. you say "charred trees" but then i have to ask, where would the oxygen to burn them come from? near the newly lowered oceans, trees might continue to exist, but they'd probably look much different than anything we're used to. 4. the new atmosphere would probably start as primarily water vapor from the earth's water. there would also be oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, in much smaller amounts, again, mostly from the ocean's dissolved atmosphere. there are other elements that would suddenly be vaporized from the drop in pressure and increase in temperature (at least on the hot side), but they would be traces compared to the water vapor. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one calculate what is theoretically needed to break an object? | i'm not the best at math i admit, or geometry, or physics, no formal training beyond hs in any of them really. but normally when i've got a question like this i can puzzle out the answer over the course of a couple weeks, but here... i just keep getting more and more confused. i know that if you apply 1,000n to a smaller surface area, it will be more likely to cause damage than 1,000n on a bigger one. i know that pressure (as megapascals) is involved, along with the density of the object in question. but that's about where i get lost. so i need your help. how would i, in a hypothetical situation, calculate the point at which an object (made of any material) would chip? crack? break in two? shatter into fragments? are there any formulae that would help? | materials scientist here! when you talk about applying a fixed load to a smaller and smaller area, you're more or less equivalently discussing increasing the load on a fixed area. this is what you do when you use an indenter to test hardness of a material, and the hardness can tell you what pressure on the surface is needed to leave an indentation. related to your question would be yield and ultimate strength of a material (where it starts to permanently bend and where it finally breaks when you pull on it), modulus of rupture (how much you can bend it/how stiff it is), and fracture toughness (how much energy gets used up when it cracks). as far as the type of failure, it depends on fracture toughness and loading rate. a tough material loaded slowly will basically stretch apart, a brittle (not tough) material loaded quickly will snap fairly cleanly, and most real situations will have something in between happen. there's a lot more to it, lots of other things that can happen, and more factors to consider, but that's most of the overview you're looking for, i think. i'm happy to go into more detail on any of the above, or answer other questions about how materials behave in different conditions. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_of_materials",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_mechanics"
] | [
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if you put like 5 water drops on something small like a penny, surface tension would hold it together. if you scaled that up so the penny was a million times bigger and there were millions of drops, would the surface tension still hold the water on the penny? | if you put like 5 water drops on something small like a penny, surface tension would hold the water together. if you scaled that up so the penny was a million times bigger and there were millions of drops, would the surface tension still hold the water on the giant penny? | if you scaled up the penny and droplet size the surface tension would no longer hold the water on the giant penny. the water stays on the surface of the penny due to a balance between the force of gravity pulling the water down and the surface tension pulling the molecules together. it ends up being a question of surface area to volume ratio. surface tension has units of newtons per meter, and the value for surface tension between water and air or water and other materials is a constant value at a given temperature and surfactant content. now over a given cross-section we can multiply the surface tension by the length of the interface and get some force value holding things together. however, this force is balancing with the force of gravity pulling down on all the molecules within that cross section. as the volume increases, the surface area and volume of course do not scale at the same rate. for a sphere, for example, volume of course scales with the radius cubed and surface area with the radius squared. so as you increase the final droplet size the volume to surface area ratio becomes much larger. you therefore have an increasing effect of gravity on the water and a decreasing effect of surface tension until the point that gravity is greater than surface tension and the water spills down over the sides of the coin. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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given that time is relative to speed, how would one calculate how much younger their electrons are than their opposing nuclei? | i've come to understand that a hydrogen's lone electron at room temperature travels approximately 2,200km/s, which is only about 1% the speed of light. does this mean that most of my electrons are only 1% younger than the rest of me, or does the time:speed relationship work differently? | it's not a direct relation ship that 1% the speed of light = 1% time dilation. i'm not sure how to format the equation you'll need, so just check out the [wikipedia page](_url_1_). so in your case the results in a time dilation factor of 1.00005, or .005% younger. this is about a difference of 2 minutes per month. edit: also, [wolframalpha](_url_0_) will do this calculation for you. notice with 2200 km/s the effect is lost in rounding. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=time+dilation+2200+km%2Fs",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor"
] | [
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vollema value | hi! i'm writing an essay for school on ferrofluids, and i have a question about it, maybe you can help me. in quite a few articles, i find the formula ρ=(ve^-b^2)+p with: ρ as resistance in ohm v as the vollema value b as the strength of the magnetic field in tesla p as the pietrow constant. the question i have: what is the vollema value, and how can i determine this value? thanks! | i'm not an expert in this area at all, but looking through web of science, no article seems to give the term vollema value. in fact, my google-fu seems to indicate that all the articles online are just copies of an unsourced wikipedia page. i am thinking there might be a misspelling that is throwing you off. also the term reistivity might be more useful. "viscosity, resistivity and surface tension measurements of fe3o4 ferrofluid" is a potential source, but alas it's been 3 years since electromagnetic physics so i have no idea how correct the paper is. "preparation and physical properties of antiperovskite-type compounds cdnco(3-z)ni(z) (0 < = z < = 3)" might also be good and seems to calculate resistivity in a magnetic field. edit: yes, i'm almost sure that equation you have won't produce a value in ohms, there is not distance component, you can't tell me that ferrofluids have an equal resistance regardless of how far the current has to travel through it. so p should be a resistivity. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is is possible to levitate a board with 4 powerful electromagnets on water? | i am not sure, but i think it may have something to do with lenz's law. | water is diamagnetic, so it is able to repel magnetic fields and in principle cause things to levitate. it then comes down to how strong a magnet you mean and how much weight you look to levitate. also, i don't know why you chose the number 4. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2p5s0e/is_is_possible_to_levitate_a_board_with_4/cmtuzfm",
"http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/levitation/diamagnetic/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev#Electromagnetic_suspension",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnshaw%27s_theorem"
] | [
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is it normal for the heat output of a nichrome wire to increase in the direction of current flow and does using ac avoid this? | i'm trying to build a space heater for my budgies because i wasn't happy with any commercially available products. my resistor wire came in tonight so i did a trial using a 19vdc power supply and 22 1/2" of .12mm nichrome. the heat output at one end was 80°f and 190°f on the other, which i wasn't expecting but i'm a bit of a newbie. i'm having trouble getting the google results i need. thanks. edit: many thanks! i'll try again and make sure i don't stretch this fragile wire and come up with a new testing method that prevents external factors from affecting the temperature. | it should be isotopic as long as the resistance of the wire is continuous... did you stretch (narrow) the wire when you tried to cut it? this would increase the current flux through a fixed volume of wire and thus the heat in one end of the wire over the other. ac won’t help or hurt, it’s all power flux through the wire. there are skin-effect things that can happen, but 60 hz vs dc they will be negligible. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could binaural beats help a person in a coma? | is any of this close to confirmed? even the wikipedia article only has a couple of inconclusive experiments and then a list of "hypothetical effects on brain function." | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.openthesis.org/documents/Brain-Wave-Entrainment-by-Binaural-600998.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938497004368"
] | [
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|
how is spacex different than what blue origin did a couple months ago? | the blue origin launch was a suborbital rocket, whereas spacex delivered a payload to low earth orbit. the most obvious consequence is that the spacex rocket went up higher than the blue origin one, but that's not the main difference. getting to space is relatively easy, staying in space is much harder. if you don't have sufficient velocity, you'll fall back down to earth due to gravity. in order to put payloads into orbit, the spacex rocket has to achieve far greater speeds than what the blue origin rocket had to do (all that one had to do was fly up and fall back down in a controlled fashion). therefore the achievement of spacex is more significant, since it's more difficult to land their rocket than it is to land the blue origin rocket. that doesn't mean that blue origins achievement is trivial, on the contrary. finally, the practical use of spacex's achievement is much larger. there's a great demand for stuff to be put into orbit, both satelites and iss resupply missions. being able to reuse the booster rocket can greatly drive down the costs of these launches. the suborbital altitudes reached by blue origin are primarily of interest for space tourism, which can be nice way to make money for space projects, but doesn't directly benefit us. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ATkpdAX.png"
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|
demagnetisation curve - what happens just after coercivity field strength if you'd turn off the external magnetic field? | [here](_url_0_) is an example of a demagnetisation curve. let's assume we start somewhere in positive h-direction (e.g. 100 a/m) and slowly decrease the external field (strength). if we would turn it off (h=0), we would still have a flux density b of b_r (remanence). if we decrease h further (h now < 0) and turn it off, b would still be b_r. what happens if we decreased h to "-h_saturation" < h < h_c and we turn it of? would it still go back to b_r? at what point will it fall to -b_r? does the material have to be saturated in negative direction? thanks for your help. | why do you think b would stay at b_r? b will follow the curve that you are on. so if we were following the red curve and decrease h from some high value down to h_c, then b=0. when you turn the applied magnetic field off, b will remain at 0. b_r is just the maximum magnetization of the material in the absence of a magnetic field, but it doesn't have to stay there. if you decrease h to a point where b < -b_r (so near saturation), and then turn h off, then b will return to -b_r. | 3 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/B-H_loop.png"
