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▁ 1 8 9 7 ▁in ▁Sc r anton , ▁Pennsylvania . ▁Polish ▁parish ion ers ▁founded ▁the ▁church ▁to ▁assert ▁independence ▁from ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁in ▁America . ▁The ▁split ▁was ▁in ▁re bell ion ▁from ▁the ▁church ▁leadership , ▁then ▁domin ated ▁by ▁Irish ▁ ▁and ▁German ▁cler gy , ▁and ▁lack ing ▁in ▁Polish ▁language ▁speak ers ▁and ▁Polish ▁church ▁leaders . ▁The ▁Buck town ▁campus ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁C athedral ▁of ▁All ▁Sain ts ▁still ▁stands ▁as ▁a ▁test ament ▁to ▁this ▁community ▁of ▁faith . ▁ ▁The ▁current ▁C athedral ▁and ▁C emetery ▁complex ▁on ▁the ▁city ' s ▁peri ph ery ▁by ▁Ros em ont ▁remains ▁active ▁and ▁is ▁still ▁independent ▁from ▁the ▁authority ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁ ▁Poland ▁is ▁also ▁home ▁to ▁follow ers ▁of ▁Protest ant ism ▁and ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁Church . ▁Small ▁groups ▁of ▁both ▁of ▁these ▁groups ▁are ▁present ▁Chicago . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁celebrated ▁pain ters ▁of ▁religious ▁icons ▁in ▁North ▁America ▁today ▁is ▁a ▁Polish ▁American ▁Eastern ▁Orth odox ▁priest , ▁Fr . ▁The odore ▁J ure w icz , ▁who ▁single hand edly ▁painted ▁New ▁Gra č an ica ▁Mon aster y ▁in ▁Third ▁Lake , ▁Illinois , ▁over ▁the ▁span ▁of ▁three ▁years . ▁ ▁While ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Jews ▁from ▁the ▁former ▁lands ▁of ▁the ▁Polish - L ith uan ian ▁Commonwealth ▁imm igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁Chicago ▁area , ▁they ▁faced ▁a ▁historical ▁traject ory ▁far ▁different ▁from ▁that ▁of ▁their |
▁Christian ▁counter parts . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁American ization , ▁many ▁Polish ▁Jews ▁in ▁Chicago ▁would ▁lose ▁their ▁identification ▁with ▁their ▁native ▁land , ▁with ▁notable ▁exceptions . ▁There ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁small ▁numbers ▁of ▁Muslim s , ▁mostly ▁Lip ka ▁Tat ars ▁origin ating ▁from ▁the ▁B iał yst ok ▁region . ▁ ▁The ▁Polish ▁presence ▁in ▁Chicago ▁today ▁ ▁Institution s ▁Chicago ▁b ills ▁itself ▁as ▁the ▁largest ▁Polish ▁city ▁outside ▁of ▁Poland ▁with ▁approximately ▁ 1 , 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁people ▁of ▁Polish ▁eth nic ity ▁in ▁the ▁Chicago ▁metropol itan ▁area . ▁Chicago ' s ▁Polish ▁presence ▁is ▁felt ▁in ▁the ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁Polish ▁American ▁organizations ▁located ▁there , ▁including ▁the ▁Polish ▁Museum ▁of ▁America , ▁the ▁Polish ▁American ▁Association , ▁the ▁Polish ▁National ▁Alliance ▁and ▁the ▁Polish ▁High land ers ▁Alliance ▁of ▁North ▁America . ▁A ▁column ▁fragment ▁of ▁W aw el ▁Castle , ▁the ▁on etime ▁seat ▁of ▁Poland ' s ▁Royal ty ▁has ▁been ▁incorpor ated ▁into ▁Chicago ' s ▁land mark ▁Trib une ▁Tower ▁as ▁a ▁visual ▁t ribute ▁to ▁Chicago ' s ▁large ▁Polish ▁popul ace . ▁ ▁Culture ▁ ▁Chicago ▁also ▁has ▁a ▁th riv ing ▁Polish ▁cultural ▁scene . ▁The ▁city ▁hosts ▁the ▁Polish ▁Film ▁Festival ▁of ▁America ▁where ▁various ▁Polish ▁films ▁are ▁screen ed ▁during ▁the ▁week long ▁festival ▁every ▁October . ▁Polish ▁stage ▁produ ctions ▁in ▁both ▁Polish ▁and ▁English ▁are ▁regularly ▁st aged ▁at ▁numerous ▁ven ues ▁throughout ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Metropolitan ▁Area |
