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▁and ▁leaving ▁the ▁newly ▁ent hr oned ▁em peror ▁Q in z ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 2 6 – 1 1 2 7 ) ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁the ▁capital . ▁ ▁Ka if eng ▁was ▁bes ie ged ▁on ▁January ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 1 2 6 . ▁The ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁J urch en ▁army ▁promised ▁to ▁spare ▁the ▁city ▁if ▁the ▁Song ▁submitted ▁to ▁Jin ▁as ▁a ▁v ass al ; ▁for fe ited ▁the ▁prime ▁minister ▁and ▁an ▁imperial ▁prince ▁as ▁prisoners ; ▁c eded ▁the ▁Chinese ▁pre fect ures ▁of ▁He j ian , ▁Tai y uan , ▁and ▁Zh ong sh an ; ▁and ▁offered ▁an ▁in dem n ity ▁of ▁ 5 0 ▁million ▁ta els ▁of ▁silver , ▁ 5 ▁million ▁ta els ▁of ▁gold , ▁ 1 ▁million ▁pack s ▁of ▁sil k , ▁ 1 ▁million ▁pack s ▁of ▁sat in , ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁horses , ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁m ules , ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁cattle , ▁and ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁cam els . ▁This ▁in dem n ity ▁was ▁worth ▁about ▁ 1 8 0 ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁annual ▁t ribute ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁been ▁pay ing ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁since ▁ 1 1 2 3 . ▁ ▁With ▁little ▁prospect ▁of ▁help ▁from ▁af ar ▁arriv ing , ▁inf ight ing ▁broke ▁out ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁between ▁the ▁officials ▁who |
▁supported ▁the ▁Jin ▁offer ▁and ▁those ▁who ▁opposed ▁it . ▁O pp on ents ▁of ▁the ▁treat y ▁like ▁Li ▁Gang ▁( ; ▁ 1 0 8 3 – 1 1 4 0 ) ▁r al lied ▁around ▁the ▁proposal ▁of ▁remaining ▁in ▁def ensive ▁positions ▁until ▁rein for c ements ▁arrived ▁and ▁J urch en ▁supplies ▁ran ▁out . ▁They ▁bot ched ▁an ▁amb ush ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁that ▁was ▁carried ▁out ▁at ▁night , ▁and ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁officials ▁who ▁supported ▁peace ▁negoti ations . ▁The ▁failed ▁attack ▁pushed ▁Q in z ong ▁into ▁meeting ▁the ▁J urch en ▁dem ands , ▁and ▁his ▁officials ▁convinced ▁him ▁to ▁go ▁through ▁with ▁the ▁deal . ▁The ▁Song ▁recognized ▁Jin ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁three ▁pre fect ures . ▁The ▁J urch en ▁army ▁ended ▁the ▁sie ge ▁in ▁March ▁after ▁ 3 3 ▁days . ▁ ▁Second ▁campaign ▁Al most ▁as ▁soon ▁as ▁the ▁Jin ▁arm ies ▁had ▁left ▁Ka if eng , ▁Emperor ▁Q in z ong ▁ren eg ed ▁on ▁the ▁deal ▁and ▁dispatch ed ▁two ▁arm ies ▁to ▁rep el ▁the ▁J urch en ▁troops ▁attack ing ▁Tai y uan ▁and ▁bol ster ▁the ▁def enses ▁of ▁Zh ong sh an ▁and ▁He j ian . ▁An ▁army ▁of ▁ 9 0 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers ▁and ▁another ▁of ▁ 6 0 , 0 0 0 ▁were ▁defeated ▁by ▁Jin ▁forces ▁by ▁June . ▁A ▁second ▁expedition ▁to ▁rescue ▁Tai y uan ▁was ▁also ▁un success ful . ▁ |
▁Acc using ▁the ▁Song ▁of ▁viol ating ▁the ▁agreement ▁and ▁real izing ▁the ▁weak ness ▁of ▁the ▁Song , ▁the ▁Jin ▁gener als ▁launched ▁a ▁second ▁pun itive ▁campaign , ▁again ▁div iding ▁their ▁troops ▁into ▁two ▁arm ies . ▁W any an ▁Z ong han , ▁who ▁had ▁with dra wn ▁from ▁Tai y uan ▁after ▁the ▁Ka if eng ▁agreement ▁and ▁left ▁a ▁small ▁force ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁the ▁sie ge , ▁came ▁back ▁with ▁his ▁western ▁army . ▁Over wh el med , ▁Tai y uan ▁fell ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 1 2 6 , ▁after ▁ 2 6 0 ▁days ▁of ▁sie ge . ▁When ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁received ▁news ▁of ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁Tai y uan , ▁the ▁officials ▁who ▁had ▁advoc ated ▁def ending ▁the ▁emp ire ▁militar ily ▁fell ▁from ▁favor ▁again ▁and ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁coun sel ors ▁who ▁fav ored ▁appe as ement . ▁In ▁mid ▁December ▁the ▁two ▁J urch en ▁arm ies ▁conver ged ▁on ▁Ka if eng ▁for ▁the ▁second ▁time ▁that ▁year . ▁ ▁Second ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Ka if eng ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁several ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁in ▁the ▁north , ▁Emperor ▁Q in z ong ▁wanted ▁to ▁negoti ate ▁a ▁tr uce ▁with ▁the ▁Jin , ▁but ▁he ▁committed ▁a ▁massive ▁strateg ic ▁bl under ▁when ▁he ▁commanded ▁his ▁remaining ▁arm ies ▁to ▁protect ▁pre fect ural ▁cities ▁instead ▁of ▁Ka if eng . ▁Neg lect ing ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁the ▁capital , ▁he ▁left ▁Ka |
if eng ▁def ended ▁with ▁fewer ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers . ▁The ▁Song ▁forces ▁were ▁dispers ed ▁throughout ▁China , ▁power less ▁to ▁stop ▁the ▁second ▁J urch en ▁sie ge ▁of ▁the ▁city . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁assault ▁comm enced ▁in ▁mid ▁December ▁ 1 1 2 6 . ▁Even ▁as ▁fighting ▁ra ged ▁on , ▁Q in z ong ▁continued ▁to ▁sue ▁for ▁peace , ▁but ▁Jin ▁dem ands ▁for ▁territory ▁were ▁enorm ous : ▁they ▁wanted ▁all ▁provinces ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Y ellow ▁River . ▁After ▁more ▁than ▁twenty ▁days ▁of ▁heavy ▁combat ▁against ▁the ▁bes ie ging ▁forces , ▁Song ▁def enses ▁were ▁dec im ated ▁and ▁the ▁mor ale ▁of ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁was ▁on ▁the ▁decl ine . ▁On ▁January ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 1 2 7 , ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁broke ▁through ▁and ▁started ▁to ▁lo ot ▁the ▁conquer ed ▁city . ▁Emperor ▁Q in z ong ▁tried ▁to ▁appe ase ▁the ▁vict ors ▁by ▁offering ▁the ▁remaining ▁wealth ▁of ▁the ▁capital . ▁The ▁royal ▁tre as ury ▁was ▁em pt ied ▁and ▁the ▁belong ings ▁of ▁the ▁city ' s ▁residents ▁were ▁seized . ▁The ▁Song ▁em peror ▁offered ▁his ▁un cond itional ▁surrender ▁a ▁few ▁days ▁later . ▁ ▁Q in z ong , ▁the ▁former ▁em peror ▁Hu iz ong , ▁and ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁were ▁captured ▁by ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁as ▁host ages . ▁They ▁were ▁taken ▁north ▁to ▁Hu ining ▁( |
mod ern ▁Har bin ), ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁stri pped ▁of ▁their ▁royal ▁privileges ▁and ▁reduced ▁to ▁common ers . ▁The ▁former ▁em per ors ▁were ▁hum ili ated ▁by ▁their ▁capt ors . ▁They ▁were ▁mock ed ▁with ▁dispar aging ▁titles ▁like ▁" M ud d led ▁V irt ue " ▁and ▁" Double ▁M ud d led ". ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 8 ▁the ▁Jin ▁made ▁them ▁perform ▁a ▁rit ual ▁meant ▁for ▁war ▁crim inals . ▁The ▁har sh ▁treatment ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁royal ty ▁soft ened ▁after ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Hu iz ong ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 5 . ▁Tit les ▁were ▁granted ▁to ▁the ▁dece ased ▁monarch , ▁and ▁his ▁son ▁Q in z ong ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁Duke , ▁a ▁position ▁with ▁a ▁sal ary . ▁ ▁Re asons ▁for ▁Song ▁failure ▁ ▁Many ▁factors ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁Song ' s ▁repeated ▁military ▁bl und ers ▁and ▁subsequent ▁loss ▁of ▁northern ▁China ▁to ▁the ▁J urch ens . ▁Trad itional ▁accounts ▁of ▁Song ▁history ▁held ▁the ▁ven ality ▁of ▁Hu iz ong ' s ▁imperial ▁court ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁decl ine ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y . ▁These ▁narr atives ▁condem ned ▁Hu iz ong ▁and ▁his ▁officials ▁for ▁their ▁moral ▁fail ures . ▁Early ▁Song ▁em per ors ▁were ▁eager ▁to ▁en act ▁political ▁re forms ▁and ▁rev ive ▁the ▁eth ical ▁framework ▁of ▁Conf u cian ism , ▁but ▁the ▁enthus ias m ▁for ▁re forms ▁gradually ▁died ▁after ▁the ▁reform ist ▁Wang ▁An |
sh i ' s ▁exp ulsion ▁as ▁ch an cell or ▁in ▁ 1 0 7 6 . ▁Cor ruption ▁mar red ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Hu iz ong , ▁who ▁was ▁more ▁sk illed ▁as ▁a ▁painter ▁than ▁as ▁a ▁r uler . ▁Hu iz ong ▁was ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁extra v ag ance , ▁and ▁fund ed ▁the ▁cost ly ▁construction ▁of ▁gard ens ▁and ▁tem ples ▁while ▁re bell ions ▁threatened ▁the ▁state ' s ▁g rip ▁on ▁power . ▁ ▁A ▁modern ▁analysis ▁by ▁Ari ▁Daniel ▁Lev ine ▁places ▁more ▁of ▁the ▁bl ame ▁on ▁def ic ien cies ▁in ▁the ▁military ▁and ▁b ureau cr atic ▁leadership . ▁The ▁loss ▁of ▁northern ▁China ▁was ▁not ▁in ev itable . ▁The ▁military ▁was ▁over ext ended ▁by ▁a ▁government ▁too ▁assured ▁of ▁its ▁own ▁military ▁pro w ess . ▁Hu iz ong ▁di vert ed ▁the ▁state ' s ▁resources ▁to ▁failed ▁wars ▁against ▁the ▁Western ▁X ia . ▁The ▁Song ▁ins istence ▁on ▁a ▁greater ▁share ▁of ▁L iao ▁territory ▁only ▁succeeded ▁in ▁prov oking ▁their ▁Jin ▁al lies . ▁Song ▁diplom atic ▁o vers ights ▁under est im ated ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁allowed ▁the ▁un imp eded ▁rise ▁of ▁J urch en ▁military ▁power . ▁The ▁state ▁had ▁pl ent iful ▁resources , ▁with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁horses , ▁but ▁managed ▁its ▁assets ▁poor ly ▁during ▁batt les . ▁Un like ▁the ▁exp ans ive ▁Han ▁and ▁Tang ▁emp ires ▁that ▁preced ed ▁the ▁Song , ▁the ▁Song |
▁did ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁significant ▁fo oth old ▁in ▁Central ▁Asia ▁where ▁a ▁large ▁proportion ▁of ▁its ▁horses ▁could ▁be ▁b red ▁or ▁proc ured . ▁As ▁Song ▁general ▁Li ▁Gang ▁noted , ▁without ▁a ▁consistent ▁supply ▁of ▁horses ▁the ▁dynast y ▁was ▁at ▁a ▁significant ▁dis adv antage ▁against ▁J urch en ▁caval ry : ▁" the ▁Jin ▁were ▁vict orious ▁only ▁because ▁they ▁used ▁iron - sh ield ed ▁caval ry , ▁while ▁we ▁opposed ▁them ▁with ▁foot ▁soldiers . ▁It ▁is ▁only ▁to ▁be ▁expected ▁that ▁[ our ▁soldiers ] ▁were ▁scattered ▁and ▁dispers ed ." ▁ ▁Wars ▁with ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁ ▁Southern ▁retre at ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁ ▁The ▁ent hr on ement ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁leadership ▁had ▁not ▁expected ▁or ▁desired ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y . ▁Their ▁intention ▁was ▁to ▁weak en ▁the ▁Song ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁demand ▁more ▁t ribute , ▁and ▁they ▁were ▁un prep ared ▁for ▁the ▁magnitude ▁of ▁their ▁victory . ▁The ▁J urch ens ▁were ▁pre occup ied ▁with ▁strength ening ▁their ▁rule ▁over ▁the ▁areas ▁once ▁controlled ▁by ▁L iao . ▁Instead ▁of ▁continu ing ▁their ▁invasion ▁of ▁the ▁Song , ▁an ▁emp ire ▁with ▁a ▁military ▁that ▁out number ed ▁their ▁own , ▁they ▁adopted ▁the ▁strategy ▁of ▁" using ▁Chinese ▁to ▁control ▁the ▁Chinese ". ▁The ▁Jin ▁hoped ▁a ▁proxy ▁state ▁would ▁be ▁capable ▁of ▁admin ister ing ▁northern ▁China ▁and ▁collect ing ▁the ▁annual ▁in dem n ity ▁without |
▁requiring ▁J urch en ▁inter vent ions ▁to ▁qu ell ▁anti - J in ▁u pr is ings . ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 7 , ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁installed ▁a ▁former ▁Song ▁official , ▁Z hang ▁Bang ch ang ▁( 張 <0xE9> <0x82> <0xA6> 昌 ; ▁ 1 0 8 1 – 1 1 2 7 ), ▁as ▁pu ppet ▁em peror ▁of ▁the ▁newly ▁established ▁" Da ▁Ch u " ▁( Gre at ▁Ch u ) ▁dynast y . ▁The ▁pu ppet ▁government ▁did ▁not ▁d eter ▁the ▁resistance ▁in ▁northern ▁China , ▁but ▁the ▁ins urg ents ▁were ▁motiv ated ▁by ▁their ▁anger ▁towards ▁the ▁J urch ens ' ▁lo oting ▁rather ▁than ▁by ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁loyal ty ▁towards ▁the ▁in e pt ▁Song ▁court . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁Song ▁command ers , ▁station ed ▁in ▁towns ▁scattered ▁across ▁northern ▁China , ▁retained ▁their ▁alleg iance ▁to ▁the ▁Song , ▁and ▁armed ▁volunte ers ▁organized ▁milit ias ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁J urch en ▁military ▁presence . ▁The ▁ins ur gency ▁ham per ed ▁the ▁ability ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁to ▁ex ert ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁north . ▁ ▁Meanwhile , ▁one ▁Song ▁prince , ▁Z ha o ▁G ou , ▁had ▁escaped ▁capture . ▁He ▁had ▁been ▁held ▁up ▁in ▁C iz hou ▁while ▁on ▁a ▁diplom atic ▁mission , ▁and ▁never ▁made ▁it ▁back ▁to ▁Ka if eng . ▁He ▁was ▁not ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁capital ▁when ▁the ▁city ▁fell ▁to ▁the ▁J urch ens . ▁The ▁future |
▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁managed ▁to ▁e va de ▁the ▁J urch en ▁troops ▁tail ing ▁him ▁by ▁moving ▁from ▁one ▁province ▁to ▁the ▁next , ▁travel ing ▁across ▁Heb ei , ▁Hen an , ▁and ▁Sh and ong . ▁The ▁J urch ens ▁tried ▁to ▁l ure ▁him ▁back ▁to ▁Ka if eng ▁where ▁they ▁could ▁finally ▁capture ▁him , ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁succeed . ▁Z ha o ▁G ou ▁finally ▁arrived ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁Southern ▁Capital ▁at ▁Y ingt ian fu ▁( ; ▁modern ▁Shang q iu ) ▁in ▁early ▁June ▁ 1 1 2 7 . ▁For ▁Ga oz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 2 7 – 1 1 6 2 ), ▁Y ingt ian fu ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁in ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁temporary ▁capit als ▁called ▁x ing za i ▁. ▁The ▁court ▁moved ▁to ▁Y ingt ian fu ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁historical ▁importance ▁to ▁Emperor ▁Ta iz u ▁of ▁Song , ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y , ▁who ▁had ▁previously ▁served ▁in ▁that ▁city ▁as ▁a ▁military ▁governor . ▁The ▁symbol ism ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁secure ▁the ▁political ▁legit im acy ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁em peror , ▁who ▁was ▁ent hr oned ▁there ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 2 . ▁ ▁After ▁reign ing ▁for ▁bare ly ▁one ▁month , ▁Z hang ▁Bang ch ang ▁was ▁persu aded ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁to ▁step ▁down ▁as ▁em peror ▁of ▁the ▁Great ▁Ch u ▁and ▁to ▁recognize ▁the ▁legit im acy ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁imperial |
▁line . ▁Li ▁Gang ▁press ured ▁Ga oz ong ▁to ▁execute ▁Z hang ▁for ▁bet ray ing ▁the ▁Song . ▁The ▁em peror ▁rel ented ▁and ▁Z hang ▁was ▁co er ced ▁into ▁suic ide . ▁The ▁killing ▁of ▁Z hang ▁showed ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁was ▁willing ▁to ▁prov oke ▁the ▁Jin , ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁Jin ▁had ▁yet ▁to ▁solid ify ▁their ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁newly ▁conquer ed ▁territ ories . ▁The ▁submission ▁and ▁abol ition ▁of ▁Ch u ▁meant ▁that ▁Ka if eng ▁was ▁now ▁back ▁under ▁Song ▁control . ▁Z ong ▁Ze ▁( ; ▁ 1 0 5 9 – 1 1 2 8 ), ▁the ▁Song ▁general ▁responsible ▁for ▁fort ifying ▁Ka if eng , ▁entre ated ▁Ga oz ong ▁to ▁move ▁the ▁court ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁city , ▁but ▁Ga oz ong ▁refused ▁and ▁retre ated ▁south . ▁The ▁south ward ▁move ▁marked ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Northern ▁Song ▁and ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁era ▁of ▁Chinese ▁history . ▁ ▁The ▁desc endant ▁of ▁Conf u cius ▁at ▁Qu fu , ▁the ▁Duke ▁Y ans h eng ▁Kong ▁Du any ou ▁fled ▁south ▁with ▁the ▁Song ▁Emperor ▁to ▁Qu z hou , ▁while ▁the ▁newly ▁established ▁Jin ▁dynast y ▁( 1 1 1 5 – 1 2 3 4 ) ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁appointed ▁Kong ▁Du any ou ' s ▁brother ▁Kong ▁Du an ca o ▁who ▁remained ▁in ▁Qu fu ▁as ▁Duke ▁Y ans h eng . ▁Z hang ▁X uan ▁ 張 選 , |
▁a ▁great - grand son ▁of ▁Z hang ▁Z ai , ▁also ▁fled ▁south ▁with ▁Ga oz ong . ▁ ▁The ▁move ▁south ▁ ▁The ▁Song ▁dis band ment ▁of ▁the ▁Great ▁Ch u ▁and ▁execution ▁of ▁Z hang ▁Bang ch ang ▁ant agon ized ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁and ▁viol ated ▁the ▁treat y ▁that ▁the ▁two ▁parties ▁had ▁negoti ated . ▁The ▁Jin ▁renew ed ▁their ▁attacks ▁on ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁quickly ▁recon quer ed ▁much ▁of ▁northern ▁China . ▁In ▁late ▁ 1 1 2 7 ▁Ga oz ong ▁moved ▁his ▁court ▁further ▁south ▁from ▁Y ingt ian fu ▁to ▁Yang z hou , ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁and ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁River , ▁by ▁sail ing ▁down ▁the ▁Grand ▁Canal . ▁The ▁court ▁spent ▁over ▁a ▁year ▁in ▁the ▁city . ▁When ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁advanced ▁to ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River , ▁the ▁court ▁was ▁partially ▁ev acu ated ▁to ▁H ang z hou ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 9 . ▁Days ▁later , ▁Ga oz ong ▁narrow ly ▁escaped ▁on ▁horse back , ▁just ▁a ▁few ▁hours ▁ahead ▁of ▁J urch en ▁v angu ard ▁troops . ▁After ▁a ▁coup ▁in ▁H ang z hou ▁almost ▁d eth ron ed ▁him , ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 1 2 9 ▁he ▁moved ▁his ▁capital ▁back ▁north ▁to ▁J ian k ang ▁( mod ern ▁Nan j ing ) ▁on ▁the ▁south ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze . ▁One ▁month ▁later , ▁however |
, ▁Z ong ▁Ze ' s ▁successor ▁Du ▁Ch ong ▁() ▁vac ated ▁his ▁forces ▁from ▁Ka if eng , ▁expos ing ▁J ian k ang ▁to ▁attack . ▁The ▁em peror ▁moved ▁back ▁to ▁H ang z hou ▁in ▁September , ▁leaving ▁J ian k ang ▁in ▁Du ▁Ch ong ' s ▁hands . ▁The ▁Jin ▁eventually ▁captured ▁Ka if eng ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 1 3 0 . ▁ ▁From ▁ 1 1 2 7 ▁to ▁ 1 1 2 9 , ▁the ▁Song ▁sent ▁th ir teen ▁emb ass ies ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁to ▁discuss ▁peace ▁terms ▁and ▁to ▁negoti ate ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁mother ▁and ▁Hu iz ong , ▁but ▁the ▁Jin ▁court ▁ignored ▁them . ▁In ▁December ▁ 1 1 2 9 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁started ▁a ▁new ▁military ▁off ensive , ▁dispatch ing ▁two ▁arm ies ▁across ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁in ▁the ▁east ▁and ▁west . ▁On ▁the ▁western ▁front , ▁an ▁army ▁inv aded ▁Ji ang xi , ▁the ▁area ▁where ▁the ▁Song ▁dow ager ▁em press ▁res ided , ▁and ▁captured ▁Hong z hou ▁( , ▁present - day ▁N anch ang ). ▁They ▁were ▁ordered ▁to ▁retre at ▁a ▁few ▁months ▁later ▁when ▁the ▁eastern ▁army ▁with d rew . ▁ ▁Meanwhile , ▁on ▁the ▁eastern ▁front , ▁W uz hu ▁commanded ▁the ▁main ▁Jin ▁army . ▁He ▁crossed ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁south west ▁of ▁J ian k ang ▁and ▁took ▁that ▁city ▁when ▁Du ▁Ch ong |
▁surrender ed . ▁W uz hu ▁set ▁out ▁from ▁J ian k ang ▁and ▁advanced ▁rapidly ▁to ▁try ▁to ▁capture ▁Ga oz ong . ▁The ▁Jin ▁seized ▁H ang z hou ▁( J anu ary ▁ 2 2 , ▁ 1 1 3 0 ) ▁and ▁then ▁Sh a ox ing ▁further ▁south ▁( F ebru ary ▁ 4 ), ▁but ▁general ▁Z hang ▁Jun ' s ▁( 1 0 8 6 – 1 1 5 4 ) ▁battle ▁with ▁W uz hu ▁near ▁N ing bo ▁gave ▁Ga oz ong ▁time ▁to ▁escape . ▁By ▁the ▁time ▁W uz hu ▁res umed ▁purs uit , ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁was ▁fle eing ▁on ▁ships ▁to ▁islands ▁off ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁Z he ji ang , ▁and ▁then ▁further ▁south ▁to ▁W enz hou . ▁The ▁Jin ▁sent ▁ships ▁to ▁ch ase ▁after ▁Ga oz ong , ▁but ▁failed ▁to ▁catch ▁him . ▁They ▁gave ▁up ▁the ▁purs uit ▁and ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁retre ated ▁north . ▁After ▁they ▁pl under ed ▁the ▁und ef ended ▁cities ▁of ▁H ang z hou ▁and ▁Su z hou , ▁they ▁finally ▁started ▁to ▁face ▁resistance ▁from ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁led ▁by ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁and ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong . ▁The ▁latter ▁even ▁inf lic ted ▁a ▁major ▁defeat ▁on ▁J urch en ▁forces ▁and ▁tried ▁to ▁prevent ▁W uz hu ▁from ▁crossing ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze . ▁The ▁small ▁boats ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁army ▁were ▁out |
