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is there a theoretical ceiling to the human ability to learn? | certainly. one of the major anthropological findings we see in human evolution is that, over time, the size of the cranial cavity increased vastly. it is therefore likely that future humans will be able to grasp even more complicated concepts than we could ever hope to. who's to say that any alien races we encounter wouldn't be vastly more evolved on a physiological/anatomical level than us, giving them greater mental abilities? | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are the seven schools of thought concerning psychology contradictory, or do they work in concert? | my friend claims that one cannot believe in all seven schools of thought (psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, humanist, sociocultural, biological, evolutionary) as some condradict one another, i disagree and believe that all seven work towards a greater understanding of the mind. who is right? | first and foremost, "psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, humanist, sociocultural, biological, evolutionary" are not "the" seven schools of thought. i'm in a graduate psychology program now, and i've never heard of this. but that isn't your primary question. it isn't that different theories or approaches to psychology are contradictory, generally speaking: it's that they all approach psychology in such different ways that they really aren't comparable. in theories of development and learning, there is a divide between the exogenous paradigm (perspective that development is generated within the organism), endogenous paradigm (perspective that development is generated by the environment acting upon the organism), and constructivist paradigm (the individual uses their environment to construct their knowledge). psychodynamic theory is exogenous, behavorism is endogenous, and cognitive developmental theory is constructivist. these theories are competing in the sense that one may arguably have more utility or explanatory power than another, but it isn't such that support for behaviorism makes psychodynamic theory "wrong." different schools of thought guide what hypotheses a researcher will generate - types of questions that people of other perspectives would never, ever ask because that isn't how they make their inquiries. for example, suppose that a bunch of psychologists are watching three people talk. a social psychologist will wonder about things like power dynamics, which could explain why one person is talking more than the others. a personality psychologist might wonder about how their levels of extraversion and agreeableness influence their talking style. a cognitive psychologist might wonder about how people process multiple conversations at the same time. no inquiry is right or wrong: they're fundamentally not comparable. some perspectives do clash with each other, and different theoretical explanations for the same thing can contradict each other (e.g., children are socialized into gender roles vs. children are evolutionarily programmed for gender roles). but this is not a given within psychology simply because there are different approaches to it. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are penile piercings associated with a higher incidence of utis or other urological issues? | i'm thinking of piercings that go through the urethra specifically, but hey, other thoughts are welcome as well. | there are probably several different ways a penile piercing could increase utis, now i will only be dealing with those that go through the urethra is some way. assuming that the recipient of the piercing doesn't clean the area properly, they have created a tunnel in their penis that connects the outside world to the inside. this would create an easier passage of organisms in to the urethra, this includes chlamydia, and gonorrhea, both of which cause urethritis. however, if you were to have unprotected sex with someone with one of these stis, then you'd probably be infected anyway. this channel that is created also would act as a breeding ground, it will be fibrous tissue surrounding it, which would be free of cells used as defense, which the urethra would have. this means an infection has a 'seeding point' and can then overcome the normal barriers which stop normal infections getting up and into the prostate/bladder. as a facet to this, the urethra constantly secretes a slight amount of mucus to lubricate itself, a piercing could act as a barricade to stop this getting out, creating an environment that bacteria could proliferate in. this may also stop the last drops of urine getting out, and act in a similar manner. this is all however scientific guess work, and i assume incidence would be higher because of this, though i do not think it has been proved. it is to be of note that piercings do carry the bacteria staph aureus, and though this is unusual to have as an uti, it is a very serious one. on another note, a gynecologist i knew, told me that he was called out to a patient in ed once who was profusely bleeding from her vagina. her boyfriend had a piercing, and whilst having sex it caught the inner wall of her vagina and ripped it open. nasty | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574130",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23512508",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15370675",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20412425",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1744390/"
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milankovitch cycles, how does eccentricity change? | the earths orbital eccentricity changes from circular to elliptical back to circular in a cycle and this has interesting effects on the planet. can someone please explain or link the mechanism causing this? physics equations / mathematical calculation of the cycle time gets you 1 free cookie! | first off, although the earth’s orbit is close to circular it is very slightly elliptical even at its most circular parts of the cycle. all planetary bodies have elliptical orbits to some degree or another, perfect circular orbits don’t exist because a planet will always have some initial starting velocity. the variations in earth’s orbit which are collectively termed malinkovich cycles are due to all the different bodies of the solar system perturbing a simple orbit of constant eccentricity. the hypothetical motion that a body follows under the gravitational effect of one other body only is typically a conic section, and can be readily described with geometry. this is called a two-body problem, or an unperturbed keplerian orbit. the differences between that and the actual motion of the body are perturbations due to the additional gravitational effects of the remaining body or bodies. if there is only one other significant body then the perturbed motion is a three-body problem; if there are multiple other bodies it is an n-body problem. a general analytical solution (a mathematical expression to predict the positions and motions at any future time) exists for the two-body problem; when more than two bodies are considered, analytic solutions exist only for special cases. even the two-body problem becomes insoluble if one of the bodies is irregular in shape. i’m not sure that there is just a single equation to decsribe eccentricity in earth’s orbit, the solar system has too many bodies. the wikipedia page on the [n-body problem](_url_0_) has plenty of equations for you if that’s your thing, and a couple of paragraphs on the planetary problem. with regard to earth’s orbit, eccentricity is just one component of the milankovitch cycles, which also describe variations in obliquity (the change in tilt relative to the earth’s axis) and axial precession (rotation around the earth’s axis). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-body_problem"
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] |
i have a question about the radiative properties of co2 and wonder if anyone on reddit can help me with the answer? | it's not really one single question, but a general discussion type of situation. i know that co2 absorbes and re-emits radiation in a couple of ir bands. an increase in co2 in the atmosphere will increase the "scatter effect" that will slightly delay this radiation from leaving the earth's environment by bouncing the radiation around in the air, and returning some of it back to the earth to reheat some of the ground. as i understand it, a photon of ir energy can strike a molecule of co2, raising it's energy level. at some point, the molecule will re-release that photon in some random direction, returning the molecule to it's former energy state. also, i understand that water vapor will do the same thing in ir, with slightly different frequency ranges, some of them overlapping. my question is, is receiving a photon the only way to change the energy state in the co2 molecule to cause it to radiate the ir energy? can't you heat the molecule through contact with other molecules (convection) and also cause the co2 to radiate ir in a random direction? as it's been described to me, the concentration of co2 at near ground level is so high that the ir from the ground is totally obscured by being trapped and redirected by co2 and none escapes. the term "totally opaque" is used. i have also seen diagrams that describe only part of the ir being trapped. does co2 completely inhibit certain bands of radiation from leaving the lower troposphere? next question, radiation happens at a certain frequency because of temperature. a 100 c thing radiates at a one frequency, while a 200 c thing radiates at a different frequency. this is why we can tell the temperature of a fire by looking at the color of the flames. if we are not seeing radiation at a specific frequency, could it be because the co2 absorbes ir at that frequency, then cools by convection by bumping into a nitrogen molecule or something, only to eventually heat a water vapor molecule by convection and have it radiate at a different frequency of ir? | you don't "have a question" - you are just showing that you have never taken the time to research the problem and you tend to expect a simple explanation - sorry, there is no such 'simple answer' :( you can however try to take a look at: _url_1_ and if you are interested in how satellite-based temperature measurements are done _url_2_ _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/of-satellites-and-temperatures.html",
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/Second-law-of-thermodynamics-greenhouse-theory-intermediate.htm",
"http://www.skepticalscience.com/Primer-Tropospheric-temperature-measurement-Satellite.html"
] | [
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[physics, quantum optics] help needed understanding electromagnetically-induced transparency (eit) | i'm doing reading for an undergrad research project on electromagnetically-induced transparency, and i keep coming across the term 'resonant' in regard to light (a laser) causing a change in quantum state. [this](_url_0_) is a paper i am required to read and understand, among others, which uses the term. also could anyone help elucidate how atoms are 'trapped' in a higher energy state and why this leads to lack of absorption of the probe laser? i'd be really grateful for any help, thanks. | "resonant" means that the energy carried by the photons in a laser beam matches an atomic transition. in figure 2(a) for example, the incoming field \omega_c is resonant to the 2-3 transition, because the arrow meets the line. if it ended up below or above that line, we would call that "off-resonant" driving ("blue-shifted" or "red-shifted", depending on whether the photons have more or less energy than the transition). population trapping means that in the three-level scheme they show in figure 2(a) or 3(a), the electrons are trapped in the lower lying levels 1 and 2, despite being excited to level 3 with two slightly off-resonant pump fields. the trick is to tune the intensity and phase of the two driving fields such that they cancel each other out. now, one field is the probe field, one field is the coupling field. the probe field is chosen such that it measures an absorption spectrum, i.e. in the absence of the coupling field, it would simply measure the spectral width of absorption of the transition it is tuned close to. once you add the coupling field (and only if you choose your atom correctly), the transition probed by the probe field couples to a third level, which, as described above, forbids any transition into the higher energy level at a certain frequency. this creates the transparency window detected by the probe field. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.stanford.edu/group/harrisgroup/PAPERS/review.pdf"
] | [] | [
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do you have energy losses when maintaining a current? | update: i forgot to specify that this is ***without resistance*** - so i'm asking if there are sources of energy loss in a wire carrying a current other than resistance. i was reading [this old thread] (_url_0_) on the energy usage of maglev trains, and [someone asserted that] (_url_0_d2r3bik/) > all you need is the currents. you don't actually want to "spend" that energy on anything. sure, you have energy losses but those can be made small via careful engineering. you have to generate the currents but once you have them you only suffer the losses from resistance. (it was a response to [this] (_url_0_d2r31bx/)) don't you need to have a constant input of energy to maintain the potential difference? is this person saying that you can collect this energy somehow when you stop the current? additionally, is this concept of no energy loss apart from resistance applicable if you are constantly changing the potential diffference? | in a loop of superconductor, an induced current will circle the loop indefinitely, with zero loss, as long as the conditions required to maintain the superconductivity are present. no energy input or potential difference is required to maintain the motion. here's a roughly analogous situation: on rough ground you need to push continuously to maintain motion, but in space you just need to push once and you'll get a continuous motion. in the same way, in a circuit with resistance you need a continuous voltage to support a current, but in a superconductor you just need a temporary voltage to start the current moving. yes, you can collect the current once you're done with it, but that process will likely involve some loss. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4hn7c2/how_can_a_maglev_train_be_energy_efficient/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4hn7c2/how_can_a_maglev_train_be_energy_efficient/d2r3bik/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4hn7c2/how_can_a_maglev_train_be_energy_efficient/d2r31bx/"
] | [] | [
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] |
why a dome shape for observatory? | what is advantageous about a dome shaped observatory? why not just four walls? | well, you want to be able to point the telescope wherever you like, and keep it rotating to counteract the earth's rotation. you also want to protect the telescope, the observer, and observation tools from the elements. the simplest way to reconcile these conflicting requirements is a dome-shaped housing rotating on a circular rail, with a narrow slit from which the telescope pokes out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is half-dome half of a dome? was it ever a full dome? | question aimed at geologists out there! | not a geologist, but i grew up near yosemite and learned all about half dome's formation. [half dome](_url_4_) is a granite dome, aka a "bornhardt," and is a specific body (aka "pluton" or "monolith") of the sierra nevada batholith. a batholith is a gigantic igneous intrustion, and this particular batholith forms the core of the sierra nevada mountain range as a whole. in simpler terms, a large mass of magma was pushed up into the crust (topmost rock layer forming the earth's surface), but cooled before reaching the surface. it crystallized (cooled/hardened) into granite, creating a huge mass of very hard rock. as time went on, the surrounding rock eroded away, leaving behind the harder granite. sometimes, this rock forms in convex "sheets" (concentric, like layers of an onion), and as these sheets fracture off, the rock forms a dome. this same process created the smaller monolith, [north dome](_url_3_), elsewhere in the yosemite valley. (notably, igneous intrustions can form different structures such as the butte named [devil's tower](_url_1_)). so yes, half dome was once a full dome, and if the names so far are an indication, we might have called it south dome. but no human would have been able to see it, because around a 1.3 - 1 million years ago, the sherwin glacier moved in. the existing yosemite valley and several surrounding river valleys (notably tenaya canyon, where half dome is located) became host to a massive amount of year-round snow buildup, until the weight compacted into a gigantic body of ice called a glacier. the glacier slowly advanced downhill, [eroding away the surrounding rock and forming a u-shaped valley](_url_2_). (take a look at [el capitan](_url_0_), another major monolith of the yosemite valley that was similarly scoured by the glacier.) half dome has such a strikingly flat face because of an existing vertical "joint" in the rock (a weakness in the rock's formation, similar to the "sheets" discussed earlier), along which it fractured. the other half of the dome was carried away, broken apart by erosion, and became "moraine" deposited elsewhere in the valley. less relevant to your question, but still interesting: the final feature of yosemite left unaccounted for is the flattening of the valley floor, which the glacier had left in a curved u-shape. as the last of a number of these glacial events ended and the final glacier receded, a massive lake formed in the yosemite valley from all the meltwater. (it was creatively called "lake yosemite", and should not to be confused with the even-more-poorly-named manmade "lake yosemite" about 80 miles downriver and well outside the yosemite valley.) the lake eventually filled with sediment, resulting in the flat valley floor we have today and concluding our explanation for why yosemite has such a strikingly rectangular valley as opposed to the expected u-shape. tl:dr; magma cooled underground into granite. erosion exposed the granite. erosion wore the granite along natural weaknesses into a dome shape. a glacier cut the dome in half along a different type of natural weakness. the glacier carried away the other half. now the glacier is gone, and we just see half a dome jutting up sharply from a suspiciously flat valley. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/01/3a/5a/77/el-capitan-the-largest.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Devils_Tower_CROP.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Glacier_Valley_formation-_Formaci%C3%B3n_Valle_glaciar.gif/220px-Glacier_Valley_formation-_Formaci%C3%B3n_Valle_glaciar.gif",
"http://www.thecaliforniahikingpage.com/yosemite/northdome/north_dome.jpg",
"https://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/02/26/45/44/les-cables.jpg"