. ▁The ▁most ▁prominent ▁ven ues ▁among ▁these ▁are ▁the ▁Ch op in ▁and ▁Gate way ▁The at res . ▁The ▁Gate way , ▁which ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁seat ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁Cultural ▁Center ▁in ▁Chicago ▁is ▁the ▁home ▁of ▁the ▁Pad ere w ski ▁Sym phony ▁Orchestra . ▁The ▁Li ra ▁Ens emble , ▁the ▁only ▁professional ▁performing ▁arts ▁company ▁outside ▁of ▁Poland ▁that ▁special izes ▁in ▁Polish ▁music , ▁song , ▁and ▁dance ▁is ▁Art ist - in - Res idence ▁at ▁Lo y ola ▁University ▁Chicago . ▁ ▁Chicago ▁celebr ates ▁its ▁Polish ▁Heritage ▁every ▁Labor ▁Day ▁week end ▁at ▁the ▁T aste ▁of ▁Pol onia ▁Festival ▁in ▁Jefferson ▁Park , ▁attended ▁by ▁such ▁political ▁not ables ▁as ▁President ▁George ▁H . ▁W . ▁Bush , ▁Dick ▁Chen ey , ▁New t ▁G ing rich , ▁Had ass ah ▁Lie ber man , ▁Congress w oman ▁Mel issa ▁Be an , ▁and ▁Ti pper ▁G ore . ▁Illinois , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁this ▁large ▁population , ▁is ▁also ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁states ▁that ▁celebr ates ▁Cas imir ▁Pul ask i ▁Day . ▁Some ▁schools ▁and ▁government ▁services ▁in ▁the ▁met ro ▁area ▁are ▁closed ▁for ▁the ▁hol iday . The ▁Al man ac ▁of ▁American ▁Polit ics ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁states ▁that ▁" E ven ▁today , ▁in ▁Arch er ▁He ights ▁[ a ▁neighborhood ▁of ▁Chicago ], ▁you ▁can ▁scarcely ▁go ▁a ▁block ▁without ▁hearing ▁someone ▁speaking ▁Polish ". ▁This ▁may ▁be ▁an ach |
ron istic ▁because , ▁although ▁once ▁true , ▁today ▁the ▁Arch er ▁He ights ▁neighborhood ▁is ▁pre domin ately ▁Mexican - American ▁and ▁Mexican , ▁with ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁former ▁residents ▁having ▁died ▁or ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁sub ur bs . ▁ ▁This ▁is ▁reflected ▁in ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁business es ▁which ▁served ▁the ▁Polish ▁community ▁having ▁been ▁replaced ▁with ▁business es ▁which ▁serve ▁the ▁Mexican ▁community . ▁ ▁Polish - language ▁business ▁signs , ▁once ▁u bi quit ous ▁in ▁Arch er ▁He ights , ▁are ▁now ▁quite ▁rare , ▁while ▁Spanish - language ▁signs ▁are ▁seen ▁on ▁many ▁business es ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁ ▁Much ▁of ▁ 1 9 5 0 s ▁Chicago ▁Polish ▁youth ▁culture ▁was ▁captured ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁musical ▁Gre ase , ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁characters ▁had ▁Polish ▁s urn ames ▁( Z uk o , ▁D umb row ski , ▁Ken ick ie ); ▁Jim ▁Jacob s , ▁who ▁conce ived ▁Gre ase , ▁based ▁the ▁musical ▁on ▁his ▁real - life ▁experiences ▁in ▁a ▁Chicago ▁high ▁school . ▁Much ▁of ▁the ▁Polish - American ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁musical ▁was ▁disc arded ▁when ▁Gre ase ▁was ▁made ▁into ▁a ▁feature ▁film ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 , ▁casting ▁non - Pol ish ▁actors ▁in ▁the ▁lead ▁roles , ▁and ▁subsequent ▁produ ctions ▁have ▁also ▁followed ▁the ▁film ' s ▁lead ▁in ▁ton ing ▁down ▁the ▁Chicago ▁Polish ▁influ ences . ▁ ▁P og lish ▁ ▁Some ▁ ▁of |