match ed ▁by ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong ' s ▁fleet ▁of ▁se ago ing ▁vessels . ▁W uz hu ▁eventually ▁managed ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁river ▁when ▁he ▁had ▁his ▁troops ▁use ▁inc endi ary ▁ar rows ▁to ▁neutral ize ▁Han ' s ▁ships ▁by ▁burning ▁their ▁s ails . ▁W uz hu ' s ▁troops ▁came ▁back ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁one ▁last ▁time ▁to ▁J ian k ang , ▁which ▁they ▁pill aged , ▁and ▁then ▁head ed ▁north . ▁Yet ▁the ▁Jin ▁had ▁been ▁caught ▁off ▁guard ▁by ▁the ▁strength ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁n avy , ▁and ▁W uz hu ▁never ▁tried ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁River ▁again . ▁In ▁early ▁ 1 1 3 1 , ▁Jin ▁arm ies ▁between ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁and ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁were ▁rep elled ▁by ▁band its ▁loyal ▁to ▁the ▁Song . ▁Z hang ▁R ong ▁( ), ▁the ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁band its , ▁was ▁given ▁a ▁government ▁position ▁for ▁his ▁victory ▁against ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Jin ▁inc urs ion ▁that ▁almost ▁captured ▁Ga oz ong , ▁the ▁so ver eign ▁ordered ▁pac ification ▁commission er ▁Z hang ▁Jun ▁( 1 0 9 7 – 1 1 6 4 ), ▁who ▁was ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁Sh a an xi ▁and ▁S ich uan ▁in ▁the ▁far ▁west , ▁to ▁attack ▁the ▁Jin ▁there ▁to ▁rel ieve ▁pressure ▁on ▁the ▁court . ▁Z hang ▁put ▁together ▁a ▁large ▁army , ▁but ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁W |
uz hu ▁near ▁X i ' an ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 1 3 0 . ▁W uz hu ▁advanced ▁further ▁west ▁into ▁G ans u , ▁and ▁drove ▁as ▁far ▁south ▁as ▁J iez hou ▁( , ▁modern ▁W ud u ). ▁The ▁most ▁important ▁batt les ▁between ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 1 ▁and ▁ 1 1 3 2 ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁Sh a an xi , ▁G ans u , ▁and ▁S ich uan . ▁The ▁Jin ▁lost ▁two ▁batt les ▁at ▁H es hang ▁Y uan ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 1 . ▁After ▁failing ▁to ▁enter ▁S ich uan , ▁W uz hu ▁retre ated ▁to ▁Yan j ing . ▁He ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁western ▁front ▁again ▁from ▁ 1 1 3 2 ▁to ▁ 1 1 3 4 . ▁The ▁Jin ▁attacked ▁H ube i ▁and ▁Sh a an xi ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 2 . ▁W uz hu ▁captured ▁H es hang ▁Y uan ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 3 , ▁but ▁his ▁advance ▁was ▁halt ed ▁by ▁a ▁defeat ▁at ▁X ian ren ▁Pass . ▁He ▁gave ▁up ▁on ▁taking ▁S ich uan , ▁and ▁no ▁more ▁major ▁batt les ▁were ▁fought ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁de cade . ▁ ▁The ▁Song ▁court ▁returned ▁to ▁H ang z hou ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 3 , ▁and ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁renamed ▁Lin ' an . ▁The ▁imperial ▁ancest ral ▁temple ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁Lin ' an |
▁later ▁that ▁same ▁year , ▁a ▁sign ▁that ▁the ▁court ▁had ▁in ▁practice ▁established ▁Lin ' an ▁as ▁the ▁Song ▁capital ▁without ▁a ▁formal ▁declaration . ▁It ▁was ▁treated ▁as ▁a ▁temporary ▁capital . ▁Between ▁ 1 1 3 0 ▁and ▁ 1 1 3 7 , ▁the ▁court ▁would ▁sp or ad ically ▁move ▁to ▁J ian k ang , ▁and ▁back ▁to ▁Lin ' an . ▁There ▁were ▁propos als ▁to ▁make ▁J ian k ang ▁the ▁new ▁capital , ▁but ▁Lin ' an ▁won ▁out ▁because ▁the ▁court ▁considered ▁it ▁a ▁more ▁secure ▁city . ▁The ▁natural ▁bar riers ▁that ▁surrounded ▁Lin ' an , ▁including ▁la kes ▁and ▁rice ▁p add ies , ▁made ▁it ▁more ▁difficult ▁for ▁the ▁J urch en ▁caval ry ▁to ▁bre ach ▁its ▁fort ifications . ▁Access ▁to ▁the ▁sea ▁made ▁it ▁easier ▁to ▁retre at ▁from ▁the ▁city . ▁In ▁ 1 1 3 8 , ▁Ga oz ong ▁officially ▁declared ▁Lin ' an ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y , ▁but ▁the ▁label ▁of ▁temporary ▁capital ▁would ▁still ▁be ▁in ▁place . ▁Lin ' an ▁would ▁remain ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁for ▁the ▁next ▁ 1 5 0 ▁years , ▁growing ▁into ▁a ▁major ▁commercial ▁and ▁cultural ▁center . ▁ ▁Da ▁Q i ▁inv ades ▁the ▁Song ▁Q in ▁H ui , ▁an ▁official ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁court , ▁recommended ▁a ▁peace ful ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁conflict ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 0 , ▁saying ▁that , ▁" If ▁it |
▁is ▁des irable ▁that ▁there ▁will ▁be ▁no ▁more ▁conflicts ▁under ▁Heaven , ▁it ▁is ▁necessary ▁for ▁the ▁southern ers ▁to ▁stay ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁the ▁northern ers ▁in ▁the ▁north ." ▁Ga oz ong , ▁who ▁considered ▁himself ▁a ▁nor ther ner , ▁initially ▁rejected ▁the ▁proposal . ▁There ▁were ▁gest ures ▁toward ▁peace ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 2 , ▁when ▁the ▁Jin ▁fre ed ▁an ▁imprison ed ▁Song ▁diplom at , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 3 , ▁when ▁the ▁Song ▁offered ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁Jin ▁v ass al , ▁but ▁a ▁treat y ▁never ▁material ized . ▁The ▁Jin ▁requirement ▁that ▁the ▁border ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁states ▁be ▁moved ▁south ▁from ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁to ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁was ▁too ▁large ▁of ▁a ▁hur d le ▁for ▁the ▁two ▁sides ▁to ▁reach ▁an ▁agreement . ▁ ▁The ▁continu ing ▁ins ur gency ▁of ▁anti - J in ▁forces ▁in ▁northern ▁China ▁ham per ed ▁the ▁J urch en ▁campaign s ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze . ▁Rel uct ant ▁to ▁let ▁the ▁war ▁drag ▁on , ▁the ▁Jin ▁decided ▁to ▁create ▁Da ▁Q i ▁( the ▁" Gre at ▁Q i "), ▁their ▁second ▁attempt ▁at ▁a ▁pu ppet ▁state ▁in ▁northern ▁China . ▁The ▁J urch ens ▁believed ▁that ▁this ▁state , ▁nomin ally ▁ruled ▁by ▁someone ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁descent , ▁would ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁attract ▁the ▁alleg iance ▁of ▁dis aff ected ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁ins ur gency . ▁The ▁J |
urch ens ▁also ▁suffered ▁from ▁a ▁short age ▁of ▁sk illed ▁man power , ▁and ▁cont rolling ▁the ▁entire ty ▁of ▁northern ▁China ▁was ▁not ▁administr atively ▁feas ible . ▁In ▁the ▁final ▁months ▁of ▁ 1 1 2 9 , ▁Li u ▁Yu ▁( ; ▁ 1 0 7 3 – 1 1 4 3 ) ▁won ▁the ▁favor ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁em peror ▁Ta iz ong . ▁Li u ▁was ▁a ▁Song ▁official ▁from ▁Heb ei ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁a ▁pre fect ▁of ▁Jin an ▁in ▁Sh and ong ▁before ▁his ▁defe ction ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 8 . ▁Da ▁Q i ▁was ▁formed ▁late ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 0 , ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁ent hr oned ▁Li u ▁as ▁its ▁em peror . ▁Dam ing ▁in ▁Heb ei ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁capital ▁of ▁Q i , ▁before ▁its ▁move ▁to ▁Ka if eng , ▁former ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Northern ▁Song . ▁The ▁Q i ▁government ▁instit uted ▁military ▁cons cription , ▁made ▁an ▁attempt ▁at ▁reform ing ▁the ▁b ureau c racy , ▁and ▁en act ed ▁laws ▁that ▁enfor ced ▁the ▁collection ▁of ▁high ▁tax es . ▁It ▁was ▁also ▁responsible ▁for ▁supp lying ▁a ▁large ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁troops ▁that ▁fought ▁the ▁Song ▁in ▁the ▁seven ▁years ▁following ▁its ▁creation . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁granted ▁Q i ▁more ▁aut onomy ▁than ▁the ▁first ▁pu ppet ▁government ▁of ▁Ch u , ▁but ▁Li u ▁Yu ▁was ▁oblig ated ▁to ▁obey ▁the ▁orders ▁of ▁the |
▁J urch en ▁gener als . ▁With ▁Jin ▁support , ▁Da ▁Q i ▁inv aded ▁the ▁Song ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 1 3 3 . ▁Li ▁Ch eng , ▁a ▁Song ▁turn co at ▁who ▁had ▁joined ▁the ▁Q i , ▁led ▁the ▁campaign . ▁X i ang y ang ▁and ▁nearby ▁pre fect ures ▁fell ▁to ▁his ▁army . ▁The ▁capture ▁of ▁X i ang y ang ▁on ▁the ▁Han ▁River ▁gave ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁a ▁passage ▁into ▁the ▁central ▁valley ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁River . ▁Their ▁south ward ▁push ▁was ▁halt ed ▁by ▁the ▁general ▁Y ue ▁Fe i . ▁In ▁ 1 1 3 4 , ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁defeated ▁Li ▁and ▁re to ok ▁X i ang y ang ▁and ▁its ▁surrounding ▁pre fect ures . ▁Later ▁that ▁year , ▁however , ▁Q i ▁and ▁Jin ▁initi ated ▁a ▁new ▁off ensive ▁further ▁east ▁along ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River . ▁For ▁the ▁first ▁time , ▁Ga oz ong ▁issued ▁an ▁ed ict ▁officially ▁condem ning ▁Da ▁Q i . ▁The ▁arm ies ▁of ▁Q i ▁and ▁Jin ▁won ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁vict ories ▁in ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁valley , ▁but ▁were ▁rep elled ▁by ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong ▁near ▁Yang z hou ▁and ▁by ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁at ▁Lu z hou ▁( , ▁modern ▁He fe i ). ▁Their ▁sudden ▁withdraw al ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 5 ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Jin ▁Emperor ▁Ta iz ong ▁gave ▁the ▁Song ▁time |
▁to ▁re group . ▁The ▁war ▁recom men ced ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 1 3 6 ▁when ▁Da ▁Q i ▁attacked ▁the ▁Hu ain an ▁circ uits ▁of ▁the ▁Song . ▁Q i ▁lost ▁a ▁battle ▁at ▁Out ang ▁( ), ▁in ▁modern ▁An hui , ▁against ▁a ▁Song ▁army ▁led ▁by ▁Yang ▁Q iz h ong ▁( ; ▁ 1 1 0 2 – 1 1 6 6 ). ▁The ▁victory ▁boost ed ▁Song ▁mor ale , ▁and ▁the ▁military ▁commission er ▁Z hang ▁Jun ▁( 1 0 9 7 – 1 1 6 4 ) ▁convinced ▁Ga oz ong ▁to ▁begin ▁plans ▁for ▁a ▁counter att ack . ▁Ga oz ong ▁first ▁agreed , ▁but ▁he ▁abandoned ▁the ▁counter off ensive ▁when ▁an ▁officer ▁named ▁Li ▁Q ion g ▁() ▁killed ▁his ▁superior ▁official ▁and ▁defect ed ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁with ▁tens ▁of ▁thousands ▁of ▁soldiers . ▁Meanwhile , ▁Emperor ▁X iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 3 5 – 1 1 5 0 ) ▁inherited ▁the ▁Jin ▁throne ▁from ▁Ta iz ong , ▁and ▁pushed ▁for ▁peace . ▁He ▁and ▁his ▁gener als ▁were ▁disappoint ed ▁with ▁Li u ▁Yu ' s ▁military ▁fail ures ▁and ▁believed ▁that ▁Li u ▁was ▁secret ly ▁consp iring ▁with ▁Y ue ▁Fe i . ▁In ▁late ▁ 1 1 3 7 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁reduced ▁Li u ▁Yu ' s ▁title ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁prince ▁and ▁abol ished ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Q i . ▁The ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁renew ed |
▁the ▁negoti ations ▁towards ▁peace . ▁ ▁Song ▁counter off ensive ▁and ▁the ▁peace ▁process ▁ ▁Ga oz ong ▁promoted ▁Q in ▁H ui ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 8 ▁and ▁put ▁him ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁deliber ations ▁with ▁the ▁Jin . ▁Y ue ▁Fe i , ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong , ▁and ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁officials ▁at ▁court ▁critic ized ▁the ▁peace ▁over t ures . ▁A ided ▁by ▁his ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁C ensor ate , ▁Q in ▁p urg ed ▁his ▁enemies ▁and ▁continued ▁negoti ations . ▁In ▁ 1 1 3 8 ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁agreed ▁to ▁a ▁treat y ▁that ▁designated ▁the ▁Y ellow ▁River ▁as ▁border ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁states ▁and ▁recognized ▁Ga oz ong ▁as ▁a ▁" subject " ▁of ▁the ▁Jin . ▁But ▁because ▁there ▁remained ▁opposition ▁to ▁the ▁treat y ▁in ▁both ▁the ▁courts ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song , ▁the ▁treat y ▁never ▁came ▁into ▁effect . ▁A ▁J urch en ▁army ▁led ▁by ▁W uz hu ▁inv aded ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 1 4 0 . ▁The ▁Song ▁counter off ensive ▁that ▁followed ▁achieved ▁large ▁territorial ▁g ains . ▁Song ▁general ▁Li u ▁Q i ▁() ▁won ▁a ▁battle ▁against ▁W uz hu ▁at ▁Sh unch ang ▁( mod ern ▁F uy ang ▁in ▁An hui ). ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁head ▁the ▁Song ▁forces ▁def ending ▁the ▁Hu ain an ▁region . ▁Instead ▁of ▁adv ancing ▁to ▁Hu ain an , ▁however , ▁W uz |
hu ▁retre ated ▁to ▁Ka if eng ▁and ▁Y ue ' s ▁army ▁followed ▁him ▁into ▁Jin ▁territory , ▁dis ob ey ing ▁an ▁order ▁by ▁Ga oz ong ▁that ▁forb ade ▁Y ue ▁from ▁going ▁on ▁the ▁off ensive . ▁Y ue ▁captured ▁Zh eng z hou ▁and ▁sent ▁soldiers ▁across ▁the ▁Y ellow ▁River ▁to ▁stir ▁up ▁a ▁pe asant ▁re bell ion ▁against ▁the ▁Jin . ▁On ▁July ▁ 8 , ▁ 1 1 4 0 , ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Y anch eng , ▁W uz hu ▁launched ▁a ▁surprise ▁attack ▁on ▁Song ▁forces ▁with ▁an ▁army ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁inf antry ▁and ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁hors emen . ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁directed ▁his ▁caval ry ▁to ▁attack ▁the ▁J urch en ▁soldiers ▁and ▁won ▁a ▁decis ive ▁victory . ▁He ▁continued ▁on ▁to ▁Hen an , ▁where ▁he ▁re capt ured ▁Zh eng z hou ▁and ▁Lu oy ang . ▁Later ▁in ▁ 1 1 4 0 , ▁Y ue ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁withdraw ▁after ▁the ▁em peror ▁ordered ▁him ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁Song ▁court . ▁ ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁supported ▁sett ling ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y ▁with ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁and ▁sought ▁to ▁rein ▁in ▁the ▁assert iveness ▁of ▁the ▁military . ▁The ▁military ▁exped itions ▁of ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁and ▁other ▁gener als ▁were ▁an ▁obst acle ▁to ▁peace ▁negoti ations . ▁The ▁government ▁weak ened ▁the ▁military ▁by ▁reward ing |
▁Y ue ▁Fe i , ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong , ▁and ▁Z hang ▁Jun ▁( 1 0 8 6 – 1 1 5 4 ) ▁with ▁titles ▁that ▁rel ieved ▁them ▁of ▁their ▁command ▁over ▁the ▁Song ▁arm ies . ▁Han ▁Sh iz h ong , ▁a ▁critic ▁of ▁the ▁treat y , ▁retired . ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁also ▁announced ▁his ▁res ignation ▁as ▁an ▁act ▁of ▁protest . ▁In ▁ 1 1 4 1 ▁Q in ▁H ui ▁had ▁him ▁imprison ed ▁for ▁in sub ord ination . ▁Ch arg ed ▁with ▁tre ason , ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁was ▁poison ed ▁in ▁j ail ▁on ▁Q in ' s ▁orders ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 1 4 2 . ▁J urch en ▁diplom atic ▁pressure ▁during ▁the ▁peace ▁tal ks ▁may ▁have ▁played ▁a ▁role , ▁but ▁Q in ▁H ui ' s ▁alleg ed ▁coll usion ▁with ▁the ▁Jin ▁has ▁never ▁been ▁proven . ▁ ▁After ▁his ▁execution , ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ' s ▁reputation ▁for ▁def ending ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁grew ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁national ▁folk ▁hero . ▁Q in ▁H ui ▁was ▁den igr ated ▁by ▁later ▁histor ians , ▁who ▁accused ▁him ▁of ▁bet ray ing ▁the ▁Song . ▁The ▁real ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁differ ed ▁from ▁the ▁later ▁myth s ▁based ▁on ▁his ▁explo its . ▁Con tr ary ▁to ▁traditional ▁leg ends , ▁Y ue ▁was ▁only ▁one ▁of ▁many ▁gener als ▁who ▁fought ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁northern ▁China . |
▁Trad itional ▁accounts ▁have ▁also ▁bl amed ▁Ga oz ong ▁for ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ' s ▁execution ▁and ▁subm itting ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁Q in ▁H ui , ▁in ▁a ▁reply ▁to ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁grat itude ▁for ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁the ▁peace ▁negoti ations , ▁told ▁the ▁em peror ▁that ▁" the ▁decision ▁to ▁make ▁peace ▁was ▁entirely ▁Your ▁Majesty ' s . ▁Your ▁servant ▁only ▁carried ▁it ▁out ; ▁what ▁achiev ement ▁was ▁there ▁in ▁this ▁for ▁me ?" ▁ ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Sh a ox ing ▁ ▁On ▁October ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 1 4 2 , ▁after ▁about ▁a ▁year ▁of ▁negoti ations , ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Sh a ox ing ▁was ▁rat ified , ▁ending ▁the ▁conflict ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁the ▁Song . ▁By ▁the ▁terms ▁of ▁the ▁treat y , ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River , ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze , ▁was ▁designated ▁as ▁the ▁boundary ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁states . ▁The ▁Song ▁agreed ▁to ▁pay ▁a ▁year ly ▁t ribute ▁of ▁ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁ta els ▁of ▁silver ▁and ▁ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁pack s ▁of ▁sil k ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁The ▁treat y ▁reduced ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁D ynast y ▁status ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁Jin ▁v ass al . ▁The ▁document ▁designated ▁the ▁Song ▁as ▁the ▁" ins ign ific ant ▁state ", ▁while ▁the ▁Jin ▁was ▁recognized ▁as ▁the ▁" super ior ▁state |
". ▁The ▁text ▁of ▁the ▁treat y ▁has ▁not ▁surv ived ▁in ▁Chinese ▁records , ▁a ▁clear ▁sign ▁of ▁its ▁hum ili ating ▁reputation . ▁The ▁contents ▁of ▁the ▁agreement ▁were ▁recovered ▁from ▁a ▁J urch en ▁bi ography . ▁Once ▁the ▁treat y ▁had ▁been ▁settled , ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁retre ated ▁north ▁and ▁trade ▁res umed ▁between ▁the ▁two ▁emp ires . ▁The ▁peace ▁ens ured ▁by ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Sh a ox ing ▁last ed ▁for ▁the ▁next ▁ 7 0 ▁years , ▁but ▁was ▁interrupted ▁twice . ▁One ▁military ▁campaign ▁was ▁initi ated ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁by ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁Further ▁campaign s ▁ ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁war ▁▁ ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁led ▁a ▁coup ▁against ▁Emperor ▁X iz ong ▁and ▁became ▁fourth ▁em peror ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁dynast y ▁in ▁ 1 1 5 0 . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁presented ▁himself ▁as ▁a ▁Chinese ▁em peror , ▁and ▁planned ▁to ▁un ite ▁China ▁by ▁conqu ering ▁the ▁Song . ▁In ▁ 1 1 5 8 , ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁provided ▁a ▁cas us ▁bel li ▁by ▁announ cing ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁broken ▁the ▁ 1 1 4 2 ▁peace ▁treat y ▁by ▁acqu iring ▁horses . ▁He ▁instit uted ▁an ▁un pop ular ▁draft ▁that ▁was ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁w ides p read ▁un rest ▁in ▁the ▁emp ire . ▁Anti - J in ▁revol ts ▁er upt ed ▁among ▁the |