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i just finished 6 hours worth of law school exams today. what is going on in my body to make my brain feel "drained" and my body feel tired despite sitting in a chair the whole time? | i'm curious what it is about focusing/thinking really hard for long periods of time that causes "brain drain." also -- are there any tricks to recover quicker? | i found two papers with research regarding metal fatigue i thought might be interesting to share. ***first*** a study on [mental fatigue caused by prolonged cognitive load associated with sympathetic hyperactivity](_url_0_) the highlights from the paper (i.e. tl;dr) are provided in the abstract: but for an even tl;drer version: strenuous mental activity jacks up your [sympathetic nervous system](_url_3_) "fight-or-flight" and decreases your [parasympathetic nervous system](_url_1_) "rest-and-digest". essentially prolonged metal alertness stimulates similar physical response as fear resulting in a physical fatigue over time comparable to that experienced after an acute adrenaline response. relationship between autonomic function and mental fatigue caused by a prolonged mental load in healthy humans is still unclear**. thus, in order to clarify the mechanisms underlying mental fatigue, we examined the association between mental fatigue and autonomic functions. (hf) and low-frequency component power/high-frequency component power ratio (lf/hf ratio) were not changed from baseline. **in contrast, after the fatigue session, the hf and lf/hf ratio were significantly changed from baseline; specifically, the hf was lower and lf/hf ratio was higher as compared to those after the relaxation session**. fatigue induced by prolonged cognitive load. i'm going to include the introduction to this paper in a reply to this post in an attempt to make this post easier to read. ***second*** this is the [abstract](_url_2_) from a second paper regarding metal fatigue (my university doesn't subscribe to this particular journal so i unfortunately can only provide the abstract). i have added the *italic* text to assist in ease of reading, but have not altered content. **bolded** text is to highlight key points relevant to the question. > proton accumulation may be a common cause of fatigue in most forms of exercise and may be an important factor in fatigue in those persons who are chronically physically inactive and also in the elderly: thus, the aerobic capacity markedly decreases under these conditions, so that atp must be synthesized by the much less efficient anaerobic system. a marked increase in the plasma fatty acid level, which may occur when liver glycogen store is depleted and when hypoglycaemia results, or during intermittent exercise when the rate of fatty acid oxidation may not match the mobilisation of fatty acids, could be involved indirectly in fatigue. **this is because such an increase in the plasma level of fatty acids raises the free plasma concentration of tryptophan, which can increase the entry of tryptophan into the brain, which will increase the brain level of 5-hydroxytryptamine:** there is evidence that the latter may be involved in central fatigue. in this case, provision of branched-chain amino acids in order to maintain the resting plasma concentration ratio of free tryptophan/branched-chain amino acids should delay fatigue–there is prima facie evidence in support of this hypothesis. this hypothesis may have considerable clinical importance. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1744-9081-7-17.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system",
"http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/3/477.abstract",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system"
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what is the smallest particle that humans are able to tag and track individually? | e.g. an electron | check out [this video](_url_0_). it shows individual carbon atoms rearranging themselves at the periphery of a hole in a graphene sheet. that is about as small as we can directly observe though... remember that atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons, and each of those is many many orders of magnitude smaller than the atom itself, which makes them quiiiite hard to 'see'. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1qWmrp6GAs"
] | [
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how is energy conserved in cyclotron motion? | so in class, we continued learning about magnetism, and how if a charged particle is placed into a uniform magnetic field, and pushed to give it velocity, it would just keep turning in a circle. ok, (mv^(2))/r=qvb. i understand that. well, my professor went on to tell us that these spinning particles can release em radiation, which is used to spot black holes. he said that basically when these charged particles get caught in a black hole's gravity well, they start spinning so fast in a spiral downward that it emits radiation in the form of x-rays, which our x-ray satellites can detect. cool! but, i have one issue: he said that these particles in a uniform magnetic field will always be moving in a circle because the force is determined by v (cross) b, which will act as a centripetal force. well, if these spinning particles emit light when they spin, light has energy! and we use this energy here (solar panels, metabolism, etc.)! but there's no such thing as perpetual energy because energy can't just be created out of nowhere. so where is the energy coming from? or is the particle not going to literally move in a circle forever, and as the velocity diminishes, the force will diminish? but how does that happen if we are, say in a vacuum? is it that the kinetic energy of the spinning particle is being converted to light energy, meaning it is slowing down over time? is there something i'm just not getting? | the short answer is that energy is *not* conserved in cyclotron motion, and to make a long-lived cyclotron source, additional energy needs to be put into the system to offset the energy lost to cyclotron radiation. if i understand you correctly, you're asking where the energy to power stuff like x-ray emission from black holes comes from. the answer is that energy can come from a lot of sources. matter falling into a black hole, for instance, powers its x-ray emission by converting gravitational potential energy into radiation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does it take more electricity store a '~' character in memory than a '@' character? | due to the nature of the ascii representation for the two characters, would it be correct to say that it requires, however miniscule, a difference in the amount of electricity used to represent one character versus the other due to the greater number of bits that need to be "on" to represent a '~' as opposed to a '@'? | i think it will depend on a) how the memory is stored, and b) the processor instruction set. for example, if you're storing things in ram, then you're looking at the amount of energy to turn (# of bits) transistors on or off. if it's magnetic memory, then it'll be the amount of energy necessary to magnetize or demagnetize a particular spot on the disk (assuming that these bits are stored in the same spot, etc.,). so we first need to know if changing a bit from 0 to 1 requires the same amount of energy as changing a bit from 1 to 0. secondly, we need to know how the processor handles things. if you tell the microprocessor to store a byte, it may go off and write all 8 bits immediately. on the other hand, it might check the memory location first to see what's there - and then only toggle the bits that it needs to. edit: there are various ways to build ram. some may involve more transistors, etc. ignoring the energy it would take to address each location, the simplest dram has a single transistor and capacitor for each bit of memory. in that case, turning the bit off would just involve not powering the transistor when it needs to be refreshed - so that would make turning the bit off easier. sram would be need to be toggled. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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why do dispersion affects differents colours in different ways? | i'm aware that the speed of light on media (and it's refractive index) depends on wavelength, but i can't find any source on why that happens. shouldn't change in wavelength be compensated by the frequency changing, in a way to keep the speed of light constant (in a same medium)? | frequency cannot change at an interface, that would mean you have a discontinuity in energy flow. see for example an animation like this: _url_1_ if frequency changed at an interface then the black lines, representing a maximum of the electric field and thus a maximum in the energy of the wave, would be discontinuous implying energy "jump somewhere else in space". if the material does absorb energy from the way that would be reflected as a reduction in amplitude (i.e the height of the maximum) not a discontinuity. beyond that are you asking why materials don't have the same dispersion as a vacuum? the dirty secret truth is that light doesn't propagate through a medium at all. rather, when an oscillating electromagnetic field is applied at the boundary of a material (i.e. light impinges on it) this induces an electrical excitation in the material which carries the energy of the light but is a composite object that depends on the material properties of how a given material polarizes in the face of an applied field. a cartoony animation like this maybe helps: _url_0_ the thing that is moving in the thick black line isn"t an oscillating electric field, rather it is a new object that is the combined effect of an electric field and the material dependent polarization of the atoms in the material. now, there are conservation laws for what must happen at such an interface so the new object does inherit some aspects of the original light, but for example although it may have the same momentum it need not have the same direction (refraction) or speed as it ripples its way through the material. what electrical polarization ripple a material accepts is a material dependent property. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-6443253e033527ab9abeebb98a6bf616",
"https://www.rp-photonics.com/img/refraction_animated.gif"
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why and how is borax a danger to fertility and the unborn child? | since 2010 the eu has categorised borax as "high risk" for the unborn child (and fertility- although i am unsure if this is a separate issue). wikipedia states that in 2015 there were plans to only allow import to the eu with a special license for this reason. i tried reading a document about this but didn't understand it at all, can anyone help please? _url_1_ _url_0_ | it really probably doesn't. the lowest observable adverse effect level in rats is about 10x higher than that measured in cases of chronic occupation exposure, which was considered the "worst case" chronic exposure scenario. those same populations also had biomarkers of fertility measured and no reproductive toxicity was observed. further, epidemiologically studies of similarly exposed groups did not indicate any detriment to reproductive health. i have no idea what the eu is basing that classification off of beside speculation that is contradicted by multiple lines of experimental evidence. | 6 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borax",
"https://web.archive.org/web/20110725113454/http://echa.europa.eu/doc/candidate_list/svhc_supdoc_disodium_tetraborate_anhydrous_publication.pdf"
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coagulopathies - cause of superficial vs deep bleeding? | i'm posting on here since i couldn't find any explanation on the net or in my books, hoping maybe someone here has a logical explanation! why do defects in platelets predominantly manifest as superficial bleeding (petechiae, purpura, or ecchymoses), while coagulation factor defects e.g. hemophilia mainly manifest as deep bleeding in the joints / internal organs? is there any scientific explanation to this preponderance or is it just a take it or leave it phenomenon? tia ! | coagulation is a complex cascade of reactions that eventually results in the formation of a mix of activated platelets and a fibrin mesh. in all of this, it's important to remember that our bodies are in a constant flux of bleeding and clotting, balanced carefully by regulatory and counter regulatory signals. there are two pathways that initialize clotting - the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. generally speaking, the intrinsic pathway is a response to endothelial damage and collagen exposure while the extrinsic pathway is a response to tissue factor. platelets can become activated by direct contact with exposed collagen or by stimulation of tissue factor. once activated, the platelets enter a positive feedback loop and recruit more platelets by releasing certain activating factors such as von willebrand factor(vwf), platelet activating factor (paf), thromboxane, and platelet factor 4. this initial action of platelets provides *primary hemostasis* and allows the body time to form a proper clot. the reason platelet deficiencies cause petechiae etc is because your blood pressure normally causes capillaries to leak, and platelets provide the primary response to this continual effect. you can still have major internal bleeding with thrombocytopenia or dysfunctional platelet activity because you've lost your primary method of quickly stopping bleeds. factor deficiencies play a role in the secondary response to bleeding: the coagulation cascade. the two pathways are dependent on the proper functioning of a sequential set of reactions to eventually form a fibrin mesh. isolated factor deficiencies, such as in hemophilia, usually result in a decreased efficiency of the cascade, since there is often some degree of redundancy and cross reactivity of the factors. hemophilia a, for example is a deficiency in factor vii, which has the role of activating factor ix and x. however, factor x is also activated by factor xi. factor ix acts with factor viii to activate factor x as well. the interplay is quite complex but also very well described and studied. functional platelets will allow your body to plug a bleed temporarily but an inability to form a clot can lead to internal bleeding. generally the small vessel bleeds that result in petechiae can be handled by just the platelet plugs. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are we past peak fish/seafood? | with reports of dwindling fish stocks, especially cod in my native quebec. my question is, are we past peak seafood? are we really going to run out of seafood and fish in the coming decades? | fish are renewable resource so long as we don't take more then they be can replenish - in the same way trees are renewable resource so long as we plant new ones once we chop the old ones down. currently for many fish stocks we are harvesting and consuming them at unsustainable rates - which means we potentially and likely will run out of certain fish species. (example: [blue fin tuna](_url_6_) which are [endangered](_url_12_) ([even though internationally they wont classify them as such](_url_1_) despite [substantial research that shows that they are](_url_16_)). they are projected to become extinct within the next year due to overfishing. we aren't letting enough fish live in order for certain species to reproduce. (i.e. we are cutting down trees without planting new ones) the problem with fish is that the older a fish gets the more fecund it is (the more offspring it produces) but we also like to consume these fish because they are the big meaty ones. we are essentially consuming the part of the life cycle that is most important to insure the continued reproduction of a fish species. if we catch all the old fish, then what tends to happen are there are not enough baby fish being born. the funny thing is with some fish species need a certain population density to breed. meaning, they need some amount of breeding adults to produce enough eggs and sperm so that the densities are high enough that they actually get fertilized. if we mess up stocks enough, they never recover, because they are below the threshold of recovery...case in point our [atlantic cod](_url_18_) (i am canadian too and it is sad that this stock is likely never to recover) [we are really messing up the oceans.](_url_0_). no amount of new technology will allow us to extract more from the already over exploited populations. in many ways we have hit our peak extraction rate - basically we are maxing out on what we can take out of the oceans. our technology allows us to eliminate entire populations of a fish species in a matter of days or months. moreover, reducing fish population levels actually changes the structure of the food web - species like lobster, crab and jelly fish are increasing in numbers filling in the gaps left behind by reduced fish stocks. this is a double hit 1. it makes it harder for fish stocks to recover because the niches have been filled by other species. and 2. it makes it seem like its boom time for the lobster and crabbing industries... when really we should be extra cautious about not overexploiting them in the same way. although to be fair, the lobster and crab industry are well regulated, trapping techniques are not as exploitative as other fishing techniques and the nature of lobster traps allows for large (more fecund) individuals to be excluded. meaning unlike fishing, you can target age-sex classes. [we are fishing down the food web and destroying it in the process](_url_15_). its not all doom and gloom though: of the stocks that are doing well its usually because they are too far out (meaning that the energy required to catch them - time to go out, time to pay fisherman, gas which all add up to $) is less then what you get when you sell them at market. to make up for this loss many governments subsidize the fishing industry, meaning they pay fisherman to go out an fish even if it costs more then its worth. sometimes stocks are doing well because they are being protected and regulated. but this is often not enough to ensure that the species is not overexploited the oceans are an interconnected ecosystem. its not like land, where there are more or less separate areas. what happens in one end of the atlantic effects the southern end, one side of the pacific the other. so that if stalks in general are declining the very fabric of the food web is weakening, if we reduce species to levels that are practically extinct for all intents and purposes this will negatively effect our "good" stocks. moreover, policies put into place to day to protect fish stocks are ineffective, and we are deluding ourselves if we think otherwise. laws and quotas that one country sets may not be the same laws and quotas that another sets - yet the fish migrate throughout both regions and are being hit twice as hard. some examples of regulatory processes include: 1. marine protected areas: are usually areas where they are of little value. [sometimes they are put in areas where fish breed and this protects fish breeding habitat, and allow for the trageted fish stocks to recover and even 'spill over' into unprotected areas.](_url_7_) but more often then not there is a very large list of other things that you can extract by various means from that place. the protection offered by an mpa is only effective if the list of things you can extract isn't too long (preferably none) and only if this is enforced by law. here is a list of global mpas, they represent under 5% of the total world ocean surface. moreover only a fraction of these are 100% no take zones, usually some sort of fishing or trapping can take place. this does not help the majority of fish species that are migratory. as soon as they leave these protected areas they are allowed to be caught. 2. max sustainable yeild (msy): fancy language for saying how much fish you should catch based on how big a stock is, how many fish are in each age-sex class (infant, juvenile, adult, old adult) and still make it sustainable. the biggest problem here is that there are hundreds of ways to calculate msy and few of them actually agree with each other and most do not take into account that other predators in the sea (sharks, other fish) need to eat too. moreover, calculating (estimating) how many fish are in each age-sex class correctly can be a nightmare - if you don't get the actually population numbers right how do you know how many you can fish?. different countries set different limits, there is little agreeance. we also tend to think extracting 50-80% of a prey species (like fish) is sustainable, when in nature predators never exceed 20% of their prey stock, and usually they sit around 5-10%. so we are acting like 'super predators' and this is not sustainable. msy and other calculations have proved questionable in the past, it is not a reliable way to fish sustainably. 3. nobody is policing the oceans. so if i wanted to go out and fish the crap out of an endangered species i would have (relatively) no problem doing so. a good case: [ban on whaling](_url_8_). bad case: illegal whaling still continues. how do we fix this problem? 1. stop trawling 2. stop using technology that takes fish at faster rates then they can reproduce 3. ban and enforce fishing moratoriums on endangered fish species like the blue fin tuna. enough is enough they are nearly gone already. 4. create and enforce larger mpa areas that are 100% no take zones. 5. [stop the bombing of coral reefs for the exotic aquaria pet trade](_url_4_)) 6. reverse global warming to reduce stresses on coral reefs from increased co2 (acidity) and temperatures. 7. stop large scale agricultural fertilizers from running off into the ocean and creating [dead zones](_url_14_) **sources** [wwf overfishing](_url_9_) [greenpeace overfishing](_url_10_) [canada gov on overfishing](_url_3_) [wiki overexploitation](_url_13_), [max sustainable yeild](_url_2_)... **movies** [end of the line](_url_5_) [sharkwater](_url_11_): warning graphic images of shark deaths. **books** [unnatural history of the sea](_url_17_) edit: you may also want to look up the meaning of 'commercially extinct (atlantic cod)' and 'extinct in the wild' - both are different things but both have serious implications for the oceans. | 56 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishing",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bluefin-tuna-stocks-threatened-cites-japan-monaco",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield",
