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model on how chain mails propagate? how many % of people need to forward them? | hey, so i've read an article in a newspaper about a whatsapp chain mail telling people that a certain contact is a hacker or some bs like that. i've not seen such a message in years and i'm quite surprised that they still exist, but i guess my contacts aren't people who would forward this. this made me thinking: what % of people need to forward those messages for them to be "alive"? i've tried to find research about this but i couldn't find anything. i'm quite sure it's very similar to how diseases and vaccines work, with a 100% working vaccine for thsoe who don't send the message and 100% chance of getting the disease if not vaccinated. so could i use those models? the only question would be how many people are those who send the mails interact with. | there's a lot of theory that goes into studying how information propagates through networks, and [this 2008 paper](_url_0_) studied email chain letters specifically. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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why can't new cartilage be put in to counter osteoarthritis? | cartilage can’t just be injected in, painted or glued on, it’s a fairly rigid tissue that is intimately connected to the underlying bone. the repair would need to be perfectly smooth and structurally sound, as even a small fragment being misaligned or broken off will drastically accelerate joint degeneration. moreover, in large joint repair, metal joints fix these issues as they are fitted together and won’t break down over time. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
etymology question: since the y in "ye olde shoppe" was a thorn (þ), and the word is pronounced "the"... | ... does that mean that saying "you" is a perversion of ye goode olde "thou"? | no. the reason that *y* was used was that they didn't have *þ* for their typesets, so they substituted it. *you* in english comes via old english *eow*, which was the objective case of *ge* (*ye*). *ye* and *you* merged over the middle english period, and due to french influence, *you* was associated with *vous*, becoming the *formal* second person pronoun, whereas *thou* became the informal pronoun. *you* over time became the general form. the *y* was never pronounced as *þ*. even *ge* in old english was pronounced roughly as *ye*. something of interest is that even in middle english, *ink* (from oe *inc*) still existed, which was the *dual* pronoun (old english had singular, dual, and plural). i want that to come back. source: [online etymological dictionary](_url_1_) edit: since i *really* want *ink* to come back... corrected modern english: *what do ink think?* modern english: *what do you two think?* early modern english: *what think ye two?* late middle english: *what thenken ye twa?* **past this point, we really should be using the verb beleven/belyfan (believe) for this meaning, but for the sake of consistency...** early middle english: *what thenken ink?* late old english: *hwæt þencan git?* (*git* is the nominative form of *inc*) early old english: [*saxon futhorc here*](_url_0_) common germanic: *hwat þankijaþiz jut?* proto-indo-european (hyp.): *kwód tengetés yuh?* | 937 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Auo0gyY.png",
"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=you&searchmode=none",
"http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=thou&allowed_in_frame=0"
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] |
how does a pita develop a pocket? | why is this bread different from all other breads? how does it develop two distinct, yet connected layers? | it is formed by steam expanding while baking. the only real difference is that few breads are rolled thin before baking. tortillas often have small bubble pockets that swell when heated due to the same effect. if they had a higher water content they would "pita pocket" as well. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can hyperventilating cause lethal changes in ph? | [deleted] | it can’t. hyperventilating will lower your co2 levels, which will in turn constrict your cerebral arteries and make you pass out. then when you’re unconscious you’ll stop being a dick and breathe normally. and your blood ph will return to normal. nothing lethal about it. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much force is put on an ac72's hydrofoil at 30 knots? | [still image of an ac72 hydroplaning on its foil](_url_1_). [video here](_url_0_). let's assume the boat is going 30 knots. 11 crew is roughly 880kg. hull weight is 5900kg, not sure if that includes the wing sail. any idea how much force is being put on that (relatively) tiny hydrofoil? | force in what direction? the lifting force is just equal to everything it's supporting, so 6780 kg. if you wanted to figure out the lateral load, you'd have to know a lot about the wind conditions and the sail configuration. similarly, if you wanted to figure the drag, you'd at least need to know the span of the hydrofoil, and to get an accurate number you'd also need to know its shape at least approximately. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jUZu7RivhoQ#t=2m4s",
"http://i.imgur.com/kaKz7Dp.png"
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is touching someone else's faeces more or less of a health risk than touching one's own? | i saw someone on tv with their arm in a sling and wondered what one should do if one doesn't have prophylactics. | more of a risk. what's in yours are strains of bacteria that your body has already had in it, probably for quite some time, and your immune system is used to keeping them under control. somebody else's will probably contain at least a few different bacterial strains to yours. touching their poo might increase the chance you get infected with this different strain (i say might, because if you wash your hands thoroughly afterwards, and haven't wiped those bacteria anywhere else for safe-keeping in the meantime, you should be ok). your body may not already have the recipe for antibodies (i.e. immunity) against that strain, and respond only slowly to it, allowing the bacteria to multiply enough and make you sick before your immune system finally gets ahead of it. how this relates to a disabled arm and prophylactics, though, you'll have to explain. if it's gross, please leave me ignorant. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if somone is spinning around me at 50,000,000 m/s they would appear to age slower (?) but wouldn't i appear to age slower to them? so... | what happens when are relative speeds become equal? to elaborate, from my perspective i'm always still and age at a seemingly constant rate. the person spinning around me is travelling at a great speed. from what i can tell their time component-vector (if that term makes any sense) is less such that they age more slowly. but from their perspective i'm the one moving and thus aging slower relative to them. if we were to slow down and both became still (to one another) would they appear to be younger or would i or would neither of us and why? i've made the assumption that you age more slowly if you travel at a greater speed. thanks for any help. | absolutely correct. there are actually plans for building a particle collider which will store short lived particles called muons by sending them around a ring at high speed. this will cause them to decay more slowly. correct ... but ... their frame of reference is constantly changing as they accelerate around the circle. changing one's frame of reference changes when far away events happen in your coordinate system. to take a simple example, say i am on earth now and about to take off to travel to a distant star at high speed. taking off is event a. at the distant star, they declare, based on previous communications, that i should be taking off now. this is event b. from the perspective of both the earth people and the distant star people events a and b are simultaneous. once i take off and accelerate to high speed, my reference frame changes. in my new reference frame, event a is a few minutes ago, but event b is many years ago. so even though i see the aliens on the distant star as time dilated, they still age more than me overall when i get there compared to event b, since event b was so long ago. back to the spinning person, the spinning person is constantly changing to a new reference frame as their direction changes, and this changes what the stationary person is doing 'now' according to the spinning person. this constant change of reference frame competes with time dilation, and the overall effect is that the spinning person will observe the stationary person age faster. the key part of special relativity that is generally not talked about as much is this 'relativity of simulatenaity'. what is 'now' in one frame of reference is not 'now' in another. this is needed in addition to length contraction and time dilation to figure out problems such as the twin paradox. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_paradox"
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is there an economic mechanism that prevents a few entities from acquiring all of the housing and renting it out? | it seems like it would be possible for extremely wealthy individuals and companies like blackstone to just continually acquire housing and then leverage rent-backed securities and inelastic demand to rent that housing out indefinitely, which would create scarcity in housing that can be purchased, which would further drive up the cost of ownership and force more people to be stuck renting. is there some economic principle that will prevent this or has prevented it before? are we heading towards a future where nobody owns their home? edit: thanks for all the answers, all of this is super fascinating and much of it is totally counterintuitive to me, so i'll try to do a tl;dr of things i learned from this thread. * for the most part, it's as simple as supply and demand. * supply and demand are not simple * scale - there are too many houses, the market is too big. you can kind of make this happen on an island or in a community with really onerous restrictions on building. i now see building restrictions and regulations differently. * i assumed that housing demand is totally inelastic. it isn't. * my hypothetical situation involved too long of a time scale for good investors. i assumed a small but guaranteed cash flow forever is the best outcome. it's not. i would be a bad investor. * government at every level can play an important role in markets. | so, i don't know if you know this, but blackstone did just what you are suggesting. after the housing crash of 2009, they went out and bought up homes in different cities. they put them all under the umbrella of a reit (real estate investment trust) called "invitation homes" and then spun it out in an ipo a few years ago. $invh is the stock symbol. here's the website: _url_0_ you can see from the website, they own and rent out 50,000 homes in 13 different areas. the company's total market cap is $6.7 billion. however, it's no where close to controlling a significant part of the housing supply. to do what you are suggesting, you would need just one or two companies to control all the housing in a city. i just don't see it happening. even if you get down to 10 companies controlling all the housing options, you'll have plenty of competition. | 221 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.invitationhomes.com/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii_Housing_Authority_v._Midkiff"
] | [
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when performing the deadlift exercise, what is the physics/kinesiology behind the fact that mixed grip is much stronger than double overhand grip? | to clarify, here is a picture of the deadlift exercise, which also details the conventional (double overhand) as well as mixed grip (over/under grip): _url_0_ in the fitness community, it is well known that the mixed grip allows you to lift much heavier weights, but what i'm wondering is why this happens. is it related to the bicep being used as well? | as long as your hands aren't too sweaty, the path of least resistance for the bar is to roll out of your hands due to the shape of the bar and the nature of your hands. if you have a pronated grip, it only has to roll in one direction. if you have a mixed grip, it has to roll in two directions. you're reducing the impact of the torque of the bar on your grip. you can also do this with an olympic hook grip. | 21 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/zLijuOt.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
how is it possible for an unbounded region to have a definite area? or, additionally, for an unbounded region to have an indefinite area but a finite volume? | to clarify, are you asking how something like [gabriel's horn](_url_0_) is possible? i.e. how is it possible for the integral from 1 to infinity of 1/x^2 to be bounded? and how is it possible for 1/x^2 to be bounded but 1/x not to be when one can be interpreted a length and the other the area under the curve? also what exactly are you having trouble understanding? improper riemann integrals, notion of convergence, or how it is 'physically' or 'intuitively' possible? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%27s_Horn"
] | [
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|
what causes people to be cross eyed? | i have always been wondering this. what is the cause of it? is it a condition since birth or something developed? can it get fixed through surgery or treatment? do people with cross eyes see clearly? | i have have suffered with crossed eyes, otherwise known as strabismus since a very young age. i have strabismus and a rare genetic disorder called duane's syndrome. duane's syndrome is the absence of the eye muscle that carries the information from the eye to the brain. there isn't a cure for the disorder and it doesn't progress. instead my brain doesn't work the same as it did when i was younger. my eyes work independent of each other.the dr's don't understand how i made it through college because it's difficult to get the eyes to work together even for short periods of time. my right eye has started to shut down and i have difficulties with close vision. i have had 3 surgeries total which include 2 surgeries this year to straighten my eyes. the surgeon said that my eyes are the best they will be ever be. i'm in my 40's and i was told by the time i reach 60 i will have little eye muscle control. the difficulty will be social security disability because it's not a loss of vision or low vision but a lack of eye muscle control which is not listed as qualifying disorder. i'm sure i will have to fight for it when the time comes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can you actually be injured by thinking too hard? | we sometimes think of people who think too hard as suddenly having a stroke or some kind of cerebral hemorrhage. is this possible or does it only happen in cartoons and the like? | well, in a way maybe it can: _url_1_ - but those are cases in which the brain is damaged during chronic neurodegenerative diseases. there's no such thing as thinking to hard in healthy people. thinking does simply not damage the brain. actually thinking is the best way to train our brain, lacking in brain stimulating thoughts may even cause brain shrinkage. if you think 'too much' you'll eventually get physically tired and well, fall asleep sooner or later. ( _url_2_ ). people thinking 'too much' in the sense that they are *chronically* stressed out for example have a higher risk of high blood pressure and thus are at a higher risk for having a stroke (along with the myriad of other problems chronic stress can cause). but that correlation does not translate into causation. edit: forgot the link to go with this paragraph - _url_0_ also, i'm not native in english, please forgive me any strange grammar. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.cmu.edu/news/archive/2007/October/oct10_cohenjama.shtml",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/11/051104085927.htm",
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/106/3/857.long"
] | [