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why doesn't a brownian paddle wheel work? | the short answer is because it breaks the second law of thermodynamics, but i'm not happy with such a short answer. i will back up a little bit. a brownian paddle wheel is a thought experiment that if a paddle wheel is attached to a ratchet or one way clutch, such that only rotation in one direction is allowed, then the brownian motion of the ambient fluid will push the paddle wheel in one direction only, effectively extracting energy from no energy gradient, thus breaking the second law of thermal dynamics. physicist have proven that the brownian motion will also lift the claw off from the ratchet, allowing the ratchet to move in both directions, and therefore preserving the second law of thermal dynamics however i have a hard time internalizing the explanation. the biggest thing that goes against my instinct is that if the paw of the ratchet is loaded with a spring stiff enough, then the problem of the paw lifting off the surface can be solved. the point of the ratchet is to allow rotation in one direction only. i can understand that by doing this it will make it harder for the paddle wheel to rotate, lowering the probability of the ratchet moving a gear teeth to effectively zero. however if the probability is not exactly zero, i can theoretically just sit there and wait for billions of years to have it just happen once. it's not going to be useful, but if that still happened once in a billion years, it still breaks the second law of thermal dynamics. what if i change the setup to instead of a ratchet, i attach a magnet and rotate it inside a coil. it will generate some electricity regardless of the direction of rotation. i can connect the setup to a lightbulb or something. in such a case, did i just extracted energy from brownian motion? there has to be an energy gradient somewhere, but in this case where? | your instinct is that the pawl will be fairly rigid and lock the ratchet from turning the wrong way, like a familiar, human sized ratchet mechanism. trouble is, as the paddles need to be able to be turned by the impact of a single molecule with energy kt/2, the spring of the pawl must not require more energy than this to be lifted. if it did, the spring would push the ratchet back to the starting position each time. therefore the spring and pawl will unlock the ratchet with energy kt/2 as well. the only way it can drive forwards, is if kt/2 for the pawl is much smaller than kt/2, i.e the paddles are in a hotter environment than the ratchet. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what differentiates brain matter from other matter within our bodies? | why does it have the capacity to "think"? | the cells that give our brain the capacity to think are called neurons. basically, 'thinking' is alot of neurons sending special signals to each other. while pretty much all the cells in your body communicate with neighbouring cells, neurons have ways of communicating to other parts of the body as well. neurons communicate through so-called action-potentials. these are caused by fluctuations of certain ions (na, k, cl, ca) that cause ion channels (gates that actively or passively exchange ions) to open, which cause the ion fluctuation to pass further along the neuron. whenever the fluctuation reaches the end of a neuron (called the axon) special molecules are released. these are called neurotransmitters. dopamine or adrenaline are examples of substances that can act like neurotransmitters. the axon releases the neurotransmitter into an area (called the synapse) that typically surrounded by parts of other neurons. these parts, called dendrites, have receptors that respond to these neurotransmitters. if sufficient neurotransmitter is secreted by neighbouring axons, a new action potential can occur in the receiving cells. this signal will then be transmitted along the neuron to its axons, which can then signal other neurons in turn. this is the basis of neuron interaction. the neurons in our body can be very small (e.g. when they only connect to neurons in our brain) or can be very long (e.g. when they communicate with the muscles in our extremities). in the brain, they often form a very complex network, with each individual neuron receiving input from hundreds or thousands of other neurons, and in turn signal to a multitude of receiving neurons. the combined input of so many neurons in a network allows for very complex interactions. aside from neurons connecting with other neurons, they can also release molecules into the blood (e.g. certain hormones). for instance, there is a system called the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (hpa) axis that is responsible for our physiological response to stress. neurons in the hypothalamus receive input from the body whenever the body is under stress. neurons in the hypothalamus releases the hormone crh, which travels to the pituitary gland. here, neurons become activated by crh to produce acth, which they release into the blood. when it reaches the adrenal gland, cortisol is produced, which helps us deal with immediate stress. for instance, it makes you more allert and it can affect energy storage so that more energy becomes available to the body. it also supressess inflammation. unfortunately, long term exposure to cortisol can be a bad thing, as it also inhibits energy expenditure of other vital systems (e.g. cortisol is known to inhibit the immunesystem). the reaction you feel when a group of neurons becomes activates depends a lot on the neurons they are connected to, and to the neurotransmitter they secrete. relase of some neurotransmitters might inhibit activation of another neuron, while different neurons attached to the same neuron may release an activating neurotransmitters. additionally, neurons can change under the influence of activation (an attribute called plasticity). some neurons might become more sensitive to activation by a neurotransmitter that will strengthen the response to certain input (for instance memories associated with certain smells or visual input). alternatively, neurons can become more resilient to activation. the best example of this would be activation of neurons sensitive to dopamine in drug addicts. heroin users, for instance, require a lot more heroin to experience the full effects of the drug than normal people would, simply because their dopamine sensitive neurons are altered. unfortunately for them, heroin also suppresses other parts of the body, among which the system that controls your breathing, that is not altered in the same way as the 'pleasure system' is. heroin addicts that take too much heroin to feel the effect sometimes stop breathing and die. the combined effects of the neurons in our brain and cells in the rest of the body together constitute our thoughts and feelings. for instance, receptors in the nose may detect the smell of freshly baked bread, which you possitively associate with, and which makes you hungry. on the other hand, your gastrointestinal tract may signal to your brain that you are currently digesting food, which can suppress your hunger. tl;dr neurons in the brain send electric signals to each other. thinking is made possible by the huge amount of connections between neurons and how they interact. these signals may inhibit or activate other neurons, leading to specific reactions. all the reactions combined determine our feelings and thoughts. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what os the actual mechanism by which force causes things to move? | especially attractive forces, like gravity and magnetism. how is it that a magnet can pull across physical distance? isn't it just some manner of photon at work? how can a photon alter the location of something? | [here](_url_0_) is a good explanation from richard feynman of why the question doesn't really have a good answer. i don't think there's anything i can add that he doesn't cover. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM"
] | [
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] |
how legit is xylem water filtration, and why has nobody thought of it until now? | its so simple. all you need is the xylem from a tree and a tube to filter water through. removes 99% of bacteria from water. | i guess you are referring to this paper: [water filtration using plant xylem](_url_0_) it seems legit to me. but making it practical is the hard part - and it still might be. there are several engineering challenges: * need a plant that will provide a high water flux at low pressures * has to filter a reasonable quantity of water without losing conductance (i.e. doesn't clog/foul too fast) * is cheap or freely available to those who need it * preparation needs to be simple (little/no chemical treatment) so someone had to test all of that. this research group proved the concept. there still is a ways to go to make it practical. you have to assemble an apparatus around the xylem and get that to the people who need it. the hardest part is teaching people how to use it and maintain it properly. do you need to put a sand filter in before the plant filter so that the plant filter isn't clogged right away? can you cut away the top 10% and keep using the rest as it clogs? these are the type of questions that may still need work and what separates a good concept/idea from a practical solution. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0089934",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0089934"
] | [
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[physics] for the astrophysicist out there, this is a time dilation related question. | i am doing a personal project (and no this is not homework) and i need to calculate what would be the difference in observed time vs. subjective time for a traveler going 4.35 light years at a 0.999 c (or 0.999% of the speed of light). i am a complete newbie for lorentz equations and i need some verification to my calculation. anyhow, i calculated that a round trip would take the traveler 8.7 years (8.7 subjective time) and in the meantime, 170.32 years would have elapsed on earth (170.32 observed time). i do not need to be super precise with the calculation. are my calculations roughly correct? also, if i was to consider a more inclusive observed time, would i also have to consider gravitational dilation and if so, how would that alter my calculations? | you got wrong results. you have to understand that in traveler's frame of reference the universe is speeding by with the speed of 0.999c. and because of that the direction in which he travels gets contracted. from earth's point of view the time trip will take t = 2d/v = 8.7/0.999 = 8.709 years. but from the traveler's pov the length gets contracted by factor gamma which is 22.366. ( gamma = 1 / squareroot(1 - v^2 / c^2 ) ) (((or maybe i should write the reciprocal factor 1/gamma. you either multiply with 1/gamma or divide by gamma.))) anyhow, he calculates the length he has to travel is 2d / gamma = 8.7/22.366 = 0.3889 light-years. and the time he spends is t = 0.3889 / 0.999 = 0.3894 years (rougly 142 days). so as you can see the traveler ages 22.366 times more slowly than earth observer. no need for general relativity here unless you would travel by some really massive objects. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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after looking for proof it seems quantum levitation (flux pinning) is a real phenomena, but i'm having a hard time accepting it, can anyone help explain it? | this video: _url_0_ demonstrates what i'm talking about. as someone who is trying to be scientific, i am always skeptical of claims but even with everything seeming to point to this being real it's still hard for me to accept. can someone give me the science behind this? what we could apply it to? when was it first discovered? et cetera... | it's a very real phenomena, and an *amazing* demonstration to people who have never seen it. superconductors in general and amazing and correspondingly have amazing properties. one such property is that they expel magnetic fields from within themselves (named the [meissner effect](_url_0_)). this causes an external magnetic field to wrap around the object instead of penetrating it; this leads to some very complex electromagnetic phenomena but the upshot is it reaches an equilibrium where small currents are generated in the object that cancel out the external magnetic field allowing levitation over a permanent magnet. if there are imperfections in the crystalline structure parts of the field can be funneled through the object and effectively get stuck inside. this is what [flux pinning](_url_1_) is all about, and leads to some more really complicated properties that i am only vaguely aware of. i do know that the meissner effect was first discovered in the early 1930's (1933 according to wikipedia) but i don't know about flux pinning and the article has no date. because of the tight relationship between flux pinning and other superconducting properties i can't imagine it took too long to find once serious work started. superconductive materials find applications in many place, most notably in extremely powerful electromagnetic devices. since they have zero resistance you can push very large electric currents through them without destroying the material with resistive heat losses; this is a phenomenal property because you can generated extremely powerful magnetic fields in a controlled manner that would be impossible to create otherwise. there is, however, one glaring downside: all known superconducting materials require cryogenic temperatures to operate. this means they all must be kept close to absolute zero, usually by bathing them in a liquid gas (hydrogen, helium, etc) and making damn sure it never gets too hot. you will *definitely* know if a superconductive material is found that can be made to work at room-temperatures because the uproar would be huge! | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyOtIsnG71U"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_pinning"
] | [