▁Kh it ans ▁and ▁in ▁Jin ▁provinces ▁border ing ▁the ▁Song . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁did ▁not ▁allow ▁diss ent , ▁and ▁opposition ▁to ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁sever ely ▁pun ished . ▁The ▁Song ▁had ▁been ▁not ified ▁before hand ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁plan . ▁They ▁prepared ▁by ▁se cur ing ▁their ▁def enses ▁along ▁the ▁border , ▁mainly ▁near ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁River , ▁but ▁were ▁ham per ed ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁inde cis iveness . ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁desire ▁for ▁peace ▁made ▁him ▁a verse ▁to ▁prov oking ▁the ▁Jin . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁began ▁the ▁invasion ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 1 ▁without ▁formally ▁declaring ▁war . ▁J urch en ▁arm ies ▁personally ▁led ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁left ▁Ka if eng ▁on ▁October ▁ 1 5 , ▁reached ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁border ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 8 , ▁and ▁march ed ▁in ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze . ▁The ▁Song ▁lost ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁to ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁but ▁captured ▁a ▁few ▁Jin ▁pre fect ures ▁in ▁the ▁west , ▁slow ing ▁the ▁J urch en ▁advance . ▁A ▁group ▁of ▁J urch en ▁gener als ▁were ▁sent ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁near ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁( s outh ▁of ▁Ma ' ans han ▁in ▁modern ▁An hui ) ▁while ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁established ▁a ▁base ▁near ▁Yang z hou . |
▁ ▁The ▁Song ▁official ▁Yu ▁Y un wen ▁was ▁in ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁army ▁def ending ▁the ▁river . ▁The ▁J urch en ▁army ▁was ▁defeated ▁while ▁attack ing ▁Ca ishi ▁between ▁November ▁ 2 6 ▁and ▁ 2 7 ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi . ▁The ▁p addle - w heel ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁n avy , ▁armed ▁with ▁tre buch ets ▁that ▁fired ▁gun pow der ▁bomb s , ▁over wh el med ▁the ▁light ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁fleet . ▁Jin ▁ships ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁comp ete ▁because ▁they ▁were ▁smaller ▁and ▁hast ily ▁constructed . ▁The ▁bomb s ▁launched ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁contained ▁mi xt ures ▁of ▁gun pow der , ▁l ime , ▁scra ps ▁of ▁iron , ▁and ▁a ▁poison ▁that ▁was ▁likely ▁ar sen ic . ▁Trad itional ▁Chinese ▁accounts ▁consider ▁this ▁the ▁turning ▁point ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁character izing ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁military ▁ups et ▁that ▁secured ▁southern ▁China ▁from ▁the ▁northern ▁inv aders . ▁The ▁significance ▁of ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁riv aled ▁a ▁similarly ▁rever ed ▁victory ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Fe i ▁River ▁in ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁century . ▁Contempor aneous ▁Song ▁accounts ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁ 1 8 , 0 0 0 ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁commanded ▁by ▁Yu ▁Y un wen ▁and ▁task ed ▁with ▁def ending ▁Ca ishi ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁defeat ▁the ▁inv ading ▁J urch en ▁army ▁of ▁ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers . ▁Modern ▁histor ians ▁are ▁more |
▁ske pt ical ▁and ▁consider ▁the ▁J urch en ▁numbers ▁an ▁ex agger ation . ▁Song ▁histor ians ▁may ▁have ▁confused ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁J urch en ▁soldiers ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁with ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁soldiers ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang . ▁The ▁conflict ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁one - s ided ▁battle ▁that ▁traditional ▁accounts ▁imply , ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁numerous ▁advantages ▁over ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Song ▁fleet ▁was ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁Jin ' s , ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁use ▁their ▁greatest ▁asset , ▁caval ry , ▁in ▁a ▁naval ▁battle . ▁ ▁A ▁modern ▁analysis ▁of ▁the ▁battle field ▁has ▁shown ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁minor ▁battle , ▁although ▁the ▁victory ▁did ▁boost ▁Song ▁mor ale . ▁The ▁Jin ▁lost , ▁but ▁only ▁suffered ▁about ▁ 4 , 0 0 0 ▁cas ual ties ▁and ▁the ▁battle ▁was ▁not ▁fatal ▁to ▁the ▁J urch en ▁war ▁effort . ▁It ▁was ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁poor ▁relationships ▁with ▁the ▁J urch en ▁gener als , ▁who ▁des pis ed ▁him , ▁that ▁do omed ▁the ▁ch ances ▁of ▁a ▁Jin ▁victory . ▁On ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁was ▁assass in ated ▁in ▁his ▁military ▁camp ▁by ▁dis aff ected ▁officers . ▁He ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Sh iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 6 1 – 1 1 8 9 ). ▁Sh iz ong ▁was ▁press ured ▁into ▁ending |
▁the ▁un pop ular ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Song , ▁and ▁ordered ▁the ▁withdraw al ▁of ▁Jin ▁forces ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 2 . ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁retired ▁from ▁the ▁throne ▁that ▁same ▁year . ▁His ▁m ish and ling ▁of ▁the ▁war ▁with ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁many ▁reasons ▁for ▁his ▁ab dic ation . ▁Sk irm ishes ▁between ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁Jin ▁continued ▁along ▁the ▁border , ▁but ▁subs ided ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 5 ▁after ▁the ▁neg ot iation ▁of ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y . ▁There ▁were ▁no ▁major ▁territorial ▁changes . ▁The ▁treat y ▁dict ated ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁still ▁had ▁to ▁pay ▁the ▁annual ▁in dem n ity , ▁but ▁the ▁in dem n ity ▁was ▁renamed ▁from ▁" t ribute ", ▁which ▁had ▁imp lied ▁a ▁sub ordinate ▁relationship , ▁to ▁" payment ". ▁ ▁Song ▁re van ch ism ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁were ▁weak ened ▁by ▁the ▁pressure ▁of ▁the ▁rising ▁Mong ols ▁to ▁the ▁north , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁flo ods ▁cul min ating ▁in ▁a ▁Y ellow ▁River ▁flo od ▁in ▁ 1 1 9 4 ▁that ▁dev ast ated ▁Heb ei ▁and ▁Sh and ong ▁in ▁northern ▁China , ▁and ▁the ▁dr ought s ▁and ▁sw arm ing ▁loc ust s ▁that ▁pl ag ued ▁the ▁south ▁near ▁the ▁Hu ai . ▁The ▁Song ▁were ▁informed ▁of ▁the ▁J urch en ▁pred ic ament ▁by ▁their ▁amb ass adors , ▁who ▁tra ve led ▁twice ▁a ▁year |
▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁capital , ▁and ▁started ▁prov oking ▁their ▁northern ▁neighbor . ▁The ▁host ilities ▁were ▁inst ig ated ▁by ▁ch an cell or ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou . ▁The ▁Song ▁Emperor ▁N ing z ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 9 4 – 1 2 2 4 ) ▁took ▁little ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁war ▁effort . ▁Under ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ' s ▁super vision , ▁prepar ations ▁for ▁the ▁war ▁proceeded ▁gradually ▁and ▁c aut iously . ▁The ▁court ▁v ener ated ▁the ▁ir red ent ist ▁hero ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁and ▁Han ▁orch estr ated ▁the ▁publishing ▁of ▁historical ▁records ▁that ▁just ified ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Jin . ▁From ▁ 1 2 0 4 ▁on wards , ▁Chinese ▁armed ▁groups ▁ra ided ▁J urch en ▁settlement s . ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ▁was ▁designated ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁national ▁security ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 5 . ▁The ▁Song ▁fund ed ▁ins urg ents ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁that ▁prof essed ▁loyal ist ▁sympath ies . ▁These ▁early ▁cl ash es ▁continued ▁to ▁es cal ate , ▁partly ▁ab ett ed ▁by ▁re van ch ist ▁Song ▁officials , ▁and ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁was ▁officially ▁declared ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 2 0 6 . ▁The ▁document ▁that ▁announced ▁the ▁war ▁claimed ▁the ▁Jin ▁lost ▁the ▁Mand ate ▁of ▁Heaven , ▁a ▁sign ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁un fit ▁to ▁rule , ▁and ▁called ▁for ▁an ▁ins urre ction ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁state |
. ▁ ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁led ▁by ▁general ▁Bi ▁Z ai y u ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 1 7 ) ▁captured ▁the ▁bare ly ▁def ended ▁border ▁city ▁of ▁S iz hou ▁ ▁( on ▁the ▁north ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁across ▁from ▁modern ▁X uy i ▁County ) ▁but ▁suffered ▁large ▁losses ▁against ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁in ▁Heb ei . ▁The ▁Jin ▁rep elled ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁moved ▁south ▁to ▁bes ie ge ▁the ▁Song ▁town ▁of ▁Ch uz hou ▁ ▁on ▁the ▁Grand ▁Canal ▁just ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River . ▁Bi ▁def ended ▁the ▁town , ▁and ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁with d rew ▁from ▁the ▁sie ge ▁after ▁three ▁months . ▁By ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁however , ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁had ▁captured ▁multiple ▁towns ▁and ▁military ▁bases . ▁The ▁Jin ▁initi ated ▁an ▁off ensive ▁against ▁Song ▁pre fect ures ▁in ▁the ▁central ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁capt uring ▁Z ao y ang ▁and ▁Gu ang h ua ▁( ; ▁on ▁the ▁Han ▁River ▁near ▁modern ▁La o he kou ). ▁By ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁the ▁Song ▁off ensive ▁had ▁already ▁failed ▁dis astr ously . ▁Sold ier ▁mor ale ▁s ank ▁as ▁weather ▁conditions ▁w ors ened , ▁supplies ▁ran ▁out , ▁and ▁hung er ▁spread , ▁forcing ▁many ▁to ▁desert . ▁The ▁massive ▁defe ctions ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁in ▁northern ▁China ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁expected |
▁never ▁material ized . ▁ ▁A ▁notable ▁bet ray al ▁did ▁occur ▁on ▁the ▁Song ▁side , ▁however : ▁Wu ▁X i ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 0 7 ), ▁the ▁governor - general ▁of ▁S ich uan , ▁defect ed ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 2 0 6 . ▁The ▁Song ▁had ▁dep ended ▁on ▁Wu ' s ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁to ▁di vert ▁Jin ▁soldiers ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁eastern ▁front . ▁He ▁had ▁attacked ▁Jin ▁positions ▁earlier ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁but ▁his ▁army ▁of ▁about ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁had ▁been ▁rep elled . ▁Wu ' s ▁defe ction ▁could ▁have ▁meant ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁western ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁but ▁Song ▁loyal ists ▁assass in ated ▁Wu ▁on ▁March ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁before ▁Jin ▁troops ▁could ▁take ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁surrender ed ▁territ ories . ▁An ▁B ing ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 2 1 ) ▁was ▁given ▁Wu ▁X i ' s ▁position , ▁but ▁the ▁coh es ion ▁of ▁Song ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁fell ▁apart ▁after ▁Wu ' s ▁dem ise ▁and ▁command ers ▁turned ▁on ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁the ▁en su ing ▁inf ight ing . ▁ ▁Fight ing ▁continued ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁but ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁that ▁year ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁at ▁a ▁st alem ate . ▁The ▁Song ▁was ▁now ▁on ▁the ▁def ensive |
, ▁while ▁the ▁Jin ▁failed ▁to ▁make ▁g ains ▁in ▁Song ▁territory . ▁The ▁failure ▁of ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ' s ▁ag gress ive ▁policies ▁led ▁to ▁his ▁dem ise . ▁On ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁Han ▁was ▁be aten ▁to ▁death ▁by ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Palace ▁Gu ards . ▁His ▁accomp lice ▁Su ▁Sh idan ▁() ▁was ▁executed , ▁and ▁other ▁officials ▁connected ▁to ▁Han ▁were ▁dismiss ed ▁or ▁ex iled . ▁Since ▁neither ▁combat ant ▁was ▁eager ▁to ▁continue ▁the ▁war , ▁they ▁returned ▁to ▁negoti ations . ▁A ▁peace ▁treat y ▁was ▁signed ▁on ▁November ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 2 0 8 , ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁t ribute ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁was ▁re inst ated . ▁The ▁Song ▁annual ▁in dem n ity ▁increased ▁by ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁ta els ▁of ▁silver ▁and ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁pack s ▁of ▁fabric . ▁The ▁treat y ▁also ▁st ip ulated ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁to ▁present ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou , ▁who ▁the ▁Jin ▁held ▁responsible ▁for ▁starting ▁the ▁war . ▁The ▁heads ▁of ▁Han ▁and ▁Su ▁were ▁sever ed ▁from ▁their ▁ex hum ed ▁corps es , ▁exhib ited ▁to ▁the ▁public , ▁then ▁delivered ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁Jin – S ong ▁war ▁during ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁ ▁The ▁Mong ols , ▁a ▁nom adic ▁conf eder ation , ▁had ▁un ified ▁in ▁the |
▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century . ▁They ▁and ▁other ▁ste ppe ▁nom ads ▁occasionally ▁ra ided ▁the ▁Jin ▁emp ire ▁from ▁the ▁north west . ▁The ▁Jin ▁sh ied ▁away ▁from ▁pun itive ▁exped itions ▁and ▁was ▁content ▁with ▁appe as ement , ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁practices ▁of ▁the ▁Song . ▁The ▁Mong ols , ▁formerly ▁a ▁Jin ▁trib ut ary , ▁ended ▁their ▁J urch en ▁v ass al age ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 0 ▁and ▁attacked ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 1 . ▁In ▁light ▁of ▁this ▁event , ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁deb ated ▁ending ▁trib ut ary ▁pay ments ▁to ▁the ▁weak ened ▁Jin , ▁but ▁they ▁again ▁chose ▁to ▁avoid ▁ant agon izing ▁the ▁Jin . ▁They ▁refused ▁Western ▁X ia ' s ▁offers ▁of ▁al lying ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 4 ▁and ▁will ingly ▁comp lied ▁when ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 5 ▁the ▁Jin ▁rejected ▁a ▁request ▁to ▁lower ▁the ▁annual ▁in dem n ity . ▁Meanwhile , ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 4 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁retre ated ▁from ▁the ▁bes ie ged ▁capital ▁of ▁Zh ong du ▁to ▁Ka if eng , ▁which ▁became ▁the ▁new ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y . ▁As ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁expanded , ▁the ▁Jin ▁suffered ▁territorial ▁losses ▁and ▁attacked ▁the ▁Song ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 7 ▁to ▁compens ate ▁for ▁their ▁shr inking ▁territory . ▁Period ic ▁Song ▁ra ids ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁were ▁the ▁official ▁just ification ▁for |
▁the ▁war . ▁Another ▁likely ▁mot ive ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁would ▁have ▁given ▁the ▁Jin ▁a ▁place ▁to ▁escape ▁should ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁succeed ▁in ▁taking ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁north . ▁Sh i ▁Mi y uan ▁( ; ▁ 1 1 6 4 – 1 2 3 3 ), ▁the ▁ch an cell or ▁of ▁Song ▁Emperor ▁L iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 2 2 4 – 1 2 6 4 ), ▁was ▁hes it ant ▁to ▁fight ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁delayed ▁the ▁declaration ▁of ▁war ▁for ▁two ▁months . ▁Song ▁gener als ▁were ▁largely ▁autonom ous , ▁allowing ▁Sh i ▁to ▁e va de ▁bl ame ▁for ▁their ▁military ▁bl und ers . ▁The ▁Jin ▁advanced ▁across ▁the ▁border ▁from ▁the ▁center ▁and ▁western ▁front s . ▁J urch en ▁military ▁success es ▁were ▁limited , ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁faced ▁repeated ▁ra ids ▁from ▁the ▁neighbor ing ▁state ▁of ▁Western ▁X ia . ▁In ▁ 1 2 1 7 , ▁the ▁Song ▁gener als ▁M eng ▁Z ong zh eng ▁() ▁and ▁Hu ▁Za ix ing ▁() ▁defeated ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁prevent ed ▁them ▁from ▁capt uring ▁Z ao y ang ▁and ▁Su iz hou . ▁ ▁A ▁second ▁Jin ▁campaign ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 2 1 7 ▁did ▁margin ally ▁better ▁than ▁the ▁first . ▁In ▁the ▁east , ▁the ▁Jin ▁made ▁little ▁head way ▁in ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁valley , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁they ▁captured ▁X ihe z hou ▁and ▁Das |
an ▁Pass ▁( ; ▁modern ▁Sh a an xi ) ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 2 1 7 . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tried ▁to ▁captured ▁Su iz hou ▁in ▁J ing xi ▁South ▁circuit ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 8 ▁and ▁ 1 2 1 9 , ▁but ▁failed . ▁A ▁Song ▁counter off ensive ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 2 1 8 ▁captured ▁S iz hou ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 9 ▁the ▁Jin ▁cities ▁of ▁D eng z hou ▁and ▁Tang z hou ▁were ▁pill aged ▁twice ▁by ▁a ▁Song ▁army ▁commanded ▁by ▁Z ha o ▁F ang ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 2 1 ). ▁In ▁the ▁west , ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁forces ▁in ▁S ich uan ▁was ▁given ▁to ▁An ▁B ing , ▁who ▁had ▁previously ▁been ▁dismiss ed ▁from ▁this ▁position . ▁He ▁successfully ▁def ended ▁the ▁western ▁front , ▁but ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁advance ▁further ▁because ▁of ▁local ▁u pr is ings ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tried ▁to ▁ext ort ▁an ▁in dem n ity ▁from ▁the ▁Song ▁but ▁never ▁received ▁it . ▁In ▁the ▁last ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁campaign s , ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 2 2 1 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁captured ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Q iz hou ▁( ; ▁in ▁Hu ain an ▁West ) ▁deep ▁in ▁Song ▁territory . ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁led ▁by ▁Hu ▁Za ix ing ▁and ▁Li ▁Qu an ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 3 1 ) ▁defeated ▁the ▁Jin , ▁who ▁then ▁with d |
rew . ▁In ▁ 1 2 2 4 ▁both ▁sides ▁agreed ▁on ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y ▁that ▁ended ▁the ▁annual ▁t ributes ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁Diplom atic ▁miss ions ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁were ▁also ▁cut ▁off . ▁ ▁Mong ol – S ong ▁al liance ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 2 3 3 , ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁took ▁Ka if eng ▁after ▁a ▁sie ge ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 ▁months ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁court ▁retre ated ▁to ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁Ca iz hou . ▁In ▁ 1 2 3 3 ▁Emperor ▁A iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 2 2 4 – 1 2 3 4 ) ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁dispatch ed ▁diplom ats ▁to ▁impl ore ▁the ▁Song ▁for ▁supplies . ▁Jin ▁en vo ys ▁reported ▁to ▁the ▁Song ▁that ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁would ▁in va de ▁the ▁Song ▁after ▁they ▁were ▁done ▁with ▁the ▁Jin — a ▁forec ast ▁that ▁would ▁later ▁be ▁proven ▁true — but ▁the ▁Song ▁ignored ▁the ▁warning ▁and ▁re buff ed ▁the ▁request . ▁They ▁instead ▁formed ▁an ▁al liance ▁with ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁against ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Song ▁provided ▁supplies ▁to ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁in ▁return ▁for ▁parts ▁of ▁Hen an . ▁The ▁Jin ▁dynast y ▁col lapsed ▁when ▁Mong ol ▁and ▁Song ▁troops ▁defeated ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁at ▁the ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Ca iz hou ▁in ▁ 1 2 3 4 . ▁General ▁M eng ▁G ong ▁() ▁led ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁against ▁Ca iz hou |