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ac and dc electricity - it flows, or it doesn't flow? | try as i may, i can't get an answer that makes sense to me. my simple understanding is: alternating current causes electrons to vibrate back and forth within (?) a conductive material (e.g. wire), and the energy "used" by the load is kinetic in nature...kind of like how a windmill extracts energy out of the wind by collecting/converting some of it's kinetic energy. and an ac generator replenishes that wave kinetic energy. electrons don't really travel anywhere. direct current then is an actual movement of electrons, and somehow that movement is harnessed by a load. do i have anything right about any of this? | it's not really due to a kinetic energy effect. one way to somewhat see this is to calculate the speed of electrons in a dc field (the [drift velocity](_url_0_)). for reasonable material values, this come out to ~.2 mm/sec. however, when you turn on an electrical device it works almost instantaneously (the signal travels at the speed of light). when an electron moves, the local electric field changes. it's these changes in electric field that propagate the signal. hope this helps. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_velocity"
] | [
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zero-g surgery | assuing you have the staff and machinery to pull it off, i think (as a perioperative nurse), that the biggest problems would be the blood that would float away instead of getting soaked into the swabs; and you would need magnetic trays to keep the instruments from floating away.. i dont think zero-g affects anything else too majorly, like metabolism/properties of meds or the physiology of the body. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do centypede have the ability to use their feet autonomously, one by one, or do they use them in pairs or similar? | centypedes | centipedes have ganglia in each of their segments which act almost as tiny brains that manage the motion of the legs attached to that segment. to walk a signal is sent from the centipede’s brain down through each of ganglia which then coordinate the motion generally in a wave down the centipede. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the statement "even neuroscientists can’t tell if an individual brain belongs to a man or woman." true? | no. [feis et al. (2013)](_url_1_) ( < - pdf!) can decode gender from mris with 96% accuracy. edit: to add a bit of detail: on average, men tend to have a larger brain size; women tend to have a larger proportion of gray matter over all. when controlling for brain size, there are certain specific regions where women have larger gray matter volumes than men ([luders et al. 2009](_url_2_)). [yuan et al. (2015)](_url_0_) use a fancier method and also obtain ~96% classification accuracy over four datasets of more than 500 mr images total. | 70 | [] | [] | [
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7130613/",
"https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4259/2ac687f95be3c6a53582c9382f62e1fcbe1c.pdf",
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/45/14265.short"
] | [
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|
how functional is azt in the case of late stage aids? | the earlier you start the better. even after the sudden t-cell drop that diagnostically pushes hiv into aids, it's a spectrum and the earlier you start therapy the better your chances and the longer you live. but eventually it progresses so much that all you can provide is palliative care and by "late stage" i would assume that. so, it depends. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the p.d.f. of a random variable which is uniformly distributed over the entire real line? | in the bounded case, x ~ u[a, b] implies f(x) = 1/(b – a), but this (as far as i know) breaks down if either end is infinity. so what would the p.d.f. be? does it even make sense to talk about such a thing? do such random variables even exist? thank you. | as /u/midtek says, there is no such distribution. but in practical problems, it is sometimes useful to model a random variable as if it were uniformly distributed over the reals. in those cases we can use a [truncated uniform distribution](_url_1_), which is uniform over [a, b] and 0 elsewhere, with a and b chosen arbitrarily far apart. [jaynes shows](_url_0_), for example (c.f. p. 139), that the exact choice of a and b has essentially no effect for realistic problems. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/prob/book.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncated_distribution"
] | [
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at what rate does force become magnified when dropping a load on an anchor? | the simplest practical scenario to imagine is in rock climbing. as a load vertically approaches and passes an anchor, how does the force when then dropped from various heights? we can assume a constant length of rope for any given position and ignore the dampening effects of various rope materials if it will simplify things. for example; 10 feet of rope between a hanging 150lb load and an anchor. i guess resting, the force would be 150lbs of force on the anchor, right? as the load is raised in 5, or maybe 2ft increments if it's not too much trouble, how does that force multiply? so at 5ft below the anchor, at the anchor, 5ft above the anchor and 10 feet above the anchor, what would be the force applied to the anchor when the load is dropped from each point be? (this is not homework help, i'm just a curious climber. thanks. :) | it is not possible to assume no elasticity, as this would result in infinite load to the anchor.. i will try to show you why.. the easiest way to go about this problem, in my opinion, is to look at the work equation (search wiki "work physics"). basically the work, from the dropping load, is equal to the work the anchor has to absorb (and then hold the static load) work, is equal to force times distance.. to simplify a lot.. we will assume the rope is linearly elastic (this is ok for steel etc.. but probably not at all for nylon ropes with a kevlar core).. and that the length it stretches is very small compared to the drop.. let's say 1/10 foot the equation would then be like this.. work in=work out work in=150 lbs x 2 feet work out= unknown x 1/10 feet... we solve for unknown and get unknown= (150 lbs x 2 feet)/(1/10 feet)= 3000 lbs... quite a lot.. the biggest unknown here is basically how much the rope + anchor + harness flexes... but as you can see, the smaller the flex (braking distance) the bigger the force.. and for flex - > 0, force - > inf... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes apsidal precession? | so whenever discussions about long term climate changes come up, [milankovitch cycles](_url_0_) are explained, often along with [this graph](_url_1_) of insolation due to it (in black). this cycle is caused by changes in the eccentricity, axial tilt and precession of the earths orbit. however when i went digging into these, i didn't really understand what caused precession. in its [wikipedia article](_url_2_) it says precession is caused by "general relativity, stellar quadrupole moments, mutual star–planet tidal deformations, and perturbations from other planets". two of these i can sort of make a stab at - mutual tidal deformations - does this mean that (on average) the tidal bulges on orbiting bodies are preferentially exerting a persistent force in a particular direction relative to the orbit? but this can't be an accelleration or decelleration surely or orbits would be unstable, what kind of force causes precession? is it a torque applied out of the plane of the orbit causing some sort of gyroscopic precession effect? my limited understanding of orbits is at the simple kerbal space program level of understanding hohmann transfers and orbital rendezvous and the like. perturbations from other planets - are these regular patterns in close approaches in the orbits of the planets that preferentially drag the orbits in a particular direction? how on earth are these calculated, and which planets have the most affect on earth - presumably jupiter? the other two i haven't the foggiest about - what is a "stellar quadrupole moment"? and how does general relativity cause precession? | precession is just the evolution of any one of the rotational behaviours of a planet (or star). this can be pretty much anything and there are different names for specific types of precession. as such there are many causes due to there being many of them! & nbsp; mutual tidal deformations is basically being clear that tidal effects occur on both bodies and not just caused by 1 and felt on the other. tidal deformations are subject to dissipation in the equilibrium and dynamic tides as well as from ohmic dissipation (through magnetic field interactions). this means that the bulge will tend to lag behind or be pushed ahead of the direct line between the two bodies. this then causes a transfer of angular momentum from one body to the other and hence the change in orbital parameters (eccentricity, semimajor axis, inclination, etc) & nbsp; perturbations from other planets is gravitational (and magnetic) interactions of planets which are felt stronger the closer they are. it is often referred to as planet-planet scattering. as far as i am aware jupiter does indeed have the largest impact to the earth in terms of other planets. & nbsp; stellar quadrupole moment - is basically describing shape. this one describes the shape of a sphere with 2 tidal bulges. to learn more about this you need to explore spherical harmonics. i have no idea about relativity! i hope some of this helps i dont think i have been super explicit answering your questions | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/MilankovitchCyclesOrbitandCores.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsidal_precession"
] | [] | [
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isn't the law of universal gravitation contradicting the formula a=w^2 * r? (physics) | ok so the i'm confused about a question in an exam i took today that had to do with this image _url_0_ it said that both the horses follow circular trajectories and asks which one had a higher acceleration, and i said it was the (b) horse (the one with the smaller radius) because the smaller the radius, the bigger the turn that the horse has to make, and so it needs to be 'pulled' to the middle with higher intensity; and you can see in the formula fg=g((m1*m2)/r2 ) (=) a=g(m1/r2 ) < -- law of universal gravitation that the acceleration is inversally proportional (not sure if thats how you say in english) to the radius squared. later i checked the solutions online and it said: the (a) horse has a higher acceleration because of the formula a=w2 *r (w=angular frequency (the rad/s thing)) aren't the two formulas contradicting each other? or is the law of universal gravitation not aplicable here? | the horse isn't moving about the center because it's gravitationally bound to it. it's moving that way because it's being pushed and pulled by the structure it's in. in space, objects in orbit around a body at different distance from it do not have the same angular rotation rate, like everything on the carousel does. things further out have a slower angular velocity than things higher in, which could not happen for a solid rotating structure. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/tUBOWA3.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how are boolean expressions tested on the processor? | i *kind* of understand how addition works on the processor, but what i can't even begin to figure out is how boolean expressions work (such as x < 4). how can the computer return true if x is like 2, but false if x is like 10? | in x86 architectures (so intel and amd chips), something like x < 4 is tested for by by subtracting 4 from x, and seeing if the answer is less than zero. when performing operations, various parts of the result are recorded, such as the answer being zero, less than zero, and so on. have a look at [comparison instructions](_url_0_) and [the eflags register](_url_1_) as a beginning. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/X86_Assembly/Control_Flow#Comparison_Instructions",
"https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/X86_Assembly/X86_Architecture#EFLAGS_Register"
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how can someone pull a plane/train with only his teeth? and even with his only strength? | wheels make things very easy to move, the object may weigh several tons but because of the wheels he doesn't actually need to *lift* it, just get it rolling. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
haarp gets a lot of attention by conspiracy theorists, who i don't believe whatsoever, but i still don't know what haarp is. can a qualified person explain what's actually going on? | haarp gets a lot of attention by conspiracy theorists, who i don't believe, because these people seem like idiots most of the time. i don't believe for one second that most of them have any understanding of the technology behind [this massive contraption](_url_1_). it is often the blame for some ridiculous claims such as earthquakes and what not, which i think is absolutely hysterical, **but what exactly is this device capable of doing?** haarp has a website full of [data and information](_url_0_) but honestly i don't understand what any of it means. i'm pretty sure i'm not alone in this. | very briefly, it sends a very high-power radio signal to the ionosphere (an upper layer of the atmosphere which reflects radio waves) and then measures the reflected signal in order to study the ionosphere. you can think of it kind of like a powerful radar station. understanding how the ionosphere varies over time (night/day, and due to things such as the solar wind, etc) is important for optimizing various communications technologies. haarp's radio waves are powerful enough to cause brief physical changes in a very tiny part of the ionosphere, but any claim that it can significantly alter weather or cause disasters is bunk. it's a bit odd that it would be the target of so many conspiracy theories, considering how open and transparent it is. | 33 | [] | [
"http://www.haarp.alaska.edu/haarp/data.html",
"http://r3zn8d.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/array1.jpg"
] | [] | [
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what's the mental health of a bird in a pet store cage? and how does it manifest? | there's a pattern i've been noticing when visiting pet stores and zoos. there seems to be a face related to "stress" and being apparent in multiple species. an example of one was at the sacramento zoo and there was an anteater exhibit which i stared at for a bit. this was also again seen when i was at a major pet store in the birds and rabbits they had. i'm wondering if this can even be common for fish, but i'll have to further look at the betta fish they have in the containers at the store. so my question is, could there be a physical muscle contraction in the face that is a common indicator of stress on those various species? and if this can be common in humans as well. | like ren said, you're anthropomorphising. animals mostly convey stress in their behaviour and posture, not their faces. birds, fish, reptiles, and most mammals don't have facial expressions. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what other computational methods are used with density functional theory to model material properties above zero kelvin? | this depends on what kind of properties you are interested in. if you are interested in chemical properties like stability, configuration, reaction rates etc. one can use [molecular dynamics](_url_0_) methods. if one is interested in electronic, optical and transport properties temperature typically enters by including electron-phonon interactions somehow. i say "somehow" because this can typically be done at different levels of approximation, from simple models to systematic expansion using many-body pertubation theory. however, one usually start by finding the phonon modes and their spectrum which can be done with dft. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics"
] | [
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] |
|