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why does maxwell's demon need to erase information? | as i understand, maxwell's demon increases the entropy of the universe whenever it erases information. my question is why does it necessarily have to erase information in the first place? if we were dealing with a very small system, say a few hundred gas molecules, could the demon not record the positions and momenta of every single particle over a long enough time period to effect a separation without needing to erase anything? | because we assume that maxwell's demon can only store a finite amount of information. this then requires the demon to delete information when it updates the positions and velocities of the particles it is keeping track of. this is the fundamental connection between the erasure of information corresponding to generation of heat (entropy). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
information on magnetic stirrers | if it's required that your motor turn very slowly, i recommend either a stepper motor or a motor with a reduction gearhead, as most dc motors will have a difficult time overcoming internal friction at very low voltages (what you need for low speeds). if higher speeds are acceptable, look into the homemade stir plates used by homebrewers. they make use of nearly any small motor or fan for this type of usage. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.byo.com/stories/projects-and-equipment/article/indices/20-build-it-yourself/401-build-your-own-stir-plate"
] | [
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|
if you see through a colored filter, will the brain eventually adjust and reprocess it normally? | does it work the same with a colored filter like [seeing in an angle (perceptual adaptation)](_url_0_)? | if the filter is broad enough that it lets through light that can stimulate all three types of cones, then you could probably adapt enough to be able to discriminate colors again, but not as well as without the filter; if it's a narrow filter (e.g. that is strongly red or blue), you won't be able to see color normally through it, adaptation won't do much for you. as an extreme case, consider a filter that only lets 'red' light through, i.e. wavelengths longer than 600nm. at this cutoff, you could still use your m(medium wavelength) and l(long wavelength) cones to discriminate some colors; and with adaptation, the m would become relatively more sensitive and the l would be come less sensitive, so your discriminations would improve a bit over time. but the s cone, which allows you to discriminate blues from yellows, and mediates green sensations, would be completely dormant - it is totally unstimulated by wavelengths longer than 600nm. so you could never see 'blue' through such a filter, and you'd lose your sensations of 'yellow' - everything would look different shades of brownish red. adaptation in the retina comes down to changes in gain (related to adjustable rate of production of photopigments), but the range of frequencies that are detectable is genetically fixed. however, deeper in the nervous system (i.e. in the brain), ranges of selectivity (e.g. to perceived direction) are much more plastic, since they come down to network connectivity rather than some fixed physical component. | 25 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_adaptation"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_balance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_adaptation"
] | [
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is defecation a common defense mechanism? how effective is it on other animals (besides humans)? | my [bearded dragon](_url_0_) pooped on me when i had my hand over him, restricting his movement. i can say it was very effective used against me, but how would a non-human animal react to this? | most all animals think poop is gross and avoid it (except cats). it's a pretty common and effective deterrent from predation. lots of animals, garter snakes and skunks for example, have even developed special glands to create noxious odor, and use it liberally when they are frightened. spraying and defecating are two different behaviors, but the scent glands and associated behavior arose from the defecation reflex. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogona"
] | [] | [
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explanation parallel evolution. | i am pretty sure about diverging and converging evolution but the websites online seem to have some contradictory definitions for parallel some are stating same ancestor different environment some are stating same environment. | the term of parallel evolution is used inconsistently in the literature. some people use parallel evolution to describe two populations of the same organism evolving the same adaptations independently. the term is also used to describe independent evolution of a homologous structures in two separate species to create a similar adaptation. since the second usage of the term is more consistent with the common usage of the term convergent evolution (which is typically taken to mean usage of non-homologous structures in two separate species to create a similar adaptation), it is the usage i prefer. i would refer to the former case (two populations of the same organism evolving the same adaptations independently) as deterministic evolution to better contrast it with the possibility adaptive evolution may occur stochastically. environmental similarity is only of importance in the first usage of the term. a deterministic evolutionary response (i.e. what some would call 'parallel evolution') is most likely to occur when the two populations are under similar environmental conditions. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the evolutionary purpose of the balloon-like cheeks that some fish have? | i was recently pondering this after i remembered seeing these kinds of fish as a child. i can't come up with any guesses myself, so i come to you /askscience/. pic of fish with the traits stated above: _url_0_ | it's a trait that's been selected for, and wouldn't/doesn't occur in nature. in fact, through my experience working with and owning aquariums, i've noticed that these fish tend to snag those bubbles on sharp corners or become stuck in some other way fairly often. essentially, these exist for the same reason that tea-cup dogs exist: we wanted them. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.flickr.com/photos/30ma/2390229478/"
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how did you do a lit search, before the internet and customized software? | if you've used scifinder or even google scholar, doing a lit search on a topic is just a mouse click away, which brings me to my question: how did you find papers and relevant research before the advent of the modern internet? for e.g. the power of scifinder - i submit the structure of a molecule(bigger molecules are rarely referenced by a single name as they have multiple synonyms) and it pulls all the papers it can find with that molecule referenced - even if that molecule was just in a figure. i can't imagine how i would have done the same search without the internet or scifinder.. | well, i'm pretty much as young as you can be and still know how it was done. (thanks to my university teaching us how to do this stuff as a first-year undergrad) but basically we used scifinder.. or rather, the products of the same company cas (chemical abstracts service). they published volumes and volumes of books containing abstracts of papers, and indexes by various topics. and so you looked up stuff in the index, checked out the abstracts, and eventually went and found the papers. (and of course followed references directly from the papers) you also had (and still do!) university librarians, who (for a fee) would do the literature-finding for you. so basically, reference works. looking it up now, seems cas only stopped publishing the print edition last year(!). it was pretty much obsolete well before i started my studies though, since there was a digital version on cd-rom. but basically, we used the same database, just in printed, cross-referenced form. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what altitude do i have to be to see the solar terminator? | at ground level, we perceive it as a slowly darkening twilight. from space, a definable line. but say i am at the peak of a high mountain, looking down upon a flat plane, would i see it? how high would the mountain need to be to perceive the terminator as a line - even just a vague line? | this is a really good question that won't have an exact answer, but with some reasonable guesses we can probably come up with an estimate. the angular size of the sun in the sky is about 0.5 degrees. this means that there is a sliver on earth, 0.5 degrees thick, were people can see the sun intersect with the horizon. i'll call the width of this band the width of the terminator. if the earth's equator is 40,075 km long, then the terminator will be 40,075 km * 0.5/360 40,075 km = 55 km 55 km thick. i'd expect in order to get a clear view of this you'd want to be able to see at least 100 km. the distance to the horizon is easy to calculate from a [given height](_url_1_), at a height of about 1 km the horizon is 112 km away. of course the terminator won't appear as a clean line underneath you, but rather a smooth gradient, beginning with brightness in the direction of the sunset with darkness in the opposite direction. if you were in an airplane at cruising altitude i expect you would be able to resolve this quite easily. perhaps try looking out your window the next time you fly over an ocean - those flights are usually east-west. again, like you said, it's a smooth gradient. even from space it's still a gradient - check out the video titled ["from night to day and night again"](_url_0_). while the terminator can be resolved from this height, it's far from appearing as just a line. the iss only has an altitude of 250 miles, so i'd guess that you'd want to be at least 50 miles high in order to have a clear view of the terminator without craning your neck from side to side. on a related note, i recall a story that i'm having trouble finding, but perhaps someone knows what i'm talking about and can find a link. i believe the pilot was flying an sr-71 at high altitude, and noticed that to one side he saw complete night, while in the other direction he saw day. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/BeyondThePhotography/CrewEarthObservationsVideos/Special.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon#Distance_to_the_horizon"
] | [
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can scientists calculate when an olympic record becomes theoretically unbeatable? | for example, the current world record for the mile is about 3:43. obviously, a mile cannot be run in 1 second - or 2 seconds, or 3 seconds. somewhere between 3 seconds and 3:43 minutes, will we ever reach "the threshold" that the human body is incapable of beating? can scientists calculate it? does this apply to other world records? | there have been attempts to calculate maximal human potential, including [the one discussed here](_url_0_). as far as i can tell however, athletes continue to move toward the predicted limit faster than expected, requiring continual revision of the models used. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16160-perfect-athletes-100m-sprint-time-calculated.html"
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why is the time a medicine stays in your system measured in units of half-life? | it seems strange to me that medicine is measure in the time it takes half of it to leave your system. would it not be better to just say that a medicine will be completely out of your system in 20 hours than saying that half will be out in 10? is it not roughly linear like that? | this is more of a mathematical phenomenon than a medical phenomenon. you can probably intuitively reason that the rate of 'decay' (medicine leaving) is proportional to how much medicine is currently in your body. in other words, as there is less and less medicine left, it takes longer and longer to leave. so, this means that the relation is exponential and not linear, and so it is best expressed by some characteristic time constant (a half-life by convention). to answer a misconception in your original post, a half-life of 10h does not mean that 100% is gone in 20h (since once 10h have gone by, the meaning of that 50% in the half-life now refers to the 10h state, not the 0h state). so what actually happens is that after 10h, 50% is remaining, and after 20h, 25% is remaining (half of half of 100%). some other phenomena with similar mathematical relations include radioactive decay (more material, decays more) and light absorption (more light, more gets absorbed). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the path of electrical current flowing in this gif? why does it burn the wood in this pattern? | apologies if this has been asked before but i did not see anything when i searched. [this gif](_url_0_) was recently posted in /r/gifs. as you can see, a battery is supplying current to a piece of wood, and the electricity is burning the wood. the gif was described as the current "finding" the path of least resistance. it's been a while since i've taken an electronics course, but i am familiar enough with the basics of circuits. however, and this may not have been the intention, it seemed like the post was suggesting that the slow burning in the gif was the slow movement of current. this seems incorrect to me since current would start flowing when the circuit was closed, and current would have to be flowing first in order for the wood to burn. but what is the path of the current? why does the wood burn with this pattern? some people tried to address these questions in the original post in /r/gifs, but some of the proposed explanations seemed a little pseudoscientific so i wanted to see what everyone here thought. | i can't speak to the exact reaction in the wood, but, in general with these patterns, what occurs is 1) a large voltage is applied across a material with what starts as a large resistance 1.5) due to ohm's law, the current through any portion of the medium is inversely related to resistance along that path 2) the material when exposed to current breaks down in some way that is of lower resistance. the speed at which this occurs is proportional to the current. 2.5) since the resistance is lowered, more current flows along that path 3) increased current leads to an increase in power dissapation (heat), which leads to the charring of the wood in this case 4) eventually a path is forged along the broken down material between the two paths, and the circuit is shorted, leading to a massive current flow between the two nodes. as i said, i don't know the exact mechanism that causes this to occur in wood, but the same effect is seen in lightning, where the "lower resistance" medium is created as the air is ionized by the charge passing through it. you can also think of it as the charging of a giant capacitor, where the charge is breaking down the dielectric as its going along. source: ee degree | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/r9Q8M4G.gifv"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtenberg_figure"