"http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/international/isu-global-eng.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishing",
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/end-of-line-world-without-fish/",
"http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/smart_fishing/target_fisheries/tuna_2/index.cfm",
"http://www.geog.ubc.ca/biodiversity/MarineProtectedAreas.html",
"http://iwcoffice.org/",
"http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/",
"http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/overfishing/",
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/sharkwater/",
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/12/bluefin-tuna-extinction_n_924957.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overexploitation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web",
"http://www.ethicurean.com/2011/05/21/canada-bluefin-tuna/",
"http://www.amazon.ca/Unnatural-History-Sea-Callum-Roberts/dp/1597261025",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_cod"
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is a bell shape the best shape for a bell? | if not what's better? if so how did we discover the right shape? | like most other musical instruments, bells are shaped mostly to achieve two things: an expected musical note, and a pleasing sound. the shape of the bell, or rather the proportions of the bell, required to create a particular note is a fairly simple mathematical calculation. the general method seems to have been well understood since before 1000ad (according to starmer "bells and bell tones"). the latter goal - a pleasing tone or [timbre](_url_0_) - can also be worked out, but requires much more sophisticated mathematics and knowledge of materials. in practice, it appears (again, from starmer) that this has mostly been worked out by trial and error over many centuries of bell making rather than from theory. as for "best shape", that's not easy to answer. bells tend to be the "best shape" for something that sounds like a bell, just like a saxophone is the best shape for something that sounds like a saxophone. you might get a globally more pleasing tone out of a different shape, but it wouldn't really sound like a bell. does that make sense? | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre"
] | [
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what exactly is ferroelastic domain switching and how does it act as a toughening mechanism in certain ceramics? | example paper: _url_0_ | [ferroelasticity is a phenomenon in which a material may exhibit a spontaneous strain. when stress is applied to a ferroelastic material, a phase change will occur in the material from one phase to an equally stable phase, either of different crystal structure (e.g. cubic to tetragonal), or of different orientation (a 'twin' phase). this stress-induced phase change results in a spontaneous strain in the material.](_url_0_) a primer on toughness: "toughness" is actually kind of a weird thing (its units are mpa & radic;m, how weird is that?) but it's kind of a measure of how much plastic deformation a material can accommodate before it fractures. this is an oversimplification, but basically, low-yield-strength(to-uts-ratio) materials are often very tough, because a lot of work goes into deforming them before they snap, while high-yield-strength(to-uts-ratio) materials are often very brittle, because they can't accomodate any plastic deformation. so - ceramics are high-yield-strength(to-uts-ratio) materials. they have a very small fracture strain. that means they're brittle. they tend to shatter rather than stretch or tear. but some ceramics are less brittle than others. tetragonal zirconia is an example. remember that materials are brittle if they don't undergo plastic deformation (i.e. they break without changing shape permanently)? the reason ceramics can't undergo plastic deformation is that their bonds don't allow the formation and movement of dislocations (holes/extra atoms in the crystal lattice). that's the main mechanism for plastic deformation in metals under usual conditions. it turns out, though, that there are other ways to accommodate plastic deformation. this article is talking about stress-induced phase changes. it turns out that for some materials, if you subject them to enough stress, that will allow the material to "pop" into a new crystal structure. compared to the old crystal structure, the new crystal structure will always have atoms in different positions (or it would be the same). this causes a strain - a deformation - relative to the old shape of the material. these phase changes are only sort of plastic (in principle they're reversible, but they are "permanent", which is really what plastic means), but what they do is allow the materials that exhibit them to undergo plastic deformation - change shape permanently. as we noted above, the more plastic deformation you can accommodate before breaking, the less brittle you are - so if you can exhibit this ferroelasticity, you can accommodate more strain, and therefore you're less brittle. | 10 | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1986.tb07341.x/abstract"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelasticity"
] | [
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why do desert tortoises release all bodily fluids when they're nervous/scared when water is scarce in the desert? | it just seems like an illogical thing to do since they're just dehydrating themselves in an environment where water isn't as easily accessed. i went on a field trip to an animal research facility for a biology class and one of the caretakers were showing us a desert tortoise and explained that they release their fluids when nervous or scared (which it did a total of 4 times on the caretaker while she was holding it). | many animals defecate when scared as part of a predator defense mechanism. often this is especially bad smelling, sticky, forceful, or slippery. you see this is reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. it could easily be due to this, or as part of a relic behavior. a note on all the conversation about mutations on this page. mutations do not have to be beneficial to persist, they have to not be harmful. this is a really important point in evolution that's often phrased incorrectly. it's not really, " survival of the fittests," as it is, "*death of the least fit*." | 61 | [] | [] | [] | [
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have i read a brief history of time right? | i just finished reading a brief history of time and i might have read wrong or missed something, but it seemed stephen hawking was pretty convinced the expansion of the universe was going to slow down or even end in a big crunch. i thought it was widely accepted the the expansion was actually speeding up. have i read it wrong or has there been new information since the book was published? | a brief history of time was published in 1988, a good 10 ten years before the accelerating expansion of the universe was discovered. (by the late 80s/early 90s you could have guessed at the acceleration, but only a few people actually did - observations kind of suggested it might be true, but theoretical ideas suggested it would be completely crazy - which it is! prof. hawking, being a theorist, would probably have fallen into the camp of thinking there was no acceleration. hindsight is 20/20.) in 1988 there wasn't actually much observational evidence that the universe would collapse, but nor was it ruled out, either. if i remember a brief history correctly (i last read it just before starting my phd, so, about 4 years ago), he would have been supporting a closed universe - one that might end in a big crunch - because it was suggested by a model that he worked on. it wasn't a crazy assertion by any means, but sometimes the data come through and just take nearly everyone by surprise. | 42 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a difference in the blood given by someone who is totally relaxed and someone who is utterly terrified. | and would it make any significant biological difference to the person receiving it. | there are a slew of stress hormones that would probably be released by people who are terrified while giving blood. hormones would be released into the plasma. here is a study that looked at experimentally-induced psychological stress (_url_0_). they found increases in norepinephrine (ne), epinephrine (epi), adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth), and cortisol (cort). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11070337"
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] |
why do welders who weld galvanized steel drink milk to prevent headaches? | i looked up galvanized steel and zinc is used in the process, the zinc vaporizes at a lower temperature than the steel. i assume it's zinc vapour being breathed in plus i guess whatever else is in the rod and steel, maybe thoriated rods are used? i'm not a welder just curious as to what is going on and to raise awareness. what biologically what is going on? **edit:** i'm not saying the milk works, or doesn't, i have no proof either way but it does sound odd | this is an old wives tale that drinking milk absorbs poisons from welding galvanized steel. the only reference i have for this is i asked my welding instructor this exact question after reading about it while looking for information on welding galvanized. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_fume_fever",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welder%27s_burn",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanization"
] | [
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] |
hey science, i'm curious about capacitors in a way i'm not sure has been explored yet | so, i think i have a pretty good concept of how capacitors work on a fundamental level, in that you have two pieces of conductive material separated by an insulator and that you build up a positive charge on one side and a negative charge on the other and that the potential difference is a way of storing electrical energy* basically i was wondering if anything like this existed or could exist for heat instead of electricity. if you have two pieces of thermally conductive material [(like diamond maybe, for example)](_url_0_) separated by an insulator, would you be able to get a similar kind of effect? *please, if i'm wrong about anything, correct me so that i can understand better. | unfortunately a -40cdeg object does not attract a +40cdeg object. that's a central principle of electrical capacitors, where the thinner the dielectric, the more energy stored per volt. but with a thermal "capacitor," the stored energy doesn't change with distance between hot and cold ends, so there's no point in separating them by a thin insulator. your version of the device works better if leakage is reduced by wide separation of hot and cold sides. | 11 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_properties_of_diamond#Thermal_conductivity"
] | [] | [
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how does backlighting work? | i understand less light is needed to see in the dark, but i find it curious that my cell phone screen is so difficult to see when it's bright out. what is the reason for that? ninja edit: i think this is most easily categorized as a human body issue (hence the flair), but it probably has some physics involved, too. | it's because in darkness your eyes adjust to capture more light, and are more sensitive to light as well. in light, the screen has to be sufficiently bright to be visible. another issue in reflection from the environment obscuring the image, which is less of a problem in darkness. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few questions about earth and space. | 1) in how many years will the andromeda galaxy pass through our own? i'm not sure if that will actually happen but i read somewhere it would. 2) does anyone have a 3d model or program like google earth that shows what earth would look like if all the ice on both poles were to melt. (a picture of earth in chart form would also help.) | 1) "current measurements suggest that, in about three billion years, the milky way and andromeda galaxies may collide." _url_0_ 2) sorry i do not but someone should make that as it would be cool. maybe add in how the rotation about its axis and revolution about the sun would change. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/resources/ava/galaxies/g0601andmilwy",
"http://geology.com/sea-level-rise/"
] | [
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i just watched the minute physics video about why the sky is dark at night, and i have a (few) queries. | (this question bases upon the hypothetical that the earth has existed forever) if the sky is dark because of the red shift and because of the whole "looking back in time" thing, then will there be a time in the future when there are no stars in the sky, either because of the red shift or something else? or will the light from the stars from the beginning of the universe catch up to us and light up the whole sky? or was there a time in the past when the whole night sky was bright, because the other stars hadn't moved away fast enough for red shift to take hold? or were there no stars in the past? lots of questions, sorry. hopefully there's an astrophysicist out there for me... **context:** [here](_url_0_) | hopefully some reasonable answers here: * there were no stars at the beginning of the universe. also, since the speed of light is faster than the matter of our planet, any such light would have passed us long ago * even if every radiating body in the universe was emitting visible light, the fraction of that light (brightness) that would be reaching our eyes is very, very small. this is why radio telescopes use big collecting dishes for their antennas. * depending on the [shape of our universe](_url_0_), the night sky may be completely dark in the future due to a cold death of the universe * at some point between the big ban and now, cosmic background radiation may have had visible light components, but again the energy density of this radiation is so low you would not consider it bright, if you could see it at all | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxJ4M7tyLRE"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_Universe"
] | [
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what does it mean to claim fractional electric charge particles exist in the earth's core? | i was listening to [this panel](_url_0_) that's loosely constrained to talk about string theory. at the timestamp witten is claiming that 1/5 electric charge particles could exist in the earth's core. i'm not very familiar with the subject, but i did some googling and found quite a few articles on "the search for fractional electric charge." can someone give an explanation on: a. why fractional charge is controversial, or at least was at the time of this panel discussion b. how would someone observe this if they are in the core of planets. c. was this taken seriously as an answer to the missing baryon problem? one of the members at the table makes a quick comment about it. | fractionally charged particles are an interesting idea though they've fallen out of favor since this panel discussion for various reasons. to address your specific questions: a. our known particles have "quantized" charges, meaning they always come in integer multiples of some base unit. everyday atoms consist of parts with +1 (protons), -1 (electrons), and 0 (neutrons) fundamental charges. actually the protons and neutrons are themselves made up of "fractionally charged" particles, quarks, with charge +2/3 (up) or -1/3 (down), but these quarks are always combined in ways that add up to integers. so fractional charges (quarks) are already known to exist but never be independently observable. it would be interesting if fractional charges that could exist on their own could exist as well, and some models of particle physics beyond the standard model predict such charges. b. one way that fractional charges are interesting is that they would (1) get stuck in ordinary matter, since they are electrically charged; (2) be extremely detectable, because no number of integer charges can exactly cancel their charge out. there are various precise ways to measure the "neutrality of matter"---that is, making sure that all the + and - charges in matter have cancelled out. if a lump of matter contains a fractional charge then cancellation is impossible (except by antimatter fractional charges---and then they would have already annihilated). this made searching for fractional charges in "ordinary places"---sea water, dirt, rocks, and so on, an interesting thing to do, as it would be possible to detect even very small concentrations of them. i'm not sure about the core of planets specifically, as we have only searched for them (and not found them) in the ocean and crust. c. at the time, perhaps. at first the 'missing baryons' (now a.k.a. dark matter) were only known to not interact much with photons. a particle with charge 1/5 interacts with photons 1/25 as strongly as charge 1, which maybe is dark enough to be dark matter. now we know more about the properties of dark matter, in particular that it can't interact with itself very much either, and that it can't have an effective cooling mechanism that would allow it to collapse into disks. i don't recall exact limits on the electric charge of dark matter but i think it is quite a bit smaller than 1/5, and small fractions are considered less interesting because they are harder to write down theoretical models for. on the other hand "very small" fractions, on the order of 1/1000, are easier to generate theoretically, and go under the name of 'millicharged' dark matter. these are also strongly constrained and not too popular but they are the closest thing to fractional charges that are still talked about today as dark matter candidates. | 5 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/AmUI2qf9uyo?t=17m30s"
] | [] | [