why is it justified to use just even one "free" parameter in theories in the physical sciences? | why is it okay to tune a free parameter (or maybe a few free parameters) in order to get the results you are aiming for? | because it is necessary. as long as the number of different observations you can describe with the theory is much larger than the number of free parameters this is still a successful theory. as an example, newtonian gravity has the gravitational constant as free parameter. we can measure it with devices in the lab, but the same constant also applies for earth and the moon, for planets orbiting the sun and so on. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is all mucous in the human body the same? | i was thinking about the presence of mucous in the human body, and how it's present in several places: sinuses, lungs, stomach, colon, vagina, and so on. to put is as clearly as i can, are the mucous proteins identical? is the same mrna being transcribed to produce mucous proteins at each production site in the human body? | the proteins that make up mucus are the mucins. and there are ~15 mucin genes. there are 3 categories of mucin genes: 1) tethered - these are physically bound to cells. this is the biggest class of mucin, 9 genes. 2) secreted non-gel forming - this is really only one gene...ok, maybe 2.....and they are a component of some mucus, but their role is not well understood. 3) secreted gel-forming - there are 4 genes here, 5 gene products. most of the stuff that you think of as mucus are these. these are secreted by cells and form aggregates (gels). but they are found in different proportions in different areas. for example, cervical mucus is mostly muc5ac, muc5b, and muc6. the stuff in your airways is 5ac, 5b and muc19. the stuff in your colon is mostly muc2 and a hodgepodge of tethered mucins that come off with shed cells. but it doesn't really stop there; you find these different mucins in different tissues, but some only come on (significantly) when there's a reason. for example, you can alter expression of different mucins during infection. furthermore, mucins aren't simple proteins. first off, they are huge. second, they are heavily glycosylated. that is, they are protein chains with carbohydrates hanging all off of them. this helps make them larger, stickier, and "wetter" (more hydrated). it is also (probably) regulated. so, for example, the muc5ac in your lung when you are feeling well not only changes in quantity, but also in chemistry when you get sick. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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experiment on the non-dominant hand | i am an artist and 2 weeks ago, i broke my right elbow in bicycle. i began to draw and paint with my left hand and surprise, the result is really similar to my regular work. i understand with that experience that my brain and my eyes are drawing, regardless of the hand (or the foot!) that bears the pencil. my question is: why am i so bad to write then? i practice every morning but i find it really harder. someone can explain that to me? | 1)when you draw with your left-hand, do you move from left-to-right? or do you unconsciously compensate and move from right-to-left when you draw? 2)since you typing this in english(granted not perfect english), i assume that you write from left-to-right. try writing right-to-left. this would test if it is just the mentality of writing that is messing you up, instead of the mechanics. 3)what makes a good drawing is inherently subjective, but what makes legible writing is more objective. its possible that you are being charitable to your drawings as a defense mechanism. your identity, as you introduced yourself is "an artist". that possibility that you can't be an artist anymore is too disturbing, so your mind hides it from you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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erection and blood pressure | your circulatory system compensates very well for much larger volume changes than this. veins are elastic, and can stretch. arteries are both elastic and lined with musculature, so they can either stretch or constrict. the body uses these mechanisms to maintain blood pressure at approximately the same level despite small changes in volume. drinking a large glass of water, or working out for an hour, will affect your circulating blood volume a lot more than an erection will. none of these are health problems. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the areas of pakistan and iran have a very predominant swirling feature to their geography? | it depends on the exact area and the scale in which you're interested, but broadly there are two different processes that can lead to 'swirling' topography, both here and in similar settings in general: variations in mechanical properties and some amount of 'indenter tectonics' or irregular continental boundaries. key to both of these is that iran and pakistan are part of a large collisional belt (the alpine-himalayan belt) and both of these processes are important in shaping other mountain belts as well (e.g. if you take a look at the topography of the eroded remnants of the [appalachians](_url_6_), you'll see a lot of similar topographic forms). it's also good to introduce a little bit more specialized terminology for the 'swirls'. if we think about the boundary between the mountainous and the flat topography, areas with a boundary that are convex with respect to the flats (so mountainous topography juts out into the flat) are called salients and areas with a boundary that are concave with respect to the flats (so there is kind of a bite in the mountainous topography) are called embayments. this is clearer as an image, and if we take the topography of [southern iran as an example](_url_2_), we can see the kirkuk and dezful embayments and the lorestan and fars salients. moving on to the two mechanisms: **1)** differences in mechanical properties. in collisional belts (e.g. the himalaya, etc) the continental portions of two plates are colliding and you are shortening (i.e. decreasing the distance between two points within the non-deforming interior of the plates, respectively) and thickening the crust via movement on [thrust faults](_url_3_). overtime, the area will develop series of thrust faults and associated folds, forming what we would call a 'fold-thrust belt'. if you could cut a vertical slice out of the crust through one of these and look at it, you would see something like [this](_url_1_) (this example is from the sevier fold-thrust belt aross idaho/wyoming, but many fold-thrust belts share similar forms). one property of fold-thrust belts we are often interested in is the 'amount of total-shortening', so basically if you measured the distance between the two edges of that cross-section above and then pulled it apart (i.e. undid the deformation accommodated by movement on faults and forming of folds) and remeasured that distance, the difference between the original undeformed and current deformed distances would be the total-shortening. it's not too hard to imagine that depending on the number of faults and their orientation that a fold-thrust belt could accommodate the same amount of total shortening but with very different expressions at the surface (i.e. widths of the fold-thrust belt). a really simple example would be a scenario where two areas have both shortened by 10 kilometers, but in one area that has been accommodated by 10 individual faults that each accommodated 1 km of shortening vs another area that had a single fault that accommodated 10 km. now, the major control on how shortening is accommodated is the local geology, things like are there really weak layers that can move easily or are there big thick deposits of sedimentary rocks. in the case of iran and the [zagros](_url_4_) fold-thrust belt, the major control is the presence or absence of thick salt deposits in the subsurface. salt is really weak, so where there is salt, deformation spreads out forming lots of faults (e.g. the lorestan and fars salients) and where there is not much salt, there are fewer faults which individually accommodate more shortening. **2)** [indenter tectonics](_url_5_) and/or irregular plate margins. to a certain extent, this is another expression of differences in the strength of regions of the crust, but at it's simplest, you can end up with curved mountainous topography with [one plate ramming into another with the indenter not significantly deforming](_url_0_). a variation on this is that the boundaries of the continental portions of plates are often irregular before collision (e.g. basically imagine the coast line of pretty much anywhere, it's virtually never straight). so as two plates begin to collide, the continental portions of these plates may start to collide at different times along their lengths and the portions that collide earlier will become more deformed and be more shortened potentially leading to embayments and salients. **tl;dr** the curvy topography both here and more generally in mountain belts are mostly related to the presence or absence of weak layers (in this region, mostly salt) in the subsurface and/or differences in the original shape and large scale strength of the different portions of the continents before collision. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.geosci.usyd.edu.au/users/prey/ACSGT/Module2/Mod2Lectures/Pictures/Plasti2",
"http://www.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr15/david/cross.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros_fold_and_thrust_belt#/media/File:ZagrosFTB.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_fault",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros_fold_and_thrust_belt",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indenter_tectonics",
"http://www.virginiaplaces.org/geology/graphics/appalachians.png"
] | [
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|
how fast does henry's law work? | i'm curious about how rapidly oceans eat carbon dioxide. but any model is complicated by weathering (if i understand the chemistry, more calcium/salt/iron "salt" from erosion means more ocean sequestration, but i can't source the linkage between rain, wind, erosion, and minerals, and then there is the role of life in the system) so any help on an abstraction is helpful to me. assume the concentration of co2 in the air is 400 ppm. assume the air is 25c. assume pressure is 101.3 kp. assume i have a pool that is 1 hectare wide and long and 1 centimeter deep, and in my fantasy model, the concentration of carbon ion is 0 ppm. so that's 10 million liters of thin, still, 25c water. assume that the water is sterile. how long does it take for the concentration of carbon ion in the water to match the carbon dioxide in the air? how long does it take for the system to reach equilibrium? is this system really that sensitive to salt? if sequestration is damn slow because henry's law acts damn slow, that's interesting. if sequestration is slow because precipitation is damn slow, that's another thing altogether. | so there's a bunch of processes going on here! i'm gonna go from easiest to hardest over and update this post because i am all kinds of lazy at the moment. firstly, carbon ions are not a thing here. carbon dioxide dissolves in water, and is still carbon dioxide. * co*_2 (g)_* < --- then carbon dioxide in water sits in equilibrium with carbonic acid, which in turn sits in equilibrium with the biocarbonate ion. * co*_2 (aq)_* + h*_2_*o*_(l)_* < --- **how long does it take for the concentration of carbon ion in the water to match the carbon dioxide in the air?** like i said carbon ions aren't a thing so i'll assume you mean how long will it take for [co*_2 (g)_*] = [co*_2 (aq)_*] to occur. the answer to this is that it won't. for the sake of calculations, 400 ppm = 4 x 10^-4 atm partial pressure and k*_h_* for equation 1 is 29.41 atm m^(-1). from here we can calculate the equilibrium concentration of co*_2 (aq)_* to be 1.36 x 10^-5 m. converting this to ppm in water gives us a value of 0.6 ppm, nowhere near the concentration of gaseous co*_2 (g)_*. **is the system really sensitive to salt?** yes. two processes will come into effect. first is "salting out", where increased salt concentrations increase ionic strength causing the less hydrophilic molecules to decrease in solubility. this causes a lowering of the solubility of co*_2_* in water. the second is because when there are cations, such as mg^(2+)*_(aq)_* and ca^(2+)*_(aq)_*, dissolved in solution they can react with the bicarbonate ion to form carbonate salts such as caco*_3 (s)_* or mgco*_3 (s)_* (equation 3) which precipitate out as these salts are not very soluble in water. this results in a decreased [co*_2 (aq)_*]. according to le chatelier's principle, this means an apparent shift in equation 2, and thus equation 1, to the right sides, or, alternatively, more co*_2 (g)_* dissolving into solution. * hco*_3_*^- + mg^(2+)*_(aq)_* < --- **how long does it take for the system to reach equilibrium?** mate. this question is fucking hard. i'm looking for the kinetic values now, but what i can tell you is that it is the rate limiting step, not the formation of salts. **found a paper indicating the formation of the carbonic acid might be the rate limiting step, but they don't have a surface area term, so further investigation is required.** edit: fixing shit. this is what i do while calibrating chemometrics. i am not an interesting man. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion"
] | [
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what's the best possible win/loss ratio on minesweeper expert? | there are always situations in minesweeper(expert board) where perfect play still gives you a 50% or 25% chance of winning, for example when you end up with 2 squares with 1 mine, and no information to help you choose. assuming perfect play, where it the theoretical maximum win/loss ratio attainable? | i don't have nearly enough knowledge of statistics to "solve" for an answer, but i *have* been testing it empirically in my free time over a period of several months. though i am by no means a perfect player, i do pay attention while i am playing and use several methods to determine which squares are safe and which are mined. here is a [screenshot](_url_0_) of my game statistics, where i have a ~30% win rate over 88 games. before i reset the statistics, i had several thousand games played with a ~23% win rate. i decided to reset the statistics because i felt i had become better than when i started and wanted a more accurate picture of my success rate. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/b17VB"
] | [
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how large does a sample need to be before an observed phenomenon is 'statistically significant'? | statistical significance is not actually about sample size. large sample sizes often lead to statistical significance, but significance is not defined in terms of the sample size. when scientists and statisticians talk about statistical significance, they are usually working inside of the [hypothesis testing](_url_1_) framework, wherein we formulate a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis, find some observations, and compute the probability that our observations would occur under the null hypothesis. if that number is below some predetermined (and arbitrary) level, usually .05 or .01 in most areas, then we say that our observation has statistical significance. this is to say that our observation would be quite unlikely under the null hypothesis—so unlikely, we decide, that the likelier option is that the null hypothesis is false. to see why increasing the number of observations improves our ability to find statistical significance, it is useful to play around with toy examples. imagine i had a coin with two heads sides. how many times would i need to flip it in order for you to decide that there is statistically significant evidence that the coin is not fair? suppose i flip it 4 times and it comes up heads each time. the hypothesis testing procedure tells you to compute the probability that this event *would* occur if the coin was fair: 1/2^4 ≈ 0.06. this number is called the [p-value](_url_0_), and it is the probability that we would observe what we did observe if the null hypothesis was true. in most contexts, .06 is still too high for us to reject the null hypothesis. but if i flip it again, then the p-value is 1/2^5 ≈ 0.03, which is low enough for a lot of people to be comfortable rejecting the null hypothesis and calling our evidence significant. so in this toy example, a very small sample size of 5 was all that was required to claim that we have significant evidence that the coin is not fair. but you can see how that number might need to be higher if the coin maybe came up heads 70% of the time rather than 100% of the time. then it might take 20 or 30 flips to find an observation with a p-value low enough to reject the null hypothesis. the moral here is that increasing the sample size increases the likelihood of finding statistically significant evidence, but significance is not purely a function of sample size. increasing the sample size gives us a better chance of finding significant evidence, but likelihood depends on the probability distributions of null and alternative hypotheses. it is also obviously possible to fail to find significant evidence even if there is an effect, or to find evidence which is apparently "significant" when in fact there is no true effect. for example, flipping a regular coin *sometimes* results in 5 heads in a row—about 3% of the time, in fact. if we did an experiment and observed 5 heads in a row, we would conclude that we have significant evidence that the coin is not fair, even though it really is. alternatively, a coin that comes up heads 90% of the time will still *sometimes* show heads 50 times and tails 50 times if we flip it 100 times. in this case we would conclude that we do not have significant evidence that it is biased, even though it is. these are called type i and type ii errors respectively. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing"