] | [
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all other things equal, does a human burn more calories if they are taking a test and thinking really hard vs. just staring at a wall? | the short answer is "not really". the longer answer is that the brain's resting metabolic rate is very high, consuming 12-20% of the calories coming in to your body just to keep ticking over. thinking hard leads to miniscule shifts in glucose consumption by the brain typically no more than a 1% shift in the brain's energy consumption. though the evidence for this remains sketchy. fmri studies do show that different cognitive tasks change the fluxes of oxygenated blood to different parts of the brain. so for now the best we can tell is that it is really how the brain alters where oxygen and food go to that is more important to cognitive function than just a simple increases in calorie consumption. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/thinking-hard-calories/"
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|
are there any medium- and long-term risks to prolonged intubation? | i mean longer than the mechanical etc. risks of actually intubating the patient. for example, if in a coma and on artificial breathing apparatus, what effect will this have on the lungs in the long term? will any stuff accumulate down in the lungs, as the patient remains lying down motionless for a long time? i saw the nurses put a tube down the intubation stuff (clearly i am not a medic) and aspirate some sort of dark brown/black (dirty looking) liquid out of an intubated patient earlier, and i was wondering if this was due to the intubation. and longer term risks, too. thanks! | there are risks of prolonged intubation and risks of prolonged use of artificial breathing apparatus. prolonged intubation may result in: abnormal communication between the trachea and nearby structures such as the innominate artery (tracheoinnominate fistula) or esophagus (tracheoesophageal fistula). airway obstruction due to loss of tracheal rigidity narrowing of the glottis or trachea (sub-glottic stenosis) source: _url_1_ . prolonged ventilator use may result in: pneumothorax airway injury alveolar damage ventilator-associated pneumonia. acute lung injury (ali)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ards) other complications include diaphragm atrophy, decreased cardiac output, and oxygen toxicity. source: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_ventilation#Complications",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheal_intubation#Complications",
"http://web.squ.edu.om/med-Lib/MED_CD/E_CDs/anesthesia/site/content/v04/040475r00.HTM",
"http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/mobileart.asp?articlekey=7035",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2148694/"
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what is the relation between kvp and dose? | hello, i have a question in regards to medical x-ray imaging. i have heard mixed things and cannot figure out if using lower kvp will result in a higher or lower dose. i was always under the impression that higher energy x-rays are more harmful, however if the penetration of the beam increase with kvp then wouldn't the radiation absorbed in the patient also decrease? also, does this mean that very high energy radiation essentially isn't harmful because it a travels through the patient? any answers to this or kvp vs dose in general are appreciated. | as you get higher energy photons (x-rays in this case), their mass attenuation coefficient (mu) decreases. essentially what that means is the higher energy a photon has, the lower the probability of it being absorbed. the equation for intensity is i = i(0)exp(-mu/rho * x) where the intensity decreases with a greater mu. higher energies result in higher mass attenuation coefficients, which lowers the intensity and, subsequently, dose. however, intensity is also a function of energy. i=et/a therefore, the higher energy of the photons creates a larger intensity, which would lead to a higher dose. simply put, at higher energies, photons are less likely to be absorbed, but if they are absorbed, they will deposit more energy than lower energy photons. think of it like standing under a bucket of confetti vs a bucket of a few large rocks. you're more likely to get hit by the confetti, but it won't do much damage. you're less likely to get hit by the rocks, but it will hurt a lot more if it hits you. hope this helps! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what if there are multiple valid theories of everything? | we essentially already have exactly this in quantum mechanics. whilst we have a great mathematical framework that works very well, there are several (many?) different ways to interpret it physically. are things truly random? are there multiple universes? what if non-local hidden variables exist? in all these cases, the answer might lead to exactly the same physical measurement results, so we simply can't distinguish them without more experiments. actually, more than that, the field has been stagnant for a while as it's proven extremely difficult to think of any such experiment. this being the case, nobody should ever say that one of these interpretations *is* correct, only that it works. that doesn't stop people getting the wrong idea (they frequently do...), but the important thing is that there's no controversy in science about their current indistinguishability - even if different people have different opinions on which is most likely, or may try to find ways to distinguish them. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i'm trying to get into illustrating extinct mammals. is my drawing of hyenadon gigas anywhere near accurate? | hey, askscience! i'm a concept artist and thought it would be fun to try my hand at illustrating extinct critters, but i'm not entirely sure how to go about doing it accurately. i thought i'd draw a hyenadon first, so i went ahead and drew it over a picture of a skeleton i found while looking at lots of reference of modern hyenas and previous hyenadon illustrations. according to wikipedia, hyenadon gigas, one species of hyenadon, was 10 feet high! i added in the human silhouette and it was absolutely dwarfed and didn't seem right at all, so i shrank the hyenadon down a little to perhaps reflect hyenadons in general or a younger hyenadon gigas. does this seem ok? also, could any of you recommend any good blogs or resources that i could look at to get better estimates of the metrics of extinct critters in the future? [my drawing](_url_0_) | hi! this is not my field of expertise, but since no one gave you any kind of answer i'll just try to help. i believe 10 feet is probably not how high they were, but the end of the tail to tip of nose measure. usually when talking about sizes of similar animals that measure is used (alongside weight). 10 feet high is indeed way too much. | 3 | [] | [
"http://katnicolesketch.tumblr.com/image/31311723271"
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can a country adopt the constitution of the us, or the bill of rights, or the declaration of independence of the us? can they just copy/paste documents as their own? | just today egypt drafted a new constitution. could they have simply scratched out "the united states of america" and wrote in "republic of egypt"? maybe take the amendments and incorporate them in the main text. get rid of that pesky (and embarrassing) 3/5ths language. of course. there's no copyright on the us constitution. would it be smart? no. the us constitution is perhaps the only constitution in the world that distributes central power. most constitution writers are trying to tighten their grip on the government, not give it up. the egyptian government doesn't want the local governors to have much power. their intent is to strengthen, not weaken, central power, since the country is already so divided along religious and economic lines. there are certainly influences from the us in many nation's documents, notably korea and japan. but no outright copies. so, can a country copy our constitution? yeah. will they? probably not. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the biological process functioning behind refining a motor skill such as throwing accuracy? could it be enhanced artificially? | i've been playing basketball recently, and my increasing accuracy made me wonder how it takes place in the brain. is there some kind of feedback process which rewards your shots getting closer to the hoop (like dopamine released due to satisfaction), thus increasing its likelihood? if so, is it theoretically possible to artificially enhance the process? if it's a result of pleasure guiding the unconscious processes of throwing with increasing accuracy, for example, could small external rewards for accuracy (eg, a hit of nicotine or some sugar) increase the speed of improvement? i understand that with basketball, a large part of increasing accuracy is the conscious aspects of improving your form and cementing that into automaticity. but i'm more interested in the unconscious workings. say it was with a tennis ball instead, where you are not consciously changing your form but still getting more accurate over time - what's behind these unconscious improvements? hope this all makes sense. | there is some evidence to suggest electrical stimulation of the motor cortex while doing a task increases the rate at which you learn it. there are some products, like halo headphones, that claim to do just that. while i know electrical stimulation of the motor cortex is being studied fairly extensively for the purposes of speeding rehabilitation i'm unsure of the amount it has been studied for the purposes of improving athletic performance. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the inside of europa like? | i know the core is heated due to gravitational friction with jupiter, but does the liquid water ocean touch the ice shell? what temperature is the water? | europa likely has a metallic iron core with a very large liquid water "mantle" and an icy crust. like the earth, there's likely a temperature gradient where temperature is highest at the core and decreases outward. the water almost certainly touches the ice shell, and the temperature at the interface would be at the freezing point of the ice/water. local fluctuations in heat would cause local freezing or melting at the interface, but the temperature would not change unless there were also local changes to pressure or impurities which would raise or lower the freezing point. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the "temperature danger zone" dangerous? | i learned about the temperature danger zone in high school after watching a video my culinary arts teacher showed the class about a hypothetical scenario in which a restaurant stores a large amount of soup in a fridge in a big pot, which stays warm all night, and gets everyone they serve it to sick the next day. that was more than enough to convince me, but in the years since, i've tried to explain the same dangers to my friends and family after i've observed them making similar mistakes, or believing common myths (e.g. leaving the food out to "cool off" before putting it in the fridge), to no avail. the most common retort is that since they've been doing it so frequently, seemingly without incident, that it's complete nonsense. is it worthwhile to continue to try to persuade people about this? i feel as if i'm doing them a disservice by not helping make them completely aware of the risks they're taking. | the "danger zone" is temperatures (40 degrees f to roughly 140 degrees f, according to the us fda) at which bacteria most readily grow and multiply on a given food given ideal water activity levels and nutrients. one thing you seem to be neglecting in your observations is that bacterial growth needs time as well as temperature. generally two hours is the max time food should be kept out of refrigeration, and warm/hot foods should not be left out for more than one hour if the temperature is higher than 90 degrees f. this depends on the type of food, though, and how it's prepared and stored. some foods are especially important to monitor as they are considered "potentially hazardous," this includes fish, meat, and poultry known to naturally be capable of harboring known pathogens (such as e. coli and salmonella). other foods are not considered to be such a risk (if they are too acidic, like salsa), and certain potentially hazardous foods can have exceptions. crisp bacon, for instance, is considered to have such a low water activity that it doesn't need to be stored outside of the danger zone. bacteria cannot thrive without the necessary moisture and ph levels (at least the ones sanitarians and food service professionals worry about). i'm an environmental health student, a big component of our education is food safety and sanitation. a lot of what i learned comes from the fda and its 2009 food code. you can find helpful information [here]( _url_0_). and [here as well](_url_1_). tl;dr: the danger zone *is* important to consider. leaving food out to "cool off" will allow bacteria to grow on it if the moisture is right and the temperatures are warm. and refrigeration isn't enough to kill these bacteria. foods can harbor a lot of pathogens in the right conditions, and the "danger zone" of about 40 to 140 degrees f is the most ideal range for most identified food-borne bacteria to grow on food (other factors considered). edit: formatting for neatness. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fsis.usda.gov/factsheets/how_temperatures_affect_food/index.asp",