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can shouting and making noises and other things make you stronger while doing exercise/sport? | okay big dragonball z fan and sports person here. when i play rugby, go to the gym or when i am using my punchbag etc when i am doing something which is really hard in my head or quietly or really loud i would scream like super saiyan style and it seems that somehow i just am stronger then normally. i also things like tense my body more are grasp my hands together or the ball etc and in my head feel like i'm making signs or naruto or whatnot. that also seems to do stuff too, whats physically/mentally going on to make a person stronger? throwaway because i feel stupid asking. edit: no clue what to flair this as. biology or psychology or human body? | i used to wrestle in high school and have had matches against quite a few guys that were stronger than i was. however, when you are doing an extremely intense exercise your body is releasing several hormones to aid you, one of these being adrenaline. when going against someone who was much weaker than i was i wouldn't make a sound other than heavier breathing, however, when they started yelling at the struggle i would notice increased strength in them a few seconds after that scream and it would make me work harder. i have read a few studies and at this point i can make a rather safe assumption that when the scream is released the body also releases extra adrenaline which is what would cause their noticeable increase in strength. the same would happen to me, i once had to wrestle a guy that looked like mr. universe and i'm an average looking dude with decent strength, but nothing impressive. occasionally when releasing a scream if i was losing or on the verge of beating them i was able to either get back on my feet or make them hit the ground. i read these studies my freshman year in college and will post them if i can find them again. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes an object bendable? | it depends on the type of object. bending of crystalline solids occurs because of [grains](_url_0_) deforming and sliding past each other when stress is applied. atoms at grain boundaries have less interaction with atoms from another grain, compared to the relatively strong interactions between atoms in a single grain. grains sliding past each other therefore occurs more easily than interatomic bond bending/breaking. similarly in plastics, long polymer chains can slide past each other. a pure crystal with no grains is harder to bend, because the interatomic forces between many atoms are stronger than the forces between grain boundaries. edit: fixed the link | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundary"
] | [
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|
given two feynman diagrams with weak interactions (neutral or charged), what are the easiest ways to compare the likelihood of each happening without actually doing calculations? | my intuition suggests that the number of vertices and the flavor changes in interactions should both play a role, but i have a hard time figuring out which is more important just by observation. | the number of vertices will definitely play a role. for neutral-current interactions between charged particles, you can also consider how likely the z-mediated process is compared to the photon-mediated process. in general, it's a case-by-case basis. do you have an example of two competing diagrams? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
does blackle actually save energy? | i asked this a year ago, but i didn't get any response, so i thought i would try again. if you have not heard of it [_url_0_](http://_url_0_/) is basically google with a black page instead of white. the site claims that this saves energy because it takes less energy to color a pixel black than to color it white. i know a couple people who swear by it and have it as their home page due to energy savings. alternatively i have a friend (a mechanical engineer) who told me that it does not save any energy because the energy cost to light up a pixel is the same regardless of color. so, i guess my question is does it take any less energy to light a pixel black than white? | according to this study, it seems that it does save energy if you're using a crt, but it's not that significant if you're using an lcd. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"blackle.com",
"http://blackle.com/"
] | [
"http://enduse.lbl.gov/Info/LBNL-48581.pdf",
"http://www.thinkgeek.com/product/7657/"
] | [
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the hazard symbols for highly flammable and oxydizing are very similar. why is the oxydizing symbol so similar and what does it visually represent? | i am very sorry for such a boring question, but i'm struggling to find why the oxydizing symbol is the way it is. i need to explain what is happening in the image so i can seperate it from the highly flammable symbol. | hazmat tech here. the flaming o oxidizing agent symbol is there because the substance is not a fuel, but an oxidizer. the presence of oxidizing agents can greatly accelerate the combustion of other materials, or even cause things that are not normally flammable to burn. it also broadens the flammability limits of most substances by lowering the lfl and raising the ufl. in other words, it becomes much easier for materials to burn at lower temperatures and at a wider range of air/fuel mixtures. a small oxygen leak, for example, can turn what would otherwise be a simple structure fire into a very intense, and possibly explosive inferno. even a slight increase in the oxygen content of air above its usual 21 vol % will greatly increase the rate of oxidation or combustion of many substances. and oxygen isn't the only oxidizing agent that can do this. for example. nitrous oxide is an oxidizing agent. by itself, it will not burn. but it will gladly support combustion in the place of atmospheric oxygen. firefighting techniques for oxidizing agents are different from flammable agents, since if you extinguish the fire, the oxidizing agent is still there, ready to restart the fire at a moments notice to possibly explosive effect. certian oxidizing agents can even catch water and concrete on fire. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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underwater erection. water displacement? | i've been trying to figure this out. if a fully submerged man gets an erection, is there any effective water displacement? the surface area of the body increases, but the volume of blood does not change. what do you think? edit: all good comments. thanks to everyone for helping clear this up. i now believe that there would be no effective displacement as a result of a submerged erection. i initially thought that there shouldn't be any displacement, but i couldn't account for the increase in surface area. i thought for sure it would somehow muddy the equation. i see now that displacement is determined by volume, and volume does not change in this scenario. thanks again. | the blood in the penis comes from the rest of the body, which would "deflate" ever so slightly as that blood is redirected to your pool boner, equalizing any displacement effect. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how big would lagrange point l4 (or l5) be... are we talking 100s of metres or miles? | i've read that they are like a gravity bowl, catching dust and trojan asteroids. just wondered how 'big' would this bowl be? seems like an ideal place(s) to build a massive space station. | the lagrange point itself is just that - a point, of zero size, but the l4 and l5 points are special in that there can be stable orbits around them. the points are ‘hilltops’ of maximum gravitational potential, which does not sound stable, but due to the orbital dynamics, when it starts so ‘slide’ off the hilltop in one direction, the nature of orbital dynamics makes it come back, allowing satellites to achieve lissajous orbits without needing to expend any energy on stationkeeping. a bit more detail on the stability of the orbit: suppose that the satellite started to ‘slide’ off in the prograde direction - this would result in it gaining velocity, but in an orbit, a gain in velocity causes the size of the orbit to increase, and larger orbits take longer to complete a revolution, so the satellite does not escape, but rather moves in a stable (though complicated) path around the lagrange point, forming a lissajous orbit. this same correction happens whichever direction off of the lagrange point the satellite goes, so if the satellite has a small enough velocity relative to the lagrange point, it remains ‘trapped’. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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cornell has created a "time cloak" effect by slowing down and speeding up lasers. what does this have to do with time? | article: _url_0_ i don't understand what this has to do with "time" - the light is slowed down, then sped up to make up the difference, via using a lens. what does this have to do with time? | it's a grossly misleading article representative of the horrible state of popular science reporting. light always moves at light speed, and cannot be changed. you can create the *illusion* of a changing speed by absorbing and re-emitting photons (lensing), and that's pretty much what they're doing, if in a slightly more elaborate way. but the researchers, and reporters, are twisting this ridiculously. | 4 | [] | [
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/01/120104-time-cloak-invisibility-harry-potter-light-optical-fiber-science"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/o3rb2/time_cloak_how_does_it_work/"
] | [
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why can't we stay completely still (e.g. when taking a photo)? | i think this is because you are breathing and (hopefully) having a heartbeat. of course you can stop breathing for a while to become more still, but your heartbeat will remain. i personally always notice the 'movement' caused by my heartbeat when shooting photo's. sometimes i also notice it, when looking at my phone as the glare in the glass moves a little together with my heartbeat. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
the evolution of birdsong? | well it depends really. there is a period where birds undergo a process called crystallization. basically it's a point in maturity where they begin fine tuning their song as they mature. now studies have shown birds do not inherit song from their parents but rater the frequency and rate they sing the song. so birds must hear a song to learn a song. what birds do is in their pre crystallization phase they babble like babies producing numerous notes and songs that are choppy and poor quality. this is where they learn the base of what their song will become. there are some birds which recrystillize their song seasonally. so they fix it every year when they hear more appealing notes to use. the only real evolution which takes place in bird song would be in the frequency and speed of the song. there is also the selection of song which female birds prefer so the birds who sing those songs mate. thus other birds try to sing these songs in order to become more successful at breeding. sorry for formatting i posted from alien blue. i hope this answered your question if not i can try and expand and clarify. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
confused by this video by leonard susskind on all symmetries in physics being approximations. how can this be right? | _url_0_ susskind says that all symmetries (continuous symmetries and symmetries that are about interchanging two objects) are really always approximate or are always broken. he gives this example about nearly massless quarks which i understand just fine. but isn't cpt symmetry exact as far as we know? and what about space translational and rotational symmetry which give rise to conservation of linear and angular momentum? | i think space translation and rotational symmetry fall under the category of "gauge symmetry" that he wasn't including in his statement. edit: in other words: picking up the universe, rotating it by 10^(o), then setting it down again doesn't actually change anything about the physical state of the universe. it's a symmetry of our *mathematical model* of the universe, not the universe itself. what's actually "real" is the relative angles between objects inside the universe. | 3 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/45vCHttuUnQ"
] | [] | [
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how can we multiply by dx? | in many different circumstances, such as separation of equations of implicit differentiation, we "multiply" dy/dx by dx to give us dy. the teacher always says this step is mathematically incorrect but we can still use it to solve the equation. i understand dy/dx is not a quotient but just a value, but why does this always work? | for any function f, you can think of "df" as being a small *absolute* change in f at some point. when f(x)=x, we just write dx. this absolute change is infinitesimal, so df is not a real value or anything. it actually behaves more like a vector that points along the real axis and it tells us how fast f is changing at that point. you may see this more explicitly in calculus 3. if these are not numbers, how do they help us with calculation? the idea is that we can easily *compare* two of these things using real numbers, even if we can't explicitly write them using real numbers. if f is a function of x, then at each point i have two of these vectors: df & dx. since we can see these and two vectors pointing along the same line, we should be able to get from one to the other by using multiplication by a real number to scale it up or down. this means that df=rdx for some real number r. this number r represents the relative small change in f compared to the small change in x, but this is exactly it means to be the derivative of f(x) at this point. so df=f'(x)dx. let's say i can express my function f(x) as a function of some other variable y so that f(x)=f(y). so if f(x)=x^(4)+x^(2)+1, f(y)=y^(2)+y+1 and y=x^(2), then f(x)=f(y). i know that dy=(dy/dx)dx and df=f'(x)dx so i see that df=df=f'(y)dy=f'(y)(dy/dx)dx. this is the chain rule. notice if we go from right to left in this equality, it looks like we can cancel out that dx but this action is only justifiable using the chain rule. if i have equations like adx=bdy, then this is a subtle relationship between derivatives that can easily be solved using derivatives. for instance, i can write dx=(dx/dy)dy (this is the chain rule), and so the left of this becomes a(dx/dy)dy=bdy and so i can group things together to get an equation involving the derivative dx/dy with just the extra stuff a and b. in particular: (a(dx/dy)-b)dy=0 so dy/dx=b/a. this just looks like i did cross-multiplication to the equation adx=bdy, but i secretly used the chain rule to expose the derivative dy/dx and then solved for it using the resulting equation. this is all perfectly justified through the use of the chain rule, and the way it behaves looks a lot like fractions. implicit differentiation is a little more subtle on how it really works. if i have the graph of some equation that are the solutions to the equation f(x,y)=0 (for instance a circle has f(x,y)=x^(2)+y^(2)-r^(2)), then i can do derivatives on this equation as well, but how i get there requires some work. derivatives work with functions, so how do i do them with equations? it turns out that i can chop up the graph of my equation in such a way that each chunk is actually a function! this is the result of what we call the implicit function theorem. if x and y are related by a nice enough equation f(x,y)=0, then at almost every point, we can view the graph near this point as the graph of a function y(x). in other words in equations, y is not a function of x, but y is *implicitly* a function of x as long as we don't stray to far away. the top half of the circle is given by the function y(x)=sqrt(r^(2)-x^(2)) and the bottom is given by y(x)=-sqrt(r^(2)-x^(2)). we can then talk about the derivatives of *these* functions. but the magical thing about derivatives is that they only care about what is happening near a point, so when these derivatives do not depend on how we express y as a function of x, and only depend on the equation used to relate y and x. so we can just apply differential operators d/dx to equations and get new equations involving derivatives that allow us to work with these implicit functions in the background. here, we're not dividing by dx, but applying the operator d/dx to each side of the equation. liberal use of the chain rule will get the results. these ideas are taught very badly in calculus classes because no one cares if you can think for yourself. no one cares if you have the capability to think abstractly. no one cares if you don't get the whole picture. people only care about how many people graduate, get good grades and move on to the next courses, so they focus on teaching to the exams and teaching how to find answers, which are the least important things in math. my blood curls when i think of people actually caring about answers... **tl;dr** they're not fractions, but they way the differential work is governed by the chain rule which says that they behave a lot like fractions. any time you do something where you "multiply" or "divide" by dx or dy, there is a chain rule operation in the background justifying this manipulation. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are known technical hurdles that alphago zero would have to overcome before being able to play go on arbitrary graphs? | [alphago zero](_url_0_) recently demonstrated impressive success in ai by training a winning neural net from only self-play. i read somewhere (can't find the original source) that there is reason to be skeptical of how much of an advance this really is, since the resulting network won't be able to generalize its knowledge to even slightly different games, like "go on an 18x18 board". it seems like one possible next step is to fix the rules but to allow the topology to vary. my limited knowledge of neural nets suggests that this would be hard. what are specific hurdles to constructing a neural net that can play go over arbitrary graphs (supplied at the beginning of game play)? what are avenues of exploration for overcoming them? | less drastic adaptation alphago still is unable to do afaik: switching komi. black player starts, so typically white is given some points to compensate for this advantage. alphago afaik has hard-coded value of 7.5 for komi. | 3 | [] | [
"https://deepmind.com/blog/alphago-zero-learning-scratch/"
] | [] | [
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help me understand the concept of a "ground" in electrical terms. | why does my mac charger have a ground? what does that mean? what happens if there is no ground? does a ground have to actually touch the ground? how do grounds fit into circuits? | there are other subreddits that are best for electronics questions... however there are two related concepts in a ground. the first concept is a power systems concept, and this is mostly relevant to devices that work with large voltages and currents. in this sense the ground is a safety mechanism. if a device shorts out, it is designed in such a way that it will short to ground. there's a ground pin on the electrical plug and the wiring in the building you're in should run that ground pin to a metal rod that is hammered into the ground. this way a short of mains power is less likely to harm you, because almost all the current will flow down the easy path to the ground instead of through you. the second concept behind a ground is the way it's used in electronics design, and this is mostly related to the way ground is used in electronic devices. the thing to realize is that voltage is a relative concept: voltage is only *really* defined between two points, like how a aa battery supplies approximately 1.5v between its terminals. when we say mains voltage is 120v, we really mean it's 120v above *ground*. we implicitly use ground as a reference against which we can measure voltages, because it makes it a lot easier to design circuits than having to treat every voltage as a relative term. in portable devices the concept of a *floating ground* is common: the circuit has a ground, but it's not actually connected to the earth. it's just a common reference point that we call 0v for the sake of mathematical convenience. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the physical characteristics of 'ground' that makes it a perfect electrical conductor? | and if the moist soil itself is a good conductor, then why don't we transmit electricity through insulated channels full of moist soil instead of copper wires? edit: a few people seem to be answering with 'because it's a voltage reference.' (?) that might help me interpret an engineering schematic but isn't really the kind of physical/conceptual explanation i was looking for. | the conductivity of soil is as large as a few siemens per meter. the conductivity of most common metals (including copper) is a few times 10^(7) siemens per meter. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is this claim from anti-fluoride people about "fluoride calcifies the pineal gland, otherwise known as the third eye which literally has rods and cones, just like your other eyes?" what is the scientific stance against this and the meaning of this "claim"? | as far as i can remember, calcification of the pineal gland is a physiological change over time and is expected in virtually every human. i am yet to see a 60+ years old ct of the encephallus without calcified pineal. also, calcifications of the ventricles is very common at older ages. both findings at the ct scan are benign and correlates with zero clinical findings. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_fluoridation#cite_note-YorkReview2000-11"