] | [
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what is the less hand-wavy explanation of magnetic shielding? | the hand-wavy one goes something along the lines of: if you provide a pathway that is easier for the magnetic lines to travel through, they will go through that and around other things. so, a magnet [s|n] on the left of a point of reference if the point of reference is surrounded by a spherical shell of thick ferromagnetical material (mu-metal or just iron), should have most of the magnetic lines that would have gone through the point of reference instead go through the shell. however, i don't get why this would happen on am more mechanical viewpoint. i imagine (possibly incorrectly of course) that any ferromagnetic material essentially acts like a lattice of relatively randomly arranged microscopic magnets...where these magnets could be the atoms or molecules themselves. we call these 'domains', and they have north and south ends like a any other magnet. so i next imagine that a shell of this stuff places in a magnetic field would result in these domains, which are otherwise fixes in 3 dimensions, to rotate (losing some energy due to molecular friction or whatever..resulting in heat) to arrange themselves with the magnetic field lines. so now i imagine that some arrangement of little magnets around a point of reference would negate whatever field is at that point of reference without the shell. i tried to draw this, and get a situation where if everything is in one line and nicely shaped, then the top part of the shell would be a magnetic mirror image of the bottom (if we are looking at just 2 dimensions). shouldn't this mean that the net effect on the exact center of the shell from any symmetrical arrangement of the domains be 0? so, science redditors, can you point out where my understanding is incorrect? i tried to look for an animation gif that would demonstrate this effect but couldn't find one. long question shorter: my long assumption is that the magnetic field lines don't actually move anywhere, but rather the sum of the source lines, and the resultant shell lines add up to form new lines that go around the reference point....i just don't see how this makes geometric sense. | you have to realize that the shell is not infinitely thin. if you want to picture the ferromagnetic shell as a collection of very small, fixed, rotatable magnets, you have to picture several layers of these magnets. the magnets at the outer surface of the shell indeed line up almost perfectly with the external field lines. but deeper in the material, the interaction of the little magnets with each other is just as important as with the external field lines. in the free space region surrounded by the shell, there are no magnetic field lines to start with, and when you turn on the external magnetic field, there can only be field lines inside this region if the external field lines penetrate all the way through the shell, which takes some time after the external field lines are turned on. since there are no field lines in the central free space region, the little magnets representing the material of the shell on the inner surface of the shell have forces of the nearby little magnets pulling them tangential to the inner shell surface, but no force perpendicular the inner surface of the shell. therefore, the little magnets all line up more or less tangential to the inner surface of the shell (depending on the thickness of the shell, the magnetic permeability of the shell, and the strength of the external field). thus, field lines run into the shell, but then tangential to the inner surface of the shell. the key points are that the shell is not infinitely thin and there is non-magnetic material or free space filling the region contained by the shell such that there is a magnetic material/non-magnetic material inner boundary. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we use capillary pressure for free energy | so lets say we have a capillary tube, but this capillary tube is special it can be split in half. the capillary tube is placed in liquid and the liquid raises up through the tube. now we split the tube open (i'm thinking of something like a mold). couldn't we collect some of the water at a height higher than the original water level giving us "free energy" another variation is we have a brick (porous medium) resting at water level (bottom of the brick is just touching the water) the water soaks up though the brick and causes the brick to be heavier. now you have more potential energy then you had before now u drop the brick and "collect the free energy" edit: i'm a 4th year engineering student so you don't need to dumb it down too much | the water rising up from capillary action is actually _reaching its lowest energy configuration_ - that is, the water rises so it has more intermolecular interactions with the walls of the container and itself, because it's a stable configuration. that means whatever way you try to _remove_ water from that configuration, you're _adding energy to the system_. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the leading explanations for the widespread occurrence of zipf's law, or more broadly pareto distributions? | zipf's "law" is a property that's been observed across many heterogeneous domains, including word frequency, city sizes, income, and even television viewership. a zipfian distribution is one where the frequency of a particular observation is inversely proportional to its rank, so that the most frequently occurring observation occurs twice as often as the second most frequent observation, and three times as much as the third most frequent observation, and so on. it's something that's stumped statisticians for decades. a word like "statisticians" is extremely rare, but we aren't boggled to see it in a sentence. in fact, we see rare words all the time, because even though any particular "rare word" is observed very infrequently (compared to common words like "and" or "to") there are a lot more "rare words" than "common words", and these factors mysteriously balance out to form a straight line when you plot frequency vs rank. in fact, a flat distribution over a broad range of frequencies, i.e. having the rare and common words "balance out", is mathematically equivalent to zipf's law. that's a key insight, but *why* they balance out is still unclear. the best explanation i've come across is from the recent paper [*zipf’s law arises naturally when there are underlying, unobserved variables*](_url_1_), by laurence aitchison, nicola corradi, peter e. latham. their argument is that latent variables can combine multiple, non-zipfian distributions into a zipfian distribution. let's unpack that a bit, in a loose, hand-wavey way that doesn't just parrot the excellent and very accessible paper. in a sentence like "alice likes the icecream at that shop" we've got relatively rare nouns like "alice", "vanilla", "icecream", combined with relatively common determiners like "the" and "that". in fact, if we break it down into a part of speech template: noun verb determiner noun preposition determiner noun we can generate other sentences: bob attacks the elephants at the zoo. aliens control the weather on the moon. if we repeat this sentence generation many times, we'll start to see some patterns, because our grammatical structure dictates that we "select" words from the correct part-of-speech distribution. so when we need to pick a determiner, we've got relatively few choices, "the", "a", "this", etc. even though the sentences could be talking about completely different things, the determiners are going to be chosen from the same small set, so there's going to be a great deal of overlap. and even though nouns are a really broad set, in a wheel-of-fortune-like way, the sentence structure calls upon us to "give me a noun" quite often, so we end up selecting from that broad set a lot- more often than we would expect given how comparatively rare nouns are. obviously this glosses over the mathematical formalisms a great deal, but the intuition is basically intact: there's some unobserved structure to a lot of zipfian distributions that "selects" from many different distributions over many orders of magnitude of frequency, and this "smooths out" the distribution so it becomes zipfian. [this image from the paper sums it up really well](_url_0_). | 65 | [] | [] | [
"http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article/figure/image?size=inline&id=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005110.g002",
"http://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005110",
"https://youtu.be/fCn8zs912OE"
] | [
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|
can you really infer useful information about a person by observing his or her body language? | as typically depicted in popular media. | well, this is a rather broad question, because the "range" can be quite significant. can you tell that someone is nervous because they are fidgeting, their eyes are shifting, or whatever? yeah, you probably can. although of course you don't know if they're nervous because they're just always nervous, or because they have done something wrong... on the other extreme of the spectrum we have sherlock holmes as portrayed by benedict cumberbatch, who can immediately tell that watson is a retired army doctor with a psychosomatic limp. that does seem to go way beyond what should be reasonably possible to infer. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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just read about denaturation. question about fevers | so i'm taking biol 190 and just read about how proteins can undergo denaturation. as i have understood it, this is basically the proteins losing their shape and becoming useless. the book then mentions that high fevers are fatal because the proteins in the blood become denatured at the high temperatures. i know that ice packs are usually put on a person's body to help cool them off. i was wondering if injecting a cooled saline solution into the blood stream would also work or work quicker? or if that would cause more damage? | you generally want to avoid something as drastic as injection of a cooled substance into the body as it can lead to sharp overcompensation leading to the opposite effect of what you are intending. there also issues where it can cause vasoconstriction and lead to decreased perfusion. not ideal in a sick person! the application of ice packs occurs in regions around major arterial vessels (underarms; axillary artery and brachial plexus, groin region; femoral artery etc) and acts to gradually cool the blood by taking heat away rather than applying cold (thermodynamics!) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do (some?) things behave differently while being observed? | for years, i've been into theoretical physics/quantum mechanics/physical philosophy/whatever (not even close to a professional level, which is why i don't know the specific field), and i've often encountered people who believe that it is true that when no human is looking at something, it ceases to exist. obviously this is not the case, but it is my understanding that this misconception comes from the idea that things behave differently while being observed (and i understand this doesn't necessarily mean observed *by humans,* or even by living things), which, i *believe* has been proven with (protons/photons? honestly don't recall), behaving like particles or energy (i think) based on wether they were being observed by equipment. i've pondered this for ever and i can not think of any remotely logical reason this makes even a little sense. am i wrong in thinking that this is true? if not, do we know *why* this happens? if so, then for the love of entropy *why?* | this is the result of a bad explanation. "observer" in quantum mechanics is just something that forces the system into a specific state, rather than somebody actively watching it. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a correlation between things we see and how we behave? | i think you need to tighten your question up. sexual imagery and arousal are correlated. kittens and 'aww' are correlated. seeing someone point a gun at you and fear are correlated. it is difficult to think of occasions where what we see does not cause some sort of reaction. your question on my computer screen is correlated to me typing a response... i feel that the answer to your question is "obviously there is." this seems so obvious to me that i feel there must be something missing from your question. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
where does excess electricity go? | so power plants generate electricity (by burning fuel, or from some other source). that electricity is distributed to the power grid, and from there to homes and businesses. question: what happens to the electricity generated that is not used by consumers? | what everyone else has stated about load following is true, but they have left out something pretty important. in ontario at least, the grid will sometimes just ground excess generation. yes, they will just heat the ground with it. in areas with significant hydro power, one can effectively store some quantity of energy by just holding back on the dams and letting the level rise. at the same time, you make up the shortfall with other generation types, so one could view it as if you were storing up power from these other sources. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the idea that disjoint events are dependent by nature confuses me. could somebody dumb this down? | so my professor managed to temporarily convince me of this idea using the example that if you remove the possibility of one disjoint event that the others are more likely, and i agree with this part. however, is this not true for many independent events as well, such as flipping a coin (a very common example of an independent event)? if you knew the coin would be heads, would it not mean that it would 100% be tails? are these not disjoint events? the whole concept seems contradictory, like i'm missing something. | two events *a* and *b* are independent if p(a ∩ b) = p(a)p(b). if *a* and *b* are disjoint, then *a* ∩ *b* = 0, so that p(a ∩ b) = 0. so the events can be disjoint only if at least one of them is actually empty. in other words, non-empty disjoint events cannot be independent. this should make sense logically since if *a* and *b* are disjoint, then roughly, the presence of *a* implies the absence of *b* (and vice versa). just the english description makes it clear that the events should not be independent. the events somehow affect each other. successive coin flips are independent, but your confusion seems to lie in thinking that they are also disjoint. the event *a* = {flip 1 is heads} is not disjoint from *b* = {flip 2 is heads}. you can very well have an event where flip 1 and flip 2 are both heads. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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different observes can disagree on the simultaneity of events. to what extent? | relativity says that observes in different references frames can disagree as to whether two events happened at the same time. for example, observer a says two events happened at the same time while observer b says one happened after the other. (and, possibly, an observer c who says they happened in reverse order of b (?)). is there a limit to the degree that they disagree? a says they happened simultaneously. is there a reference point where b could say that one happened a million years after the other? what's the limit (if there is one)? | spacetime intervals between events are either spacelike or timelike. a spacelike interval is what you're talking about, where two events separated by some distance occur at the same time (according to someone). there are exact formulas for solving for the interval between two events but the important part is this: could light (or information, causality, etc.) leave point a when the first event occurs and reach point b before the second event? if the answer is no, then the two events are separated by a spacelike interval, they are not causally linked, and the time between the two events is completely arbitrary depending on your frame of reference. depending on your velocity relative to the events you could observe them as occuring at the same time, or a arbitrarily long before b, or vice versa. if two events are separated by a timelike interval, meaning that light from event a could reach event b before it occurs, then the exact amount of time between the two events can change depending on your reference frame but you can never change the fact that a happened before b. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would getting regular psychological checkups help prevent mental disorders from arising? | it was just a thought that ran through my head. if we are supposed to get physical checkups regularly, why not mental checkups? what procedures would be done at this check up? is this necessary, or should a person just wait until they need it? | for one, we might argue against the value of routine physical checkups. the society of general medicine argues against them for healthy adults, noting that they "have not shown to be effective in reducing morbidity, mortality or hospitalization, while creating a potential for harm from unnecessary testing." there's been plenty of back-and-forth on mental checkups would have some similar problems. trying to assess huge numbers of people creates a large risk of false positives. for instance, at present, the uspstf has recommended physicians screen the general population for depression, while the canadian equivalent has recommended against it. the problem is when you have a mediocre screening tool, and only a small fraction of the population has a given problem, a positive result is more likely to be wrong than right. in the setting of primary care, where mental healthcare training is inadequate, this means widespread over-treatment. besides, many risk factors are difficult or impossible to alter. if we sent millions of people to mental-health checkups, we'd mostly be stuck not knowing what to say or do, and we'd burden an already strained system. generally, trying to catch psychiatric problems early hasn't been terribly successful. it's well known, for instance, that full-blown schizophrenia is often preceded by a "prodrome" of slow cognitive worsening and other vague symptoms. unfortunately, maybe a third of people like that will actually go on to develop schizophrenia, and there's not a whole lot to do about it. on the flip side, self-care is a fine thing. routine exercise and mindfulness meditation can have substantial psychologic benefits to the average person, and low risks involved--you don't need an office visit to recommend them broadly. there's even free online cognitive-behavioral therapy (moodgym) provided by an australian university, which includes a lot of coping skills that can be helpful regardless of current problems. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes jackscrews so capable at lifting heavy loads? | i've been reading about the [raising of chicago](_url_1_) that was carried out in the 19th century to enable the construction of a modern sewerage system. i find it hard to believe something as mundane-looking as a [jackscrew](_url_0_) can lift buildings. from the article, bolded emphasis mine: > in january 1858, the first masonry building in chicago to be thus raised—a four story, 70-foot (21 m) long, **750-ton** brick structure situated at the north-east corner of randolph street and dearborn street—was lifted on **two hundred jackscrews** to its new grade, which was 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) higher than the old one, “without the slightest injury to the building.” | imho, there is two aspects to the usefulness of a jack screw. the first one is lever. for one full rotation of the lead screw, you move up only pitch of the screw. as you make a reasonably fine pitched jack, it means you can apply reasonable amounts of torque on the jack screw to move an enormous mass. let's say your pitch is 1cm. if you move your lead screw 5 degrees, you are moving up 1cm x 5/360 = 13 microns up. so if you are lifting 10 tons, that's 10,000kg x 9.81 x 13e-6 = 13.62 joules worth of work. now, that means you had to apply a torque of (13.62/ deltaangleinradians) = 156.13 nxm. assuming you are using a bar of 1m length to run the lead screw (your "tire-iron"), you had to apply 156 newton of force. or about 16kg....so clearly, the lead screw acts as a lever with a huge differential ratio (about 500 in this exemple, moving a 10 ton weight with about 16kg of lead screw "force"). you can move immense masses a very short distance using very small forces applied a much longer distance, but unlike the conventional lever, the mechanism is very compact, being wrapped around a screw. very, very convenient. the second is the large area of contact between the screw itself and its base. in mechanics, a screw is often described as an inclined plane wrapped helically around an axis, and the exercise that typically follows is to calculate the area of contact between the screw and its mating piece. the result is a surprisingly large area, that depends on the pitch, the lower the pitch, the longer the area. this area serves as a transfer mechanism for the force/weight the jack bears. because it is a large area, the pressure on the teeth of the screw is lowered, and therefore doesn't reach the mechanical limit of the material used to build it. heck, if you have a problem with that, just make the female part of your jack slightly longer, and further increase the area of contact, decrease the pressure. or lower your pitch further.... as an aside, the often used rule of thumb is often that if a bolt is threaded in an effective length deeper than the small diameter of its shaft between its teeth, it is actually the shaft of the bolt that will break long before the threads rip as you increase stress on it. so for a jack, you can always make the lead screw fatter, and the female section holding it longer to decrease the stress on the teeth.... in summary, a jack has a huge leverage combined with a flexibility of design (length of female piece and size/pitch of thread) that allows to lower material stress to acceptable levels for incredible weight loads. | 22 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackscrew",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raising_of_Chicago"
] | [] | [
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why does my absinthe suddenly 'louche' at a certain concentration? what makes that concentration critical to the effect? | ethanol is a better solvent than water, so when you dilute with water, stuff with poor water solubility form solids and turn the drink cloudy. in absinthe it's the oils from the various spices. in whiskey (unless chill-filtered) it's from the wood and malt. at what exact concentrations you start seeing things, that's up to the spirit in question. i would dispute that it happens suddenly. try adding water drop by drop with proper stirring. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallization"
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|
how does stress work on craft in space? | i'm a novice writer, but firstly an avid thinker, and this is something i've often wondered about: how does stress induced by thrusters impact on a spacecraft? ie. turning, avoiding fire (theoretically!) etc. | for everything i've ever seen, the largest loads are atmospheric-drag related: from highest to lowest: atmospheric reentry, abort loads, and launch. here, the concern is dynamic pressure (max q) and the related loading of the airframe. for many launches, thrusters are throttled down for this regime of the launch, to help alleviate the load on the structure. maneuvering loads once in orbit or on a trans-planetary trajectory are much lower. in this case, it's typically a much smaller engine pushing against the inertia of the ship, and these inertial loads are low compared to the aforementioned loads. i suppose if you were considering a theoretical ship, it may be accelerating much faster (once in microgravity) than anything that's actually been launched - in this case, it's conceivable that you might have high stresses, especially if rapid avoidance maneuvers are required. these would still be much lower than atmospheric reentry, but on a large ship with a high polar moment of inertia, there could still be considerable internal stresses. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.stardestroyer.net/Empire/Science/Size.html",
"https://www.courses.psu.edu/aersp/aersp055_r81/satellites/thruster.gif"
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how does helium cause a mems oscillator to stop working? | helium has recently been identified as the culprit in killing some apple hardware, due to interfering with mems oscillators: [_url_1_](_url_0_) & #x200b; is the oscillator small enough that individual helium atoms can jam between the moving parts? is it some sort of chemical effect? what's actually going on? | helium can diffuse through some air-tight seals, because helium atoms are just so much smaller and less interacting than any air molecules. there's a reason that people distinguish between air-tight and helium-tight seals. these mems devices are mechanically designed to operate in a vacuum, so if there's suddenly some he gas in there causing friction, the device doesn't operate properly. if the partial pressure of he outside the device drops to zero again, the he will slowly diffuse out of the device again. however, he can stick to surfaces, so if the devices were exposed to a partial he atmosphere for a long time, there will be a lot of adsorbed he on every surface. this means that the surfaces will outgas he for a very long time. outgassing can be accelerated by heating ("baking") a surface, however if you decide to put your iphone in the oven to bake the memses, make sure you don't break it by heating it too much. that's the theory (and i wrote the first part of that also in the original thread), however i vastly overestimated the amount of helium needed to kill these devices. i would be interested if someone has some numbers for the maximum (helium) gas pressure where the mems devices in the iphone work and for the typical leakage rates for he and air through the vacuum seals used in these mems. i would like to know what partial pressure of helium over what time period kills an iphone. | 28 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/sysadmin/comments/9mk2o7/mri_disabled_every_ios_device_in_facility/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/sysadmin/comments/9mk2o7/mri\\_disabled\\_every\\_ios\\_device\\_in\\_facility/"
] | [] | [
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] |
will the world ever run out of metal? | it always amazes me how much metal we all have in our homes and just everywhere around the world especially now in the age of so many electronics being made every day and stuff like that. i've always wondered how much there really is in the earth. | what do you mean by "run out"? very little metal ever leaves the earth, and meteorites (which contain metal) fall to the earth at a much higher rate than we send metal probes into space. the earth is about 50% what chemists would call metal (mostly iron, but lots of magnesium, calcium, aluminium, etc.) from a "what if we're using it all?" perspective, you'd need to guess future populations and technology. some metals are quite rare (i.e., there's typically about a gram of francium on the earth), others are quite common (i.e., there's about a million billion billion pounds of iron). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/klnsg.jpg",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=interactive-how-much-is-left",
"http://conservationreport.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/amount-of-natural-resources-left.jpg"
] | [
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how does an algorithm for taking a panoramic picture look like? | i am quite fascinated about the programming behind the panoramic view function on my iphone. although seemingly trivial, it boggles my mind when i think about it. | it takes many pictures and "stitches" them together. (think photoshop) it determines the matching parts of the given images and puts them together. an example of such an algorithm is the [sift algorithm](_url_0_) developed by david lowe. an example of this algorithm put in production is [autostitch](_url_1_) | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cs.ubc.ca/~lowe/keypoints/",
"http://www.cs.bath.ac.uk/brown/autostitch/autostitch.html"
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what are "meters" when talking about radio? | i have a basic understanding of how radio works, as in fm/am. what i don't understand is when people on the am band refer to "meters". so in the uk a lot of early radio stations broadcast on am, and advertised their frequencies like ***"1161 khz, that's 258 meters in the medium wave band."*** what are these 'meters', and how do they correlate to the kilohertz frequency? | the meters are just meters, in the sense of distance. the advertisement refers to the wavelength of the radio wave. radio waves are a form of light, distinguished from visible light by the difference in frequency (the frequency of visible light particles is around 500-700thz; about a million times higher than am frequencies). wavelength and frequency are related by the simple equation c = λν, where λ is the wavelength, ν the frequency, and c the speed of light in vacuo. as to *why* an advertiser would refer to the wavelength, i'm not sure. perhaps some radios actually tune by wavelength. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is a reynold's number higher than 4000(using si units) always turbulent? also where does the usefulness of this value break down? | it seems to me like reynold's number is one of those "good enough" types of equations and i've been wondering if this relation is always true or if certain cases defy any assumptions made by the usual equation of (density x velocity x diameter)/(dynamic viscosity) | first, reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity - there are no units, and the units that you use to calculate it don't matter as long as you're consistent (e.g. don't use a velocity in inches/second and a characteristic length in meters). i'm not sure what you mean by reynolds number being a "good enough" type of equation, or where the usefulness of the value breaks down. reynolds number is an incredibly useful concept whether you're studying an erupting volcano or a vehicle flying at hypersonic speeds. it simply describes the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a moving fluid - there isn't really anything to be "true", it's just a parameter we use for describing boundary layers or for scaling. the critical reynolds number at which a flow transitions from laminar to turbulent is different for every geometry. 4000 is typically a good rule of thumb, but it can vary quite a bit depending on the geometry, surface roughness, and what you define as characteristic length (what you refer to as "diameter"). for a flat plate this is typically around re=50,000 (where the characteristic length is the distance from the plate leading edge). | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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magnets stick together one way and repel the other. if you had something that could clamp some big magnets together while they were trying to repel. overtime is there any reaction? | yes. the magnets would start to demagnetise each other. that is one of the ways we use to demagnetise permanent magnets, by placing them in an opposite magnetic field. | 30 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what goes on inside our bodies when we concentrate? | what's the brain doing and why do we feel so much better about doing something when we're concentrating? why are we so much more alert than before? | there is a finite limitation to the amount of attention capacity you have. different studies investigate this, with somewhat differing conclusions, but there is a general consensus that doing more than one thing at a time divides your available attention. now, when performing mental tasks, you tax various locales in your brain (different structures involved in certain tasks). when you are distracted or have divided attention, more areas of your brain are going to be activated, though not to their full extent. when you 'concentrate' you can help limit the various locales of your brain that are in 'overdrive' thus concentrating your resources, inter-brain communication, and the less physical ideal of 'attention' onto a single task. this task may be multi-layered, but the simpler the task is, than the less brain structures will need be activated, and the more concentrated your resources will be. you are more 'alert' because all of your conscious brain is tuned into the single task. there are no confusing signals that may be crossed, no demanding, competitive functions that may impair your full attention. does that help? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what % of species masturbate? | can all animals auto stimulate themselves to sexual climax? is it closer to 50%? less than 1%? is it something only primates can do? was being able to masturbate somehow an evolutionary advantage, or just a bonus for having nimble and dexterous fingers? | re: askfarmscience: if you include masturbation to mean humping nearly anything and everything to get off, then by direct personal observation i'd include male dogs, buck goats, roosters, drakes (ducks), turkeys (had one tom who was using workboots as sex toys) and a rabbit that was apparently aware of a version of the sex sock. had a heifer that used to mount her shed when she was in heat. not sure that she ever got off, but the males of the other species certainly left plenty of proof that they did. i'd love to hear from an animal behaviorist if my theory that often human articles of clothing are picked by farm animals for displays of affection has to do with imprinting on the human and the clothes smell of the human. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/bering-in-mind/2010/06/22/one-reason-why-humans-are-special-and-unique-we-masturbate-a-lot/"