▁Chicago ▁Pol onia ▁( the ▁Polish ▁term ▁for ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁exp atri ate ▁Polish ▁community ) ▁speak ▁P og lish ▁( us ually ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Ch ic ag owski ▁by ▁local ▁Pol es ) ▁a ▁fusion ▁of ▁the ▁Polish ▁and ▁English ▁languages . ▁P og lish ▁is ▁a ▁common ▁( to ▁greater ▁or ▁less er ▁degree , ▁almost ▁un av oid able ) ▁phenomen on ▁among ▁persons ▁b iling ual ▁in ▁Polish ▁and ▁English , ▁and ▁its ▁avoid ance ▁requires ▁considerable ▁effort ▁and ▁attention . ▁P og lish ▁is ▁a ▁manifest ation ▁of ▁a ▁bro ader ▁phenomen on , ▁that ▁of ▁language ▁inter ference . ▁ ▁Notable ▁persons ▁ ▁Act ors , ▁sing ers , ▁and ▁direct ors ▁ ▁Stanley ▁Andrew s , ▁born ▁Stanley ▁And r zej ew ski , ▁an ▁American ▁actor ▁who ▁played ▁the ▁voice ▁of ▁D addy ▁War bu cks ▁on ▁the ▁radio ▁program ▁Little ▁Or phan ▁An nie ▁Carlos ▁Bernard , ▁born ▁Carlos ▁Bernard ▁P api ers ki , ▁an ▁American ▁actor ▁and ▁director , ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁role ▁as ▁Tony ▁Al me ida ▁in ▁ 2 4 ▁Case y ▁and ▁N ina ▁S iem asz ko ▁– ▁American ▁actors ▁ ▁Writ ers ▁and ▁authors ▁ ▁Stuart ▁Dy bek ▁– ▁writer ▁of ▁fiction ▁and ▁poetry ▁ ▁John ▁Gu z low ski ▁– ▁author ▁ ▁Business men ▁and ▁entrepr ene urs ▁ ▁John ▁S . ▁Fl iz ik owski ▁– ▁architect ▁of ▁resident ial , ▁church , ▁and ▁commercial ▁buildings ▁during ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 |
th ▁and ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁centuries ▁ ▁Paul ▁B rag iel ▁– ▁Sil icon ▁Valley ▁entrepr ene ur ▁& ▁vent ure ▁capital ist , ▁Colombia ▁national ▁team ▁cross ▁country ▁sk ier ▁ ▁Mus icians ▁and ▁compos ers ▁ ▁Jack ▁Ben ny , ▁born ▁Benjamin ▁Kub el sky , ▁American ▁com ed ian , ▁v au dev ill ian , ▁radio , ▁television ▁and ▁film ▁actor , ▁and ▁viol in ist ▁ ▁Fel iks ▁Kon ar ski ▁– ▁poet , ▁song writer , ▁and ▁cab aret ▁perform er ▁ ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁K len cz on ▁– ▁singer ▁and ▁song writer ▁and ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁group ▁C zerw one ▁Git ary ▁ ▁Ray ▁Man z are k ▁– ▁keyboard ist ▁of ▁The ▁Do ors ▁ ▁Art ur ▁Rod zi ński ▁conduct or ▁of ▁opera ▁and ▁sym ph onic ▁music ▁ ▁C ler gy ▁ ▁Vincent ▁Bar z yn ski ▁– ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁priest ▁and ▁organ izer ▁▁ ▁P ain ters , ▁sculpt ors , ▁and ▁artists ▁ ▁Jer zy ▁Ken ar ▁– ▁sculpt or ▁▁ ▁Richard ▁Nick el ▁– ▁architect ural ▁photograph er ▁and ▁historical ▁pres ervation ist ▁ ▁Ed ▁Pas ch ke ▁– ▁painter ▁ ▁Mary ▁Stanis ia ▁– ▁American ▁Catholic ▁artist ▁and ▁painter ▁ ▁John ▁J . ▁Sz aton ▁– ▁sculpt or ▁ ▁Stanisław ▁Sz uk al ski ▁– ▁painter ▁and ▁sculpt or ▁ ▁Government ▁officials ▁and ▁polit icians ▁ ▁And r zej ▁Cz uma ▁– ▁politician , ▁lawyer ▁and ▁historian , ▁an ▁activ ist ▁of ▁the ▁Polish |