] | [
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|
chemical equation for pulled pork collagen -- > gelatin? | when i smoke pork, at about 190 f the collagen breaks down, converting (in my layman's understanding) into gelatin, giving it that tender texture and great mouthfeel. my father-in-law, who gave me the smoker, is a pharmaceutical chemist, and i'd like to explain this to him in science terms that he understands. can someone tell me how to express this process in chemical terms? that is, the makeup of pork collagen molecules and the makeup of the resulting gelatin, along with any intermediate states? | well, the difference between gelatin and collagen is more a function of the arrangement of the protein chains than an actual chemical change. however, here's what happens: collagen is long, fibrous protein that arranges well into matrices and coils, making it perfect for acting as connective tissue. boiling the collagen partially hydrolyzes the protein, causing the neatly arranged matrix to break down into a much more rearrangeable mush. along with water, the hydrolyzed collagen forms a colloidal suspension we know as gelatin. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which species of animals or insects exhibit signs of trading or economy, if any? | do any creatures trade extra resources in exchange for other resources? food types? are humans the only beings who have traded amongst ourselves? | chimpanzees were once taught to use money in a token economy. they were given a small allotment of tokens, and tasks to do for which they could earn more tokens, which could be taken to another area to "buy" food, toys, and the like. they immediately began using money to get sex and sex to get money. many species are observed sharing back and forth between allied individuals, but "you give me this in exchange for that", i have never read or heard of. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an online resource where one would be able to find info on the relative safety of certain substances to humans? | this is regarding a number of substances/chemicals. i've tried using google scholar, but the papers that come up are rarely relavent. any help for a layman here? | you can search for the msds for the particular product and get all the necessary information, though i will warn that things will often sound much more dangerous than they are (even water can be deadly, when misused!). if you want strictly toxicological information, the msds is probably sufficient. if you're wondering if it's really okay to use something in the open air or to touch it with or without gloves, sometimes it's hard to tell. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=standards&p_id=9992"
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when a positive event occurs at the same time as a negative event, what determines whether a positive association or a negative association is built? | i came across this question as i'm planning for a move and trying to get my cat used to the carrier as i'll be driving for multiple hours a day. i've been putting his favorite blanket in the carrier, feeding him treats when he goes in, and petting him as he goes in to create a positive association with the carrier. this got me thinking, what determines that a positive association will be built to the carrier from all those techniques and not a negative association to all of those techniques from the carrier? another example would be treats after medicine: does the cat create a positive association to the medicine from the treats or a negative association to the treats from the medicine? also, how does this apply to humans? | the human's reward system. when reward chemicals (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine etc) then your brain creates a positive association with that memory. when it comes to a bad association, negative memories are mainly influenced by negative feedback - this can take shape in many different ways such as pain, nausea, diarrhea, whatever. something we might all be able to relate to is food poisoning. i had a reuben sandwich once and it gave me food poisoning - ever since then, they disgust me. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the highest resolution neuroimaging technique available today? what resolution can we expect in the next years? | my understanding is that the resolution is still really low and far from separating individual cells. is there an effort to extend this? and is it actually realistic that it will ever be possible to have a non destructive imaging technique that would allow for later brain simulation? as far as i know brain simulation models currently rely on electronic microscope data and the studied brain is generally destroyed during the procedure. | it depends on what signal you're trying to measure. if you're talking about functional imaging (the signal given off by a brain in action, basically), u/turtlecracker is correct about 7 tesla being the highest resolved in wide use (although [up to 12t](_url_1_) has been deployed for human imaging). we can probably never get to the single cell level for functional imaging, though, absent any unforseen advances in imaging methods. from [duyn, 2012](_url_2_): "how much further can resolution be improved with further increases in field strength? can we expect to ultimately be able to reach resolutions of a few microns and image single neurons, as has been demonstrated on nmr microscopy systems operating at 14 t (weiger et al., 2008; flint et al., 2009)? barring spectacular new developments, the answer is: “probably not”. nmr microscopy experiments have a number of advantages (other than the higher field strengths available for the small-bore magnets they use) that do not apply to scanning human brain in-vivo, including the use of very small (sub-millimeter) objects, scan times of many hours without object motion, and imaging gradients that are orders of magnitude stronger than human-scale gradients. the object size in particular can have quite substantial effects on attainable resolution. for example, with appropriately sized coil detectors that contribute minimally to the noise, snr [signal-to-noise ratio] for an object that is n times smaller in each dimension is roughly n2.5 times improved (see e.g. (macovski, 1996)), meaning that, because image snr scales with voxel volume, the resolution can be increased by almost n-fold in each dimension. in contrast, the resolution improvement available when the field strength increases by a factor n has a smaller effect on the resolution of approximately 1/n0.33, assuming that snr increases linearly with field strength (redpath, 1998). it appears therefore that improvement of the resolution in structural mri of the human brain to below 200 μm will require major improvements in detector and gradient design in addition to increased field strength. others factor that may limit spatial resolution in human applications are brain and head motion, and blurring caused by magnetic susceptibility effects. the former can be particularly problematic due to the increased scan times and lower tolerance to motion associated with high resolution mri. while correction strategies based on mri navigator signals or external tracking devices (see e.g. (ward et al., 2000) and (qin et al., 2009)) may be able to largely resolve the effects of rigid head motion, they will be less effective in correcting for incoherent (non-rigid) displacements associated with brain pulsation, which may reach around 100 μm in some brain regions (soellinger et al., 2009). timing (i.e. gating) the mri pulse sequence with the respiratory and cardiac cycles may be necessary when imaging at such resolutions." plus 7t makes some people feel sick and dizzy. it's unclear whether or not higher strength fields will have worse effects on human subjects. to add to that, i'd like to point out that fmri is an inherently indirect measure of brain activation because it doesn't measure electrical pulses from neurons, but instead the changes in concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin in the blood feeding the neurons (neuronal activity consumes oxygen, so an overabundance is shipped to the activating cells to feed it). this is called the bold response, and lags behind neuronal firing by several seconds. this measure has been really useful for functional imaging so far, but it isn't as specific as the electric signal from a single neuron. this makes it difficult to pinpoint the exact cell the signal is coming from, and it's also difficult to establish effective connectivity (among two co-activating areas, it's hard to tell which is causing activation in the other). that's a critical barrier towards creating detailed brain simulations. now, in terms of structural imaging (taking pictures of the physical architecture of the brain), there are interesting methods in development. [dti](_url_0_) (diffuse tensor imaging) is an mri-based method of imaging the white matter tracts in the brain, so you can essentially create a 3d map of where the bundles of connections are between cell populations. right now there are issues with being able to model crossing fibers in a voxel (i.e. brain pixel) rather than parallel fibers, but there's work being done to improve on that (i'm far from an mr physicist though so i can't tell you more about that!). this doesn't help you with the effective connectivity again, but it does give a really detailed picture about what physical pathways exist, which helps constrain the set of possible effective connections at least. i can't really answer about where the technology is headed, since again that's not my expertise, i merely use the machines for my work. by it does seem like there is a ceiling to the usefulness of the current mr method for functional imaging, so we'll have to come up with a significantly different approach to get single cell resolution in the future. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.imagilys.com/diffusion-tensor-imaging-dti/",
"http://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/imaging/the-worlds-most-powerful-mri-takes-shape",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3389184/"
] | [
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why are so many basic physics formulas in the form of 0.5ab^2? | the title pretty much sums up my question. to be more specific however, why are so many of the basic mechanics physics formulas all in the same general form of 0.5ab2. for example, kinetic energy is 0.5mv2, and spring potential is 0.5kx2. in the kinematic equation x=xit+0.5at2, the 0.5at2 shows up again. in the formula for energy of a particle in simple harmonic motion, the energy formula is once again 0.5ka2. it even shows up sometimes in some of the most basic electricity and magnetism formulas for potential energy. obviously some constant times x, when integrated, gives 0.5cx2, but i was curious is there is some other reason this form for equations shows up so often, or if it just a product of integration. my apologies if this is a very basic question, or a meaningless one. i am still in high school physics and haven't reached anywhere close to a high level of understanding with regards to physics. thanks! | you've more or less answered your own question. the form 0.5 c x^2 is obtained by integrating the expression y = c x. and "y = c x" expresses that one variable (y) is proportional to the other (x). two variables being proportional to eachother is rather common, so the relation y = c x appears often and by extension the integrated expression 0.5 c x^2 also shows up regularly. as an example, the force of a spring is given by f = k x (k the spring constant, x the length difference from the equillibrium position). we know that the potential of a compressed (or extended) spring is equal to work performed to compress (or extend) the spring. this work is determined by integral of the force (as function of distance), so the integral of f = k x, which gives us w = 0.5 k x^(2). the other relations of this form have a similar derivation, based on the notion of two variables being proportional to eachother. | 38 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is my voltage (electric potential) just before getting a typical winter static shock? | i have heard pretty wild estimates with numbers over 1000 v. is that true? just an order of magnitude estimate would suffice. | [here](_url_0_) is an easy to read paper by a very well respected research engineer that tackles not only the voltage involved but the disbelief by people that it is so large. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://amasci.com/emotor/voltmeas.html"
] | [
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how realistic is it to build/utilize earths lagrangian points in near future? | specifically in l4 and l5, where gravity keeps things locked in place. | we could send a spacecraft there with current technology, if there were a reason to do so. i mean we've got probes at the l1 and l2 points right now. for instance the soho sun-watching probe is in an orbit around l1 and has been operating there for 20 years. sending a probe to dwell in the l4 or l5 would not be any more difficult in principle. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any sort of scale that allows one to somewhat estimate warm/hot temperatures based on how long it takes to jerk your hand away from it being too hot? | i know the 'scale' would depend on the material/phase of matter, the temperature of one's own hand, personal pain thresholds, and a myriad of other factors. i'm wondering if there's a developed scale that has put in the pain. crazy (masochistic) idea: maybe we as redditors can run a few hundred personal trials and work out an averaged scale? | this wouldn't tell you much about temperatures if you want to compare different materials. strictly speaking, the human body does not really detect temperature- but rather *heat*. the way to think of heat is that it is the energy transferred between objects as they reach thermal equilibrium (i.e. reach the same temperature). you can actually test this yourself. leave two objects- one metal, one nonmetal- in the same room for a day. they will reach the same temperature since they will both be in equilibrium with the air/room (you might take this as an assumption, but if you have an ir thermometer you can prove this is the case). when you touch these objects, you will be tempted to say that the metallic object is "colder". both objects are "colder than you" so you are really feeling the heat leaving your hand. the difference is the metallic object will be a better thermal conductor- this allows the heat to transfer more quickly. so, as long as you don't want to compare different materials, i guess you could, but even a watching the same person would probably fluctuate too much and perhaps it would also change with age. not really good for utility if you care about precision. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what's the level of external noise that the ligo detector deals with when measuring the length of the two arms? what techniques do they use to filter this noise in order to detect the 10^(-21) change in arm length caused by a gravitational wave? | the mirrors used in the detector are said to be the smoothest ever made and are suspended on super-thin threads in order to isolate them from the environment. i'd like to know how good this isolation is, i.e. what kind of change in distance caused by external environment is visible in the raw data output by the detector. i imagine that just looking at the data, there is no way you would notice the gravitational waves, and they have to use very advanced statistical techniques in order to find them. | you're right there is a lot of noise down there. the data are dominated by low frequency noise; there is no way to see a signal here, without some signal processing. this tutorial goes through what they need to do and you can do it yourself! _url_1_ the rest of the data and questions can be viewed here _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.gw-openscience.org/events/GW150914/",
"https://www.gw-openscience.org/GW150914data/GW150914_tutorial.html"
] | [
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do maps/gps have an equivilant to utc/gmt ? | i can see how map/gps measurements can relate to local points/features, but when it comes to a large scale, how do they relate when it comes to say nz vs australia as they both move about due plate tectonics, earthquakes, daily rise and falls due to the moon and tides. is there a single point or system that everything relates to ? | there is. the gps system, and plenty of maps nowadays (including google maps), use a [geodetic datum](_url_0_) - basically, a frame of reference for earth coordinates - called [wgs84](_url_1_), whose main meridian (the iers reference meridian) is about 5.31 arc-seconds east of the greenwich meridian. not only does it take into account plate tectonics but also a number of other parameters such as local variations in the earth's gravity field, the ellipsoidal shape of the earth, etc. if you're curious, the coordinate origin of this system is the (supposed) centre of mass of the earth, which is displaced from its geometrical centre. nobody knows for sure, but it's estimated that we know its location to within 2 cm, which is outstanding given the mean radius of the earth is approximately 6,370 km. gps receivers usually output cartesian coordinates in this system, and it's the software's task to convert them to more meaningful latitude and longitude. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodetic_datum",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System"
] | [
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at what point does motion become sufficiently microscopic such that it becomes tempurature? | this question is worded very strangely, because temperature is a macroscopic property. i'm assuming you mean at what point do we consider the motion of an object as contributing to the temperature of a system? if that's the case, it's on the molecular level. temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy (rotational and translational) of the particles of a substance. the particle level for most familiar substances is molecules (or atoms for pure elements). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