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why are s and p waves curved on a time/distance graph and not linear? [geology] | i was looking at a graph like this the other night in my natural disasters class and am just curious as to why the s and p waves don't have a constant rate of speed but seem to speed up over time. looking at p waves for example it seems that they travel 2000km in the first 5 minutes but 4000 km in the next 5 minutes. my logic woudl think tht these were slowing down over time as they lose energy but the graph doesn't seem to support that. i am admittedly not the best with mathematics but i believe i am reading this correctly. my professor said he would look into the answer for tonights lecture but i will be out of town and this has been bugging me! could anyone eli5 this for a geology undergrad? _url_0_ i understand the concept that is trying to be made with locating an epicenter and focus by calculating the s-p interval and triangulating it's location with a few seismic monitoring locations but the behavior the waves themselves is where i scratch my head. thanks for the help! | if the earth was a sheet then you'd get a linear relationship as the waves would travel outward like a ripple on the surface of a pond. but the earth isn't, it's round, so an increase in separation as measured on the surface will not correspond to a proportional increase in the straight-line separation between epicentre and detector. i'm assuming the distance on the horizontal axis is measured along an arc of the earth's surface, though. | 7 | [] | [
"http://stream2.cma.gov.cn/pub/comet/Environment/TsunamiWarningSystems/comet/tsunami/warningsystem/media/graphics/SPwavetraveltimes.jpg"
] | [
"http://crack.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/plate/velocity.html"
] | [
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] |
why can the strong force only overcome the coulomb force at a close range? | well, there are two different "strong" forces at play here. there's the pure [strong interaction](_url_1_), which is the force experienced between quarks directly. then there's the [nuclear interaction](_url_0_), also called the "*residual* strong force," which is experienced between *nucleons* (protons and neutrons). the pure strong force definitely, definitely would overcome the coulomb force at all ranges. the pure strong force has a unique feature that causes the strength of the force to *stay the same* as the distance increases. however, as only quarks experience the strong force, the strong force binds up quarks into protons and neutrons. if you try to separate them, the strong force will actually hold them together very, very tightly, until you apply enough energy to actually *create new quark-antiquark pairs*. it becomes more energetically favorable to create these new particles than to continue stretching them apart. as for the nuclear force (which is what you're probably asking about) -- when quarks are bound together into nucleons, their total color charge balances out almost equally. however, because they are still composite particles, there is a small charge separation, and so the cancellation isn't perfect and nucleons will interact with eachother. the nuclear force that they experience drops off much more rapidly with distance -- it's not an inverse-square law. so as the distance increases, the nuclear force gets very weak rapidly, while the coulomb force remains less weak for a larger separation. hope that helps! | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction"
] | [
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|
can our subconscious know something our out-front brains don't? excuse the terminology. | i'm not familiar with all the brain jargon is but the essence if that question is can our brains process things subconsciously that we are not even aware we figured out, but can be "triggered" somehow? maybe it's possible while dreaming or just processing thoughts. | the influence of the unconscious mind is a source of enormous debate among neuroscientists and psychologists alike. however, it is very clear and generally agreed that: 1. the unconscious mind is capable of [implicit learning](_url_0_), which primarily deals with adapting to patterns in the environment and is independent of explicit learning. this results in it being largely independent of general intelligence and unaffected by many forms of explicit memory deficits. 2. the mind is capable of acting upon information which is not interpreted consciously, primarily through the aforementioned implicit learning. since this information can be acted upon even if there is no possibility of conscious awareness (e.g., due to extremely fast presentation of information), the unconscious mind most likely interprets and perhaps modifies sensory cues before they reach the conscious mind. 3. the brain *probably* has methods of unconscious problem solving and cognition, which may be responsible for those "eureka" moments which often occur when solving complex problems. eureka moments are understandably difficult to study, so evidence for this idea is more scarce. freudian/jungians would also argue that the unconscious is also related to the latent content of dreams, and observations of depressed patients provide weak support of this, but i can't say i've seen any convincing studies on the matter. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_learning",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=N6S9OidmNZM"
] | [
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what is the difference between subcritical, critical and supercritical mass? | hi, i have a critical question :-) what is the difference between subcritical, critical and supercritical mass? for nuclear detonation supercritical mass with specific density is required? i cant shake that slotin guy from manhattan project playing with demon core and screwdriver :-) here's how i currently understand it: slotin played with two critical/subcritical sphere half's. when his screwdriver slipped he got a supercritical sphere. in that instance fission started which irradiated him to death. however, density of the core was not sufficient for neutrons to hit other cores in required number to achieve exponential growth in fission/core hits thus preventing explosion. please comment my thoughts. thank you. | fission makes neutrons. and those neutrons go on to cause other fissions, which release more neutrons. this is why we call it a fission chain reaction. now think about the uranium atom that sits right at the edge of the sphere. a neutron hits it, and it splits. now, the neutrons it gives off can either travel back into the sphere (and cause more fission) or exit the sphere altogether. these neutrons that escape don't contribute to the chain reaction. in a subcritical environment, a neutron is more likely to escape than it is to cause a fission. in a critical environment, a neutron is less likely to escape, and more likely to cause fission. strictly speaking, uranium releases an average of just over 2 neutrons per fission, so if the fission rate is about 50% per neutron, then the chain reaction will continue. when slotin dropped the 2nd core onto the first, he changed the geometry of the system, making it more likely for neutrons to cause fission. unfortunately for him, it kicked off the chain reaction. the reason there was no explosion is different that what you are saying. fission releases energy, and energy tends to separate a system. but a fission chain reaction requires the system to stay compact. in a nuclear bomb, the fuel is violently, explosively compacted with so much force that it remains together long enough for a huge amount of fissions to take place. without that force holding things together, an explosion doesn't take place, because the bomb just falls apart as it heats up. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which has a greater surface area per equal volume? sphere or torus? | if you have a sphere of volume x and a torus of volume x... which would have the greater surface area? would the diameter of the torus matter? | the shape with the smallest possible surface area for a given volume is a sphere, so the torus will have a greater one. you can see more [here](_url_0_) and [here](_url_1_). | 162 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere#Equations_in",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus",
"https://theworldaccordingtoalice.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/game-over-man-game-over.jpg"
] | [
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] |
does the downward force increase on a pull up bar when you hang versus when you're actually 'pulling up' and doing the force? | if the person increases his upward force by doing the pull up does the bar have more downward force than when you just hang? | absolutely. see [newton's third law](_url_0_). when you're just hanging, the only forces on you are gravity acting downward, and the bar acting upward. by newton's law, you act with the same amount of force on the bar. when you're pulling yourself up, you're accelerating upwards, so you have a net upwards force. the means that there's a force between the bar and you equal to your weight + additional force corresponding to you pulling yourself up. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motion"
] | [
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old units of time | there are umpteen different systems for measuring distance; feet, meters, cubits, etc. but why is there only one system of measuring time? i know that the french tried to introduce decimal time after the french revolution, and i am aware of hexadecimal time, but are there other historic systems? i've been wondering this for a while and i've done some research, but i'm still coming up empty. thanks. | the swiss tried to introduce the "beat": one beat equals one milliday. it was supposed to be the internet time, but it didn't take off. that was a few years ago, so maybe not as historic as you imagined. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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anchoring bias help? | i am trying to create an experiment demonstrating anchoring bias. does anyone out there have some studies i can base myself on? | check out work by nobel laureate daniel kahneman. one particular paper of interest would be the classic 1973 kahneman & tversky *psych review* paper, or their 1974 *science* paper. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if everyone starts out as a virgin, where do stds come from? | and why do they exist? why do viruses exist, how do they exist? what's their purpose? | virgins don't only have sex with virgins, they have sex with people who received the std years earlier. also, vertical transmission -- mothers can pass stds onto their babies during childbirth, and people can receive stds through rape, so even virgins have stds. because they spread and survive better than anything can eradicate them. purpose? they have no *purpose*. they exist for the same reason humans do, or cacti do, or tardigrades do; they grow and spread and multiply. if they didn't, they wouldn't have existed for more than a blink, would they? anything that exists for more than a moment exists because it's good at reproducing/multiplying and surviving. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the borsuk-ulam theory work? | i've had it's basics explained to me but it still doesn't make any sense in my head. doesn't it assume that the temperature/pressure of the earth is a gradient from the equator to the pole which isn't necessarily true? | are you referring to the borsuk-ulam theorem of topology? (the original flair of the question was earth science.) the theorem states that given any continuous function f:s^(n)- so put n = 2. this means that given any continuous function which takes a point on the sphere s^(2) and spits out two real numbers, there must be some pair of antipodal points that give the same values. so let f be the function that takes a point on the surface of earth and spits out the air temperature and air pressure. then at any given time, there are two antipodal points on earth that have the same temperature and, at the same time, the same air pressure. pressure is always almost always assumed to be continuous. temperature, on the other hand, might not be. so the statement is only approximately true. the surface of earth is also not spherical. now, technically, you do not need s^(n) in the bu-theorem. you can replace s^(n) with any set e which is the boundary of an open, bounded subset of r^(n) containing the origin, such that e is also symmetric in the sense that if x is in e, then -x is also in e. but the surface of earth is hardly a symmetric surface. we can actually do away with the symmetry also if we are careful. that is, earth not being symmetric is actually not important, as long as we assume the following. consider a ray from the center of earth out to infinity. if that ray intersects the surface of earth exactly once, then the bu-theorem still applies. a pair of antipodal points are then a pair of points on the surface of earth, which are the intersection points of earth and oppositely directed rays. if we call e the two-dimensional surface and s the region of r^(3) bounded by e, then my statement about rays is equivalent to the statement that s is *star-convex* about the origin. when you ask "how does borsuk-ulam theorem work?", i am not sure whether you are asking about details about the proof or just the actual statement. you need quite a bit of machinery to prove the theorem. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the most "popular" species? | what is the most abundant known species ? what rank on this list are humans? at ~7 000 000 000, one would think we are among the most abundant, but of this i am unsure, | considering you are composed of more bacteria than living human cells, i would say most species of microorganisms have us beat. we rank very low on that list. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does golgi stain only stain a small percentage of neurons? | i am using an older foundations of neurobiology book (delcolmyn) and it states early on that the answer is unknown. we've come a long way since its publishing in 1997, and i'm asking science: why does golgi stain only stain 5% of neurons? | as far as i know, the answer is still unknown. it has something to do with how silver only gets into a sparse subset of neurons. perhaps these are the cells that have some kind of damaged membrane when the stain is applied. it's highly likely that the fixing process before the stain damages some cells worse than others. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are implicit-association tests (iat) reliable for individuals and valid for assessing bias? | i've had some discussions with friends about evidence for different biases and they'll often bring up implicit-association tests as evidence of bias against certain types of people. but it doesn't seem trivially obvious to me that having an implicit bias will lead to actions favoring that bias. and all the studies i've seen are group averages, not testing individuals multiple times for reliability/consistency of the test (like how iq tests have been shown to be reliable). i think i'm using "reliable" and "valid" correctly here, right? but i'm not a psychologist. what is the general consensus or perspectives in the field? will one person reliably score similarly on various measures of the iat at different times? if this a valid measure of actual behavior? | no, it's borderline pathological science right now, at least in how it's being marketed to the public (and to companies): _url_1_ _url_0_ _url_2_ that's not to say no fruitful research is being done, but right now they're being misused. at the moment they belong in experimental psychology labs, **not** workplace training. maybe someday we'll have an implicit bias test that lives up to the hype, but that isn't today. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sjop.12288/abstract",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308926636_A_Meta-Analysis_of_Change_in_Implicit_Bias",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23773046"