"http://www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/retailfoodprotection/foodcode/foodcode2009/"
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what exactly is it that happens to your brain when you have a hang-over? | additionally, is it weird that i sometimes find them enjoyable? | there a quite a few things going on in your *entire body* when you're hung over, but specifically regarding your head/brain a few to consider are: 1) because alcohol is a diuretic, you're peeing a lot. you end up losing a lot of potassium and salts which are used in neuron activity, and this can often lead to headaches. 2) when you lose a lot of water, your other organs start to 'steal' it from the brain, and as a result it shrinks a bit and pulls on the membranes that attach it to the skull, which causes pain. 3) [some studies](_url_0_) have shown that [prostaglandin contributes to head-aches](_url_1_), and alcohol is a contributing factor in prostaglandin accumulation. 4) generally you don't get a 'quality' sleep when you've been drinking, so you can attribute some of the feeling to being overtired. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1468-2982.1983.0301031.x/abstract",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0376871683900169"
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can anyone explain what is happening in the sky in this picture posted by travisz1116? | [_url_0_](_url_0_) all i know is that the photo was taken at a wal-mart near pittsburgh edit: i am referring to the strange cloud formations, not the colors. | what's happening here is that the light from the sunset is hitting the underside of the clouds making them appear orange just like the sunset. the top part of the clouds is getting illuminated indirectly from the dusk sky which appears more blue-grey. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/I3QX3.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
can anyone explain whats happening in the sky here? | _url_0_ | _url_0_ this is what it looked like when it was first sighted. the person who actually saw it and provided me with photos said this regarding the event " it started off at nothing and next thing you know this streak in the sky appeared and it kept on going upwards into the clouds" | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/wpPNFfv"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/4OHhmVQ"
] | [
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might one anwer these few questions about the distribution and migrations of monarchs outside of the americas? | the [wikipedia entry on the monarch](_url_0_) shows a number of occurrences in the pacific, reaching all the way across into the philippines, india, nepal and australia. what is the story behind the indo-pacific part of the range? do monarchs occur there regularly; do they maintain themselves, do they migrate? | monarchs (*danaus plexippus*) appear to have established themselves on several islands at discrete intervals, specifically: new zealand (1840s), tonga (1863), and vanuatu/new caledonia (1868). from there, they quickly spread across the rest of the indo-pacific region via classical hierarchical diffusion (i.e. one or few spot introductions with radial dispersion from those). this dispersal is believed to have been a combination of anthropogenically mediated (human-assisted), as well as natural movement. unlike their north american counterparts, they do not display long-distance migratory behavior. * zalucki and clarke. 2004. monarchs across the pacific: the columbus hypothesis revisited. biological journal of the linnean society 82: 111 - 121. * pierce *et al.* 2014. serial founder effects and genetic differentiation during worldwide range expansion of monarch butterflies. proceedings of the royal society b 281 (1797) | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_butterfly#Range"
] | [] | [
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how come our jaw drops when we are in amazement? does it have a biological or a cultural reason? | one of the most involuntary / unconscious reactions to something is the dropping of the jaw. it often takes me a second or two to realize my mouth is wide agape, too. i can't seem to find an evolutionary reason for this. might it be some preparation for attack or defense? or does it have something to do with our breathing? absolute layman speculation here, but i would love to hear some perspectives on this. | i looked around for this, but there does not seem to be a proven answer. the closest i got is that it's part of the body's defensive reflexes, ie part of the process *"when the body executes the “fight-or-flight" reaction or stress response, the nervous system initiates, coordinates and directs specific changes in how the body is functioning (physiology), preparing the body to deal with the threat."* _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_physiology"
] | [
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why are the abdominal muscles in athlete's "six packs" sometimes asymmetrical or offset? | it seems that six packs are sometimes offset along the vertical midline. i find this surprising considering the underlying anatomy should be pretty symmetrical. i don't see an obvious connection to posture or body position when looking at these pictures. is this a fluke of the split-second when the picture is taken? that is, would some peoples' appear symmetrical in some images and not in others? is it differential muscle development? symmetry is important evolutionarily and also to bodybuilders, so i find the asymmetry curious. [example 1](_url_2_) [example 2](_url_3_) [example 3](_url_1_) [example 4 \(middle\)](_url_0_) | this is largely genetic based. this is why all well developed bodybuilders do not look the same. different insertion points, rates of development, etc. genetics can determine even the rate of development of said muscle group and how "round" the development of the muscle belly is. | 7 | [] | [
"http://behindtheworkout.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/bodybuilding-abs.png",
"http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/736x/60/af/7c/60af7c25f7ae9200a2973837fcd51e3d.jpg",
"http://www.body-building-resource.com/bb25.jpg",
"http://www.sixpacknow.com/six_pack_abs.jpg"
] | [] | [
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are there any promising or established nerve-to-wire interfaces out there? | i have been researching theoretical methods for curing paralysis due to nerve damage and/or spinal cord injury. i am very interested in doing this by replacing dead nerves with wires and using electrodes to stimulate a muscle contraction. ideally, i want to connect the wire so their functioning nerve or spinal cord so that they may regain some aspect of voluntary control over their paralyzed limbs. the main problem appears to be that if you just stick a wire into a nerve cell the message/current does not transmit between them. so, i am curious if any interface already exists or is in the works? if not, can we discuss the complications associated with problem, or more relevant approaches? any links would be appreciated, as my searches on the internet were fruitless. thank you! | something similar to what you describe [has been done in monkeys](_url_2_) (may be paywalled; [full article](_url_0_); [video](_url_1_)). in that study, the researchers implanted electrodes in the brain of the monkey in an area called primary motor cortex that controls volitional limb movements. to get around the "wire" problem you mention, they used what are called extracellular recordings. this means essentially the stuck a "wire" (actually a biocompatible micro-machined and cvd processed silicon electrode array) near the cells they wanted to record. in that way, they can measure the electrical activity of a neuron through capacitive coupling without actually sticking an electrode inside the cell. i'm glad you're excited about the possibilities of this technology, but it's not practically a type or research one can take up as a hobby. if you're interested, pm me and i'll send you a list of some graduate programs that specialize in this sort of thing. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3358575/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfEO5WgUVm4",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v485/n7398/full/nature10987.html",
"http://www.njit.edu/features/innovations/sahin.php",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2390875/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2886996/"
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intraosseous faster? | quick background. i'm watching "inside combat rescuer" (these pjs are awesome). anyway they just did an intraosseous infusion (io) to get some blood going to an injured guy. the commentator said that an io works faster than any other form of transfusion. everything i have come up with says it is comparable to intravenous administration. is it faster or did the commentator misspeak. also if it is faster why? | as a paramedic, i've used the easyio device. i found it faster for a few reasons *these are my experiences not scientifically tested ones* faster start: if someone's blood pressure is crashing the veins that are usually puffed up collapse and you cant get the iv in. you would need to go to an external jugular vein and sometimes even they are collapsed if there was a lot of blood loss. so instead of struggling to find a vein it is super quick to start and io. you can use larger bore cannula. for iv a 16 gauge and be large but for io you have much larger bores that can handle a much more rapid infusion. lastly, the space you are infusing into is much larger. the intra osseous space is much larger than a vein and can handle more fluid all at once. i hope this helps. again these are my experiences and intuitions but i haven't seen published data about them so take them with a a million grains of salt. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which sport has the fittest athletes? | this question comes out a a debate that a friend and i were having the other day where he asserted that rugby players were fitter all-round athletes than nfl players. i thought that the statistics from the combine would convince him that nfl athletes were superior, however, he made the very astute point that these drills represent the nature of the sport since all the drills concern fast-twitch muscle exercises, whereas in rugby the average playing time is three times that of the average nfl player. this got me thinking, is there anyway to scientifically compare the fitness of sportsmen and sportswomen? and is there a way to apply this to the question of which sport requires the fittest athletes? | you'll get arguments all around, but a lot of people think [maximal aerobic capacity](_url_1_) is the best measure of fitness. most of the arguments seem to stem from what aerobic fitness "fits". it doesn't fit power lifting well, for example. cross country skiiers and cyclists dominate *these* vo2 max [test results](_url_0_). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.topendsports.com/testing/records/vo2max.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VO2_max"
] | [
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] |