regarding the article on desert plants getting water from gypsum: does this happen in the chihuahuan desert? | reddit thread: [reddit thread](_url_0_) [desert plant derives up to 90% of water-intake from gypsum rock](_url_1_ ) the article mentions africe and asia, but there are gypsum dunes and i assume gypsum rock in the chihuahuan desert. wondering if this same phenomena happens there? | maybe. the article you cited only looks at *helianthemum squamatum*, which is native to the deserts of the mediterranean basin. the genus *helianthemum* is quite large and diverse, with at least [60 different well-recognized species](_url_1_), although some authorities say there are more than 100 different species. there are several members of this genus that live in north america, both introduced and native, but i'm not sure that any of them live in the chihuahua desert. poke around on _url_0_, and search for *helianthemum*. some of the native and introduced species are found in texas, so it's possible that some of them live in the chihuahuan desert, but i'm having a hard time finding a definitive yes/no answer. time for more research! | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/2fmvnw/desert_plant_discovered_to_get_up_to_90_of_fluids/",
"http://www.neomatica.com/2014/09/01/desert-plant-derives-90-water-intake-gypsum-rock/"
] | [
"http://plants.usda.gov",
"http://www.theplantlist.org/browse/A/Cistaceae/Helianthemum/"
] | [
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how was the first hd video of the immune cell moving taken? | i can't access the original paper because i'm on mobile, but i can give a vague picture. zebrafish embryos were modified so that various proteins attached to fluorescent molecules. i'm not sure what the proteins were but they're fairly ubiquitously expressed, looking a the video, possibly something's like actin? (a guess- it could easily be different proteins, or even lipids, that fluoresce). these are orange in the video. then dextran, which stimulated an immune cell response, was introduced to the embryos. this fluoresced blue in the video. the immune cells targeted the dextran. to view this clearly in 3d, a new imaging technique was used. i'm going to paste the brief explanation i found below, but i'm not personally 100% clear on the method just from reading it. this might be due to the fact that i'm not extremely well versed in technical imaging methods, or it might be minimally explained. if you have access to a university computer, you should be able to access the original paper which would be a better source, i would imagine. from _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.hhmi.org/news/new-microscope-captures-detailed-3-d-movies-of-cells-deep-within-living-systems"
] | [
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|
firework fuses | i'm doing an experiment on firework fuses and why they work under water, so far i know they work under water, but why? what is in the visco fuse that allows it to react under water? the internet is a bit useless. so i'm turning to you for help reddit. please help | gunpowder contains its own oxidizer, and the gunpowder in the case of cannon fuse is contained within a wrapped string outer layer, which serves to keep the water out long enough for the fuse to burn. if you soaked it in water for an extended period of time, it would be ruined, but for the few seconds it burns, the string wrapping keeps the gunpowder core dry. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can we synthesize endorphins outside of the body? | also, if so, could those endorphins be administered in the same way we administer opioids for pain relief? would the effects be comparable? | synthetic beta-endorphin was developed in the early 1980s, and was evaluated as an analgesic. however, i believe the opiate drugs are more effective, cheaper to produce, and have more powerful and rapidly-acting mechanism of action than just supplying exogenous endorphins. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are these lines? | room temperature water put on high temperature burner for boil. [video](_url_0_) | what you're seeing is the difference in temperatures between two water masses. the index of refraction changes with density, so the light bends differently between the two bodies. the cooler water on the surface is sinking toward the bottom of the pan because it's more dense (cooler water is more dense than hot water unless you're less than 4 degrees c). the cooler water rolls to the bottom (because the heat is creating a convection cycle inside the pan). because it has a different index of refraction you can see the leading edges of the cooler water mass. if you stirred the pan it would mix the water masses and you wouldn't see those lines because the water would have a more uniform temperature. | 2 | [] | [
"https://vimeo.com/114529175"
] | [] | [
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could cybernetic leg implants nullify the effects of a fall from, say, a skyscraper? | strictly hypothetically, of course. if these supposed cybernetic machine legs were wired to a supercomputer which during your fall expertly and meticulously calculated the speed with which you would hit the ground, and using the insanely strong machine legs, "pushed away" with the exact same force generated by the fall. said computer would also account for the unique properties of the material of the ground you landed upon and adjust accordingly. naturally, the non-nanomaterial, "tissue"-part of the body would be devastated when absorbing the energy from the impact, but perhaps this could be solved by some sort of rerouting. friends, what i'm wondering is: when am i gonna be able to jump down from the roof instead of taking the goddamn elevator? | while it's certainly possible to invent materials that could absorb this impact, the energy from the fall still needs to go *somewhere*. recall that it's not the speed at which you are travelling, but rather the deceleration that determines how much injury occurs. reducing injury is a matter of distributing the force that occurs while stopping over a longer period of time. in cars, for instance, airbags and crumple zones help lengthen the amount of time it takes you to come to a full stop. similar techniques could be used to slow a fall (such as giant air mattresses underneath stuntpersons. you do, however, have to eventually feel an upward force to stop you. whether that is generated by an abrupt meeting with the ground or is (ostensibly) generated by the boots before landing, it still needs to happen. so, somehow (perhaps stored as spring energy) the boots need to apply this force over a long amount of time before landing. it couldn't just apply an equal an opposite force at landing because it's the same level of force applied to your body, just in the opposite direction (this is similar to the reason why jumping at the last second in a free falling elevator won't help you). such a material/design is within the realm of possibility but, for for all intents and purposes, some sort of jet on the bottom of your foot would probably have the same result (and would look a lot cooler). at least, this is the case with the near-future technologies of which i am aware. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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everyone says to get a colonoscopy at 50 but what other tests should be mandatory throughout your life? | something i'm generally curious about. i mean, how many lives could be saved from certain cardiovascular diseases if a magnetic resonance angiogram (mra) was talked about as often as a colonoscopy? | there are a few screening modalities that have some proven evidence of benefit - i.e. mammographies for breast cancer, colonoscopies/fecal occult blood tests for colorectal cancer, pap smears for cervical cancer, +/- psas for prostate cancer and low dose cts for lung cancer in high risk individuals (depending on where you fall on those particular debates). by definition, the goal of this sort of screening is to help catch cancers in asymptomatic individuals. typically when this is brought up there're a lot of questions as to why we don't screen for everything. for a screening test to be useful, it must be 1) [accurate](_url_0_) at detecting 2) relatively high-prevalence diseases with 3) potentially serious consequences that 4) can be treated effectively. most of the time when people ask 'why aren't we doing this test on everybody?', one of the above conditions is not met. in other words, it is not worthwhile to apply population level screening with a bad test, for a very rare disease or a disease with little morbidity/mortality, or for a disease that once diagnosed cannot be treated. [more on some of the statistics behind screening tests here.](_url_1_) [you can follow current uspstf recommendations here](_url_2_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_and_specificity",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1wb9yl/i_heard_recently_that_pregnancy_tests_can_be_used/cf0e8on",
"http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/recommendations.htm"
] | [
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is it possible for we as humans to think outside the terms of cause and effect? | my friend has been on his own personal search for god, and to make a long story short he brought up the idea that it is impossible for we as primates, who have been evolutionarily engineered to think in a certain way, to think outside the terms of cause and effect. it's almost one of the basic ways we organize and take in information and neither of us have been able to think of an example that points otherwise. my questions stands, and to put it into a scientific category i would push the question further to see if "cause and effect" happens all the time in physics. i've heard that once you get down to quantum mechanics and all its intricacies that it's downright counter-intuitive. is it still dealing with cause and effect? or do we see things that very well may be outside of cause and effect, as far as we understand them currently? thanks so much for your answers! i'll be on for another few hours to clarify anything. let me know if this needs to go in /r/askphilosophy or something. cheers! | the universe appears to operate on cause and effect. it is constantly increasing in entropy. there are effects we observe that we don't know the cause for (e.g. the rate of the expansion of the universe is increasing), and we may never know the cause for (e.g. the cause of the big bang). to visualize outside of cause and effect is pretty simple, just imagine time running backwards. a mug is lying shattered on the floor beside a table in its lowest energy state. suddenly (and with no cause), the pieces leap off the floor and assemble themselves into a cup on the table. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_choice_quantum_eraser"
] | [
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can you break or bend the rules of the "fire triangle"? | in school, we were taught about the fire triangle; the three requirements for fire, those being fuel, heat, and oxygen. being that this was middle school (i think) i assume this was a dumbed down or simplistic version. what are some ways these rules can be subverted? is it possible to replace oxygen with another gas, or perhaps start a fire without heat? | to varying degrees, yes! as was noted in another thread a few days ago, anything combusted by oxygen will still react with fluorine (and the original fuel will as well) in what is essentially a fire. such environments are... uncommon, however. heat is an inescapable requirement, but the amount required can be extraordinarily low. hypergolic combustion occurs when two chemicals burn simply by being in contact with one another, and the temperatures at which this reaction still occurs is very low indeed. outside of a rocket or a lab you probably won't find these substances though. i think the fire triangle is "technically" an over simplification, but for 99.99999% of the population in 99.99999999% of all situations, it is an accurate depiction of what is required for a fire. edit: it should be noted that oxygen can be provided by an oxidizing agent as well as free oxygen. probably the most common occurrence of this is in bullets : along with gunpowder, an oxidizing agent allows the shot to be fired underwater or even in a vacuum. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
question by accident: if you take a bandaid out of a bandaid wrapper, then press the two sides of the wrapper back together, when you pull them apart there are sparks between the two sides of the wrapper. what causes this? | it's a form of [triboluminescence](_url_1_). when two different materials (the two sides of the wrapper) are pulled apart, electrons are more likely to end up on one of the materials, and the two surfaces become charged (one positive, one negative). this creates a voltage, or difference in electrical potential, between the two surfaces, and if the voltage is high enough, an electrical discharge (spark) can occur as electrons jump between the two materials to even out the charge. the fast-moving electrons can slam into and excite air molecules in the gap between the materials, and when these molecules relax, light is emitted, producing the flash you see. in a vacuum, the electrons aren't slowed by collisions with air molecules and can accelerate enough to produce x-rays upon impact with the other surface. as detailed for tape in [this (paywalled) paper](_url_0_), > on the basis of the long-standing phenomenology of tribocharging, we propose the following sequence of events: as the tape peels, the sticky acrylic adhesive becomes positively charged and the polyethylene roll becomes negatively charged, so that electric fields build up to values that trigger discharges. at a reduced pressure, the discharges accelerate electrons to energies that generate bremsstrahlung x-rays when they strike the positive side of the tape. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v455/n7216/full/nature07378.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triboluminescence"
] | [
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|
is it possible to stay submerged in water if conditions are kept ideal? are there any benefit, drawbacks from this? | in starship troopers, the main character gets a leg gash and is kept in an incubation chamber filled with (what i assume is) water while his wounds heal. i was just curious to the viability of some type of chamber like this, as long as the temperature was kept optimal, the salinity was matched to the osmotic pressure of the human body, and the water was filtered to remove pathogens. theoritcally, would this help with healing of the wound? would the person succumb to any i'll effects such as trench foot (not sure what the general term for trench foot is)? | the top comment [here](_url_0_) addresses some of the issues involved with staying submerged under water for a long time. edit: some interesting follow up questions here! i am not at all an expert in anything relevant so i will not speculate on answers. i simply remembered the thread that i linked above! | 38 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/35sjmv/would_a_person_submerged_in_a_tub_of_water_unable/",
"https://scifiinterfaces.files.wordpress.com/2014/09/starshiptroopers-tank-01.png?w=545&h=306"
] | [
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what is the significance of the phase angle in ac power? | i've taken 2 physics classes and 2 circuit analysis classes, and i did well in them. i was able to apply equations using the phase angles but i don't fundamentally understand its significance and how it effects other elements of the circuit. is there some physical representation besides lines on an oscope that can help me understand this. | i'm not sure what kind of answer you are looking for. the instantaneous power of a component is its instantaneous voltage times the current through it. this comes directly from the definition of work done on a charge q by a potential v during some time t: p = v q/t = v i. this definition works for the entire circuit as well, of course, and you use the instantaneous version for ac circuits and take the integral over a period to find the average power. therefore, if both v(t) and i(t) are in-phase, then you have the maximum power being used by the circuit. [here's a quick derivation of the result](_url_1_). the phase angle comes from the total impedance of the circuit, which will give you a relation between [the real and apparent power](_url_0_). the real power is what the circuit is actually using, and the apparent power comes from the phase shift between v(t) and i(t), which makes the circuit "give back" some of the energy during each cycle. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Power_Triangle_01.svg",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/powerac.html#c2"
] | [
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what causes the strong interaction to only operate under a very short range and not go on forever like gravity? | the strong interaction (described by a theory called quantum chromodynamics) exhibits [confinement](_url_0_). confinement is when a theory becomes so strongly coupled that the interaction between particles increases with distance. this doesn't allow any extended states to occur, since it would cost so much energy to separate a neutral object into its charged constituents, that more particles can be created out of the vacuum to form neutral states, since creating new particles costs less energy than separating the bound states. showing that a theory exhibits confinement is rather difficult (in fact, no exact proof exists), but there's a good understanding of it in terms of numerical methods and perturbative arguments. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_confinement"
] | [
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|
does anyone know if probiotic drink yakult can back up its 'scientifically proven' claims? | just reading up on probiotics and according to the yakult website they have 'scientifically proven' their probiotics can reach the gut in tact. anyone know how valid these claims are? _url_0_ | look very careful at the page. what actually *are* the scientific claims that are being made for the product? that's it as far as i can see. uncontroversial. do they actually make claims that the product is actually beneficial on there, or the linked pages. not that i can see. they're very careful. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.yakult.co.uk/about-yakult/what-is-yakult"
] | [] | [
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how the heck does smart shade makeup (almay) work? | almay makes a foundation called "smart shade" that is supposed to *magically* change to match your skin tone. it comes out of the tube looking white with little black specks in it, but as you rub it into your skin, it turns to a fleshy colour. what kind of sorcery is this? help me /r/askscience! | this actually turned out to be a very interesting question, and i'm glad you asked it (i think i might even write/draw it up on my blog). for all the rest of the men who doesn't know what rainbootrobot is talking about, she's referring to [this], and the internet seems to suggest it actually [works] (within a range of complexion). some more digging yielded this [patent], claiming an "emulsion makeup compositions for keratinous surfaces which change color upon application". taking apart the patent language, i believe this is what's behind smartshade. this foundation, apparently, is different from other formulations in that the pigments are not dispersed to start with, but instead captured in little droplets of emulsion. (the chemistry there is interesting, but i don't think you need to know that to appreciate the real issue.) the pigments and the carrier solution are not the same polarity: one is hydrophilic, the other hydrophobic. when it's applied next to the skin, the hydrophilic pigments diffuse out from the hydrophobic media, and disperses itsel now on the keratinous surface (skin). and this, straight from the horse's mouth, in other words, it's all smoke and mirrors -- which is why "smartshade" foundation comes in "light", "light-medium", and "medium" ;) [works]: _url_1_ [this]: _url_0_ [patent]: _url_2_ *edit* - ...and for a more graphical explanation, this is the writeup in [comic form](_url_3_)! | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.almay.com/Products/Face/Foundation/smart-shade-makeup.aspx",