. ▁The ▁pen ult imate ▁em peror ▁of ▁the ▁Jin , ▁Emperor ▁A iz ong , ▁took ▁his ▁own ▁life . ▁His ▁short - l ived ▁successor , ▁Emperor ▁Mo , ▁was ▁killed ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁a ▁few ▁days ▁later . ▁The ▁Mong ols ▁later ▁turned ▁their ▁s ights ▁towards ▁the ▁Song . ▁After ▁dec ades ▁of ▁war , ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y ▁also ▁fell ▁in ▁ 1 2 7 9 , ▁when ▁the ▁remaining ▁Song ▁loyal ists ▁lost ▁to ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁in ▁a ▁naval ▁battle ▁near ▁Gu ang d ong . ▁ ▁Historical ▁significance ▁ ▁Cultural ▁and ▁dem ographic ▁changes ▁J urch en ▁migr ants ▁from ▁the ▁n ort he astern ▁reaches ▁of ▁Jin ▁territory ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁Jin - control led ▁lands ▁of ▁northern ▁China . ▁Const itut ing ▁less ▁than ▁ten ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁total ▁population , ▁the ▁two ▁to ▁three ▁million ▁r uling ▁J urch ens ▁were ▁a ▁minor ity ▁in ▁a ▁region ▁that ▁was ▁still ▁domin ated ▁by ▁ 3 0 ▁million ▁Han ▁Chinese . ▁The ▁south ward ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁caused ▁the ▁Jin ▁to ▁transition ▁their ▁decent ral ized ▁government ▁of ▁semi - agr arian ▁tribes ▁to ▁a ▁b ureau cr atic ▁Chinese - style ▁dynast y . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁government ▁initially ▁promoted ▁an ▁independent ▁J urch en ▁culture ▁alongside ▁their ▁ad option ▁of ▁the ▁central ized ▁Chinese ▁imperial ▁b ureau c racy , ▁but ▁the ▁emp ire ▁was ▁gradually ▁sin ic ized ▁over ▁time . ▁The ▁J urch ens ▁became ▁fl |
uent ▁in ▁the ▁Chinese ▁language , ▁and ▁the ▁philosophy ▁of ▁Conf u cian ism ▁was ▁used ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁the ▁r uling ▁government . ▁Conf u cian ▁state ▁rit uals ▁were ▁adopted ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Emperor ▁X iz ong ▁( 1 1 3 5 – 1 1 5 0 ). ▁The ▁Jin ▁implemented ▁imperial ▁ex ams ▁on ▁the ▁Conf u cian ▁Class ics , ▁first ▁region ally ▁and ▁then ▁for ▁the ▁entire ▁emp ire . ▁The ▁Class ics ▁and ▁other ▁works ▁of ▁Chinese ▁literature ▁were ▁translated ▁into ▁J urch en ▁and ▁studied ▁by ▁Jin ▁intellect uals , ▁but ▁very ▁few ▁J urch ens ▁act ively ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁classical ▁literature ▁of ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Kh itan ▁script , ▁from ▁the ▁Chinese ▁family ▁of ▁scripts , ▁formed ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁a ▁national ▁writing ▁system ▁for ▁the ▁emp ire , ▁the ▁J urch en ▁script . ▁All ▁three ▁scripts ▁were ▁working ▁languages ▁of ▁the ▁government . ▁J urch en ▁cl ans ▁adopted ▁Chinese ▁personal ▁names ▁with ▁their ▁J urch en ▁names . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁( Pr ince ▁of ▁H ail ing ; ▁r . ▁ 1 1 5 0 – 1 1 6 1 ) ▁was ▁an ▁enthus i astic ▁pro ponent ▁of ▁J urch en ▁sin ic ization ▁and ▁en act ed ▁policies ▁to ▁encou rage ▁it . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁had ▁been ▁acc ultur ated ▁by ▁Song ▁diplom ats ▁from ▁child hood , ▁and ▁his ▁em ulation ▁of ▁Song ▁practices ▁earned ▁him ▁the ▁J urch |
en ▁nick name ▁of ▁" aping ▁the ▁Chinese ". ▁He ▁studied ▁the ▁Chinese ▁class ics , ▁d rank ▁tea , ▁and ▁played ▁Chinese ▁ch ess ▁for ▁recre ation . ▁Under ▁his ▁reign , ▁the ▁administrative ▁core ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁state ▁was ▁moved ▁south ▁from ▁Hu ining . ▁He ▁inst ated ▁Be ij ing ▁as ▁the ▁Jin ▁main ▁capital ▁in ▁ 1 1 5 3 . ▁Pal aces ▁were ▁ere cted ▁in ▁Be ij ing ▁and ▁Ka if eng , ▁while ▁the ▁original , ▁more ▁nor ther ly ▁resid ences ▁of ▁J urch en ▁ch ie ft ains ▁were ▁demol ished . ▁ ▁The ▁em peror ' s ▁political ▁re forms ▁were ▁connected ▁with ▁his ▁desire ▁to ▁conquer ▁all ▁of ▁China ▁and ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁himself ▁as ▁a ▁Chinese ▁em peror . ▁The ▁prospect ▁of ▁conqu ering ▁southern ▁China ▁was ▁cut ▁short ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁assass ination . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁successor , ▁Emperor ▁Sh iz ong , ▁was ▁less ▁enthus i astic ▁about ▁sin ic ization ▁and ▁revers ed ▁several ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁ed ict s . ▁He ▁san ction ed ▁new ▁policies ▁with ▁the ▁intent ▁to ▁slow ▁the ▁assim ilation ▁of ▁the ▁J urch ens . ▁Sh iz ong ' s ▁prohib itions ▁were ▁abandoned ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Z hang z ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 8 9 – 1 2 0 8 ), ▁who ▁promoted ▁re forms ▁that ▁transformed ▁the ▁political ▁structure ▁of ▁the ▁dynast |
y ▁closer ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁Tang ▁dynast ies . ▁Despite ▁cultural ▁and ▁dem ographic ▁changes , ▁military ▁host ilities ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁pers isted ▁until ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁south , ▁the ▁retre at ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y ▁led ▁to ▁major ▁dem ographic ▁changes . ▁The ▁population ▁of ▁refuge es ▁from ▁the ▁north ▁that ▁res ett led ▁in ▁Lin ' an ▁and ▁J ian k ang ▁( mod ern ▁H ang z hou ▁and ▁Nan j ing ) ▁eventually ▁grew ▁greater ▁than ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁original ▁residents , ▁whose ▁numbers ▁had ▁dw ind led ▁from ▁repeated ▁J urch en ▁ra ids . ▁The ▁government ▁encourag ed ▁the ▁res ett lement ▁of ▁pe asant ▁migr ants ▁from ▁the ▁southern ▁provinces ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁to ▁the ▁under pop ulated ▁territ ories ▁between ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁and ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁rivers . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁capital ▁Lin ' an ▁grew ▁into ▁a ▁major ▁commercial ▁and ▁cultural ▁center . ▁It ▁rose ▁from ▁a ▁m idd ling ▁city ▁of ▁no ▁special ▁importance ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁and ▁most ▁prosper ous . ▁During ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Lin ' an ▁in ▁the ▁Y uan ▁dynast y ▁( 1 2 6 0 – 1 3 6 8 ), ▁when ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁not ▁as ▁wealth y ▁as ▁it ▁had ▁been ▁under ▁the ▁Song , ▁Marco ▁Pol o ▁remarked ▁that ▁" this ▁city ▁is ▁greater ▁than ▁any ▁in ▁the ▁world ". ▁Once ▁ret aking ▁northern |
▁China ▁became ▁less ▁pla us ible ▁and ▁Lin ' an ▁grew ▁into ▁a ▁significant ▁trad ing ▁city , ▁the ▁government ▁buildings ▁were ▁extended ▁and ▁renov ated ▁to ▁better ▁be fit ▁its ▁status ▁as ▁an ▁imperial ▁capital . ▁The ▁mod est ly ▁s ized ▁imperial ▁palace ▁was ▁expanded ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 3 ▁with ▁new ▁roof ed ▁al ley ways ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 1 4 8 ▁with ▁an ▁extension ▁of ▁the ▁palace ▁walls . ▁ ▁The ▁loss ▁of ▁northern ▁China , ▁the ▁cultural ▁center ▁of ▁Chinese ▁civil ization , ▁dimin ished ▁the ▁regional ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y . ▁After ▁the ▁J urch en ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁north , ▁Korea ▁recognized ▁the ▁Jin , ▁not ▁the ▁Song , ▁as ▁the ▁legit imate ▁dynast y ▁of ▁China . ▁The ▁Song ' s ▁military ▁fail ures ▁reduced ▁it ▁to ▁a ▁sub ordinate ▁of ▁the ▁Jin , ▁turning ▁it ▁into ▁a ▁" Ch ina ▁among ▁equals ". ▁The ▁Song ▁economy , ▁however , ▁recovered ▁quickly ▁after ▁the ▁move ▁south . ▁Government ▁reven ues ▁earned ▁from ▁tax ing ▁foreign ▁trade ▁nearly ▁double d ▁between ▁the ▁closing ▁of ▁the ▁Northern ▁Song ▁era ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 7 ▁and ▁the ▁final ▁years ▁of ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁reign ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 1 6 0 s . ▁The ▁recovery ▁was ▁not ▁uniform , ▁and ▁areas ▁like ▁Hu ain an ▁and ▁H ube i ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁directly ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁war ▁took ▁dec ades ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁their ▁pre - war ▁levels . |
▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁multiple ▁wars , ▁the ▁Jin ▁remained ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁trad ing ▁partners ▁of ▁the ▁Song . ▁Song ▁demand ▁for ▁foreign ▁products ▁like ▁fur ▁and ▁horses ▁went ▁un ab ated . ▁Histor ian ▁ ▁bel ieves ▁that ▁Song ▁commerce ▁with ▁the ▁north ▁was ▁prof itable ▁enough ▁that ▁it ▁compens ated ▁for ▁the ▁silver ▁delivered ▁ann ually ▁as ▁an ▁in dem n ity ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin – S ong ▁Wars ▁were ▁one ▁of ▁several ▁wars ▁in ▁northern ▁China ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁U pr ising ▁of ▁the ▁Five ▁Barb ari ans , ▁An ▁L ush an ▁Reb ell ion , ▁Hu ang ▁Ch ao ▁Reb ell ion ▁and ▁the ▁wars ▁of ▁the ▁Five ▁D ynast ies ▁and ▁Ten ▁Kingdom s ▁which ▁caused ▁a ▁mass ▁migration ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁from ▁northern ▁China ▁to ▁southern ▁China ▁called ▁ <0xE8> <0xA1> <0xA3> <0xE5> <0x86> <0xA0> 南 渡 ( y ì ▁gu ā n ▁n án ▁d ù ). ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 6 - 1 1 2 7 ▁over ▁half ▁a ▁million ▁fled ▁from ▁northern ▁China ▁to ▁southern ▁China ▁including ▁Li ▁Q ing z ha o . ▁One ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Conf u cius ▁family ▁led ▁by ▁Duke ▁Y ans h eng ▁Kong ▁Du any ou ▁moved ▁south ▁to ▁Qu z hou ▁with ▁Southern ▁Song ▁em peror ▁Ga oz ong ▁while ▁his ▁brother ▁Kong ▁Du an ca o ▁remained ▁behind ▁in ▁Qu fu ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁Duke ▁Y ans h eng ▁for ▁the ▁Jin ▁dynast y . ▁A ▁section ▁of |
▁the ▁Z eng zi ▁family ▁also ▁moved ▁south ▁with ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Z eng zi ▁family ▁stayed ▁in ▁the ▁north . ▁ ▁However , ▁there ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁reverse ▁migration ▁when ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁over ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁f rop ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁towards ▁Jin ▁ruled ▁northern ▁China ▁leading ▁southern ▁China ' s ▁population ▁to ▁shr ink ▁and ▁northern ▁China ' s ▁population ▁to ▁grow . ▁ ▁Gun pow der ▁war fare ▁ ▁The ▁batt les ▁between ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁sp ur red ▁the ▁in vention ▁and ▁use ▁of ▁gun pow der ▁weapons . ▁There ▁are ▁reports ▁that ▁the ▁fire ▁lance , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁ancest ors ▁of ▁the ▁fire arm , ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁against ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁bes ie ging ▁De ' an ▁( ; ▁modern ▁An lu ▁in ▁eastern ▁H ube i ) ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 2 , ▁during ▁the ▁Jin ▁invasion ▁of ▁H ube i ▁and ▁Sh a an xi . ▁The ▁weapon ▁consisted ▁of ▁a ▁spe ar ▁attached ▁with ▁a ▁fl am eth ro wer ▁capable ▁of ▁firing ▁project iles ▁from ▁a ▁bar rel ▁constructed ▁of ▁b am bo o ▁or ▁paper . ▁They ▁were ▁built ▁by ▁soldiers ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Chen ▁G ui ▁( ), ▁who ▁led ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁def ending ▁De ' an . ▁The ▁fire ▁l ances ▁with ▁which ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁were ▁equ ipped ▁at ▁De ' an ▁were ▁built ▁for ▁destroy ing ▁the ▁wooden ▁sie ge ▁engines ▁of |
▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁not ▁for ▁combat ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁inf antry . ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁compens ated ▁for ▁the ▁limited ▁range ▁and ▁mob ility ▁of ▁the ▁weapon ▁by ▁timing ▁their ▁attacks ▁on ▁the ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁engines , ▁waiting ▁until ▁they ▁were ▁within ▁range ▁of ▁the ▁fire ▁l ances . ▁Later ▁fire ▁l ances ▁used ▁metal ▁bar rel s , ▁fired ▁project iles ▁farther ▁and ▁with ▁greater ▁force , ▁and ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁against ▁inf antry . ▁ ▁Early ▁rud iment ary ▁bomb s ▁like ▁the ▁hu op ao ▁fire ▁bomb ▁() ▁and ▁the ▁hu op ao ▁() ▁bomb s ▁prop elled ▁by ▁tre buch et ▁were ▁also ▁in ▁use ▁as ▁inc endi ary ▁weapons . ▁The ▁def ending ▁Song ▁army ▁used ▁hu op ao ▁() ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Ka if eng ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 6 . ▁On ▁the ▁oppos ing ▁side , ▁the ▁Jin ▁launched ▁inc endi ary ▁bomb s ▁from ▁sie ge ▁to wers ▁down ▁onto ▁the ▁city ▁below . ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 7 , ▁hu op ao ▁() ▁were ▁employed ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁troops ▁def ending ▁De ' an ▁and ▁by ▁the ▁Jin ▁soldiers ▁bes ie ging ▁the ▁city . ▁The ▁government ▁official ▁Lin ▁Z hip ing ▁() ▁proposed ▁to ▁make ▁inc endi ary ▁bomb s ▁and ▁ar rows ▁mand atory ▁for ▁all ▁war ships ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁n avy . ▁At ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 1 , ▁Song ▁ships ▁fired ▁p ili ▁hu o q iu |
▁( ), ▁also ▁called ▁p ili ▁hu op ao ▁bomb s ▁( ), ▁from ▁tre buch ets ▁against ▁the ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁fleet ▁commanded ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang . ▁The ▁gun pow der ▁mixture ▁of ▁the ▁bomb ▁contained ▁pow der ed ▁l ime , ▁which ▁produced ▁bl inding ▁smoke ▁once ▁the ▁cas ing ▁of ▁the ▁bomb ▁sh atter ed . ▁The ▁Song ▁also ▁deployed ▁inc endi ary ▁weapons ▁at ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁Tang da o ▁during ▁the ▁same ▁year . ▁ ▁Gun pow der ▁was ▁also ▁applied ▁to ▁ar rows ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 6 ▁by ▁a ▁Song ▁army ▁station ed ▁in ▁X i ang y ang . ▁The ▁ar rows ▁were ▁most ▁likely ▁an ▁inc endi ary ▁weapon , ▁but ▁its ▁function ▁may ▁also ▁have ▁res emble d ▁that ▁of ▁an ▁early ▁ro cket . ▁At ▁the ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Q iz hou ▁() ▁in ▁ 1 2 2 1 , ▁the ▁J urch ens ▁fought ▁the ▁Song ▁with ▁gun pow der ▁bomb s ▁and ▁ar rows . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tie hu op ao ▁( , ▁" ir on ▁hu op ao "), ▁which ▁had ▁cast ▁iron ▁cas ings , ▁are ▁the ▁first ▁known ▁bomb s ▁that ▁could ▁expl ode . ▁The ▁bomb ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁capable ▁of ▁det on ating ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁pen et rate ▁the ▁iron ▁cas ing . ▁The ▁Song ▁army ▁had ▁a ▁large ▁supply ▁of ▁inc endi ary ▁bomb s , ▁but ▁there ▁are ▁no ▁reports ▁of ▁them ▁having ▁a ▁weapon ▁similar |
▁to ▁the ▁Jin ' s ▁det on ating ▁bomb s . ▁A ▁particip ant ▁in ▁the ▁sie ge ▁rec ount ed ▁in ▁the ▁X in si ▁Q i ▁Q i ▁Lu ▁( <0xE8> <0xBE> <0x9B> <0xE5> <0xB7> <0xB3> <0xE6> <0xB3> <0xA3> <0xE8> <0x98> <0x84> <0xE9> <0x8C> <0x84> ) ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁at ▁Q iz hou ▁had ▁an ▁ar sen al ▁of ▁ 3 0 0 0 ▁hu op ao ▁( ), ▁ 7 0 0 0 ▁inc endi ary ▁gun pow der ▁ar rows ▁for ▁cross b ows ▁and ▁ 1 0 0 0 0 ▁for ▁b ows , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ 2 0 0 0 0 ▁pid ap ao ▁( ), ▁probably ▁le ather ▁b ags ▁filled ▁with ▁gun pow der . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dynast y ▁ ▁Tim eline ▁of ▁the ▁Jin – S ong ▁wars ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ); ▁ ▁( paper back ). ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 2 th ▁century ▁in ▁China ▁Category : 1 3 th ▁century ▁in ▁China ▁Category : 1 1 2 0 s ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 3 0 s ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 2 5 ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 3 4 ▁in ▁Asia <0x0A> </s> ▁Intern ation ella ▁Engel ska ▁G ymnas iet ▁S öder mal m , ▁also ▁known ▁as |
▁the ▁International ▁English ▁G ymnasium ▁S öder mal m , ▁is ▁a ▁secondary ▁school ▁located ▁in ▁S öder mal m , ▁Sweden . ▁The ▁inst itute ▁offers ▁four ▁Swedish ▁national ▁program mes ▁and ▁the ▁International ▁Bac cala ure ate ▁( IB ) ▁programme , ▁which ▁qual ify ▁students ▁for ▁university ▁studies ▁in ▁Sweden ▁or ▁abroad . ▁ ▁Most ▁courses ▁( except ▁Swedish , ▁C iv ics ▁A , ▁Law ▁and ▁Modern ▁L anguages ) ▁are ▁taught ▁in ▁English ▁language . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁teachers ▁are ▁native ▁English ▁speak ers ▁rec ru ited ▁from ▁USA , ▁Canada , ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁other ▁English - spe aking ▁countries . ▁Near ly ▁ 2 5 % ▁of ▁the ▁current ▁teaching ▁staff ▁have ▁Ph D s ▁in ▁their ▁fields ; ▁and ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁staff ▁have ▁master ' s ▁degrees ▁and ▁qualified ▁teacher - status . ▁Currently ▁there ▁are ▁eight y ▁staff ▁members ▁working ▁at ▁IE GS . ▁ ▁The ▁school ▁is ▁free ▁of ▁charge ▁for ▁the ▁students . ▁The ▁education ▁is ▁paid ▁for ▁by ▁the ▁national ▁v ouch er ▁system . ▁ ▁At ▁IE GS ▁a ▁house ▁system ▁has ▁been ▁introduced ▁and ▁adapted ▁from ▁the ▁British ▁model . ▁Te ach ers ▁and ▁students ▁are ▁assigned ▁to ▁a ▁house , ▁which ▁forms ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁group ▁activities , ▁ment or ▁time , ▁assemb lies ▁and ▁compet itions . ▁Currently , ▁IE GS ▁has ▁four ▁houses : ▁King ▁House , ▁Russ el ▁House , ▁Pav lov ▁House ▁and ▁Cur ie ▁House . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : |
G ymnas iums ▁( school ) ▁in ▁Sweden ▁Category : Sch ools ▁in ▁Stockholm ▁Category : Intern ational ▁Bac cala ure ate ▁schools ▁in ▁Sweden <0x0A> </s> ▁Ger ald ▁Baker ▁( born ▁ 2 2 ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 9 ) ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁former ▁professional ▁footballer ▁born ▁in ▁South ▁Hi end ley , ▁then ▁in ▁H ems worth ▁R ural ▁District , ▁York shire , ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁full ▁back ▁in ▁the ▁Football ▁League ▁for ▁Brad ford ▁Park ▁Avenue . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁H ems worth ▁Category : English ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁full back s ▁Category : B rad ford ▁( P ark ▁Avenue ) ▁A . F . C . ▁players ▁Category : K ing ' s ▁Lyn n ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : English ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : Foot ball ers ▁from ▁York shire <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁rap ach ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁larger ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁der k ach , ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁r attle . ▁ ▁Rap ach s ▁are ▁used ▁by ▁churches ▁in ▁the ▁Pre š ov ▁region ▁of ▁Slov ak ia ▁by ▁eth nic ▁Uk ra ini ans ▁instead ▁of ▁b ells ▁during ▁E aster . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Ukrain ian ▁folk ▁music ▁R atch et ▁( inst rument ) ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Hum eni uk , ▁A . ▁Ukrain ski ▁narod ni ▁mu zy chni ▁instrument y , |