what is a lagrange point? what happens there? | when you have a large body orbited by a smaller one (at least 25 times smaller), there are five "equilibrium" points where a very tiny body (so small it has negligible effect on the other two) will orbit the larger body in lockstep with the smaller one. from the perspective of the smaller body, the tiny one is in an "orbit" where it just doesn't move. there are five such points. (here's [a good picture](_url_0_).) l1 puts the tiny object in-between the two bigger ones. l2 puts the smaller body between the tiny one and the big one. and l3 puts the tiny object on the far side of the big one from the small one. (really; look at the picture.) these all make intuitive sense, although it's not quite true that these are points where "gravity balances out" because the angular momentum of the tiny object factors into the problem too. these three points are all "unstable equilibria" because the slightest push to the side will cause them to move away from the equilibrium, much as a pencil standing on its point is in an unstable equilibrium. you can put satellites at these points, but they'll need to make occasional course corrections to keep "on station." l4 and l5 are counter-intuitive, but not only are they equilibria, they're *stable*. (or metastable, at least.) you could put satellites (or rocks) in these places and they'd just stay there for thousands (or millions) of years. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/754/what-is-a-lagrange-point/"
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|
would australopithecus have had black or white sclera? | would our ancient ancestors the [australopithecus](_url_1_) have had black or white [sclera](_url_0_)? additionally, why are humans the only primates that have white sclera? | i'm not a biologist so i can't speak to sclera and their evolution in particular, but i've studied the archaeology of human evolution and our educated guess would be that yes, australopitheces probably did have white sclera. this guess is based on the fact that australopithecus specimens such as the [taung child](_url_0_) display humanlike cranial traits such as having the foramen magnum located at the base of their skull instead of the back (in other words, by looking at the skull we can tell that they walked upright). this is a big deal because obligate bipedalism is seen as one of the most important traits of what makes humans and their ancestors "human." we still aren't sure why human ancestors evolved obligate bipedalism, but it's reasonable to assume that human ancestors were evolving more humanlike eyes at the same time they were evolving more humanlike heads. furthermore, because it's reasonable to assume that homo erectus had white sclera given how closely related they were to us, if australopithecines were, in fact, the ancestors of h. erectus, we would expect at least the later australopithecines to have white sclera because there is such a small time gap between them (less than a million years, which is nothing from a biological standpoint). as a disclaimer, this explanation is heavily based on educated guesses and assumptions because pretty much everything in archaeology in based on educated guesses and assumptions. an evolutionary biologist could probably give you a much better, much more concrete answer, but from an archaeological standpoint this is my two cents. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclera",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taung_Child"
] | [
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astrosurfing, is it possible? | i had an interesting idea the other day. joseph kittinger holds the record for skydiving from about 32 kilometers, but that was skydiving. would it be possible to "surf" the atmosphere much like people do with waves in the sea? how plausable would that be? i'd imagine a suit could be made to provide oxygen and protect from heat. also a board would need to be designed, but regardless air is still a fluid. can i surf the sky? | it's called a 'skip reentry': _url_0_ technical explanation: _url_1_ is it possible in the context you're referring to? probably not. you would need to have a source of propulsion (or a absolutely huge solar kite...that would be cool) to get an very large tangential velocity relative to the earth. some black project conspirators think this could be a potential way to fly super-fast, super-secret planes (which in my opinion is kinda ridiculous). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skip_reentry",
"http://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=476373"
] | [
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for the architects out there, how do you figure out the number of bathrooms/toilets a building will need? | i've seen such a weird mix on my campus of building have far to few toilets for the traffic they have to handle, to having more then enough to handle everyone in the building. i'm just wondering if there's a formula or statistic that goes into it, or if it's just up to the best guess. | there is a table in the building code, the number of plumbing fixtures based off of occupancy. the table can be found [here](_url_1_) and continued [here](_url_0_). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.doli.state.mn.us/Images/pe_table_2902_1_continued.jpg",
"http://www.doli.state.mn.us/Images/pe_table_2902_1.jpg"
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] |
does the mcgurk effect work across language barriers? | does the phonetic changing of a sound through seeing the mouth movement work when you are dealing with individuals of different languages? the biggest difference i can think of is the khoisan african group of languages which does not use vowels like most latin derived languages. | not sure what the exact question is, but: there is an argument for greater influence from visual stimuli when you are unfamiliar with the language: *edited for readability* also: _url_3_ or are you asking if the mcgurk effect exists in other languages? yes, but maybe less so in some: from: _url_0_ regarding vowels: the effect emerges for both consonants and vowels, but the bigger effect is seen when it is the consonant that changes across stimuli. still, the accompanying vowel moderates the effect (e.g /ba/ + /ga/ vs. /bi/ + /gi/). e.g _url_2_ (all of this is on wikipedia, i think) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1960275",
"http://asadl.org/jasa/resource/1/jasman/v124/i3/p1716_s1?isAuthorized=no",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-5884.00141/abstract",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0095447009000254"
] | [
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can anyone explain how this works? (discontinued hovercraft from 1974) | [williams wasp x jet](_url_0_) used a vtol engine interesting - i hadn't thought about those in ages. the wiki indicates that you controlled it like you would a segway. edit: the pilot is standing on the fuel tank. the area in front of the pilot is a 600 pound vertical take off and landing engine. speed is adjusted by a control and direction and turns are done by the pilot shifting balance (like a segway). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_X-Jet"
] | [
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|
why does thermodynamic data differ between sources so much? | through my years of taking chemistry, it has always irked me that thermodynamic data, such as enthalpy of formation, is different between sources. for example, the enthalpy of formation of bao(s) is -582 kj/mol in one textbook and -548.0 kj/mol in another. shouldn't data like this be standardized? | as these quantities are experimentally determined, it's going to vary on the source the data is from, but after some digging, bao's discrepancy has a neat history: * -556 kj/mol - l. brewer, chern revs. 52, 13 (1953). * -590 kj/mol - g. c fitzgibbon et al. j. chem. thermodynamics, 577 (1973). * -548 kj/mol - chase, malcolm w., et al. "janaf thermochemical tables, 1975 supplement." journal of physical and chemical reference data 4.1 (1975): 1-176. i can keep going, there's a couple dozen unique experimental results published in the literature and they all split between roughly -590 and -550 kj/mol, i ignored the reference handbooks which refer to these citations anyway. this is because experimenters will attain these values from different reactions, better or worse instruments and sometimes just plain old error. however, on top of that, there is indeed a serious problem with bao measurements, let's check out the literature! if you'll notice, chase (whose review is used by nist chemical handbook) is listed for 1975, here's what he said about the enthalpy of formation for bao in 1975: alright. basically, what chase is saying is that for some reason the method of combustion calorimetry is flawed, pushing the enthalpy of formation more negative than it should be. he notes the same problem happening for strontium oxide as well which is chemically similar to barium oxide. so essentially, the discrepancy in the literature you make note of is some systematic error common to some of the literature on the subject. the true formation enthalpy seems to be hovering towards the less negative value. if you're still curious, check out some of the literature and you'll see vigorous debate in the calorimetry community about best practices and biases found in different reactions. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the force of urinating in zero-g propel the urinator backwards (measurably)? | probably a foolish question, but i'm curious at the moment | yes, the change in velocity is a simple application of the [rocket equation](_url_0_). hardest part of figuring this out is estimating the, ahem, exhaust velocity. i figured that if when urinating and aiming horizontally you can make your stream hit the ground 1 metre in front of you, then we can calculate from that the velocity it leaves your body. the vertical distance is h = 1/2 * g * t^2 from which we can solve the time it takes for the urine to fall to the ground t = sqrt(2*h/g) putting in a crotch height of 0.8 m i get t=0.4 seconds. for the stream to move horizontally 1 metre in that time, it needs to leave the body at v = 1m/0.4s = 2.5 m/s the rest of the numbers in the rocket equation are fairly easy to estimate. a bursting bladder is about half a litre, so half a kilo of urine. let's say the person weighs 80 kilos. then we get a delta-v of dv = 2.5 m/s * ln( 80kg / 79.5kg) = 0.015 m/s so the velocity you get from emptying your bladder is 1.5 cm/s, or about a metre per minute. edit: i used the wrong logarithm, fixed. | 158 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_toilet"
] | [
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so in space, can we actually successfully procreate in low grav? | three different questions for you "askscience". can the way our astronauts live on the iss, successfully impregnate a female through traditional copulation given the low-gravity? secondly is it safe to give birth in space, given advanced preparation for necessary equipment/doctors? lastly - what sort of long term effects could we see in our future generations if they were all space born? thank you for reading. | as far as i remember - it has been tried with other animals. the results basically are: * you can impregnate in zero g * the fetus can't form correctly in zero g (probably needs gravity to orient itself or something) * if the fetus formed in normal gravity, it can be delivered in zero g (this is the part i'm not 100% sure i remember correctly) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which sense came first evolutionarily, and what is the order that the rest came in? | it is tough to say but the most evolutionarily conserved sense is that of mechanical sensation i.e. touch. a good example is that seen in e. coli, they have mechanosensation channels called mscl and mscs. whether it can really be called a sense i don't know. as to the other senses i would guess smell came next but after that i don't know. edit: for the first sensation experienced it is even more tricky but early evolution of the brain seems to favour olfactory processing from what i can find so smell is as good a guess as any. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2006/05/researchers-discover-how-bacteria-sense-their-environments"
] | [
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|
how does the concept of 'ground state' and 'excited state' work with s p and d subshells? | (i hope i chose the right flair for this) in chemistry you're taught about s, p, d subshells where electrons have a 95% probability of being in them. how does the concept of 'ground state' and 'excited state' work with this - where is ground state in this case? | see the [aufbau principle](_url_0_). as you add electrons, orbitals get filled from the lowest energy to the highest. 1s, then 2s, then 2p and so on following, and so on in an order that's usually predicted by the madelung rule. (see wiki page for more on that) for example, carbon has the ground-state electron configuration 1s^(2)2s^(2)2p^(2) , meaning it has two electrons in its 1s, 2s and 2p subshells (thus the first two are fully occupied as s-type shells can only have two electrons, p subshells can have 6). usually this is abbreviated by leaving out all the electrons up to the last noble gas configuration and putting that in brackets. i.e. carbon's electron configuration can be written [he]2s^(2)2p^(2) (helium being 2s^(2)), while silicon is [ne]3s^(2)3p^(2). excited states are when one (or more) electron has been moved to a subshell higher in energy than the lowest-unoccupied one. for instance, 1s^(2) is the ground state of helium, while 1s2s would be an excited state where one of the electrons has been promoted to the 2s orbital. (btw, an electron in an orbital has 100% chance of being in that orbital. it's just that the orbital itself extends over _all of space_. it's an infinitely large and diffuse 'cloud' of probability. to better visualize how the probabilities are distributed, one often plots the surface that encloses a certain amount of electron density. it doesn't matter so much which number you pick - 95% or whichever, the shape of the orbital is more or less the same, only the size changes as the percentage gets bigger - going to infinity as you go to 100%) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufbau_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_structure",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Electron_orbitals.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine_structure"