"http://leftoverluncheonmeat.blogspot.com/2006/05/product-review-almay-smart-shade.html",
"http://www.google.com/patents?id=S72XAAAAEBA",
"http://www.jkwchui.com/2011/07/how-does-smartshade-cosmetics-work/"
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why does the brain surface fold? | whenever i hear an explanation of the gyrification of the cerebral cortex in large mammals, it's always something vague involving "surface area". this never rang true for me. surface area of what? the cerebrum with the cerebrospinal fluid? the white matter with the gray matter? why not fill in the "folds" with more gray matter? if the brain can be represented as a sheet of gray matter with underlying white matter connections, why not grow the gray matter thicker instead of longer such that it necessitates folding? it seems more of a volume problem than a surface area problem. | the cerebral cortex is the highest area of your brain, and where all of your consciousness is found. any higher complex conscious thoughts, and any conscious perceptions, thoughts, or actions all occur in/originate from the cerebral cortex. obviously this requires a lot of neurons, and these neurons are all found in the cerebral cortex, which is the outer layer of gray matter surrounding your brain. in order to have the most neurons devfoted to these purposes, the brain "folds" itself. think of it this way... how big is a cantelope, in terms of surface area. now take your brain, roughly the same size, unfold all the folds, and measure the surface area. your brain will measure much bigger. and that outer surface area is where all of the cerebral cortex neurons are located, all of your highest level brain functions including consciousness and complex thought. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do birds of prey not break their own bones on impact while hunting? | so as i understand it, birds have evolved over time to have hollow bones as it reduces their weight and helps with flight. however, i would assume this makes the bird's bones more brittle as a result, so how do they not shatter on impact, particularly in regards to faster species taking ground-based prey? | although their bones are hollow the inside is made with a bunch of little beams much like something you’d see an engineer do to reduce weight. objects such as metal sponge are a good comparison, when force is applied to the bone or sponge there are many different routes for it to take, dividing the weight over enough surface to render it pretty much nothing. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you tell if a solid ball of substance is uniformly dense? | supposing that any places of lesser density are exactly centered within it, like a perfectly spherical truffle with perfectly spherical chocolate filling, and assuming you don't know what material it is so you can't just try displacement. | measure its mass, radius, and moment of inertia. the moment of inertia about any axis passing through the center of mass should be 2mr^(2)/5 for a uniform sphere. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any theoretical modes of information transmission that we can't understand yet? | i know we can send and receive information through radio waves, and optical fiber, etc. but are there any modes that may be better or that we just don't understand yet? maybe something on the wave spectrum that we can't view or measure with our current technology? | it is possible but currently very ineffective to send messages using neutrinos. if this can be made useful, we could do things like send messages directly through the earth instead of around its surface. someone will probably bring up entanglement, but entanglement can't be used for communication (although it can be used for cryptography). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://people.physics.illinois.edu/Selvin/PRS/498IBR/Twist.pdf",
"http://www.aim.uu.se/Publications/Preprints/ThenEtAl:arxiv:2008.pdf",
"www.icranet.org/download/ESOP/Slides/barbieri2.pdf",
"http://scientificbritain.com/post/17937731825/orbital-angular-momentum-a-new-tool-for-space",
"http://www.physics.gla.ac.uk/Optics/play/photonOAM/",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/597/2/1266/pdf/0004-637X_597_2_1266.pdf"
] | [
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is my ap biology teacher right about this aspect of evolution? | my teacher has said that evolution itself is not a theory, but that the means by which it happens (natural selection) is. she said that evolution can be defined as change over time, and she said that nobody can argue that species haven't changed over time. just wondering - is she right about this? (that evolution isn't a theory, just natural selection) | well, there does exist a 'theory of evolution', of which natural selection is the explanatory mechanism. but it's correct that evolution _also_ exists as an empirically observed phenomenon. to make an analogy: gravity is an observed phenomenon - an apple falls from the tree and hits the ground. newton's _theory of gravity_ is a theoretical explanation for how that works. einstein's theory is an even more detailed one. there's also a historical context: darwin came up with the theory of evolution-through-natural-selection. but he was _not_ the first to come up with the idea of evolution in the sense of all animals/life having come from some single origin. lamarck and others had thought of that before. arguably, the concept (or at least it's inspiration) was already there in linneaus classification system for species a century earlier. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the chances that two identical pieces of paper will be crumbled up to form the exact same shape? | since you've tagged this 'mathematics', i'll consider the paper continuous. in this case, the chances are zero. there are infinitely many possible foldings of such a sheet, not even thinking about crumplings. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how long does it take a voltage source to "realize" how much resistance that is opposing it. | in an electrical circuit, how long after the voltage source is connected does it "realize" how much current to produce based on the resistance it sees? | the answer is "it varies". do you remember kirchoff's laws and the kirchoff equivalent circuit? every non-perfect voltage source has a series resistance that represents voltage droop as you pull current from the voltage source. similarly, every component and wire in your circuit has a parallel capacitance to ground that represents the electric field changing in the vicinity of the components voltage source and its components. those two circuit-equivalent components yield a time scale (remember, a resistance times a capacitance is a time). that's the time scale you care about. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one "shoot" alpha particles at something? | i was in chem the other day and we were talking about rutherford's famous experiment and how he shot alpha particles at gold foil. i know what alpha particles are but . . . how do you shoot them? | in rutherford's days (and for simple tabletop experiments today), you just take an alpha source (a material that naturally decays by alpha emission), and collimate it. that means that you surround it with shielding except for the direction in which you want the alpha particles to move. you can make your "beam" as directional as you want, by making the collimation more or less stringent. however this is very limiting. each alpha decay is monoenergetic (although the source can undergo more than one decay branch), and alpha decay q-values tend to be around 5 to 8 mev. so this limits very much the kinds of experiments you can do. additionally, if you want a high rate, you need a high-activity source, which is difficult to deal with. nowadays we use accelerators. you can produce a beam of alpha particles which doesn't need to be "manually" collimated. you can tune the energy to whatever your accelerator is capable of providing. accelerators can generally reach energies much higher than typical alpha decay q-values. and its easier to develop higher-intensity beams, as opposed to just working with an alpha source with a very high activity. | 34 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would the magic numbers be if the sign of the spin-orbit interaction strength was reversed? | so talking about the nuclear shell model. i feel the title explains all you need to know. i am not too familiar with the equations around the magic numbers so would like to know a little background on that too! | on the eighth page of [this pdf](_url_0_), there is a diagram showing the levels of a simple nuclear potential with the spin-orbit splittings explicitly shown. if you switched the sign of the spin-orbit interaction, you could roughly just invert each series of spin-orbit split levels, and count off the new magic numbers. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ch374/ch418518/Lesson6-rev.pdf"
] | [
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could the coronal hole(s) spotted on the sun have anything to do with the fata morgana seen over jiangxi, china? | i realize these two phenomena may be completely unrelated and that it may be a long-shot, but i was wondering if the [coronal holes observed across the top of the sun] (_url_1_) and the effects that the high-speed solar winds they promote have on earth's magnetic field may have anything to do with the [fata morgana seen over jiangxi, china] (_url_0_). | no. coronal holes are an incredibly common if not near permanent feature of the sun and have no influence on weather beyond some space weather. fata morganas are rare but are also well understood and are not influenced by solar activity. | 6 | [] | [
"http://gizmodo.com/freaky-illusion-gives-the-impression-of-a-floating-city-1737313781",
"http://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/goddard/coronal-hole-front-and-center"
] | [] | [
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] |
is it even possible that febreze works the way it's advertised? if not, how does it work? | according to febreze commercials, the product traps smelly particles and then dissolves into nothingness. seems pretty farfetched, but how farfetched is it, really? _url_0_ febreze explaining it's product. | it doesn't "dissolve into nothingless," as it is depicted. that aside, it is generally close to the purported mechanism of action - using a [cyclodextrin](_url_0_) "cage" to trap odor-causing compounds. | 13 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YMwjoVrM74I"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclodextrin"
] | [
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why do some basket ball players seem to have a longer hang time? | i finally figured out what hang time is. an illusion of hanging in the air due to the simultaneous upward and forward jump. right? so why do the announcers talk about some players having a long hang time? is there some sort of physiological reason? or are they just messing with my head? | some people can jump higher than others, and that's about it. a person's center of gravity is going to accelerate due to gravity just like anyone else's. the center of gravity will rise and fall smoothly whether it's michael jordan or me. but if person a can jump higher than person b, then it might appear that person a could "pause" in the air if they curl/uncurl their body at the right time. the only way for this pausing illusion to occur is if person a changes where their center of gravity is on their body mid-flight (and the viewer must be distracted so they aren't watching the player's actual center of gravity). the player can do this by stretching/crunching to some small extent. for example, if in mid-air someone is stretched out from head to toe, but with their arms by their side, their center of gravity might around their belly button. but if they were then to *instantly* curl up their legs and raise up their arms, their torso would have to shift slightly downward to conserve momentum. where is the new center of gravity, still at their belly button? no, because if it was, that means their center of gravity had to shift instantly with respect to the ground. it won't do that, the center of gravity rises and falls smoothly. their center of gravity actually moved from their belly button to a few inches above their belly button. remember that their torso had to shift downward as they brought their legs/arms upward, but their center of gravity isn't fixed in one location on their body. their new center of gravity had to shift upward from their belly button so it could stay in the same position w.r.t the ground during that instantaneous shift of arms/legs. what would that look like to a viewer? if they're watching the basketball, they'll see the basketball rise in the air with the basketball player's hips as the player first jumps. then as they crunch up their legs and raise their arms, the basketball still looks like it's rising, but the viewer might not notice that their torso is actually already falling towards the ground. so the viewer will see a basketball rising in the air for a longer period of time than what the player's center of gravity is actually doing. **edit:** for the full picture, imagine a defending basketball player that is trying to block the shooter. how does a defender jump? the defender typically jumps with their arms stretched upward as high as possible to block the shot. they don't usually curl/uncurl their body, because that timing would have to be perfect to block the shot. so the defenders center of gravity stays constant with their body, but the shooter's center of gravity shifts. [example of michael jordan crunching, while the defender stays stretched](_url_0_). but if you watch every other dunk in that video, michael jordan stays stretched the whole time. why? because he's a balla and he can simply jump higher than most other people without worry. here is kobe bryant's ["massive hang time"](_url_1_), curling up his body, while the two defenders in white are outstretched the whole time. he doesn't have more hang-time than anyone else that can jump as high as he can. he can simply jump higher than many other basketball players. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8M2NgjvicA&t=2m",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KOOvaNtGIU"
] | [
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question about specimens suspended in blocks of glass or plastic, and how they're made. | at my elementary school library, there were a bunch of specimens - mostly of insects, spiders, scorpions, seahorses, and coral - that were perfectly suspended in glass. at least, i'm fairly certain it was glass. my question is, how can something organic be encased in glass like that, and positioned so perfectly? wouldn't the heat from the glass-making process utterly destroy them? just how are specimens like this made? even if it was acrylic or some kind of plastic, wouldn't they still have to be made at temperatures too hot for delicate specimens to remain intact? | it is likely encased in plastic. when making plastic, you mix together chemicals to form a polymer, but not necessarily at high temperature (usually 100 degrees c). you can then place the specimen in the liquid plastic and cool it. this is a common lab done in undergraduate organic chem courses. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i try to research and educate myself, for fun, on renewable energy, however this approach is stumping me. | _url_0_ > ibm is rethinking the solar panel. > > a team of scientists led by the tech company has been awarded a three year $2.4 million grant to develop a solar power generator that's capable of concentrating the power of 2,000 suns and converting 80 percent of incoming radiation into energy. > > ibm research will work collaboratively with airlight energy, eth zurich, and interstate university of applied sciences buchs ntb to develop and test prototypes of the high concentration photovoltaic thermal (hcpvt) system. one model already exists at the ibm research lab in zurich, and more will be built in switzerland's biasca and rüschlikon. according to the scientists, the hcpvt system can be built at less than $250 per square meter, about a third of the cost of comparable systems. > > the hcpvt system is made up of a large parabolic dish that uses many mirror facets to reflect the sun's rays onto receivers laden with hundreds of small high-efficiency pv chips to generate 25 kilowatts of power. measuring a square centimeter each, the triple-junction photovoltaic cells can convert an average of 200-250 watts over an eight-hour day in a region where the sun is strong. > > in addition to renewable energy, such a solar system can also provide drinking water and air conditioning using water byproduct. similar to cooling systems for supercomputers, the hcpvt system passes 90-degree celsius water through a porous membrane distillation system, a process that's said to be 10 times more effective than passive air cooling. after the water is vaporized and desalinated, it can provide 30 to 40 liters of drinkable water per square meter. a larger installation, according to the researchers, could provide enough water for a small town. this cooling system could also provide air conditioning with a thermal-driven adsorption chiller, which unlike traditional compression chillers, doesn't have an impact on the ozone layer. > > while prototypes will be tested in switzerland, the scientists envision the hcpvt system being used in southern europe, africa, the arabic peninsula, the american southwest, south america, and australia. furthermore, they see the opportunity for remote locations to utilize such a system for entirely infrastructure-independent energy and fresh water. can someone please explain how this works and how it competes with all other current renewable energy methods? that article just did nothing for my comprehension of this new (spin on old) tech. | this approach competes with other current renewable energy methods in two ways: first, one of the biggest issues with current photovoltaics (pvs) is their efficiency (how much of incident sunlight they convert to electricity). if you concentrate the sunlight, you can increase the efficiency of pvs. pv efficiency equation: η = pm / (e x ac), where η = efficiency, pm = maximum power point, e = input light (w/m^2), and ac is the area of the pv concentrating the sunlight increases e, increasing the efficiency. in this case, they are taking the input radiation from 1 sun (1000 w/m^2) to 2,000 suns (2 x 10^6 w/m^2) with more efficient pvs, you need less area to get the same power output (reducing the cost). second, since the concentrated light is directed on the pvs, they get very hot. this necessitates water cooling to keep them within their operating temperature range. the hot water can then be used for cooling, water purification, etc. this helps harness more of the sun's energy, getting the system up to an 80% conversion of the sun's incoming radiation. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.dvice.com/2013-4-22/photovoltaic-prototype-could-harvest-power-2000-suns"
] | [
"http://workingwithwater.filtsep.com/view/26235/novel-concept-for-energy-reuse-from-high-concentration-photovoltaic-thermal-hcpvt-system-for-desalination/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_distillation"
] | [