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how do conservationists decide what trees and plants are local or non-local? | does the species have to be in an area for a certain period of time? decorative trees in urban areas are likely non-local, but what about seeds naturally moved to other areas via animals or humans? i know colonists brought new species when they arrived. are those counted as local by this time? | generally they need to co-exist. most of the time invasive species have natural defenses against the normal expected predators of the area, so in stead of co existing they take over. this sometimes can be a beneficial action like when wolves were re introduced in yellowstone. but most of the time it causes other species to not adapt as quickly and get wiped out. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do i read temperature anomaly charts? | for the purpose of developing an opinion about the effect of the industrial revolution on average global temperatures, i need to figure out how to read charts such as the following: _url_0_ i think the 5-year mean anomaly is the difference between the mean temperature of that year and the 5-year average, but i don't understand the annual mean anomaly (the black line in the picture above). | you need to refer to the [caption for this figure](_url_0_) to find out how they have defined the anomaly. so what they call the "annual mean anomaly" is calculated as the yearly difference from the average temperature for each year compared to the average temperature over the base period 1951-1980. | 2 | [] | [
"http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/graphs_v3/Fig.A2.gif"
] | [
"http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/graphs_v3/"
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how have wars with large losses (ww1 for example) affected the gene pools of each corresponding country? | i assume losing millions upon millions would leave a mark on the genepool, given that the armies dictated physical parameters for soldiers. | one place to study might be paraguay. they lost a very large proportion of their male population in an absolutely ruinous war in the 1930s. polygamy was legalized for several years in an effort to rebuild. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/100/25/15276.full"
] | [
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] |
doctors: do you feel "dismissive" of patients who have health problems rooted in lifestyle? | i'm not a doctor, but i hope physicians don't ever see their patients so reductively. i certainly wouldn't want to be treated by one who did. illness often involves issues broader than personal choice and self control. the center for disease control, for example, acknowledges the correlation between higher incidents of diabetes in low-income, minority communities: _url_0_ it's not simply that some people in these communities are making poor choices, it's that there aren't many choices available. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/omhd/amh/factsheets/diabetes.htm"
] | [
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|
what happens to a red giant at the end of its life? | currently revising for my a2 physics exam in a couple of weeks, and came across a contradiction in my notes that is rather confusing me. what i know is that below about 1.4 solar masses, the red giant will collapse into a white dwarf, and above about 8 solar masses, it'll expand further into a supergiant. the problem is what happens between these masses. does it always go supernova or does something else happen? | 1.4 solar masses is the [chandrasekhar limit](_url_1_). any star that massive or smaller will form a white dwarf. [neutron stars](_url_2_) will form at less than 2-3 solar masses. after more than 8 solar masses black holes are likely to be formed. in between there is a mixture of relatively unknown kinds of stars called [exotic stars](_url_0_). the reason that it isn't discussed in detail is that we really don't know yet. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_star",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_star#Neutron_stars"
] | [
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] |
if air and water are both considered "fluids" in physics sense, why are their applications labeled pneumatic/hydraulic, respectfully, and not just hydraulic? | fluid just means that something flows. the key difference between pneumatics and hydraulics is that while gases are compressible, liquids are not. the benefits of hydraulics are that they are more responsive and can supply more power than pneumatics, because the liquids don't compress. however, hydraulics are harder to build and maintain, and are more susceptible to shock damage because of the incompressibility. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
in 2006 a cave was discovered that had been sealed from the world for millions of years. i want to know more! | does anyone know anymore about [ayalon cave](_url_0_)? it's been 5 years and i can't find more online! even more [recent articles](_url_1_) don't contain new information. | [there you go](_url_1_), here are some journal articles published since then. science is both costly and time consuming. i suspect they needed time to get funding and set up the lab and personnel to investigate this fascinating topic. not to mention the cave system would require considerable more precaution and control in order to make exploration endure for the long run. aside from articles only mentioning the cave system, this is probably the most recent [article](_url_0_). **edit:** i don't know much about the underlying working of publishing yet, but it's interesting to note that the latest mentioning is an opinion article on a relatively low impact journal for such a bold claim. i suspect either they are monopolising the opportunity for some heavy weight publications, or something unfortunate went down in terms of the running of the team investigating the topic. < /speculation > | 23 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayalon_Cave",
"http://www.freetopessays.com/content/ayalon-cave-and-its-impact-cave-ecosystem"
] | [
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/h2rq2365385w8220/",
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=%22Ayalon+Cave%22&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_ylo=2006&as_vis=0"
] | [
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are the limits, or bounds, to the electromagnetic spectrum? | first of all your question cannot be answered with our current understanding of physics. general relativity and quantum mechanics need to be unified before we can begin to guess the answer to this question. practically though, extremely high energy photons exist, but their presence in the universe is squelched by ability of the photon to couple with itself by some fancy tomfoolery( photon-photon physics). if a photon has enough energy, it's only a matter of time before it finds another photon such that their invariant mass can be spent in a pair production of particles. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a site that gives you an overview of all the state of the art sciences? | and personally i would love to see this for computer science since i'm into that. i've been seeking for a while now without much luck. | i keep an eye on pubmed, but that's for biology type stuff. you can make custom rss feeds based on searches, and have them exported to your favorite newsreader. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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art in science? | i'm an artist, but i'm also interested in science. i'm not particularly talented with mathematics, i find i'm much more talented at doing things creatively. however, i am very fond of science. i find science inspirational artistically; space and biology and everything is a muse to me. my problem is i also want to be a part of the science world, you know i want to help the world think more scientifically and move away from our old habits. how does reddit suppose an artist can really contribute to the advancement of society? what are the best uses of a creative ability in the modern world? | illustration is really important in scientific education. depicting scientific material well is very difficult, and good illustrations can make or break a book. part of the success of the clinical xyz made ridiculously simple book series are its [whimsical illustrations](_url_0_). it is now burned into my mind forever that common cold is caused by coronavirinae and rhinovirus. on the other end of the spectrum, highly accurate but also attractive illustrations are critical in anatomy texts. the reason most people prefer netter's atlas is that it's pictures are the most thorough, realistic, and beautiful than every other. the netter style is now iconic. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/rBZKi",
"http://io9.com/5876668/the-first-science-artist-to-draw-accurate-pictures-of-mars-and-the-moon"
] | [
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could breeders use in vitro fertilization (ivf) to help endangered species repopulate? | like the title says, i was scrolling through my instagram when i saw national geographic's (@natgeo) post about the northern white rhino and how they are on the brink of extinction. my question is could the harvest the eggs and sperm from this species and plant them in more populous one? | they can, and sometimes do. but generally speaking, that's not an approach that will address the real issues. species aren't endangered because they don't know how to impregnate each other. they're endangered because of lack of habitat, overhunting, or other pressures. in vitro fertilization is expensive, doesn't have a terribly high success rate, and has to be experimentally adapted for each species. it's really only useful once you're down to a very small number of animals that, for whatever reason, don't breed well in captivity. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you had a thin rod several light-years long and you somehow pushed it forward, when would the far end move? | your second option is most correct. the thin rod would be like any other medium through which vibration travels, and it would flex, bend, and compress at the speed of sound for whatever material it was made of. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/FTL.html#4"
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|
if i had a rod that was two lightsyears long and suspended in space, and i pushed one end, how long would it take the other end to react? | i think it would move at the speed of sound/the equivalent of such in the material, but i wanted to confer with people wiser than i. | you are right. the deformation of the material would propagate through at the speed of sound in the material, and so that would determine how long it would take till the other end moved. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/physics"
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would you feel weightless on a geostationary satellite? | you feel weightless as long as you are in free fall, no matter the orbit. if the thrusters were to be used, you'd obviously feel their force. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are there nine bundles of microtubules in each centriole? | if possible, please refer to where you got this information. | ["an immature centriole contains a ninefold symmetric array of single microtubules; each microtubule then presumably acts as a template for the assembly of the triplet microtubule of mature centrioles."](_url_0_) - that explains how the bundles form, but as to **why** there are exactly nine is, i believe, unknown (please correct me if i'm wrong). cilia and flagella are closely related to centrioles, and their structure obeys the "9+2" array for generating motion, but centrioles themselves have little movement. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28351/"
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] |
synchrotrons and electric current? | if electric current is defined as ordered flow of electrons then is it correct to say inside the synchrotrons electric current is generated/ flowing? assuming that answer is somehow positive can we describe parameters such as current intensity and voltage inside? finally what happened to anatoli petrovich bugorski according to the above- was he exposed to light, β radiated or did he experienced electric shock? | an electric current is just the motion of electric charge, it doesn't have to be electrons. but yes, there is definitely a current flowing through a synchrotron. the beam is electrically charged, and moving, so it constitutes an electric current. yes. we can talk about the intensity of the beam (number of particles per unit time) or the electric current (charge per unit time). the beam itself doesn't have a "voltage", but the synchrotron rf cavities have some sinusoidally-varying voltage. what's referred to as the "voltage" of the rf cavity is often an integral of the electric field profile over the cavity gap, sometimes multiplied by a quantity called the "transit time factor". he was irradiated by a 76 gev proton beam. the proton beam is an electric current, but this is probably not what you'd refer to as an "electric shock". | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can we modify our skulls for aesthetic purposes just like rhinoplasty? | is it possible? just like those surgeries that celebrities are obsessed on. | well, the more extreme body modification people have gone as far as subdermal and transdermal modifications. some of the most popular work is done near the skull with things like horns, and even threaded collets to screw jewelry directly into the body. this is **not** an actual modification of the skull but there are many instances of this being done around the skull, and it is for aesthetic purposes. a search for [transdermal and subdermal bme](_url_0_) will yield a lot of results. i know that this does not directly answer your question since the skull itself is not modified, but since you added that the purpose was for purely aesthetic reasons i felt it might fit under the circumstances. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=transdermal+subdermal+bme&hl=en&safe=off&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=RzBZUc_3CpOo8ATr64Ag&sqi=2&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1630&bih=817"
] | [