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what causes gyroscopic procession? | i understand how a force takes place 90 degrees along the plane of rotation in the direction of rotation, i just don't understand why it does it, and can't find anything online to help me understand it better, any help? | i'm not sure how clearly i can explain this without drawing a picture but i'll give it my best shot, feel free to ask for clarifications. -imagine you have a top, spinning counter-clockwise when looking down at the top. this means the angular momentum vector, **l**, is pointing up. -now imagine that spinning top is tipped slightly to the right. its center of mass is no longer directly over its base, so gravity is applying a torque to the system. force is down, moment arm to the right, so the torque, **t**, is pointing away from you. -angular momentum balance says that d**l**/dt = **t**. so lets recap. **l** is pointing up and slightly to the right. **t** is pointing away from you. so the change in **l** is in the direction away from you. that means the **l** vector has to start swinging away from you. since **t** has no vertical component, the angle of the tilt of **l** does not change, it just keeps precessing around. -geometry is simple here, so **l** is parallel to the axis of rotation. the fact that **l** precesses means the top itself precesses. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does lagrange points work? | [from the article](_url_1_), the concept is easy enough to understand, and lagrange point 1 (l1) demonstrates this well enough. but when we get to l2, l3 and even l4 and l5, i'm having a hard time grasping this. at l2 and l3, wouldn't the combined gravitational forces of the sun and the earth easily pull it closer to the center of the solar system, knocking it out of its desired location? also wanted to add [this article](_url_0_) by neil d. tyson (2002) with visions of future orbital stations. | lagrange points are special orbits where a third body (say, the james webb space telescope) will remain in a constant location in respect to the second body (in this case, the earth). they use the combined gravity of the earth and sun in order to obtain these orbits. to understand these, know that orbits come in "speed/distance" pairs (for a given mass that you are orbiting)- aka, you tell me how far away from the sun you want to be, and i can tell you how fast you have to be moving in order to stay in orbit (or vice versa, you tell me how fast you want to move, and i'll tell you where you have to be in order to move that fast). if all you use is the gravity from the sun, there is no escaping this reality. as a rule, the further away from the sun, the longer it will take you to complete an orbit. this is, of course, for a given sized sun. if the sun were smaller, the earth would orbit a little bit slower (and if it were a little larger, we'd orbit a little faster). however, lagrange points circumvent this by using the gravity of the earth and the sun in order to change how quickly something orbits. so, the l1 point is the one between the earth and the sun (normally this would mean something there would orbit the sun quicker than the earth). however, the earth's gravity counteracts the sun's a little bit, effectively making the pull of the sun's gravity a little bit less strong on that satellite, meaning it will orbit just a little bit slower than it would if the earth wasn't there. the l1 point is the specific point where the effect from the earth counter-balances it just enough so it slows down to match the speed of the earth. the l2 point is the exact opposite of this. it is on a line connecting the sun to the earth, but is a little bit further away from the sun than the earth. so in this case, you'd expect it to take a little bit longer to orbit the sun than the earth. but, the earth's gravity pulls on it, just a little bit, effectively increasing the gravity of the sun, speeding up the orbit just a little bit. again, this is the place it is perfectly balanced so that it orbits in the same time as the earth. you can analyze the other points just the same way, but they get a little more complicated. but they are all the same- they are at a location that would normally orbit in just a slightly different speed than the earth, but the earth's gravity adds either a little push or pull on the planet to either speed it up a little bit or slow it down a little. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/read/2002/04/01/the-five-points-of-lagrange/",
"http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Operations/SEMM17XJD1E_0.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_points"
] | [
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how did we find the viscosity of air? | in my fluids mechanics paper, we were taught how to find the viscosity of a fluid. this involved two, one stationary on the bottom, and one moving on top. the fluid is between the plates and by measuring the force applied, velocity etc we could caclulate viscosity. but i dont see how this would work for air at all. is there another way to find viscosity of a gas? | google and wikipedia the term "viscometer" and if you are interested in more, then look up "rheometer". basically the idea is the same regardless of whether the fluid is compressible (air) or not (water). a flow is applied and shear or drag is measured. the viscosity is then calculated from known theoretical relationships. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there such a thing as a true cone? or are they all considered "truncated" cones because it would have to have the tip of 1 of our smallest base units? | i'm not sure if a cone is a true thing or merely a theoretical object and i would like some clarification....thank you for any replies. | there is no such thing as a physical true cone just like there is no such thing as a physical true sphere. at the atomic level there are no smooth surfaces so these configurations are impossible to attain, depending on how strict you want to be. if you accept that one atom is an infinitesimally small tip at the end of a cone, then you can have a true cone. but then it's only because your premise is bs: an atom is *not* pointlike. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the sex of the parents matter in creating a liger or tigon? | a [tigon](_url_1_) is a cross between a male tiger and a female lion. a [liger](_url_0_) is a cross between a female tiger and a male lion. as you can see, these two animals look different. ligers are much bigger. why would switching the breed of the parents cause such differences? | great question! this is what i've been trying to address for my phd dissertation. short answer: it's probably something to do with genomic imprinting, but the x chromosome plays a big role in all species tested so far. long answer: there are actually many mammal hybrids that show growth patterns similar to ligers and tigons - where one hybrid is much bigger than the parents while the other is much smaller. we call this parent-of-origin dependent growth (or poe growth) because the size of the offspring depends on the which species is which parent. for a complete list of all the *known* species with poe growth, check out brekke and good (2014), specifically supplemental table 1. as for why many mammals show this pattern, it could be for a couple reasons. the most intuitive explanation is that an epigenetic process known as genomic imprinting is involved. genomic imprinting is a parent-of-origin dependent regulation of around 200 genes where one copy of the gene is silenced depending on which parent it was inherited from. for example a gene called *igf2* is only ever expressed from the fathers copy while another gene *igf2r* is only expressed from the mothers copy. hopefully you can begin to see how the direction of the cross (i.e. tiger female x lion male or lion female x tiger male) matters - the offspring will be using different versions of each imprinted gene depending on who the mother and father are. to further complicate the story (because that's how biology goes) imprinted genes generally play a major role in fetal development - so when something goes wrong with imprinted genes, the growth *in utero* and ultimately the adult size of the individual is messed up. in addition to all those complications here's another: genes where mammals tend to use the fathers copy often increase offspring growth while the genes where the maternal allele is used tend to repress offspring growth. thus normal mammal pregnancies can be thought of as a balance between the fathers alleles promoting larger offspring and the mothers alleles repressing offspring growth. so now that we have a background in imprinting: what exactly is "going wrong" to result in poe growth of mammal hybrids? the brekke and good (2014) paper explains this as well, but i'll summarize here. there are two things that may be going on. **(1) genomic imprinting is properly maintained in the hybrid**. this may be a problem because of the interaction of growth promoters and growth repressors. for example, back to *igf2* and *igf2r*: the fathers copy of *igf2* is used and acts as a growth promoter. it is known to interact with maternal allele of *igf2r* (the "r" stands for "receptor") which inactivates *igf2* and thereby represses growth. in a hybrid, say a lion x tiger (females always come first), the allele of *igf2* that is turned on is from the tiger, whereas the allele of *igf2r* is from a lion. these two alleles have not been tested together evolutionarily and may not play well together. perhaps the lions version of *igf2r* doesn't inactivate the tigers version of *igf2* - now the balance is off between growth promoters and growth repressors and the offspring may be quite large. alternatively **(2) genomic imprinting breaks down in the hybrid.** genomic imprinting, as i said is an epigenetic phenomena which we thing may be prone to disruption in hybrids. what do i mean by "breaks down" and "disrupted"? i mean that the silencing of one allele fails - so instead of only using the fathers copy of *igf2*, if the imprinting of *igf2* is disrupted then both the maternal and paternal copies will be turned on. if this happens at *igf2* and not *igf2r* then the balance between the two will be skewed (there will be too much *igf2* for *igf2r* to inactivate). a excess of growth promoter will lead to large offspring, and an excess of growth repressor will lead to small offspring. while no one has studied genomic imprinting in the hybrids of lions and tigers, imprinting seems to be involved in poe growth in the hybrids of deer mice and hamsters, and possibly house mice too. furthermore, in many of these hybrids genomic imprinting seems disrupted at some genes (i.e. option 2 above) but that doesn't rule out option 1. in addition, the x chromosome has been implicated as playing a major role in poe growth too (at this point you may be thinking -"wait a minute where did the *x chromosome* come from, what does *it* have to do with growth" - good. that's what we thought too). it turns out that not only is the x chromosome subject to imprinting (specifically in the placenta - which is what matters for offspring growth) but it has genes that are crucial to proper placenta function and thereby growth. it also houses genes that are critical for the proper maintenance of epigenetic marks - for example the ones that silence imprinted genes. it has been directly implicated as causing poe growth in deer mice and house mice and (though as yet unpublished) hamsters too. in the end it actually looks like an interaction between the x chromosome and the disruption of imprinting is the culprit, but there are certainly differences between all the species that have been studied. to answer your question: we have no idea what causes poe growth in ligers and tigons, but it probably has to do with genomic imprinting and the x chromosome. ~~~~~~~~~~~ [brekke, t. d., & good, j. m. (2014). parent-of-origin growth effects and the evolution of hybrid inviability in dwarf hamsters. evolution, 68(11), 3134–3148.](_url_1_) or [here](_url_0_) for one without a paywall | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liger",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigon"
] | [
"http://good-lab.dbs.umt.edu/Good_Lab/Publications_files/Brekke_Good_Evol_2014.pdf",
"http://doi.org/10.1111/evo.12500"
] | [