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if you power up a generator but connect nothing to it, including a ground wire, what happens to the electricity? | i ask because i have often wondered what happens when i blow out my computer with an air compressor and the compressed air spins the fan blades. according to my understanding if you take any electric motor and manually spin it, electricity is produced instead of consumed. however, since the computer is unplugged what happens to the electricity? is it stored somewhere perchance (probably not but it's worth an ask)? | it really can't be stored anywhere, as there is nothing to store it. what happens in the case of your fan blades: in order to produce a voltage, you need * a magnetic field * a conductor * relative motion between the two. in the case of your dc fan, you might not have the magnetic field, since it likely requires separate excitation, or a permanent magnetic field, which i don't know if it has. for the sake of explanation, let's say it does. so you now have a voltage produced! woohoo! you have a positive on one wire, and a negative on the other. but...those wires aren't connected to anything. no current flows. no work is done. there is no way to store work that isn't done. what happens in generators that *are* hooked up to a load is that the current produces a force that opposes the force which moves the generator in the first place, slowing down the machine. this force does not exist in the fan you're blowing, so its speed is limited only by the friction on the wheels and the inevitable dust that's ended up in it. disclaimers: yes. some (very minuscule) amount of work is done in the real world, but i'm simplifying things here. and i apologize for the lack of backup, but it seems there is no wikipedia page for dc generators, only dc motors. i'm going to have to look into this... | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does lead exposure really influence crime? | i was doing some research for a speech i have to give and came across [this article](_url_1_). i thought this was so bizarre and was a case of correlation rather than causation. so i did some deeper digging and pulled up [rick nevin's publication](_url_0_) to see what the deal was. i do a pretty poor job of following what's going on in these documents so i'm here to ask, is it *really* possible that lead influences homicide rates? or is it merely correlation? | lead's been blamed for a lot of things in human history, ranging from madness in great poets and writers, to the fall of the roman empire. lead poisoning (from an exposure to lead) can affect a number of things, but most prominently, it can affect the development of the nervous system in children and adolescents, which can result in a variety of learning and behavioural disorders. i believe the increase in behavioural disorders may be what's affecting the homicide you're talking about. you can read more about the affects of lead poisoning on the wikipedia page dedicated to it [here](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.ricknevin.com/uploads/The_Answer_is_Lead_Poisoning.pdf",
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/07/AR2007070701073.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Midgley,_Jr"
] | [
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how cumulative is nutrition? | nutrition guidelines are always written for the scope of a day (ex. %dv, maximum salt intake, etc.). how effective are they if considered within a longer period of time? if someone eats three days worth of vegetables one day and none the next two, do the nutrients all even out? how about with protein or salt or fat? what if it's over the span of a week? does the body metabolize everything daily or can some of it be stored for later use (other than the obvious fat)? | some nutrients that the body needs can be stored in fat cells or elsewhere. many nutrients especially complex proteins are easily synthesized from amino acids readily available in most foods. some amino acids can only be obtained from food, some of these may not be easily stored in the body. unfortunately the question is very vague. we can provide specific examples of how the body stores specific nutrients and for how long. is there any specific substance you're interested in? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can i demagnetize a magnetic screwdriver? | after much searching, i found a screwdriver with a sharp enough point to (hopefully) disassemble the fan housing on my laptop's gpu / heatsink-tubes-thingy. accessing this treasure trove of dust-bunnies would make my semi-annual maintenance much easier, but the screwdriver i found is magnetized, and i know better than to put magnets anywhere near my computer's vitals. how can i demagnetize this screwdriver so that it will be safe for use on my computer? | having some computer building experience, a magnetized screwdriver is not nearly powerful enough to cause any damage to your computer parts. they are very weak magnets, and you would have to run the magnet over and over your parts to actually damage. tons of people who build computers use magnetized screwdrivers, including myself. don't need to demagnetize it. also, it's not very logical to demagnetize your screwdriver because it won't work afterwards. you can't exactly remagnetize afterwards. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetization#Demagnetization"
] | [
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what are phosphite and pyrophosphite? how abundant are they on earth, and what parts of the earth can they be found? | not phosphate and pyrophosphate, but if you could explain the difference, that would be helpful as well. | phosphite is reduced phosphate, po3^2-. it has been reduced by the addition of two electrons compared to phosphate. pyrophosphite is two of them linked together, like pyrophosphate is two phosphates linked. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
geology: what is this rock? | found on my mother's property in hocking hills county, city of logan, ohio. the property sits atop a fairly small hill with the eastern slope consisting of an acre of clay from which this rock/mineral was found. i believe it to be an iron concretion as it is dense, metal, and streaks redish/brown/dark orange. the outside i believe to be hardened (petrified?) clay considering it's origin of discovery. [album: 3 photos](_url_0_) i would really like some insightful thoughts, questions, and/or answers from you lovely people. the center piece is not magnetic. | what you have there will take some explaining, as it is many things at once: first, that is a glacial cobble; a part of the glacial deposits which make up part of the hill where your mother live. this is how it got its roundish shape. the chunk was plucked up by the glacier from the bedrock, somewhere up-ice. the material it is made of is a type of granitic rock which i cannot id without doing mineral counts (not possible with these pix, sorry) - call it a granitoid. when it was left there by the melting ice sheet, the soil and the cobble began experiencing oxydation as well as repeated seasonal cycles of freezing and thawing. the weathering is responsible for the ocre-colored alteration overprint, which results in part from the breakdown of feldspars and in part from the infiltration of clay minerals and iron oxydes. it is also responsable for the concentric banding pattern along which the rock breaks in russian-doll like fashion. sorry for he long answer, but this rock had a longish story to tell. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/bxjzz"
] | [] | [
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humans are willing to sacrifice their needs/survival for people/things they love. in what other species is this tendency also seen? | and on a side note, are there actions of greed/murder in the natural world? i know there are some cannibalistic species, but i've never heard of let's say, psychopathic chimpanzees. it seems as though humans are the only species willing to compromise their survival for stuff (couldn't think of a better word). | this can be seen in a few species, though it may not be for "love," depending on your definition of that word. when a bison herd feels threatened, they will surround the young and weak and face outwardly to create a living shield of body mass and horns. even when not among the herd, this instinctual behavior takes over. a mother bison will stand between her calf and a pack of wolves. some birds will "dive-bomb" passerby animals to repel them away from the nest, [as observed in this video](_url_1_). in some cases, these attacks result in the death of the mother. when it comes to greed/murder in other species, this has been observed, most notably, in chimpanzees, orangutan, and other primates. for example, [chimps have fought turf wars](_url_0_). in species of pack animals, the alpha member is usually the one who gets the largest portion of a kill. this can be viewed as greed. similarly, jealousy and "murders of passion" have been observed throughout many species. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.discovery.com/animals/chimp-war-behavior.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tsDLd9pkEG4",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism"
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why does wet tissue have significantly low yield stress? | title says it all. i'm sure there's no chemical reaction in adding water that lower the bond strength between each molecule. so what make a wet tissue weaker than normal? | paper is mostly cellulose. cellulose molecules are held together by hydrogen bonding. when you add water, some of these bonds are broken, as cellulose starts bonding with water instead of the other cellulose molecules. that means wet molecules of cellulose are easier to separate. it is not only a matter of paper or tissues, dry wood is stronger than the wet one for the same reason. - taken from physics forum (discussing chemistry, i know) tissue is also bonded with glue, and is specifically designed to disintegrate in the sewage system. you of course can get tissues that are stronger, made with glue that doesn't disintegrate as much with water contact. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a hypothetical limit to the distance at which brain activity can be detected? | yea it is limited by the sensitivity of our electrodes/magnets/coils/whatever, and it is pretty short. if you increase range and/or don't fix someone still, your signal to noise ratio is going to be absolute shit. i mean if you wanna just have someone wear a set of eeg electrodes and then transmit that via radio or whatever than you can obviously have arbitrarily large distances, but that seems against the spirit of the question. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't hands lie flat | why don't our hands lie flat when rested on the back? instead our fingers curl up... why is this? | tendons in their natural state dont lay our hands flat. they naturally form a curve. muscles must be used to form a flat hand. it's similar to giraffe's. their necks are naturally held up by a tendon and requires muscle to bend them down. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do people appear to not be bleeding in images/videos of surgeries in progress? | pictures/videos of surgeries always have no blood anywhere, and a gaping wound...they might wipe every now and then, but for the most part, there is no blood. is it all anti-anticoagulants? do they clamp off all the capillaries? am i answering my own question? why do folks need multiple transfusions then? (during/after surgery) | while it depends on the type, surgeries do tend to bleed a lot. superficially there may not seem to be much bleeding, however a large amount of blood may have been suctioned away or hidden, collecting at the bottom of a cavity (e.g. abdominal surgery). however, unless there is truly significant blood loss, there is a tendency towards replacing fluid rather than using blood transfusions. there are several methods used to reduce blood loss. most of the surgeries i've seen used a diathermy (rather than a scalpel) - it's a device that uses an electrical current to cut and cauterise tissue, closing the smaller blood vessels/capillaries and preventing excessive bleeding. laser surgery presumably achieves a similar thing. for larger blood vessels, the surgeons can throw a few stitches (a ligature) to tie off the blood vessel, or close the vessel with a clip. prior to tying/clipping the vessel, haemostats might be used to clamp close the vessel. for orthopaedic/limb surgery, a tourniquet can be used to completely occlude blood supply to that limb (which presents risks of ischaemia/damage). positioning the patient in a certain way can also reduce bleeding (e.g. a downwards slope with the head and chest lower than the abdomen and legs). in terms of pharmaceuticals, the anaesthetist can use drugs to maintain a lower blood pressure to reduce bleeding. in scenarios with a high risk of blood loss, drugs can be used reduce bleeding (i.e. antifibrinolytics and coagulants). however, for the most part, patients are often given drugs to *decrease* coagulation. while excessive bleeding is undesirable, surgery also carries the risk of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolisms - so anticoagulation/dvt prophylaxis is usually preferable. | 71 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is one side of the brain emotional/creative while the other side is logical/factual? | i think most people have heard references in pop culture/among the general public to being "left-brained" or "right-brained," the implication being that one side is logical and the other side is emotional, or one side is creative and the other side is factual. i always thought this was just one of those things people say that didn't have any scientific credibility until i saw [this ted talk by jill bolte taylor](_url_1_), a neuroanatomist who had a stroke in her left hemisphere and, she says, became more creative as a result of increased reliance on her right hemisphere. i also recently started reading a parenting book ([here](_url_0_)) that is premised on the idea of helping your kids "integrate" the left brain and the right brain. so all of that is a lengthy lead-up to ask: is this stuff true? is one side of the brain creative/emotional and the other side is logical/factual? what evidence suggests that (other than jill bolte taylor's experience)? when i read about specific brain regions, it seems like the only things that have been empirically shown to differ between brain regions are things like motor control (i.e., left brain controls right body; right brain controls left body) and also speech processing, which is mostly in the left hemisphere (depending in the person's handedness). **is there evidence that one hemisphere of the brain is creative/emotional and the other is logical/factual?** what does that evidence look like? | things such as logical or creative can be complex behaviors and are not limited to a single area in the brain. there are some aspects of brain function that are lateralized (e.g., language on the left and visuospatial on the right), but even these are not only done on one side of the brain and are not the same for all people. there has been a great deal of research on so-called ["split-brain" patients](_url_0_) which clearly show this [lateralization](_url_2_). but, and here is a big but, most people do not have a severed corpus callosum and therefore the hemispheres of the brain communicate with each other and share in behaviors. therefore, in the end, [both of the sides of the brain work together](_url_1_). anything that you see from educational materials, brain training, self-help books, philosophy, etc. that tries to draw large truths about people in general from a left/right brain perspective, are taking an ounce of research findings and turning it into a metaphor instead of scientific truth. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1491514817?ie=UTF8&isInIframe=0&n=283155&ref_=dp_proddesc_0&s=books&showDetailProductDesc=1#product-description_feature_div",
"https://www.ted.com/speakers/jill_bolte_taylor"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n8/full/nrn1740.html",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0071275",
"http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00839/abstract"
] | [
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would someone please explain how operators like multiply/divide and xor work in computing and simulations? | i'm trying to freshen up my knowledge of particle and fluid simulations for visual effects and i still don't fully understand what's going on when i use these operators. for instance what is happening when i use a divide operation to divide the age of a simulation using a gradient ramp texture that has grey scale values 0-1, or values greater than 1 that is connected to a color/diffuse channel. same question but using procedural fractal map instead? and what is happening when you use the xor operation. | exclusive or: one or the other are true, but not both (or neither for that matter). a xor b | result ---------------- 0 | 0 | 0 1 | 0 | 1 0 | 1 | 1 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_multiplier",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(digital\\)"
] | [
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canonical versus non-canonical pathways and their implementation in drug therapies. | i am having a hard time understanding canonical and non-canonical pathways, especially in terms of tgf-beta signalling. my understanding is that canonical pathways are well understood mechanisms that generalize how a certain molecule/protein will signal. for instance i understand that in terms of ecm, tgf-beta is bound to the ecm by a binding protein and that integrin-beta1 on fibroblasts is need to apply mechanical stress to release it. tgf-beta is then able to act through ark5 receptor, etc. this is considered canonical. while tgf-beta acting through such proteins as rac, jnk-p are considered non-canonical because they depend on a cell by cell basis and also they're less understood and less frequent. that's my understanding. now my question is, in terms of developing therapeutics to treat such things as fibrosis, is targeting the canonical pathway too general i.e. it will effect other things in the body that do not need therapeutic action? while targeting non-canonical pathways is the better option because of the specificity on the cell by cell basis? thank you in advance. | canonical vs. non-canonical pathways generally has to do with which pathway was originally the best characterized. in wnt signaling, which i study, there is a canonical pathway and several non-canonical pathways. however, these non-canonical pathways aren't utilized less frequently, and all of the pathways can be modulated on a cell-to-cell basis. in wnt signaling, the 'canonical' 'non-canonical' terminology is getting phased about, because it leads to misconceptions about the importance or prevalence of a pathway. i think when it comes to developing therapeutics, a more important question to consider is 'what does that particular pathway actually do?' different pathways often have very different results in expression. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much rain is required to end a drought? at what point is the reset button pressed on a "drought monitor"? | i live in southern california and daily i hear about saving water, extreme drought, lake mead, snow pack in the sierras, etc. my question is at what point will the drought reset to normal? say we are 50" of rainfall behind over the past several years. would we need to have 50+1" of rain to get out of the drought status, or would we be cleared if we had a foot of rainfall in a month? i know the ideal situation would be sustained light rainfall for an extended period of time so that it has time to soak in and trickle down into the groundwater systems. does a period of brief heavy rainfall (such as several inches of a couple of days) factor into a drought monitor differently since most of that would likely simply runoff into streams/rivers and the ocean instead of filling underground reserves? | one wrinkle to any answer is that a drought can be defined as "a need for water in excess of the current water replenishment rate". this is an interesting concept because, if we consider some parts of texas or california, under *normal* conditions the current demand is greater than the expected replenishment rate naturally available. that means those areas will be in drought conditions until *people and agriculture just give up and leave*. when actual low-replenishment conditions occur (like now), the problem is just exacerbated more. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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