▁K iev : ▁Nau k ova ▁d um ka , ▁ 1 9 6 7 ▁ ▁M iz y ne c , ▁V . ▁Ukrain ian ▁Fol k ▁Inst ru ments , ▁Melbourne : ▁Bay da ▁books , ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁ ▁Ch erk ask y , ▁L . ▁Ukrain ski ▁narod ni ▁mu zy chni ▁instrument y , ▁T ek hn ika , ▁K iev , ▁Ukraine , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁- ▁ 2 6 2 ▁pages . ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Per cussion ▁instruments ▁Category : U k rain ian ▁musical ▁instruments <0x0A> </s> ▁K V PI - FM ▁( 9 2 . 5 ▁FM , ▁" Class ic ▁H its ▁ 9 2 . 5 ") ▁is ▁a ▁radio ▁station ▁air ing ▁a ▁classic ▁hits ▁format , ▁lic ensed ▁to ▁Ville ▁Pl atte , ▁Louisiana . ▁ ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁owned ▁by ▁Ville ▁Pl atte ▁Broadcast ing ▁Co ., ▁Inc . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁K V PI - FM ' s ▁official ▁website ▁ ▁Category : Class ic ▁hits ▁radio ▁stations ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Radio ▁stations ▁in ▁Louisiana <0x0A> </s> ▁Sp as - K up al ish che ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁rural ▁local ity ▁( a ▁sel o ) ▁in ▁Lav rov sko ye ▁R ural ▁S ett lement , ▁Sud og od sky ▁District , ▁Vladimir ▁O blast , ▁Russia . ▁The ▁population ▁was ▁ 3 4 ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁There ▁is ▁ 1 ▁street |
. ▁ ▁Geography ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁right ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁K ly az ma ▁River . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : R ural ▁local ities ▁in ▁Vladimir ▁O blast <0x0A> </s> ▁See ▁also : ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁in ▁com ics , ▁other ▁events ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁ 2 0 0 0 s ▁in ▁com ics ▁and ▁the ▁list ▁of ▁years ▁in ▁com ics ▁ ▁__ NOT OC __ ▁Publications : ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁ ▁Publications ▁▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁▁ ▁S ail or ▁Moon ▁by ▁Na oko ▁Take uch i ▁deb uts ▁in ▁Nak ay oshi . ▁▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁ ▁Jack ▁Kir by ▁dies ▁at ▁age ▁ 7 6 ▁of ▁heart ▁failure ▁in ▁his ▁Th ous and ▁O aks , ▁California ▁home . ▁▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁ ▁The ▁Aven gers ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Captain ▁America ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Fant astic ▁Four ▁( volume ▁ 2 |
) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Iron ▁Man ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁On s la ug ht : ▁Marvel ▁Un iverse ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁On s la ug ht : ▁X - Men ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁ ▁Hero es ▁Reb orn : ▁The ▁Return ▁# 1 – 4 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁On s la ug ht : ▁Ep ilog ue ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁One ▁Pie ce ▁by ▁E i ich iro ▁O da ▁deb uts ▁in ▁Week ly ▁Sh ō nen ▁J ump . ▁▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁ ▁The ▁Aven gers ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Captain ▁America ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Fant astic ▁Four ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁Iron ▁Man ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Comics ▁▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁The ▁Dark ▁Age : ▁Gr im , ▁Great ▁& ▁G imm icky ▁Post - Mod ern ▁Comics ▁( by ▁Mark ▁Vog er , ▁ 1 6 8 ▁pages , ▁Two Mor rows ▁Publishing , ▁) <0x0A> </s> ▁On ni ▁K ass lin ▁( 2 7 ▁February ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁– ▁ 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Finn ish ▁cycl ist . ▁He ▁competed ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁and ▁ 1 9 5 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 |
9 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 3 ▁death s ▁Category : F inn ish ▁male ▁cycl ists ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁cycl ists ▁of ▁Finland ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Cy cl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁V anta a <0x0A> </s> ▁Ocean ▁general ▁circul ation ▁models ▁( O GC M s ) ▁are ▁a ▁particular ▁kind ▁of ▁general ▁circul ation ▁model ▁to ▁describe ▁physical ▁and ▁therm od ynam ical ▁processes ▁in ▁o ce ans . ▁The ▁ocean ic ▁general ▁circul ation ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁horizontal ▁space ▁scale ▁and ▁time ▁scale ▁larger ▁than ▁mes osc ale ▁( of ▁order ▁ 1 0 0 km ▁and ▁ 6 ▁months ). ▁They ▁dep ict ▁o ce ans ▁using ▁a ▁three - dimensional ▁grid ▁that ▁include ▁active ▁therm od ynam ics ▁and ▁hence ▁are ▁most ▁directly ▁applicable ▁to ▁climate ▁studies . ▁They ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁advanced ▁tools ▁currently ▁available ▁for ▁sim ulating ▁the ▁response ▁of ▁the ▁global ▁ocean ▁system ▁to ▁increasing ▁green house ▁gas ▁concentr ations . ▁A ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁O GC M s ▁have ▁been ▁developed ▁that ▁include ▁varying ▁degrees ▁of ▁spatial ▁coverage , ▁resolution , ▁ge ographical ▁real ism , ▁process ▁detail , ▁etc . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁first ▁generation ▁of ▁O GC M s ▁assumed ▁“ rig id ▁lid ” ▁to ▁eliminate ▁high - speed ▁external ▁gravity ▁waves . ▁According ▁to ▁C FL ▁criteria |
▁without ▁those ▁fast ▁waves , ▁we ▁can ▁use ▁a ▁bigger ▁time ▁step , ▁which ▁is ▁not ▁so ▁computation ally ▁expensive . ▁But ▁it ▁also ▁filtered ▁those ▁ocean ▁t ides ▁and ▁other ▁waves ▁having ▁the ▁speed ▁of ▁t sun am is . ▁Within ▁this ▁assumption , ▁Bry an ▁and ▁co - worker ▁C ox ▁developed ▁a ▁ 2 D ▁model , ▁a ▁ 3 D ▁box ▁model , ▁and ▁then ▁a ▁model ▁of ▁full ▁circul ation ▁in ▁G F DL , ▁with ▁variable ▁density ▁as ▁well , ▁for ▁the ▁world ▁ocean ▁with ▁its ▁complex ▁coast line ▁and ▁bottom ▁top ography . ▁The ▁first ▁application ▁with ▁specified ▁global ▁geometry ▁was ▁done ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 7 0 s . ▁C ox ▁designed ▁a ▁ 2 ° ▁latitude - long itude ▁grid ▁with ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 2 ▁vertical ▁levels ▁at ▁each ▁point . ▁ ▁With ▁more ▁and ▁more ▁research ▁on ▁ocean ▁model , ▁mes osc ale ▁phenomen on , ▁e . g . ▁most ▁ocean ▁curr ents ▁have ▁cross - stream ▁dimensions ▁equal ▁to ▁Ross by ▁radius ▁of ▁de formation , ▁started ▁to ▁get ▁more ▁aw aren ess . ▁However , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁analyze ▁those ▁ed d ies ▁and ▁curr ents ▁in ▁numerical ▁models , ▁we ▁need ▁grid ▁spacing ▁to ▁be ▁approximately ▁ 2 0 km ▁in ▁middle ▁lat itudes . ▁Thanks ▁to ▁those ▁faster ▁computers ▁and ▁further ▁filtering ▁the ▁equations ▁in ▁advance ▁to ▁remove ▁internal ▁gravity ▁waves , ▁those ▁major ▁curr ents ▁and ▁low - fre quency ▁ed d ies |
▁then ▁can ▁be ▁resolved , ▁one ▁example ▁is ▁the ▁three - layer ▁quasi - ge ost roph ic ▁models ▁designed ▁by ▁Holland . ▁Meanwhile , ▁there ▁are ▁some ▁model ▁retain ing ▁internal ▁gravity ▁wave , ▁for ▁example ▁one ▁ad i ab atic ▁layer ed ▁model ▁by ▁O ' B rien ▁and ▁his ▁students , ▁which ▁did ▁retain ▁internal ▁gravity ▁waves ▁so ▁that ▁equ atorial ▁and ▁coast al ▁problems ▁involving ▁these ▁waves ▁could ▁be ▁treated , ▁led ▁to ▁an ▁initial ▁understanding ▁of ▁El ▁Ni ño ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁those ▁waves . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁simulations ▁could ▁finally ▁be ▁undert aken ▁using ▁the ▁G F DL ▁form ulation ▁with ▁ed d ies ▁margin ally ▁resolved ▁over ▁extensive ▁domains ▁and ▁with ▁observed ▁wind s ▁and ▁some ▁atmos pher ic ▁influence ▁on ▁density . ▁Furthermore ▁these ▁simulations ▁with ▁high ▁enough ▁resolution ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Southern ▁Ocean ▁south ▁of ▁latitude ▁ 2 5 ° , ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic , ▁and ▁the ▁World ▁Ocean ▁without ▁the ▁Ar ctic ▁ ▁provided ▁first ▁side - by - side ▁comparison ▁with ▁data . ▁Early ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁for ▁those ▁large - scale ▁and ▁ed d ies ▁resol v able ▁models , ▁the ▁computer ▁requirement ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 D ▁anc ill ary ▁problem ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁rig id ▁lid ▁approximation ▁was ▁becoming ▁excess ive . ▁Furthermore , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁predict ▁tid al ▁effects ▁or ▁compare ▁height ▁data ▁from ▁sat ell ites , ▁methods ▁were ▁developed ▁to ▁predict |
▁the ▁height ▁and ▁pressure ▁of ▁the ▁ocean ▁surface ▁directly . ▁For ▁example , ▁one ▁method ▁is ▁to ▁treat ▁the ▁free ▁surface ▁and ▁the ▁vert ically ▁aver aged ▁velocity ▁using ▁many ▁small ▁steps ▁in ▁time ▁for ▁each ▁single ▁step ▁of ▁the ▁full ▁ 3 D ▁model . ▁Another ▁method ▁developed ▁at ▁Los ▁Al amos ▁National ▁Labor atory ▁solves ▁the ▁same ▁ 2 D ▁equations ▁using ▁an ▁implicit ▁method ▁for ▁the ▁free ▁surface . ▁Both ▁methods ▁are ▁quite ▁efficient . ▁ ▁Import ance ▁O GC M s ▁have ▁many ▁important ▁applications : ▁dynam ical ▁coupling ▁with ▁the ▁atmosphere , ▁sea ▁ice , ▁and ▁land ▁run - off ▁that ▁in ▁reality ▁joint ly ▁determine ▁the ▁ocean ic ▁boundary ▁flux es ; ▁trans p ire ▁of ▁bi oge och em ical ▁materials ; ▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁pale oc lim ate ▁record ; cl imate ▁prediction ▁for ▁both ▁natural ▁vari ability ▁and ▁anth rop ogen ic ▁ch af es ; ▁data ▁assim ilation ▁and ▁fish eries ▁and ▁other ▁b ios pher ic ▁management . ▁O GC M s ▁play ▁a ▁critical ▁role ▁in ▁Earth ▁system ▁model . ▁They ▁maintain ▁the ▁thermal ▁balance ▁as ▁they ▁transport ▁energy ▁from ▁tropical ▁to ▁the ▁polar ▁lat itudes . ▁To ▁analyze ▁the ▁feedback ▁between ▁ocean ▁and ▁atmosphere ▁we ▁need ▁ocean ▁model , ▁which ▁can ▁initi ate ▁and ▁ampl ify ▁climate ▁change ▁on ▁many ▁different ▁time ▁scales , ▁for ▁instance , ▁the ▁inter ann ual ▁vari ability ▁of ▁El ▁Ni ño ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁potential ▁modification ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁patterns ▁for ▁ocean ic ▁heat |
▁transport ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁increasing ▁green house ▁g ases . ▁O ce ans ▁are ▁a ▁kind ▁of ▁unders ample d ▁nature ▁fluid ▁system , ▁so ▁by ▁using ▁O GC M s ▁we ▁can ▁fill ▁in ▁those ▁data ▁blank ▁and ▁improve ▁understanding ▁of ▁basic ▁processes ▁and ▁their ▁inter connected ness , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁help ▁interpret ▁sparse ▁observations . ▁Even ▁though , ▁simpler ▁models ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁estimate ▁climate ▁response , ▁only ▁O GC M ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁conj unction ▁with ▁atmos pher ic ▁general ▁circul ation ▁model ▁to ▁estimate ▁global ▁climate ▁change . ▁ ▁Sub grid scale ▁parameter ization ▁ ▁M ole cular ▁fr iction ▁rarely ▁ups ets ▁the ▁dominant ▁bal ances ▁( ge ost roph ic ▁and ▁hydro static ) ▁in ▁the ▁ocean . ▁With ▁kin ematic ▁vis cos ities ▁of ▁ ▁v = 1 0 − 6 m ▁ 2 ▁s − 1 ▁ ▁the ▁Ek man ▁number ▁is ▁several ▁orders ▁of ▁magnitude ▁smaller ▁than ▁unity ; ▁therefore , ▁mole cular ▁fr ict ional ▁forces ▁are ▁certainly ▁neg lig ible ▁for ▁large - scale ▁ocean ic ▁mot ions . ▁A ▁similar ▁argument ▁holds ▁for ▁the ▁trac er ▁equations , ▁where ▁the ▁mole cular ▁therm od iff us ivity ▁and ▁salt ▁diffus ivity ▁lead ▁to ▁Reyn olds ▁number ▁of ▁neg lig ible ▁magnitude , ▁which ▁means ▁the ▁mole cular ▁diffus ive ▁time ▁scales ▁are ▁much ▁longer ▁than ▁ad ve ct ive ▁time ▁scale . ▁So ▁we ▁can ▁thus ▁safely ▁conclude ▁that ▁the ▁direct ▁effects ▁of ▁mole cular ▁processes ▁are |
▁ins ign ific ant ▁for ▁large - scale . ▁Yet ▁the ▁mole cular ▁fr iction ▁is ▁essential ▁somewhere . ▁The ▁point ▁is ▁that ▁large - scale ▁mot ions ▁in ▁the ▁ocean ▁interact ed ▁with ▁other ▁scales ▁by ▁the ▁non linear ities ▁in ▁primitive ▁equation . ▁We ▁can ▁show ▁that ▁by ▁Reyn olds ▁approach , ▁which ▁will ▁leads ▁to ▁the ▁closure ▁problem . ▁That ▁means ▁new ▁variables ▁arise ▁at ▁each ▁level ▁in ▁the ▁Reyn olds ▁aver aging ▁procedure . ▁ ▁This ▁leads ▁to ▁the ▁need ▁of ▁parameter ization ▁scheme ▁to ▁account ▁for ▁those ▁sub ▁grid ▁scale ▁effects . ▁ ▁Here ▁is ▁a ▁sch ematic ▁“ family ▁tree ” ▁of ▁sub grid scale ▁( S GS ) ▁mixing ▁schemes . ▁Although ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁considerable ▁degree ▁of ▁overlap ▁and ▁inter related ness ▁among ▁the ▁huge ▁variety ▁of ▁schemes ▁in ▁use ▁today , ▁several ▁branch ▁points ▁maybe ▁defined . ▁Most ▁important ly , ▁the ▁approaches ▁for ▁later al ▁and ▁vertical ▁sub grid scale ▁closure ▁vary ▁consider ably . ▁Fil ters ▁and ▁higher - order ▁operators ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁remove ▁small - scale ▁noise ▁that ▁is ▁numer ically ▁necessary . ▁Those ▁special ▁dynam ical ▁parameter izations ▁( top ographic ▁stress , ▁ed dy ▁thick ness ▁diffusion ▁and ▁con ve ction ) ▁are ▁becoming ▁available ▁for ▁certain ▁processes . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁vertical , ▁the ▁surface ▁mixed ▁layer ▁( s ml ) ▁has ▁histor ically ▁received ▁special ▁attention ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁air - se a ▁exchange . ▁Now ▁there ▁are ▁so ▁many ▁schemes ▁can ▁be |
▁chose ▁from : ▁Price - W eller - P inkel , ▁Pac an ow k si ▁and ▁Phil ander , ▁bulk , ▁M ell or - Y am ada ▁and ▁K PP ▁( k - profile ▁parameter ization ) ▁schemes . ▁ ▁Ada pt ive ▁( non - constant ) ▁mixing ▁length ▁schemes ▁are ▁widely ▁used ▁for ▁parameter ization ▁of ▁both ▁later al ▁and ▁vertical ▁mixing . ▁In ▁the ▁horizontal , ▁parameter izations ▁dependent ▁on ▁the ▁rates ▁of ▁stress ▁and ▁stra in ▁( S mag ro in sky ), ▁grid ▁spacing ▁and ▁Reyn olds ▁number ▁( Re ) ▁have ▁been ▁advoc ated . ▁In ▁the ▁vertical , ▁vertical ▁mixing ▁as ▁a ▁function ▁stability ▁frequency ▁( N ^ 2 ) ▁and / or ▁Richard son ▁number ▁are ▁histor ically ▁pre val ent . ▁The ▁rot ated ▁mixing ▁tens ors ▁scheme ▁is ▁the ▁one ▁considering ▁the ▁angle ▁of ▁the ▁principle ▁direction ▁of ▁mixing , ▁as ▁for ▁in ▁the ▁main ▁therm oc line , ▁mixing ▁along ▁is opy cn als ▁domin ates ▁dia py cn al ▁mixing . ▁Therefore ▁the ▁principle ▁direction ▁of ▁mixing ▁is ▁neither ▁strictly ▁vertical ▁nor ▁purely ▁horizontal , ▁but ▁a ▁spatial ly ▁variable ▁mixture ▁of ▁the ▁two . ▁ ▁Com parison ▁with ▁At mos pher ic ▁General ▁Cir cul ation ▁Model ▁O GC M s ▁and ▁A GC M s ▁have ▁much ▁in ▁common , ▁such ▁as , ▁the ▁equations ▁of ▁motion ▁and ▁the ▁numerical ▁techniques . ▁However , ▁O GC M s ▁have ▁some ▁unique ▁features . ▁For ▁example , ▁the |
▁atmosphere ▁is ▁forced ▁therm ally ▁throughout ▁its ▁volume , ▁the ▁ocean ▁is ▁forced ▁both ▁therm ally ▁and ▁mechan ically ▁primarily ▁at ▁its ▁surface , ▁in ▁addition , ▁the ▁geometry ▁of ▁ocean ▁bas ins ▁is ▁very ▁complex . ▁ ▁The ▁boundary ▁conditions ▁are ▁totally ▁different . ▁For ▁ocean ▁models , ▁we ▁need ▁to ▁consider ▁those ▁narrow ▁but ▁important ▁boundary ▁layers ▁on ▁nearly ▁all ▁bound ing ▁surfaces ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁within ▁the ▁ocean ic ▁interior . ▁These ▁boundary ▁conditions ▁on ▁ocean ▁flows ▁are ▁difficult ▁to ▁define ▁and ▁to ▁parameter ize , ▁which ▁results ▁in ▁a ▁high ▁computation ally ▁demand . ▁ ▁Ocean ▁model ing ▁is ▁also ▁strongly ▁const rained ▁by ▁the ▁existence ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁o ce ans ▁of ▁mes osc ale ▁ed d ies ▁with ▁time ▁and ▁space ▁scales , ▁respectively , ▁of ▁weeks ▁to ▁months ▁and ▁tens ▁to ▁hundreds ▁of ▁kilom eters . ▁Dynam ically , ▁these ▁nearly ▁ge ost roph ic ▁tur bul ent ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁the ▁ocean ographic ▁counter parts ▁of ▁the ▁atmos pher ic ▁syn opt ic ▁scale . ▁Nevertheless , ▁there ▁are ▁important ▁differences . ▁First , ▁ocean ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁not ▁perturb ations ▁on ▁an ▁ener get ic ▁mean ▁flow . ▁They ▁may ▁play ▁an ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁pole ward ▁transport ▁of ▁heat . ▁Second , ▁they ▁are ▁relatively ▁small ▁in ▁horizontal ▁extent ▁so ▁that ▁ocean ▁climate ▁models , ▁which ▁must ▁have ▁the ▁same ▁overall ▁exterior ▁dimensions ▁as ▁A GC M s , ▁may ▁require ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁ 2 |
0 ▁times ▁the ▁resolution ▁as ▁A GC M ▁if ▁the ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁to ▁be ▁explicitly ▁resolved . ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁O GC M s ▁and ▁A GC M s ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁data ▁are ▁sp ar ser ▁for ▁O GC M s . ▁Also , ▁the ▁data ▁are ▁not ▁only ▁sparse ▁but ▁also ▁non uniform ▁and ▁indirect . ▁ ▁Classification ▁We ▁can ▁class ify ▁ocean ▁models ▁according ▁to ▁different ▁standards . ▁For ▁example , ▁according ▁to ▁vertical ▁ordin ates ▁we ▁have ▁ge o - pot ential , ▁is opy cn al ▁and ▁top ography - follow ing ▁models . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁horizontal ▁dis cret izations ▁we ▁have ▁un st agger ed ▁or ▁st agger ed ▁gr ids . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁methods ▁of ▁approximation ▁we ▁have ▁finite ▁difference ▁and ▁finite ▁element ▁models . ▁There ▁are ▁three ▁basic ▁types ▁of ▁O GC M s : ▁▁ ▁Ide al ized ▁geometry ▁models : ▁Mod els ▁with ▁ideal ized ▁bas in ▁geometry ▁have ▁been ▁used ▁extens ively ▁in ▁ocean ▁model ing ▁and ▁have ▁played ▁a ▁major ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁new ▁model ing ▁method ologies . ▁They ▁use ▁a ▁simplified ▁geometry , ▁offering ▁a ▁bas in ▁itself , ▁while ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁wind s ▁and ▁bu oy ancy ▁force ▁are ▁generally ▁chosen ▁as ▁simple ▁functions ▁of ▁latitude . ▁ ▁Bas in - scale ▁models : ▁To ▁compare ▁O GC M ▁results ▁with ▁observations ▁we ▁need ▁real istic ▁bas in ▁information ▁instead ▁of ▁ideal ized ▁data . ▁However , ▁if |
▁we ▁only ▁pay ▁attention ▁to ▁local ▁observation ▁data , ▁we ▁don ' t ▁need ▁to ▁run ▁whole ▁global ▁simulation , ▁and ▁by ▁doing ▁that ▁we ▁can ▁save ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁computational ▁resources . ▁▁ ▁Global ▁models : ▁This ▁kind ▁of ▁model ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁computation ally ▁cost ly ▁one . ▁More ▁experiments ▁are ▁needed ▁as ▁a ▁pre lim inary ▁step ▁in ▁construct ing ▁couple d ▁Earth ▁system ▁models . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁ocean ▁circul ation ▁models ▁General ▁circul ation ▁model ▁( GC M ) ▁Cl imate ▁model ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : N umer ical ▁climate ▁and ▁weather ▁models ▁Category : Comput ational ▁science ▁Category : Phys ical ▁ocean ography <0x0A> </s> ▁Est her ▁Elizabeth ▁Wood ▁( Se ptember ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 0 5 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁historian , ▁educ ator , ▁author , ▁and ▁journalist . ▁She ▁taught ▁history ▁and ▁social ▁science ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te ach ers ▁College ▁( now ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ) ▁for ▁ 4 3 ▁years . ▁After ▁her ▁ret irement , ▁she ▁wrote ▁four ▁books , ▁a ▁newspaper ▁column , ▁and ▁numerous ▁articles ▁describing ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine , ▁where ▁her ▁family ▁had ▁lived ▁for ▁gener ations , ▁ach ieving ▁local ▁celebr ity ▁as ▁the ▁" town ▁historian ". ▁She ▁was ▁induct ed ▁into ▁the ▁Maine ▁Women ' s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁ |
▁Est her ▁Elizabeth ▁Wood ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine , ▁to ▁John ▁Friend ▁Wood ▁and ▁his ▁wife , ▁L iz zie ▁M add ock s ▁Wood . ▁Her ▁ancest ors ▁had ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁eastern ▁Maine ▁towns ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Ell sw orth , ▁and ▁De er ▁Is le ▁before ▁ 1 7 9 0 . ▁Her ▁father ▁managed ▁quar ries ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁and ▁De er ▁Is le . ▁She ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁Friend ' s ▁Cor ner , ▁a ▁rural ▁neighborhood ▁named ▁after ▁her ▁pat ernal ▁great - grand father ▁who ▁had ▁moved ▁there ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 2 0 s . ▁By ▁ 1 9 0 0 ▁the ▁neighborhood ▁was ▁home ▁to ▁six ▁families ; ▁growing ▁up , ▁Est her ▁had ▁four ▁same - age ▁c ous ins ▁living ▁close ▁by . ▁ ▁Wood ▁graduated ▁from ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁She ▁earned ▁her ▁A . B . ▁degree ▁from ▁Col by ▁College ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁and ▁took ▁a ▁teaching ▁job ▁at ▁the ▁high ▁school ▁in ▁St on ington , ▁where ▁her ▁father ▁was ▁working ▁as ▁a ▁stone c utter . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁she ▁entered ▁Rad cl iffe ▁College , ▁ear ning ▁her ▁A . M . ▁degree ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 9 . ▁She ▁returned ▁to ▁Rad cl iffe ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁for ▁another ▁year ▁of ▁study . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Te aching ▁In ▁ |
1 9 2 9 ▁she ▁taught ▁at ▁Miss ▁Hall ' s ▁School ▁in ▁Pitts field , ▁Massachusetts , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁came ▁to ▁the ▁Gor ham ▁Normal ▁School ▁to ▁teach ▁Maine ▁and ▁American ▁history . ▁She ▁continued ▁as ▁a ▁professor ▁of ▁history ▁and ▁social ▁sciences ▁at ▁the ▁school ▁after ▁its ▁ren aming ▁to ▁the ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te ach ers ▁College ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 . ▁Both ▁she ▁and ▁her ▁classes ▁were ▁well - lik ed . ▁She ▁also ▁spoke ▁to ▁local ▁groups ▁on ▁historical ▁topics . ▁From ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁to ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁she ▁held ▁the ▁post ▁of ▁Dean ▁of ▁Women . ▁ ▁Writing ▁ ▁Wood ▁retired ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁her ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁farm house , ▁where ▁she ▁lived ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁her ▁life . ▁She ▁had ▁begun ▁writing ▁a ▁column ▁titled ▁" The ▁Native " ▁for ▁The ▁Ell sw orth ▁American , ▁rec ount ing ▁her ▁mem ories ▁of ▁growing ▁up ▁in ▁rural ▁Maine , ▁and ▁continued ▁producing ▁this ▁column ▁for ▁ 2 4 ▁years ▁until ▁ 1 9 9 2 . ▁She ▁also ▁wrote ▁regularly ▁for ▁The ▁Christian ▁Science ▁Mon itor ▁and ▁Maine ▁Life , ▁and ▁contributed ▁stories ▁to ▁Sunday ▁school ▁publications ▁and ▁mag az ines . ▁In ▁addition , ▁she ▁p enn ed ▁four ▁books ▁dealing ▁with ▁the ▁history ▁and ▁society ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁region . |
▁ ▁Cont inu ing ▁to ▁speak ▁for ▁local ▁groups ▁and ▁events , ▁Wood ▁became ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" town ▁historian ", ▁although ▁she ▁dis lik ed ▁the ▁mon iker . ▁Her ▁family ▁l ore ▁formed ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁her ▁historical ▁stories , ▁as ▁she ▁had ▁heard ▁her ▁father ' s ▁and ▁grand father ' s ▁personal ▁re collections ▁of ▁living ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 0 s . ▁According ▁to ▁Hugh ▁Cur ran , ▁a ▁University ▁of ▁Maine ▁professor ▁who ▁vide ot aped ▁Wood ▁for ▁an ▁or al ▁history ▁project : ▁" Her ▁memory ▁str add led ▁ 2 0 0 ▁years ... ▁The ▁uniqu eness ▁to ▁me ▁was ▁her ▁almost ▁total ▁recall . ▁She ▁could ▁speak ▁for ▁an ▁hour ▁and ▁not ▁repeat ▁herself . ▁She ▁had ▁an ▁incred ible ▁memory ". ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁she ▁wrote ▁a ▁short ▁history ▁of ▁her ▁al ma ▁mater , ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy , ▁for ▁their ▁student ▁hand book , ▁which ▁has ▁been ▁printed ▁in ▁all ▁subsequent ▁ed itions . ▁ ▁Wood ' s ▁historical ▁notes ▁are ▁often ▁mentioned ▁in ▁tour ▁books ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁region . ▁She ▁contributed ▁the ▁report ▁on ▁historical ▁and ▁ar che ological ▁resources ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Com pre h ensive ▁Plan , ▁which ▁was ▁repr int ed ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Com pre h ensive ▁Plan . ▁▁ ▁Like ▁her ▁mother , ▁who ▁maintained ▁a ▁daily ▁journal ▁from ▁ 1 8 |
9 3 ▁to ▁ 1 9 7 1 , ▁Wood ▁wrote ▁daily ▁in ▁her ▁journal ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁ ▁Other ▁activities ▁ ▁Wood ▁was ▁an ▁active ▁supp orter ▁of ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy , ▁serving ▁as ▁a ▁trust ee ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁executive ▁committee ▁for ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁end ow ment ▁campaign . ▁She ▁personally ▁contributed ▁to ▁campaign s ▁for ▁a ▁library ▁expansion ▁and ▁the ▁installation ▁of ▁tennis ▁courts . ▁She ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Historical ▁Society , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Bapt ist ▁Church , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁C emetery ▁Association , ▁the ▁State ▁C emetery ▁Association , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Garden ▁Club , ▁and ▁the ▁Jonathan ▁Fish er ▁Memorial , ▁serving ▁as ▁secretary ▁for ▁the ▁latter ▁organization . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁she ▁end owed ▁a ▁$ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁scholar ship ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁at ▁Lew ist on - A ub urn ▁in ▁memory ▁of ▁Ed na ▁Frances ▁Dic key , ▁her ▁fellow ▁history ▁professor ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te ach ers ▁College . ▁ ▁Awards ▁and ▁hon ors ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁Col by ▁College ▁awarded ▁her ▁an ▁honor ary ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Hum ane ▁Let ters . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁dedicated ▁two ▁new ▁d orm itory ▁buildings ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁history ▁teachers ▁Wood ▁and ▁Dic key . ▁Res emb |
ling ▁round ▁to wers , ▁the ▁Wood ▁Tower ▁and ▁Dic key ▁Tower ▁each ▁have ▁eight ▁flo ors . ▁ ▁Wood ▁was ▁named ▁Woman ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁by ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Com merce ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁recip ient ▁of ▁the ▁Maine ▁School ▁Super int end ents ▁Association ▁Award ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁She ▁was ▁induct ed ▁into ▁the ▁Maine ▁Women ' s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Death ▁and ▁legacy ▁Wood ▁did ▁not ▁marry . ▁She ▁died ▁on ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁at ▁her ▁farm house ▁and ▁was ▁buried ▁in ▁the ▁Se as ide ▁C emetery ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill . ▁Her ▁farm house ▁was ▁purchased ▁by ▁novel ist ▁Jonathan ▁L eth em , ▁who ▁uses ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁summer ▁home ▁and ▁writes ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁study ▁that ▁Wood ▁did . ▁ ▁The ▁Est her ▁Wood ▁Pap ers , ▁containing ▁her ▁lecture ▁notes ▁on ▁New ▁England ▁history ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century ▁through ▁the ▁American ▁Revolution ary ▁War ▁and ▁American ▁Civil ▁War , ▁and ▁ 2 0 th - century ▁United ▁States ▁diplom acy , ▁are ▁hous ed ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine . ▁An ▁or al ▁history ▁project ▁which ▁Hugh ▁Cur ran ▁conducted ▁with ▁Wood ▁over ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁several ▁years , ▁compr ising ▁four ▁ 4 0 - min ute ▁vide ot apes , ▁is ▁hous ed ▁at ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Public ▁Library ▁and ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy |
▁library . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Books ▁ ▁( cont aining ▁family ▁history ▁and ▁family ▁reci pes ) ▁▁ ▁( about ▁her ▁a unt ' s ▁youth ) ▁repr int ed ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁as ▁Hann ah ▁Wood ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine : ▁Rem in isc ences ▁of ▁an ▁ 1 8 5 0 ▁Child hood ▁ ▁( pub lished ▁for ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁b ic ent enn ial ) ▁ ▁Selected ▁articles ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁"' De ep ▁Ro ots ' ▁takes ▁a ▁look ▁at ▁early ▁life ▁in ▁coast al ▁Maine " ▁( book ▁review ) ▁Bang or ▁Daily ▁News , ▁February ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁ ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁fac ulty ▁Category : W rit ers ▁from ▁Maine ▁Category : J ournal ists ▁from ▁Maine ▁Category : Col by ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : Rad cl iffe ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine ▁Category : 1 9 0 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 2 ▁death s ▁Category : H istor ians ▁of ▁Maine <0x0A> </s> ▁Ren an ▁Roberto ▁de ▁Fre itas ▁( born ▁ 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 4 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Brazil ian ▁football ▁manager , ▁currently ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁O este . ▁ ▁Career ▁Born ▁in ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁Fre itas ▁started ▁working ▁at ▁O este ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁He ▁joined ▁the |
▁club ' s ▁staff ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁as ▁an ▁assistant ▁manager . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁after ▁Ivan ▁B ait ello ' s ▁dismiss al , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁named ▁inter im ▁manager ▁of ▁the ▁club , ▁being ▁in ▁charge ▁during ▁a ▁ 3 – 0 ▁loss ▁at ▁AS A ▁two ▁days ▁later . ▁After ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁Lu ís ▁Carlos ▁Mart ins , ▁he ▁returned ▁to ▁his ▁previous ▁role . ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁again ▁inter im ▁in ▁the ▁place ▁of ▁s ack ed ▁Roberto ▁Cav alo . ▁After ▁man aging ▁to ▁avoid ▁re leg ation , ▁he ▁was ▁definitely ▁appointed ▁as ▁manager ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁Campeonato ▁Paul ista . ▁ ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁dismiss ed ▁by ▁the ▁club ▁on ▁ 2 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁just ▁hours ▁before ▁a ▁match ▁against ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁but ▁continued ▁to ▁work ▁as ▁an ▁assistant ▁in ▁the ▁following ▁years . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁an ▁inter im ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁matches ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁campaign , ▁as ▁Cav alo ▁was ▁out ▁due ▁to ▁personal ▁problems . ▁ ▁On ▁ 7 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁appointed ▁permanent ▁manager ▁of ▁O este ▁for ▁the ▁up coming ▁season . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports |
people ▁from ▁São ▁Paulo ▁Category : B raz ilian ▁football ▁man agers ▁Category : Cam pe onato ▁Brasile iro ▁S érie ▁B ▁man agers ▁Category : O este ▁Fut ebol ▁Cl ube ▁man agers <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 5 , ▁or ▁MC 6 8 4 5 , ▁was ▁a ▁ ▁display ▁controller ▁that ▁was ▁widely ▁used ▁in ▁ 8 - bit ▁computers ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Origin ally ▁intended ▁for ▁designs ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 0 0 ▁CPU ▁and ▁given ▁a ▁related ▁part ▁number , ▁it ▁was ▁more ▁widely ▁used ▁alongside ▁various ▁other ▁process ors , ▁and ▁was ▁most ▁commonly ▁found ▁in ▁machines ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Z ilog ▁Z 8 0 ▁and ▁M OS ▁ 6 5 0 2 . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁not ▁an ▁entire ▁display ▁solution ▁on ▁its ▁own ; ▁the ▁chip ' s ▁main ▁function ▁is ▁to ▁properly ▁time ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁display ▁memory , ▁and ▁to ▁calculate ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁of ▁the ▁next ▁portion ▁to ▁be ▁drawn . ▁Other ▁circuit ry ▁in ▁the ▁machine ▁then ▁uses ▁the ▁address ▁provided ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁to ▁fetch ▁the ▁pattern ▁and ▁then ▁draw ▁it . ▁The ▁implementation ▁of ▁that ▁hardware ▁is ▁entirely ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁designer , ▁and ▁varied ▁widely ▁among ▁machines . ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁intended ▁for ▁character ▁displays , ▁but ▁could ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁pixel - based ▁graphics , ▁with ▁some ▁clever ▁programming |
. ▁ ▁Among ▁its ▁better - known ▁uses ▁is ▁the ▁BBC ▁Micro , ▁Am str ad ▁C PC , ▁and ▁V ide x ▁Video Term ▁display ▁cards ▁for ▁the ▁Apple ▁II . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁part ▁of ▁many ▁early ▁graphics ▁adapter ▁cards ▁for ▁the ▁IBM ▁PC , ▁including ▁the ▁M DA , ▁Her cules ▁Graphics ▁Card ▁( H GC ), ▁and ▁Color ▁Graphics ▁Ad apter ▁( CG A ). ▁Its ▁functionality ▁was ▁dup licated ▁and ▁extended ▁by ▁custom ▁circ uits ▁in ▁the ▁E GA ▁and ▁V GA ▁PC ▁video ▁ad ap ters . ▁ ▁Origin ally ▁designed ▁by ▁Hit achi ▁as ▁the ▁HD 4 6 5 0 5 , ▁Hit achi - built ▁versions ▁are ▁in ▁a ▁wide ▁variety ▁of ▁Japanese ▁computers , ▁from ▁Sony , ▁Sh arp , ▁Pan ason ic , ▁and ▁Cas io . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁CR TC ▁or ▁the ▁CR TC 6 8 4 5 , ▁meaning ▁" c ath ode ▁ray ▁t ube ▁controller ". ▁ ▁A ▁common ▁clone ▁of ▁this ▁C RT ▁controller ▁is ▁the ▁United ▁Micro elect ron ics ▁Corporation ▁( UM C ) ▁U M 6 8 4 5 E ▁C RT ▁controller . ▁ ▁Over view ▁The ▁chip ▁generates ▁the ▁signals ▁necessary ▁to ▁interface ▁with ▁a ▁r aster ▁display ▁but ▁does ▁not ▁generate ▁the ▁actual ▁pixels , ▁though ▁it ▁does ▁contribute ▁cursor ▁and ▁video - blank ing ▁information ▁to ▁the ▁pixel ▁video ▁( int ens ity ) ▁signals . ▁It ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁produce ▁correctly |
▁tim ed ▁horizontal ▁and ▁vertical ▁sync ▁and ▁provide ▁the ▁address ▁in ▁memory ▁from ▁which ▁the ▁next ▁pixel ▁or ▁set ▁of ▁pixels ▁should ▁be ▁read . ▁The ▁process ▁of ▁reading ▁that ▁value , ▁converting ▁it ▁into ▁pixels , ▁and ▁sending ▁it ▁to ▁a ▁C RT ▁is ▁left ▁to ▁other ▁circ uits . ▁Because ▁of ▁this , ▁systems ▁using ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁may ▁have ▁very ▁different ▁numbers ▁and ▁values ▁of ▁colors , ▁or ▁may ▁not ▁support ▁color ▁at ▁all . ▁ ▁Inter la ced ▁and ▁non - inter la ced ▁output ▁modes ▁are ▁supported , ▁as ▁is ▁a ▁hardware ▁text ▁cursor . ▁ ▁The ▁sync ▁generation ▁includes ▁generation ▁of ▁horizontal ▁and ▁vertical ▁video ▁blank ing ▁signals , ▁which ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁condition ▁the ▁external ▁pixel ▁generation ▁circ uits . ▁ ▁Also , ▁an ▁internal ▁l atch ▁is ▁provided ▁which ▁when ▁triggered ▁will ▁duplicate ▁and ▁retain ▁a ▁copy ▁of ▁the ▁video ▁address ▁so ▁that ▁it ▁can ▁later ▁be ▁read ▁back ▁by ▁the ▁CPU . ▁ ▁This ▁is ▁useful ▁for ▁light ▁pens ▁and ▁light ▁guns ▁which ▁can ▁function ▁by ▁sending ▁a ▁pul se ▁to ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁when ▁the ▁electron ▁beam ▁passes , ▁allowing ▁a ▁running ▁program ▁to ▁read ▁back ▁the ▁location ▁that ▁was ▁pointed ▁at . ▁Because ▁of ▁this ▁feature , ▁most ▁computer ▁video ▁ad ap ters ▁using ▁a ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁included ▁a ▁light ▁pen ▁interface , ▁though ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁an ▁internal ▁conne ctor ▁on ▁the ▁board ▁itself , ▁not ▁on ▁the ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁computer |
, ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁und ocument ed ▁in ▁the ▁user ▁manual . ▁ ▁Because ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁video ▁timing ▁are ▁program m able , ▁a ▁single ▁machine ▁can ▁switch ▁between ▁N T SC ▁and ▁P AL ▁tim ings ▁in ▁software . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁drive ▁mon itors ▁or ▁any ▁other ▁r aster ▁display . ▁ ▁Intern als ▁ ▁The ▁chip ▁has ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ ▁registers ▁cont rolling ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁video ▁tim ings . ▁Only ▁two ▁addresses ▁are ▁exposed ▁to ▁external ▁components ▁- ▁one ▁to ▁select ▁which ▁internal ▁register ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁read ▁or ▁written ▁to ▁and ▁another ▁to ▁access ▁that ▁register . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁intended ▁for ▁character ▁based ▁displays . ▁Every ▁address ▁it ▁generates ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁two ▁parts ▁- ▁a ▁ 1 4 ▁bit ▁character ▁address ▁and ▁a ▁ 5 ▁bit ▁row ▁address . ▁Using ▁the ▁full ▁address ▁range ▁RA 0 - RA 4 : CA 0 - CA 1 3 ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 2 1 4 + 5 ▁= ▁ ▁of ▁memory , ▁where ▁a ▁word ▁may ▁be ▁any ▁number ▁of ▁bits ▁chosen ▁by ▁the ▁system ▁designer ▁as ▁the ▁memory ▁width . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁one ▁byte , ▁as ▁is ▁often ▁the ▁case , ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 5 1 2 ▁Ki B . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁ 3 2 ▁bits , ▁e . g . ▁for |
▁ 3 2 - bit ▁color ▁graphics ▁with ▁one ▁pixel ▁per ▁word , ▁then ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 2 0 4 8 ▁ki B , ▁which ▁equals ▁ 2 ▁Mi B ▁( and ▁for ▁ 6 4 - bit ▁words , ▁it ▁can ▁address ▁twice ▁that ). ▁These ▁limits ▁arise ▁from ▁the ▁combination ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁and ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁external ▁memory ▁connected ▁to ▁it , ▁not ▁from ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁alone . ▁ ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁unique ▁addresses ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁is ▁limited ▁( to ▁ 5 1 2 * 1 0 2 4 ), ▁but ▁the ▁amount ▁of ▁memory ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁is ▁theoret ically ▁un limited , ▁because ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁impos es ▁no ▁limit ▁on ▁the ▁size ▁of ▁each ▁memory ▁location ▁that ▁it ▁addresses . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁significant ▁that ▁each ▁word ▁addressed ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁to ▁equal ▁one ▁pixel ▁or ▁one ▁character . ▁ ▁As ▁an ▁example , ▁consider ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁in ▁the ▁IBM ▁CG A , ▁where ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁one ▁byte ▁and ▁each ▁word ▁represents ▁four ▁or ▁eight ▁pixels ▁( in ▁the ▁medium - ▁or ▁high - ▁resolution ▁graphics ▁mode , ▁respectively ) ▁or ▁one - half ▁character . ▁In ▁CG A ▁al phan umeric ▁( text ) ▁mode , ▁there ▁are |