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why is bicep2 located at the south pole? | this is addressed in the experiment's [faq](_url_0_): > water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs microwaves, making detailed studies of the cmb impossible from most places on earth. the south pole is near the middle of the antarctic plateau, the driest environment on the planet. at an effective altitude of over 10,000 feet (~3000 meters), stable weather patterns and winter temperatures averaging -72f (-58c), the south pole is the closest a ground-based telescope can get to being in space. the patch of sky we study is visible from the south pole continuously, 24h each day for the whole year. the national science foundation’s us antarctic program, which operates the south pole station, provides excellent infrastructure, communications, and support for the small team needed to run our telescopes, including our winterover scientists steffen richter and robert schwarz. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://bicepkeck.org/faq.html"
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|
the near perfect roundness of celestial bodies... wassup with that? | why are planets, moons and stars round in shape? i know many including earth are slightly elliptical, but every one i've seen images of (including exoplanets) are pretty damn round. this has been bugging me lately... thanks! | short answer: gravity. if you have a clump of matter, gravitational potential energy is minimized when the clump is spherical. thus, if an object is fluid enough or massive enough, and doesn't have any other significant forces such as rotation, it will be spherical. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what kind of optical illusion is this? | i've made an [animation of the illusion](_url_0_). if you stare at the red dot, you should see pink and green lines appear around it when the yellow lines are the most compressed. i noticed this while walking down a flight of concrete stairs with safety lines on them, so the effect isn't some strange aliasing phenomenon limited to computer screens. it seems the effect is strongest with yellow/dark grey bars, but if i use other colours i can get blue and yellow lines appearing. i'd really like to know what causes the effect. | the illusion is caused by retinal fatigue, also known as color fatigue. the slight shift of your focus is causing an after image in the complementary color of the object. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/hfHPt.gif"
] | [] | [
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why is favism (g6pdd) more likely to occur in populations that have historically consumed fava beans? | i read about fava beans and see they've historically been a staple\-food for mediterranean and north african peoples, and then i read about favism and see that mediterranean and north african peoples are more genetically predisposed to g6pdd. and i wonder...why? | very basically, g6pd deficiency causes increased susceptibility of erythrocytes (red blood cells) to reactive oxygen species. why might evolution favor a disease that could weaken rbcs? malaria. much like sickle cell, this recessive disease as a single "dose" in your genes is thought to provide a protective effect against malaria by simply having rbcs die from the stress of malaria. susceptible individuals eating fava beans or taking drugs like dapsone or primaquine can induce stress on their rbcs and end up giving themselves hemolytic anemia (killing lots of rbcs). this is why you get a blood test before heading to a malaria endemic area, your travel docs don't want you possibly testing primaquine and winding up dead. [glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and malaria: cytochemical detection of heterozygous g6pd deficiency in women](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2762880/"
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are there any phenomena that occur on a human scale that don't on a huge (e.g. galactic) scale? | we know that some things happen on a micro scale that can't be reproduced on a macro scale, like quantum teleportation, and i wanted to know if this problem scales up, or even down from the other side. or perhaps i'm wrong on a more basic level, and all microscopic phenomena can be reproduced on a macroscopic level, but we don't have the technology for it? | here's an example that somewhat fits the bill: human-scale objects have their shapes determined basically by electromagnetic forces, while astronomical objects the size of a planet or larger have their shapes determined by gravitation. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the difference between the siliceous spicules of demospongiae and hexactinelida? | from what i've gathered from paleontology class, the differences are mostly geometric. hexactinellidan spicules have 6 rays at ninety degree angles (with the exception of some very early fossil species which had 4 co-planar arms, but still at 90 degrees), while demospongian spicules have from 1 - 4 rays which are not at ninety degree from one another. demospongian spicules also have an axial canal of triangular cross-section, while hexactinellid megascleres have hollow canals in their center that are square in cross section. perhaps a biologist might also contribute some insights as to whether there are functionnal differences as well. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[chemistry] why is the transition state so unstable? | for an exothermic reaction we are forming product that is more stable so the transition state bring i'm between the two should be more stable than the reactants right? say a reaction ab+c- > bc+a the transition state would be a- -b- -c so a and c are partially bonded to b with a leaving b and c joining b. so isn't this state more viable? | i'm very much oversimplfying this, so i'd love it if someone more into chemical theory weighed in, but here it goes. it takes energy both to form bonds, and to break them. even if at the end, you are at a more stable state, you still need to arrange the molecules in the correct orientation (relative to the other molecules in the reaction) in order to form a bond. this requires energy. it obviously takes energy to break a bond, and separate two particles, so breaking bonds takes energy. in the example reaction you've given, it is at a "halfway" point (though, depending on if the reaction is endo/exothermic, the transition state will more resemble either the products or the reactants - i've forgotten the name of this effect) where the a-b bond is breaking, and the b-c bond is forming. this means that you've invested some energy to break the a-b bond, and also invested energy to orient b and c in the correct orientation to begin the formation of that bond. electrons, whether shared or donated, will have to break off from a, and form bonds with c, which takes energy. thus we haven't quite fully broken the bond, and haven't quite formed the other bond, which is an extremely unstable state in which bonds are "half" formed. the point at which these forming and breaking bonds reach their most unstable state, is defined as the transition state. it's almost semantics - we've defined the transition state as the highest energy state in the reaction (delta -g dagger), so that's "why" it's the highest energy state - because we said that it is. that being said, the above explanation (roughly) explains why there exists a higher energy state between reactants and products in exothermic and endothermic reactions. hope this helps! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it safer to try and catch someone or let them fall? | i was thinking on this because of the recent ask reddit where others were describing how they broke their backs and what not. if someone were to fall from say, a tree or a bleacher, would it be safe to try and catch them? or would it be better to let them fall and help after? | for the person falling, having someone attempt a catch is safer because the fall is broken. for the person considering a catch, it is safer to not follow through. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question from my 4 year old sister, do other animals also get "boogers"? | i was telling my sister that she shouldn't pick her nose in public, and somehow she asked me if our dog also couldn't. i told her that animals don't get them. she asked why and i had no idea, in fact i didn't even know if me saying that they don't get them was accurate. it's my understanding that "boogies" are dried muccus. when something irritates the lining of your nose, like dust, or powder, that muccus stops it. so, does the differing nasal cavity shape on other animals stop them from getting them? do other animals lack that same muccus? | hey! so lotsa' animals actually *do* get boogers! indeed, pretty much *everything* that has lungs and nostrils does - turns out having a mechanism to clear out all the gunk that finds it's way down your respiratory tract is a pretty good idea, and snot is the result. most animals use a short, sharp blow through their nostrils to clear it out. any tricky leftover bits can be removed by a cheeky lick n' [probe with the tongue](_url_1_). we and the rest of the primates are lucky in that we can remove stuff with our hands, and sometimes [taste what's found](_url_2_). some primates, such as chimpanzees and capuchin monkeys, have been documented using tools to clear their noses ([source](_url_0_)). heck, bonobo mothers have even been known to *suck* the snot outta' the noses of their infants. yum! as for your dog, why do you think it licks it's nose so much? | 41 | [] | [] | [
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-015-0470-6?wt_mc=alerts.TOCjournals",
"https://news.nationalgeographic.com/content/dam/news/2015/08/21/waqnose/01waqnose.adapt.1190.1.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKNaJIA4Ycg"
] | [
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what caused the environmental changes and subsequent dust bowl in the us during the 1930s? | the deep plowing with new mechanized farming methods along with the removal of grasses that anchored soil and moisture led to dirt turning to dust. along with the cultivation of arid climates and the drought conditions that persisted through the 1930's it made the land nearly unusable. drought naturally occur intermittently, but the conditions were really extrapolated by the harsh farming methods. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i need an environmental scientist's help making my show accurate! | i am directing a play that takes place in a post apocalyptic setting, specifically in the mountain ranges of the pacific northwest. in the play, trees are dying and falling daily from the extreme heat and lack of rain fall. further, it's stated in the play that going out in the sun for extended periods of time will cause burns severe enough for death. what would need to have happened to the environment to cause such a drastic shift in climate? how long would this process take? please help me use science to lend more reality to my art! thank you! | if you're directing the play, hasn't it already been written and this part all sorted out? unless you're only writing the play, in which case your question is valid. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could the doppler effect "push" a blue object out of the range of visible light? what would that look like to a quickly moving observer? | i was reading explain xkcd's set of reader questions and had a thought about this one > how fast would you have to go in your car to run a red light claiming that it appeared green to you due to the doppler effect? if a red light could appear green because you were moving towards it quickly enough, could a blue light or object be rendered "invisible" because the doppler effect has pushed the light into ultraviolet wavelengths we can't see? as a follow-up, would those ultraviolet "rays" coming off of, say, a blue bumper sticker damage my skin? what would it look like to be going so fast that this kind of color distortion was noticeable? would certain blue objects be invisible? would they appear black? | sort of. whatever light that was shifted into the uv range would not be detectable by the human eye. but whatever other light that object was emitting in the lower energy ranges, like infrared, would be shifted into the visible range. so it's hard to say for sure what the object would look like, since its "color" would be governed by light that was previously un-seeable. yes, from your frame of reference these photons would behave exactly like uv photons. if you happened to be traveling extremely close to the speed of light, these photons could be blue-shifted all the way into the x-ray or gamma range. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do the shuai-jan really have stingers for tails, or was sun tzu merely commenting on a bluff snakes make against poorly sighted predators? | i've always wondered what he meant by "attacked by its tail." google has only returned speculation, and i haven't been able to confirm or deny the existence of shuai-jan. are there snakes with stingers? the passage: > the skillful tactician may be likened to the shuai-jan. now the shuai-jan is a snake that is found in the ch'ang mountains. > strike at its head, and you will be attacked by its tail; strike at its tail, and you will be attacked by its head; strike at its middle, and you will be attacked by head and tail both. | there are a number of snake species that have a hard spine on the tip of a short stout tail. when grabbed they will poke the spine into what grabs them. the example that i am personally familiar with is the mud snake (farancia abacura) of north america. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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