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sun protection factor - spf - is higher than 30 really required for "white adult caucasians" - sorting out marketing from science | it's obvious that marketing plays a huge role in sunscreen lotions. i see people half jokingly say "to get spf 500" - and the marketing reflects this simplistic numerical logic (higher is better). it reminds me of the "higher mghz" is better between intel and amd cpu frequency on computers. assuming the products are not outright fraudulent - and truly delivery the "4 hours of waterproof spf 30 protection" they claim - is there really any reason to reach for spf 45 or spf 50 products from the same producers? p.s. we just had summer solstice in the south half of the world ;) | sun protection factor is essentially a multiplier for your bodies natural resistance to burning. if you take 20 minutes before you turn red in the sun and i take 10 and we both properly apply spf 15 you would be resistant to burning for 300 minutes (20*15) and i would be resistant for 150 (10*15). spf 50 would give you 1000 minutes of protection and me 500. now there are some problems with these numbers. sweat and water will wash away the protection faster along with friction from your clothing or other contact. you also need to have applied it properly which is 2mg/cm^2 most people use way less. sunscreen also only stops uvb rays not vua but you can look for additional ingredients such as zinc or titanium dioxide in your sunscreen to help protect you. there is no standard protection classification for these additional additives so you would have to try to find tests for your specific brand. 1. the american academy of dermatology suggests you use one ounce of sunscreen on your exposed body parts ( arms legs head neck more if you are shirtless. 2. apply 20 minutes before going out. 3. use a minimum of spf 30. 4. reapply every 2 hours. possibly more often if you are heavily sweating or in the water. i use spf 50; overkill? possibly. but melanoma causes 75% of skin cancer deaths even though it only causes about 3% of the skin cancer cases. uv exposure is a risk factor for melanoma. tl;dr unless you burn very easily just follow the aad guidelines and you should be fine. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a wimp ionize a xenon atom in xenon100 experiment? | the experiment relies on the fact that a wimp interacts with a nucleon in xenon and deposits energy onto the xenon making it excited and give off characteristic wavelength of light that is captured by photomultipliers. but it also relies on ionization of the xenon and these electrons escape via a strong e field. i am wondering how a wimp ionizes a xenon atom, and do they expect the same xenon atom to both produce light from excitation and to ionize? | wimps don't ionize xenon directly. that would imply that they interact with the electrons. what they are thought to do is elastically scatter on the xenon nucleus imparting tens of kev of kinetic energy. the now canon-balling xenon nucleus blasts through a short range of the liquid xenon ionizing a bunch of xenon with relatively high energy density. the ionized xenon can then temporarily form molecules. this fact is really interesting in that xenon is a nobel gas! these molecules can be formed, or be subsequently put, into an excited state that can decay by emitting a photon. as there are none of these molecules anywhere except the region of the particle track, the liquid xenon is transparent to these photons. i believe they are in the uv so they need to be wave-length shifted to be detected by the pmts. i find is absolutely fascinating that the wimp-nucleon interaction creates molecules in the nobel gas that are then able to scintillate. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it really possible to run out of water? | i have heard a lot of talk about using up all the water on earth. i don't see how this is possible since we can now convert sea water into drinking water. it also seems to me that water that gets used will eventually be returned to the "system", just maybe in another form. what am i missing? | they're talking about shortages of fresh water. converting sea water into drinking water is expensive. farming requires large amounts of fresh water. i don't even know if it's possible to make enough fresh water from sea water to irrigate all the farms that need it, at a reasonable cost. here in texas we've been in a drought for some time, and farmers are pumping billions of gallons out of the aquifers to irrigate their crops. meanwhile we're set to grow from 26 million now, to 40 million over the next half century, and we're already straining our fresh water supplies. so, we are [turning to desalination somewhat](_url_1_), but there are caveats: but then [there are advances in technology too](_url_0_), that promise to desalinate with less energy. still, for right now desalinated water costs 3 to 5 times as much as regular freshwater. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://gizmodo.com/5990876/lockheeds-new-carbon-filter-takes-all-the-effort-out-of-desalinization",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/10/science/earth/turning-saltwater-from-earth-and-sea-into-drinking-water.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0"
] | [
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how do these 60s/70s orange-glowing buttons work? | there are a ton of them around - in a basement, a garange, a nuclear bunker (converted to storage units). they emit a faint orange light, and are usually springy with noticable travel. i remember vaguely reading about how it was a design that fell out of use. can someone jog my memory? edit: to clarify, i'm interested in how they light up - the thing i read was concerning that. | maybe they have a [small neon lamp](_url_0_) in them? a neon glow discharge tube is small and long-lived and cheap; they used to be a really common way to have a power-indicator light. they've mostly been replaced by leds these days. can you post a picture of the kind of button you're thinking of? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.periodictable.ru/010Ne/slides/Ne3a.jpg",
"http://s205.photobucket.com/user/crash01ita/media/blue.gif.html",
"http://www.allelectronics.com/make-a-store/item/lps-1a/12v-lighted-pushbutton-1-amber-lens/1.html",
"http://www.bulbtown.com/161_MINIATURE_BULB_GLASS_WEDGE_BASE_p/161.htm"
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why do eskimos have a darkish tint of skin color? | i was watching a show on the science channel and it talked about how when we migrated from africa, our skin became lighter due to a lack of vitamin d. the eskimos are so far north, why do they have a darkish skin color? | they had a relatively recent migration, probably from the far east, and haven't had time to lose the pigment. american indians are also pretty brown. actually if you look at the dna relationship eskimos are very close to the natives of japan (most people living in japan now are not the original natives). those people probably migrated in a similar fashion to japan and to north america. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livescience.com/7863-people-white.html"
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is there evidence that other organisms find intrinsic value in nature, similar to us? | for example, we go on hikes to appreciate nature. do other animals do the same? i'm curious if any ecologists out there know of evidence that other organisms find value in nature besides its extrinsic, utilitarian purposes. i realize it's a difficult question to ask because it's on par with "are other organisms conscious," for example, but was thinking there may be a few studies on it at least. | i couldn't find any information beyond whether or not humans found an intrinsic value in nature (and that's still debated). there are lots of issues around definitions and a lot of philosophy. not much hard science, and therefore not many studies. if you are interested in more information about the current status of the field, check out [environmental ethics](_url_0_) and the ecological ideology of [deep ecology](_url_1_). i would propose for the sake of argument that we appreciate nature because of its inherent complexity. despite no prominent studies, one way we can start to approach this question is by defining 'appreciate.' * are humans thankful for nature? can other animals be thankful? * *do humans value nature highly?* can other animals place a value on something? can they recognize 'nature' as a distinct concept? * are humans fully conscious of nature? can other animals be conscious of nature? i think it would be safe to say that most other animals are too concerned with survival and mating to highly value the complexity of nature. they may appreciate a biologically diverse diet, but (afaik) other animals don't recognize that there is a whole range of ecosystems beyond their niche. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_ethics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_ecology"
] | [
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microbiology: chalk mold. endomyces fibuliger. | i work at a bakery that is having trouble with a persistent yeast fungi that affects only the scent of the bread in some rare/random cases (distinct "chemical" smell). it's been identified as "endomyces fibuliger" (chalk mold), but we have not yet received any information on how to get rid of it. neither professor google or dr. wikipedia is helpful at this point. :( biologists of reddit! please help. | it might help to sanitize everything with a caustic cleaner on a day when you are not baking, and i mean *everything*. you might have to throw out all the flour and whatnot that you have stored already. this is how i deal with persistent infections in my brewery at home. having a good air filter on your heating/cooling system will help with spores as well. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the purpose of having 2 kinds of graphs for the probability of finding the electron at a position around the nucleus? | comparing the square of the wave function graph for probability density, and the radial distribution function graph. | the full probability is a combination of both all three coordinates, phi, theta, and r. [this plot](_url_0_) shows the cross-sectional probabilities. the radial distribution just shows the probability integrated over all angles. they are just different ways of encapsulating pieces of the full probability, which is has a value for any given volume element in a three-dimensional space. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png/1024px-Hydrogen_Density_Plots.png"
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why doesn’t the eta c meson annihilate itself? | the eta c meson is made of a charm and anti charm quark. how can eta mesons exist consisting of a particle and its antiparticle? | bound states consisting of particles and their own antiparticles can exist for a short amount of time before decaying. this is an example. another would be positronium. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a hypothesis about the universe cycling. | this is definitely possible. in fact, it even has a name - the "big crunch". there are three possibilities for the fate of our universe, which depends on the energy density of the universe in relation to what is called the "critical density". if the actual density is less than the critical density, the universe is doomed to expand forever, ending in what is known as a heat death, known as the "big freeze" - when all energy content of the universe in is a non-usable form called entropy. the second possibility is if the energy density exactly equals the critical density, in which case the universe will expand forever, but slowing down at a rate such that it will exactly stop expanding at time equal to infinity (it's expansion rate is asymptotic to zero, if you're mathematically inclined). this is the "big chill". finally, if the energy density is greater than the critical density, than expansion will halt in the finite future, and the universe will recollapse in the "big crunch". to answer the rest of your question, one of the theories is that in an over-dense "big crunch" universe, the collapsing material could reach densities such that the collapse is halted due to an outward pressure, causing it to effectively bounce, and begin to expand again in what we think of as a big bang. we don't have much idea of what was happening in the universe in the first very, very small fractions of a second, so such a cyclic universe hasn't been ruled out. that being said, however, current observational evidence (including measurements of energy density) points to a "big freeze" as the most likely end for our universe. so, while theoretically possible, at this point i'd say it's unlikely. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OutKE3tyG94"
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|
what goes on psychologically in the idea of ignorance? or, why would someone like or dislike an idea, or do something when evidence clearly shows something different from what they believe? (this is not against those of religion) | my reason for asking: i ride a motorcycle and knowingly do things that are potentially dangerous while riding, (ie go between cars). i know it is potentially very dangerous and yet still do it occasionally. why does my mind ignore these potential dangers and still do it? but i know this can apply to anything with the right answer, such as concepts of reality versus our own individual perspectives, believing a specific concept while evidence shows otherwise, etc. what can you show me? | i want to mention two important concepts. the first is cognitive dissonance. the basic idea is that our brains prefer for all of the information to line up neatly. we like certainty and rules, not uncertainty about what is right and wrong. as a result, our brains go through processes of evaluative loading to try and square the circles that don't fit. the second concept is heuristics. heuristics are essentially short-cuts that we use for thinking that are based on rules. for example, if i asked you which there was more of, words that begin with the letter r or words that had it as the third letter. your brain would subconsciously run through examples and because more came to mind, you'd say first letter. this is wrong in this situation but for most situations, having a rule that says "if it comes to mind easily it's more common" is a good rule to have. so, that brings us to your motorbike riding. you have to constantly make decisions that weigh up options that have costs and benefits. if you go between the cars you'll get there quicker but there's a small change you'll get hurt/killed. now, you're going to use heuristics and cognitive biases to make snap decisions because you can't possibly weigh up all the alternatives each time you get a red light. so, we know that you're going to make a snap decision based on imperfect rules. after you've made that decision, cognitive dissonance kicks in. you don't want to think of yourself as having made a stupid decision so you evaluatively laod the decision you made as the right one, making you more likely to do it in the future. edit: my description of cognitive dissonance was probably too narrow but i chose brevity for that example. it's a little more complicated when discussing ideas but the basic gist is the same, we like continuity and rules. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the name of the scale, similar to the torino scale, that calculates the possible nudges to earth's orbit because of a close pass by? | searching the web, it looks that the torino scale only measures impacts to the earth, but i believe impacts are very unlikely; instead, the gravitational radius of our planet poses a larger target for neos to transform our orbit, into a stretched elipse, throwing us closer to the sun. i'm concerned mainly about: 3753 cruithne; because it is in orbital resonance with the earth and was discovered just about 30 years ago. thanks for the support! | i don't have an answer to your question, but i can tell you 3753 cruithne is *tiny* and is only a minor influence on our orbit. even at close approach, the orbital influence of the distant jupiter is still something like 10 orders of magnitude stronger than cruithne. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is this growing in the backyard of my friend's house? | my friend moved to a new house, and it looked like the grass hadn't been cut for over a year. while mowing it down, i saw this massive 5 foot abomination that i've never seen before. _url_2_ _url_3_ _url_1_ _url_0_ what is it? what's its purpose? does it require immediate extermination and would it effect the rest of the lawn in any way? | crush one of the stems and see it it smells like onions. that's what it looks like to me as well. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/PPHwz",
"http://imgur.com/nCsmL",
"http://imgur.com/dSebt",
"http://imgur.com/I6Mx9"
] | [] | [
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