▁two ▁bytes ▁per ▁character , ▁accessed ▁sequ entially ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 — the ▁first ▁byte ▁is ▁a ▁character ▁code ▁byte ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁byte ▁is ▁a ▁character ▁attribute ▁byte . ▁▁ ▁The ▁character ▁address ▁increases ▁linear ly . ▁When ▁the ▁chip ▁signals ▁horizontal ▁sync ▁it ▁increases ▁the ▁row ▁address . ▁If ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁does ▁not ▁equal ▁the ▁program matically ▁set ▁number ▁of ▁rows ▁per ▁character , ▁then ▁the ▁character ▁address ▁is ▁reset ▁to ▁the ▁value ▁it ▁had ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁scan line ▁that ▁was ▁just ▁completed . ▁Otherwise ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁is ▁reset ▁to ▁zero ▁and ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁continues ▁increasing ▁linear ly . ▁This ▁causes ▁the ▁same ▁sequence ▁of ▁character ▁values ▁to ▁be ▁re - read ▁from ▁the ▁memory ▁for ▁each ▁r aster ▁line ▁of ▁each ▁character ▁row , ▁before ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁adv ances ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁to ▁the ▁next ▁character ▁row ▁and ▁repe ats ▁the ▁same ▁pattern . ▁ ▁Therefore , ▁if ▁a ▁character ▁occup ies ▁one ▁" word " ▁in ▁the ▁video ▁buffer , ▁a ▁display ▁of ▁l ▁lines ▁and ▁c ▁columns ▁of ▁characters ▁with ▁s ▁scan ▁lines ▁per ▁character ▁requires ▁l ▁× ▁c ▁words ▁of ▁memory ▁to ▁represent ▁a ▁full ▁screen ▁of ▁characters ▁but ▁takes ▁s ▁times ▁that ▁many ▁memory ▁access es ▁to ▁complete ▁one ▁refresh ▁cycle ▁( as ▁each ▁line ▁of ▁character ▁words ▁is ▁repeatedly ▁read ▁s ▁times ▁before ▁the ▁next ▁one ▁is ▁read ). ▁ ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁character ▁displays ▁using ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 |
5 , ▁compared ▁to ▁all - points - address able ▁graphics ▁displays ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁resolution , ▁require ▁much ▁less ▁memory ▁but ▁still ▁require ▁high ▁memory ▁band width ▁on ▁the ▁order ▁of ▁the ▁band width ▁required ▁for ▁graphics . ▁ ▁( A ▁different ▁video ▁display ▁controller ▁that ▁buff ers ▁one ▁whole ▁line ▁of ▁character ▁data ▁internally ▁can ▁avoid ▁this ▁repeated ▁reading ▁of ▁each ▁line ▁of ▁characters ▁from ▁the ▁display ▁buffer ▁RAM , ▁reducing ▁the ▁required ▁memory ▁band width ▁and ▁allowing ▁either ▁slower , ▁less ▁expensive ▁memory ▁ch ips ▁to ▁be ▁used , ▁more ▁time ▁for ▁a ▁system ▁CPU ▁to ▁access ▁the ▁memory , ▁or ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁both . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁and ▁to ▁a ▁less er ▁extent ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁memory ▁was ▁expensive , ▁fast ▁memory ▁was ▁especially ▁so , ▁and ▁this ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁concern . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁to ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s , ▁chip ▁circuit ▁dens ities ▁were ▁not ▁very ▁high ▁either , ▁and ▁putting ▁an ▁ 8 0 - byte ▁or ▁larger ▁character ▁buffer ▁into ▁a ▁chip ▁like ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁might ▁have ▁en larg ed ▁the ▁chip ▁die ▁by ▁ 5 0 - 1 0 0 %, ▁in ▁turn ▁making ▁it ▁more ▁expensive ▁by ▁a ▁few ▁times ▁that ▁factor ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁exponential ▁growth ▁of ▁chip ▁defect ▁rates ▁and ▁the ▁consequ ent ▁decl ine |
▁of ▁production ▁yield ▁with ▁die ▁size . ▁ ▁Therefore , ▁adding ▁such ▁a ▁character ▁buffer ▁to ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁cost - effect ive ▁approach ▁when ▁the ▁chip ▁was ▁introduced . ▁ ▁Now ▁that ▁memory ▁is ▁very ▁in exp ensive , ▁fast ▁memory ▁included , ▁there ▁is ▁little ▁motiv ation ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁memory ▁band width ▁required ▁by ▁a ▁video ▁display ▁controller , ▁so ▁this ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁an ▁important ▁engineering ▁consideration . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁chip ▁dens ities ▁have ▁sky ro cket ed — which ▁is ▁actually ▁the ▁main ▁reason ▁for ▁today ' s ▁low ▁memory ▁prices — and ▁many ▁ch ips ▁used ▁in ▁computers ▁have ▁large ▁buff ers ▁and ▁c aches ; ▁a ▁chip ▁like ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁designed ▁today ▁could ▁easily ▁use ▁a ▁character ▁line ▁cache ▁to ▁avoid ▁reading ▁and ▁re - reading ▁characters ▁for ▁each ▁video ▁scan ▁line ▁within ▁a ▁character ▁line . ▁ ▁For ▁low - power ▁hand h eld ▁devices , ▁which ▁would ▁be ▁the ▁main ▁ones ▁likely ▁to ▁use ▁character ▁displays ▁now , ▁the ▁power ▁used ▁for ▁high - band width ▁memory ▁access ▁would ▁be ▁good ▁reason ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁memory ▁band width ▁for ▁display ▁refresh ▁through ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁ ▁a ▁line ▁cache ▁in ▁the ▁display ▁controller . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁character ▁address ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁look ▁up ▁a ▁character ▁reference ▁in ▁RAM ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁to ▁index ▁a ▁table ▁of ▁character ▁graphics ▁in ▁R OM ▁an ▁ordinary ▁text ▁mode ▁display ▁is ▁constructed |
. ▁The ▁character ▁reference ▁read ▁from ▁memory ▁must ▁be ▁combined ▁with ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁address ▁for ▁the ▁character ▁graphics ▁R OM , ▁with ▁the ▁character ▁reference ▁selecting ▁a ▁set ▁of ▁scan ▁line ▁patterns ▁that ▁forms ▁one ▁character ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁indexing ▁into ▁that ▁set ▁to ▁select ▁one ▁scan ▁line . ▁In ▁other ▁words , ▁the ▁R OM ▁address ▁is ▁split ▁into ▁two ▁parts ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁R OM ▁as ▁a ▁two - dimensional ▁array : ▁the ▁first ▁dimension ▁selects ▁a ▁character , ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁selects ▁a ▁row ▁of ▁that ▁character ' s ▁graph ic ▁pattern . ▁ ▁Linear ▁frame buff ers ▁As ▁described ▁above , ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁not ▁ordin arily ▁able ▁to ▁provide ▁large ▁linear ▁frame buff ers . ▁A ▁design ▁could ▁use ▁only ▁the ▁ ▁character ▁address ▁and ▁set ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁rows ▁per ▁character ▁to ▁ 1 ▁but ▁it ▁would ▁be ▁const rained ▁to ▁ ▁of ▁address able ▁memory . ▁ ▁A ▁solution ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁Am str ad ▁C PC , ▁which ▁comb ines ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁and ▁character ▁address ▁to ▁provide ▁linear ▁scan lines ▁within ▁a ▁non - linear ▁buffer . ▁It ▁maps ▁row ▁address ▁RA 0 - RA 2 ▁to ▁memory ▁address ▁MA 1 1 - MA 1 3 ▁and ▁character ▁address ▁CA 0 - CA 1 0 ▁to ▁memory ▁address ▁MA 0 - MA 1 0 . ▁This ▁has ▁the ▁advantages ▁of ▁easier ▁programming ▁for ▁non - character ▁display ▁and ▁easy ▁smooth ▁horizontal ▁scrolling |
▁but ▁can ▁imp ede ▁smooth ▁vertical ▁scrolling . ▁ ▁D iffer ences ▁from ▁the ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁Although ▁over wh el ming ly ▁compatible , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁small ▁variations ▁exist ▁between ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁and ▁ 6 5 4 5 . ▁ ▁The ▁biggest ▁difference ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁may ▁be ▁configured ▁so ▁that ▁it ▁has ▁sole ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁address ▁bus ▁for ▁video ▁memory . ▁Two ▁additional ▁registers ▁are ▁included ▁for ▁setting ▁any ▁address ▁the ▁CPU ▁wishes ▁to ▁read ▁and ▁the ▁chip ▁altern ates ▁between ▁output ting ▁addresses ▁for ▁display ▁generation ▁and ▁the ▁display ▁set ▁for ▁CPU ▁access . ▁ ▁Sm aller ▁changes ▁are ▁that ▁the ▁M OS ▁Technology ▁and ▁one ▁variation ▁of ▁the ▁Rock well ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁lack ▁inter la ced ▁output ▁support ▁and ▁all ▁ 6 5 4 5 s ▁include ▁an ▁optional ▁address ▁ske w , ▁which ▁del ays ▁display ▁enable ▁for ▁one ▁character ▁cycle ▁if ▁set . ▁This ▁second ▁feature ▁was ▁incorpor ated ▁into ▁later ▁variations ▁of ▁the ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 5 . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁may ▁be ▁set ▁to ▁work ▁in ▁linear ▁ 1 4 ▁bit ▁mode ▁using ▁a ▁status ▁bit . ▁On ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁the ▁same ▁thing ▁requires ▁adjust ment ▁of ▁the ▁character ▁height . ▁ ▁Tr icks ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁reads ▁the ▁start ▁address ▁for ▁its ▁display ▁once ▁per ▁frame . ▁However , ▁if ▁the ▁internal ▁timing ▁values |
▁on ▁the ▁chip ▁are ▁alter ed ▁at ▁the ▁correct ▁time ▁it ▁can ▁be ▁made ▁to ▁prepare ▁for ▁a ▁new ▁frame ▁without ▁ending ▁the ▁current ▁one ▁- ▁creating ▁a ▁non - continu ous ▁break ▁in ▁generated ▁addresses ▁mid way ▁through ▁the ▁display . ▁This ▁is ▁commonly ▁used ▁by ▁dem os ▁and ▁much ▁more ▁rarely ▁games ▁to ▁provide ▁one ▁moving ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁display ▁( us ually ▁the ▁play ▁field ) ▁and ▁one ▁static ▁( us ually ▁a ▁status ▁display ). ▁ ▁Vert ical ▁scrolling ▁appears ▁const rained ▁because ▁only ▁the ▁character ▁start ▁address ▁can ▁be ▁set ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁is ▁always ▁zero ed ▁at ▁frame ▁start , ▁but ▁by ▁adjust ing ▁border ▁times ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁to ▁shift ▁the ▁position ▁the ▁frame buffer ▁is ▁shown ▁on ▁the ▁r aster ▁display ▁for ▁incre ments ▁in ▁between ▁whole ▁characters . ▁With ▁drawing ▁of ▁blank ▁pixels ▁at ▁the ▁screen ▁edges , ▁this ▁can ▁be ▁made ▁invisible ▁to ▁the ▁user ▁creating ▁just ▁the ▁ill usion ▁of ▁a ▁smooth ▁vertical ▁scroll . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 7 , ▁a ▁complete ▁video ▁display ▁generator ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁home ▁computers ▁by ▁video ▁hardware ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁HTML ▁documentation ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁registers ▁ ▁Z ipped ▁T IF s ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁data ▁sheets ▁ ▁D iffer ences ▁of ▁CR TC ▁models ▁ ▁Syn er tek ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁Application ▁Note ▁ ▁Category : Graphics ▁ch ips ▁ 6 8 4 5 <0x0A> </s> |
▁The ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁four ▁such ▁grand ▁comm itte es ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Parliament . ▁The ▁other ▁three ▁are ▁for ▁Scotland , ▁Wales ▁and , ▁as ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁England . ▁The ▁membership ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁includes ▁all ▁particip ating ▁Northern ▁Irish ▁MP s , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁up ▁to ▁ 2 5 ▁other ▁MP s ▁who ▁are ▁nominated ▁by ▁the ▁Committee ▁of ▁Selection . ▁ ▁The ▁purpose ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁is ▁to ▁read ▁b ills ▁that ▁are ▁relevant ▁to ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁before ▁their ▁second ▁or ▁third ▁read ings ▁in ▁Parliament . ▁It ▁also ▁provides ▁an ▁opportunity ▁for ▁MP s ▁to ▁question ▁minister s , ▁debate ▁current ▁matters ▁and ▁for ▁minister s ▁to ▁make ▁statements . ▁There ▁are ▁between ▁three ▁and ▁six ▁committee ▁meet ings ▁per ▁year . ▁ ▁Until ▁recently , ▁unlike ▁its ▁Scottish ▁and ▁Wel sh ▁counter parts , ▁the ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁met ▁at ▁West min ster ▁and ▁never ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland . ▁ ▁However , ▁the ▁Democratic ▁Union ist ▁Party ▁pressed ▁for ▁a ▁meeting ▁to ▁take ▁place ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁itself . ▁The ▁government ▁agreed , ▁and ▁in ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁the ▁first ▁local ▁meeting ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁council ▁chamber ▁at ▁B elf ast ▁City ▁Hall . ▁The ▁committee ▁met ▁again ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁this ▁time ▁in ▁the ▁Senate ▁Chamber ▁at ▁Parliament ▁Build ings , ▁Storm ont . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Legisl ative |
▁Grand ▁Committee ▁List ▁of ▁Comm itte es ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Parliament ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Affairs ▁Select ▁Committee ▁Scottish ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Wel sh ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Deb ates ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Deb ates ▁by ▁parliament ary ▁year : ▁ 2 0 0 6 - 2 0 0 7 ▁ 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6 ▁ 2 0 0 4 - 2 0 0 5 ▁ 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 4 ▁ 2 0 0 2 - 2 0 0 3 ▁ 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 2 ▁ 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 1 ▁ 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 ▁ 1 9 9 8 - 1 9 9 9 ▁ 1 9 9 7 - 1 9 9 8 ▁ ▁Category : Com mit te es ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁House ▁of ▁Commons <0x0A> </s> ▁Ram ▁D ass ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁politician ▁and ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁B har ati ya ▁Jan ata ▁Party . ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁from ▁the ▁K ut le har ▁constitu ency ▁in ▁Una ▁district . ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁Deput y ▁Spe aker ▁of ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Una ▁district ▁Category : B |
har ati ya ▁Jan ata ▁Party ▁polit icians ▁from ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁Category : 1 9 4 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 5 ▁death s ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Indian ▁polit icians ▁Category : De put y ▁Spe akers ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly <0x0A> </s> ▁Ar ina ▁H ugen hol tz ▁( 1 8 4 8 – 1 9 3 4 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Dutch ▁ ▁painter . ▁She ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁landscape ▁and ▁genre ▁paint ings . ▁ ▁Biography ▁H ugen hol tz ▁was ▁born ▁ 2 0 ▁September ▁ 1 8 4 8 ▁in ▁C illa ar sh o ek . ▁She ▁attended ▁Royal ▁Academy ▁of ▁Art ▁at ▁The ▁H ague ▁and ▁the ▁State ▁Academy ▁of ▁Fine ▁Arts ▁in ▁Amsterdam . ▁She ▁studied ▁with ▁Anton ▁Mau ve . ▁ ▁H ugen hol tz ▁exhib ited ▁her ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁Palace ▁of ▁Fine ▁Arts ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 8 9 3 ▁World ' s ▁Columb ian ▁Ex position ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁Illinois . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 9 4 ▁she ▁settled ▁in ▁Lar en , ▁where ▁she ▁had ▁a ▁studio ▁built ▁and ▁she ▁was ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Lar en ▁School ▁ ▁H ugen hol tz ▁died ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁in ▁Lar en . ▁ ▁Her ▁works ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁S inger ▁Museum ▁in ▁Lar en ▁and ▁the |
▁Fr ans ▁H als ▁Museum ▁in ▁H aar lem . ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 8 4 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 4 ▁death s ▁Category : D utch ▁women ▁pain ters ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Dutch ▁pain ters ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Dutch ▁pain ters <0x0A> </s> ▁Count ▁Em mo ▁or ▁Em mon ▁( d . ▁before ▁ 1 7 ▁Jan ▁ 1 0 7 8 ) ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁known ▁Count s ▁of ▁Lo on . ▁Before ▁him ▁one ▁more ▁count ▁is ▁known ▁with ▁confidence , ▁G is el bert ▁of ▁Lo on , ▁but ▁it ▁is ▁not ▁certain ▁that ▁G is el bert ▁was ▁his ▁father . ▁Ver hel st ▁for ▁example ▁has ▁proposed ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁his ▁uncle , ▁and ▁that ▁G is el bert ' s ▁brother ▁Count ▁Arn ulf ▁was ▁father ▁of ▁Em mo ▁and ▁also ▁a ▁count ▁of ▁Lo on . ▁ ▁More ▁secure ly , ▁his ▁mother ▁is ▁named ▁clearly ▁as ▁L uit gar de ▁of ▁Nam ur , ▁a ▁sister ▁of ▁Count ▁Albert ▁of ▁Nam ur , ▁in ▁a ▁work ▁about ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁her ▁cousin , ▁Bishop ▁Arn ulf ▁of ▁So iss ons . ▁ ▁Un us ually , ▁Em mo ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁Otto ▁were ▁sometimes ▁joint ly ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Count s ▁of ▁Lo on , |
▁though ▁Otto ' s ▁descend ants ▁became ▁Count s ▁of ▁neighbor ing ▁Dur as , ▁perhaps ▁through ▁his ▁marriage ▁to ▁the ▁he ir ess . ▁Em mo ' s ▁family ▁was ▁probably ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁families ▁who ▁held ▁count ies ▁in ▁the ▁local ▁H es b aye ▁region , ▁which ▁were ▁eventually ▁replaced ▁by ▁Lo on ▁and ▁Dur as . ▁In ▁ 9 6 6 ▁the ▁lord ▁of ▁Gel men ▁was ▁a ▁Count ▁Im mo . ▁ ▁Em mo ▁married ▁Su anh ild is , ▁who ▁was ▁possibly ▁the ▁daughter ▁of ▁D irk ▁III ▁Hier os ol ym ita , ▁Count ▁of ▁Holland , ▁and ▁O th eland is ▁of ▁Nord mar ck . ▁ ▁Em mo ▁and ▁Su anh ild is ▁had ▁four ▁children : ▁▁ ▁Soph ie ▁( d . ▁ 1 0 6 5 ) ▁married ▁Gé za ▁I , ▁King ▁of ▁Hung ary . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁uncertain ▁whether ▁the ▁subsequent ▁dynast y ▁of ▁Kings ▁of ▁Hung ary ▁were ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Soph ie ▁or ▁Gé za ’ s ▁second ▁wife . ▁ ▁Arnold ▁I , ▁Count ▁of ▁Lo oz ▁ ▁Th ier ry ▁( D irk ) ▁de ▁Lo oz ▁( d . ▁after ▁April ▁ 1 1 2 5 ), ▁Count ▁of ▁Horn . ▁▁▁ ▁Me ch th ilde , ▁Abb ess ▁of ▁Mun ster bil zen ▁ ▁Rena ud , ▁advoc ate ▁of ▁F oss es - la - V ille , ▁mentioned ▁in ▁a ▁for ged ▁document ? |
▁ ▁Em mo ▁was ▁succeeded ▁as ▁Count ▁of ▁Lo oz ▁by ▁his ▁son ▁Arnold ▁upon ▁his ▁death . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Jean ▁Ba erten , ▁Het ▁gra af schap ▁Lo on ▁( 1 1 de - 1 4 de ▁eeuw ), ▁Ass en , 1 9 6 9 ▁( link ) ▁S ouver e yn s ; ▁Bij ster vel d ▁( 2 0 0 8 ), ▁" De el ▁ 1 : ▁De ▁gra ven ▁van ▁Lo on ", ▁Lim burg ▁- ▁Het ▁O ude ▁Land ▁van ▁Lo on ▁( link ) ▁V ander kind ere , ▁Lé on ▁( 1 9 0 2 ), ▁La ▁formation ▁territ oria le ▁des ▁princip aut és ▁bel ges ▁au ▁Mo yen ▁Age ▁( link ), ▁Vol . 2 , ▁Ch . ▁ 9 , ▁p . 1 2 8 ▁Ver don k , ▁" De ▁her kom st ▁van ▁de ▁her en ▁van ▁Her la er " ▁link ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Med ieval ▁Land s ▁Project , ▁Com tes ▁de ▁Lo oz ▁ ▁Category : 1 0 7 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁unknown ▁Em mo <0x0A> </s> ▁James ▁Marcus ▁King ▁( 1 8 ▁March ▁ 1 8 3 9 - 3 ▁October ▁ 1 9 0 7 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁Method ist ▁minister , ▁writer , ▁and ▁political ▁activ ist . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁anti - C atholic ▁League ▁for ▁the ▁Prote ction ▁of ▁American ▁Institute ▁from ▁its ▁found ing ▁in |
▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 8 8 9 ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 7 . ▁Supp or ters ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁included ▁John ▁D . ▁Rock ef eller , ▁Corn el ius ▁V ander b ilt , ▁and ▁Abr am ▁H ew itt ▁among ▁others . ▁ ▁Family ▁and ▁early ▁life ▁King ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Gir ard , ▁Pennsylvania ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 9 . ▁His ▁father . ▁Rev . ▁E lij ah ▁King , ▁was ▁ord ained ▁by ▁Bishop ▁Francis ▁As bury . ▁James ▁King ▁studied ▁at ▁New bury ▁Sem inary ▁in ▁Verm ont ▁before ▁att ending ▁Wes ley an ▁University ▁in ▁Connecticut . ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 2 , ▁he ▁taught ▁for ▁six ▁years ▁at ▁the ▁Fort ▁Edward ▁Colleg iate ▁Institution , ▁which ▁was ▁run ▁by ▁his ▁brother , ▁Rev . ▁Joseph ▁E . ▁King . ▁In ▁ 1 8 6 6 , ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁minister ▁in ▁the ▁Method ist ▁Epis cop al ▁Church . ▁He ▁first ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁T roy , ▁New ▁York ▁area ▁before ▁being ▁moved ▁to ▁New ▁York ▁City , ▁where ▁he ▁remained ▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁his ▁life . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 8 , ▁The ▁Tre as ury , ▁an ▁evangel ical ▁Protest ant ▁magazine , ▁described ▁King ▁as ▁" the ▁recognized ▁leader ▁and ▁representative ▁of ▁the ▁Method ist ▁Epis cop al ▁Church " ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 9 , ▁King ▁became ▁general ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁National |
▁League ▁for ▁the ▁Prote ction ▁of ▁American ▁Institution s . ▁The ▁League ▁was ▁formed ▁to ▁advoc ate ▁to ▁promote ▁a ▁new ▁constitution al ▁am end ment ▁which ▁would ▁have ▁b anned ▁the ▁dis b urs ing ▁of ▁public ▁funds ▁to ▁religious ▁institutions , ▁most ▁not ably ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁It ▁was ▁an ▁updated ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁Bla ine ▁Am end ment ▁which ▁had ▁nearly ▁passed ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 5 . ▁The ▁N L PA I ▁was ▁formed ▁during ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁inten se ▁anti - C atholic ▁sentiment ; ▁the ▁American ▁Prote ct ive ▁Association ▁had ▁been ▁formed ▁two ▁years ▁earlier . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 0 7 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Er ie ▁County , ▁Pennsylvania ▁Category : American ▁Method ist ▁cler gy ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Method ist ▁minister s ▁Category : W es ley an ▁University ▁al umn i <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁Parker ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 7 1 ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁Australian ▁rules ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁with ▁the ▁Br is b ane ▁B ears ▁in ▁the ▁Australian ▁Football ▁League ▁( AF L ). ▁ ▁Parker , ▁from ▁Frank ston , ▁was ▁chosen ▁by ▁the ▁B ears ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁pick ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁Mid - Se ason ▁D raft . ▁ ▁He ▁didn ' t ▁play ▁a ▁senior ▁game ▁that ▁year ▁and ▁instead ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁during ▁the |
▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁season , ▁against ▁Carl ton ▁at ▁Prin ces ▁Park . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁week ▁he ▁played ▁again , ▁this ▁time ▁a ▁home ▁fi xture ▁against ▁North ▁Melbourne ▁and ▁he ▁had ▁ 1 1 ▁dispos als . ▁ ▁His ▁only ▁other ▁appearance ▁for ▁the ▁B ears ▁came ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 0 4 - point ▁loss ▁to ▁Fitz roy . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁rules ▁football ers ▁from ▁Victoria ▁( Austral ia ) ▁Category : B ris b ane ▁B ears ▁players ▁Category : Fran k ston ▁Bom bers ▁players ▁Category : L iving ▁people <0x0A> </s> ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Par ish ▁is ▁a ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁parish ▁designated ▁for ▁Polish ▁imm igr ants ▁in ▁New ▁Bed ford , ▁Massachusetts , ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁F ounded ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 5 , ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pt ual ▁Help ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Polish - American ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁in ▁New ▁England ▁in ▁the ▁Dioc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁the ▁parish ▁has ▁been ▁staff ed ▁by ▁the ▁Con vent ual ▁Francis c ans . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁▁ ▁The ▁Official ▁Catholic ▁Directory ▁in ▁USA ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Church ▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Par ish ▁- ▁Par ishes On line . com ▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help |
▁Par ish ▁- ▁The C atholic Directory . com ▁ ▁Dioc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River ▁ ▁Category : Pol ish - American ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁of ▁Dioc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁churches ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : Ch urch es ▁in ▁New ▁Bed ford , ▁Massachusetts <0x0A> </s> ▁My cos pha er ella ▁pom i ▁is ▁a ▁plant ▁path ogen . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁My cos pha er ella ▁species ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : F ung al ▁plant ▁path og ens ▁and ▁dise ases ▁pom i ▁Category : F ung i ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 7 <0x0A> </s> ▁Case ▁départ ▁( T ee ▁box ) ▁is ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁French ▁comedy ▁film ▁directed ▁by ▁Lion el ▁Ste k ete e , ▁Fab rice ▁Eb ou é ▁and ▁Thomas ▁N ' G ij ol . ▁ ▁Plot ▁Half - bro thers ▁Rég is ▁( F ab rice ▁Eb ou e ) ▁and ▁Jo el ▁( Th omas ▁T g ij ol ) ▁Gros d és ir ▁are ▁called ▁to ▁their ▁est r anged ▁father ' s ▁death bed ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Ant illes . ▁He ▁has ▁nothing ▁to ▁be que ath ▁them ▁but ▁the ▁family ▁tre asure ▁- ▁the ▁certificate ▁of ▁man um ission ▁that ▁fre ed ▁their ▁common ▁ancest or ▁from ▁sla very . ▁ ▁Unfortunately ▁wide ▁boy ▁Rég is ▁and ▁Uncle ▁Tom ▁race ▁tra itor ▁Jo el ▁are ▁observed |
▁by ▁their ▁a unt ▁( Is abel ▁del ▁Car men ▁Sol ar ▁Mont al vo ) ▁as ▁they ▁te ar ▁the ▁pre cious ▁document ▁up ▁and ▁mock ▁it . ▁She ▁is ▁en rag ed ▁and ▁cast s ▁a ▁spell ▁to ▁send ▁them ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁where ▁they ▁are ▁immediately ▁picked ▁up ▁and ▁sold ▁as ▁slaves . ▁In ▁a ▁Back ▁to ▁the ▁Future ▁style ▁coming - of - age ▁story line ▁they ▁must ▁help ▁their ▁great - grand par ents ▁to ▁meet ▁and ▁fall ▁in ▁love , ▁if ▁they ▁have ▁any ▁hope ▁of ▁returning ▁to ▁their ▁lives ▁- ▁or ▁to ▁a ▁better ▁version ▁of ▁themselves . ▁ ▁Cast ▁ ▁Fab rice ▁Eb ou é ▁– ▁Rég is ▁Gros d és ir ▁ ▁Thomas ▁N ' G ij ol ▁– ▁Jo ël ▁Gros d és ir ▁ ▁St é fi ▁Cel ma ▁– ▁Ros al ie ▁ ▁E ri q ▁Eb ou an ey ▁– ▁Is id ore ▁ ▁José ph ine ▁de ▁Me aux ▁– ▁José ph ine ▁J ourd ain ▁ ▁Catherine ▁H os mal in ▁– ▁Madame ▁J ourd ain ▁ ▁Ét ienne ▁Ch ic ot ▁– ▁Monsieur ▁J ourd ain ▁ ▁Bl anche ▁Gard in ▁– ▁Cor in ne ▁ ▁Nicolas ▁Mari é ▁– ▁The ▁Mayor ▁ ▁Fran ck ▁de ▁la ▁Person ne ▁– ▁The ▁Pri est ▁ ▁David ▁S alles ▁– ▁M ▁Henri ▁ ▁D oud ou ▁M asta ▁– ▁Neg ' ▁Mar ron ' s ▁Chief ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category |
: F rench ▁films ▁Category : F rench - language ▁films ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁films ▁Category : F rench ▁comedy ▁films ▁Category : Fil ms ▁about ▁race ▁and ▁eth nic ity ▁Category : Fil ms ▁about ▁sla very ▁Category : Fil ms ▁set ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁Category : Fil ms ▁shot ▁in ▁Cuba ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁comedy ▁films <0x0A> </s> ▁Chris ▁Char ter is ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 6 ) ▁is ▁a ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt or , ▁j ew eller ▁and ▁car ver . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁ ▁Char ter is ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁A uck land , ▁adopted ▁into ▁a ▁P ake ha ▁family ▁as ▁a ▁young ▁child , ▁and ▁told ▁he ▁was ▁M ā ori , ▁before ▁discover ing ▁much ▁later ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁of ▁Ki rib ati , ▁F ij ian ▁and ▁English ▁descent . ▁He ▁began ▁his ▁art istic ▁training ▁in ▁K ait a ia ▁in ▁Ma ori ▁car ving ▁and ▁design . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 6 , ▁he ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁car ving ▁t utor ▁at ▁O tag o ▁and ▁South land ▁Poly techn ics , ▁and ▁the ▁Dun ed in ▁College ▁of ▁Education ' s ▁A rai ▁Te ▁U ru ▁K ok iri ▁Youth ▁Learning ▁Centre . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁he ▁established ▁Te ▁Wh are ▁Wh ak airo ▁Gallery ▁and ▁Work shop ▁in ▁Dun ed in . ▁ ▁Career ▁ |
▁He ▁has ▁exhib ited ▁at ▁F h E ▁Gall eries ▁in ▁A uck land ▁with ▁T uan ako ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁To ▁the ▁Heart ▁of ▁the ▁M atter ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁and ▁M ata u ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁His ▁work ▁has ▁been ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁group ▁exhibition ▁W und err ū ma : ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery , ▁exhib ited ▁at ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ▁in ▁Lower ▁H utt ▁and ▁at ▁Galerie ▁Hand werk ▁in ▁Mun ich . ▁His ▁work ▁was ▁also ▁part ▁of ▁Pas if ika ▁St yles ▁at ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁Arch ae ology ▁and ▁Anth rop ology , ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge . ▁His ▁work ▁was ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁third ▁and ▁fourth ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ienn ial s , ▁Tur ang awa ew ae : ▁A ▁Public ▁Out ing , ▁held ▁at ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁and ▁Gram mar : ▁Sub ject s ▁and ▁Object s , ▁held ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁▁ 1 ▁No ble ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D us ky ▁Ma id ens ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁Char ter is ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁j ew ellers ▁N iki ▁H ast ings - Mc F all ▁and ▁Sof ia ▁T ek ala - Smith ▁on ▁the ▁exhibition ▁ 1 ▁No ble ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D us ky ▁Ma id ens ▁at ▁Jud ith ▁Anderson ▁Gallery ▁in |
▁A uck land , ▁which ▁helped ▁draw ▁attention ▁to ▁a ▁new ▁generation ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁artists ▁of ▁Pacific ▁descent ▁and ▁showed ▁“ what ▁contemporary ▁j ew ellers ▁might ▁offer ▁to ▁contemporary ▁Pacific ▁identity ▁− ▁not ably ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁play ful ▁appropri ation ▁of ▁Pacific ▁ad orn ment ▁that ▁is ▁ir onic ▁and ▁serious ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time .” ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁publication ▁titled ▁ 1 ▁No ble ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D us ky ▁Ma id ens ▁with ▁reprodu ctions ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁artists ' ▁work ▁and ▁ess ays ▁by ▁Mark ▁Kir by , ▁Lisa ▁Ta ou ma ▁and ▁Nicholas ▁Thomas . ▁The ▁publication ' s ▁catalog ue ▁featured ▁a ▁photograph ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁artists ▁in ▁a ▁f aux - eth n ographic ▁style , ▁dressed ▁in ▁traditional ▁manner ▁and ▁m im ick ing ▁the ▁convent ions ▁of ▁photograph s ▁taken ▁in ▁Sam oa ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 9 0 s ▁for ▁Western ▁consumption , ▁as ▁a ▁comment ▁on ▁s tere ot yp ical ▁present ations ▁of ▁Pacific ▁pe op les . ▁ ▁Now ▁and ▁Then ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Char ter is ▁again ▁held ▁a ▁joint ▁exhibition ▁with ▁H ast ings - Mc F all ▁titled ▁Now ▁and ▁Then ▁at ▁the ▁R H ▁Gallery ▁at ▁W ool last on ▁in ▁Nelson . ▁The ▁over arch ing ▁principle ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁exhibition ▁was ▁' V a ', ▁or ▁the ▁Sam o an ▁concept ▁of ▁' the ▁space ▁between '. |
▁In ▁his ▁work ▁for ▁the ▁exhibition ▁Char ter is ▁expl ored ▁new ▁materials , ▁using ▁car ▁paint , ▁magnet s ▁and ▁mother ▁of ▁p ear l ▁in ▁one ▁work , ▁and ▁n ik au ▁b ark ▁in ▁another . ▁ ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Ki rib ati ▁project ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Char ter is ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁designer ▁and ▁director ▁Jeff ▁Smith ▁on ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Ki rib ati ▁project . ▁The ▁two ▁artists ▁travel led ▁to ▁Ki rib ati ▁and ▁on ▁their ▁return ▁made ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁works ▁that ▁were ▁displayed ▁at ▁the ▁A uck land ▁War ▁Memorial ▁Museum ▁and ▁the ▁Mang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre . ▁At ▁the ▁Museum ▁items ▁from ▁the ▁Pacific ▁collection ▁were ▁mixed ▁with ▁new ▁art ▁works ▁by ▁Char ter is , ▁a ▁digital ▁interactive ▁by ▁Smith , ▁and ▁arch ival ▁film ▁foot age ; ▁items ▁from ▁the ▁Museum ' s ▁collection ▁were ▁also ▁shown ▁with ▁new ▁works ▁by ▁Smith ▁and ▁Char ter is ▁at ▁the ▁Mang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁Mang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre ▁included ▁a ▁large - scale ▁installation ▁titled ▁Te ▁ma ▁( F ish - t rap ). ▁ 7 . 4 ▁metres ▁long ▁and ▁ 4 . 6 ▁metres ▁wide , ▁the ▁work ▁was ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁heart - sh aped ▁fish ▁tra ps ▁built ▁off ▁the ▁sh ores ▁of ▁Ki rib ati ; ▁Char ter is ▁used ▁ 8 0 0 0 ▁pairs ▁of ▁Ring ed ▁Ven us ▁shell s ▁to |
▁re create ▁the ▁walls ▁of ▁the ▁fish ▁trap , ▁which ▁in ▁Ki rib ati ▁are ▁made ▁of ▁broken ▁cor al . ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁publication , ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Ki rib ati ▁project , ▁with ▁an ▁extended ▁ess ay ▁by ▁Mark ▁Am ery , ▁and ▁photograph s ▁of ▁the ▁artists ' ▁research ▁visit ▁to ▁Kir b ati ▁and ▁their ▁works . ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁tou red ▁to ▁P ata ka ▁Art ▁+ ▁Museum ▁and ▁H ast ings ▁City ▁Art ▁Gallery ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Col lections ▁ ▁His ▁work ▁is ▁held ▁in ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Te ▁Papa ▁T ong are wa , ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum , ▁the ▁A uck land ▁War ▁Memorial ▁Museum , ▁the ▁British ▁Museum ▁and ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁Arch ae ology ▁and ▁Anth rop ology , ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge . ▁ ▁Further ▁information ▁Inter view ▁with ▁Chris ▁Char ter is ▁Stand ing ▁Room ▁Only , ▁Radio ▁New ▁Zealand ▁National ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁ ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ; ▁Richard ▁Bell , ▁The ▁Third ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ienn ial : ▁Tur ang awa ew ae : ▁A ▁Public ▁Out ing , ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁ ▁Deb or ah ▁Cro we ; ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum , ▁ 4 th ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ienn ale : ▁Gram mar : ▁Sub ject s ▁and ▁Object s , ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁References ▁ |
▁Category : 1 9 6 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁A uck land <0x0A> </s> ▁" S aved ▁by ▁Love " ▁is ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁single ▁by ▁the ▁Christian ▁music ▁singer ▁Amy ▁Grant . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁single ▁from ▁her ▁Le ad ▁Me ▁On ▁album . ▁ ▁Key board ist ▁Ben mont ▁Ten ch ▁from ▁Tom ▁Pet ty ▁& ▁the ▁Heart break ers ▁was ▁the ▁featured ▁Hamm ond ▁B - 3 ▁organ ▁player ▁on ▁the ▁song ' s ▁mid - sol o . ▁ ▁" S aved ▁by ▁Love " ▁was ▁a ▁number - one ▁Christian ▁hit ▁and ▁pe aked ▁at ▁# 3 2 ▁on ▁the ▁adult ▁contemporary ▁chart . ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Music ▁sample ▁ ▁Category : A my ▁Grant ▁songs ▁Category : 1 9 8 8 ▁singles ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Amy ▁Grant ▁Category : 1 9 8 8 ▁songs ▁Category : A & M ▁Records ▁singles <0x0A> </s> ▁A bar is ▁usually ▁refers ▁to ▁A bar is ▁the ▁Hyper b ore an , ▁a ▁legend ary ▁s age , ▁he aler , ▁and ▁priest ▁of ▁Apol lo ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁An cient ▁Gree ks . ▁ ▁A bar is ▁may ▁also ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁M yth ology ▁A bar is ▁( C au cas ian ), ▁a ▁C au cas |
ian ▁killed ▁by ▁Per se us ▁A bar is ▁( D ol ion ian ), ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Dol ioni ans ▁A bar is ▁( A ene id ), ▁an ▁al ly ▁of ▁Turn us ▁ ▁Other ▁uses ▁A bar is , ▁another ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁opera ▁Les ▁Bor é ades ▁A bar is ▁A ircraft , ▁a ▁US ▁aircraft ▁manufact urer ▁A bar is ▁Books , ▁a ▁US ▁scholar ly ▁publishing ▁house ▁A bar is ▁( gen us ), ▁genus ▁of ▁be et les ▁Georg ios ▁A bar is , ▁Greek ▁footballer ▁A bar is , ▁another ▁name ▁of ▁A var is , ▁Hy ks os ▁capital ▁of ▁Egypt <0x0A> </s> ▁Er kan ▁M um cu ▁( b . ▁May ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁I sp arta , ▁Turkey ) ▁is ▁a ▁Turkish ▁politician ▁and ▁the ▁sixth ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party ▁( An av atan ▁Part isi , ▁AN AP ). ▁ ▁Biography ▁M um cu ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁An atol ian ▁town ▁of ▁Y al va ç ▁in ▁I sp arta ▁Province . ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁Sü le yman ▁and ▁his ▁mother ▁C em ile . ▁ ▁He ▁graduated ▁from ▁the ▁Ist an bul ▁University ' s ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁He ▁entered ▁politics ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁as ▁deput y ▁of ▁I sp arta ▁from ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 7 – 1 9 9 8 , ▁Er kan ▁M um cu ▁served |
▁as ▁secretary ▁general ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 – 1 9 9 9 , ▁he ▁was ▁vice ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁party . ▁He ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁in ▁the ▁coal ition ▁government ▁of ▁B ül ent ▁E ce v it ▁as ▁Minister ▁for ▁Tour ism ▁serving ▁from ▁May ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁August ▁ 8 , ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁He ▁joined ▁the ▁Justice ▁and ▁Development ▁Party ▁and ▁was ▁re elect ed ▁from ▁I sp arta ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁elections ▁into ▁the ▁parliament . ▁In ▁the ▁cabinet ▁of ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Abd ul lah ▁G ül , ▁he ▁was ▁first ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁National ▁Education ▁and ▁then ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁Culture ▁and ▁Tour ism . ▁ ▁After ▁a ▁dispute ▁with ▁Re cep ▁T ay y ip ▁Er do ğ an , ▁he ▁res igned ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁and ▁joined ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party ▁again . ▁Er kan ▁M um cu ▁was ▁elected ▁ 6 th ▁president ▁of ▁AN AP ▁at ▁the ▁extraordinary ▁party ▁con gress ▁on ▁April ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁On ▁October ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁M um cu ▁res igned ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁married ▁with ▁two ▁children . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Turkish ▁Grand ▁National ▁Assembly ▁official ▁website ▁▁ ▁Mother land ▁party ▁official ▁website ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 |
3 ▁birth s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁I sp arta ▁Category : I stan bul ▁University ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : G overn ment ▁minister s ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : L ead ers ▁of ▁political ▁parties ▁in ▁Turkey ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : M other land ▁Party ▁( T ur key ) ▁polit icians ▁Category : Just ice ▁and ▁Development ▁Party ▁( T ur key ) ▁polit icians ▁Category : Min ister s ▁of ▁National ▁Education ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Min ister s ▁of ▁Culture ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 2 nd ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁term ▁Hal b j ude ▁( English : ▁Half - J ew ) ▁is ▁a ▁der og atory ▁term ▁for ▁people ▁with ▁a ▁non - J ew ish ▁and ▁a ▁Jewish ▁parent . ▁The ▁over wh el ming ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁half - J ew s ▁were ▁leg ally ▁class ified ▁as ▁" first - deg ree ▁Jewish ▁hy br ids " ▁during ▁the ▁National ▁Social ist ▁era . ▁Occ asion ally , ▁the ▁term ▁was ▁used ▁even ▁before ▁the ▁National ▁Social ist ▁era . ▁Within ▁J uda ism ▁the ▁term ▁half ▁Jew ▁is ▁unusual , ▁since ▁it ▁only ▁knows ▁" who le " ▁Jews , ▁namely ▁born ▁into ▁the ▁cultural ▁community ▁(" J |
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