▁anti - Comm un ist ▁opposition ▁in ▁the ▁Polish ▁People ' s ▁Republic ▁ ▁Peter ▁K io ł b assa ▁( 1 8 3 7 – 1 9 0 5 ) ▁Democratic ▁politician ▁in ▁the ▁City ▁of ▁Chicago ▁who ▁helped ▁organ ize ▁St . ▁Stanis laus ▁Kost ka ▁parish ▁ ▁John ▁Kl uc z yn ski ▁– ▁U . S . ▁Represent ative ▁representing ▁Illinois ' s ▁ 5 th ▁con gression al ▁district ▁ ▁Robert ▁Mart wick ▁– ▁Democratic ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Illinois ▁House ▁of ▁Representatives ▁ ▁Roman ▁Con rad ▁P uc in ski ▁– ▁Democratic ▁Party ▁Polit ician ▁and ▁U . S . ▁Represent ative ▁ ▁Daniel ▁David ▁" Dan " ▁Rost enk owski ▁– ▁United ▁States ▁Represent ative ▁and ▁Chair man ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁W ays ▁and ▁Me ans ▁Committee ▁ ▁John ▁Francis ▁Sm ul ski ▁American ▁politician ▁and ▁business man . ▁ ▁Sch ol ars ▁ ▁O sk ar ▁L ange ▁– ▁econom ist ▁and ▁diplom at ▁ ▁Mart a ▁P t asz yn ska ▁– ▁University ▁of ▁Chicago ▁professor ▁ ▁Sports ▁ ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁Haus ner ▁– ▁football ▁right - wing ▁forward , ▁most ▁notable ▁for ▁his ▁performances ▁for ▁C rac ov ia ▁Krak ow ▁ ▁Mike ▁Kr zy zew ski ▁– ▁Basketball ▁coach ▁ ▁Al ▁P iech ota ▁– ▁Professional ▁baseball ▁player ▁whose ▁career ▁sp anned ▁ 1 5 ▁seasons ▁ ▁C rim inals ▁ ▁Ted ▁K acz yn ski ▁– ▁Ever green ▁Park ▁math ▁professor ▁and ▁terror ist ▁ ▁Till ie ▁Kl ime |
k ▁– ▁ ▁serial ▁k iller ▁ ▁Steven ▁Kaz mier cz ak ▁– ▁Northern ▁Illinois ▁University ▁shooting ▁of ▁February ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁D ias por a ▁politics ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Fel ician ▁Sister s ▁ ▁Polish ▁C athedral ▁style ▁churches ▁ ▁Polish ▁Constitution ▁Day ▁Par ade ▁ ▁Polish ▁Fal cons ▁ ▁Polish ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Union ▁of ▁America F our th ▁Part ition , ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁document ary ▁film ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Er dm ans , ▁Mary ▁Pat rice . ▁O pp os ite ▁Pol es : ▁Im migr ants ▁and ▁Eth n ics ▁in ▁Polish ▁Chicago , ▁ 1 9 7 6 - 1 9 9 0 ' '. ▁P enn ▁State ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 9 8 . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Form er ▁President ▁of ▁Poland ▁Le ch ▁Wales a ▁speaking ▁on ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁Pol es ▁in ▁Chicago ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁commun ism ▁in ▁Poland ▁ ▁Polish ▁Local izer ▁Pol sort ▁– ▁Polish ▁Business es ▁and ▁Organ izations ▁in ▁Chicago ▁ ▁Current ▁Polish ▁patch es : ▁Polish ▁Mass es ▁in ▁Chicago ▁Area ▁provided ▁by ▁Pol sort ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Culture ▁of ▁Chicago ▁Category : History ▁of ▁Chicago ▁Category : Pol ish ▁communities ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States <0x0A> </s> ▁Robert ▁James ▁D az o ▁" Rob " ▁G ier ▁( born ▁ 6 ▁January ▁ 1 9 8 1 ) ▁is ▁a ▁retired ▁Filip ino ▁footballer ▁who ▁played ▁mainly |
▁as ▁a ▁centre ▁back ▁for ▁various ▁clubs ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁the ▁Philippines ▁national ▁team ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁also ▁the ▁captain . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁Rob ▁G ier ▁was ▁born ▁to ▁Robert ▁G ier ▁and ▁Ros ario ▁and ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁As cot , ▁England . ▁Upon ▁coming ▁from ▁work , ▁Rob ' s ▁father ▁would ▁often ▁bring ▁him ▁to ▁football ▁training . ▁His ▁mother , ▁Ros ario ▁is ▁a ▁War ay ▁from ▁T ac lob an , ▁Ley te . ▁ ▁Club ▁career ▁G ier ▁began ▁his ▁career ▁at ▁W im ble don , ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁re leg ated ▁from ▁the ▁Prem iers hip ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 – 0 0 ▁season . ▁He ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁the ▁following ▁season , ▁starting ▁a ▁ 0 – 0 ▁home ▁draw ▁with ▁She ff ield ▁United ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁he ▁joined ▁R ush den ▁& ▁Diam onds , ▁and ▁was ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁side ▁that ▁was ▁re leg ated ▁from ▁the ▁Football ▁League ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 5 – 0 6 . ▁He ▁left ▁the ▁club ▁following ▁their ▁re leg ation , ▁and ▁had ▁sp ells ▁in ▁the ▁Conference ▁with ▁Cambridge ▁United , ▁and ▁W oking ▁during ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 – 0 7 ▁season . ▁ ▁He ▁joined ▁Ald ers hot ▁Town ▁at ▁the ▁start ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 ▁season , ▁and ▁was ▁part |
▁of ▁the ▁side ▁that ▁won ▁the ▁Conference ▁with ▁a ▁record ▁points ▁total . ▁He ▁made ▁ 3 8 ▁league ▁appearances ▁for ▁the ▁club , ▁all ▁starts , ▁but ▁despite ▁this ▁was ▁released ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁campaign . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁May ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Gray s ▁Athlet ic ▁announced ▁they ▁had ▁signed ▁G ier ▁on ▁a ▁one - year ▁contract , ▁however , ▁he ▁was ▁transfer ▁listed ▁by ▁the ▁club ▁in ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁with ▁financial ▁press ures ▁and ▁manager ▁Wayne ▁Burn ett ' s ▁plans ▁being ▁c ited ▁as ▁the ▁reason . ▁ ▁G ier ▁joined ▁H ellen ic ▁League ▁Premier ▁Division ▁club ▁As cot ▁United ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁after ▁being ▁released ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁previous ▁season ▁by ▁Gray s ▁Athlet ic . ▁He ▁announced ▁his ▁ret irement ▁in ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁International ▁career ▁G ier ▁was ▁called ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁Philippines ▁national ▁team ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁A FC ▁Challenge ▁Cup ▁qual ifiers ▁in ▁April , ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁due ▁to ▁face , ▁Turk men istan , ▁Bh ut an ▁and ▁the ▁M ald ives . ▁He ▁made ▁his ▁international ▁debut ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁A FC ▁Challenge ▁Cup ▁qual ification ▁match ▁against ▁Bh ut an ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁and ▁also ▁played ▁against ▁M ald ives ▁and ▁Turk |
men istan . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 0 ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁G ier ▁scored ▁his ▁first ▁international ▁goal ▁for ▁the ▁Philippines ▁in ▁a ▁ 2 – 1 ▁loss ▁to ▁La os , ▁however ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁FIFA - san ction ed ▁match . ▁FIFA ▁did ▁not ▁recognize ▁the ▁match ' s ▁results ▁after ▁it ▁was ▁found ▁out ▁that ▁the ▁ref ere es ▁who ▁offici ated ▁the ▁match ▁were ▁not ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁world ▁sport ing ▁body . ▁ ▁He ▁scored ▁his ▁first ▁official ▁international ▁goal ▁for ▁the ▁Philippines ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Philipp ine ▁Peace ▁Cup ▁against ▁Chinese ▁Tai pe i . ▁ ▁International ▁goals ▁Sc ores ▁and ▁results ▁list ▁the ▁Philippines ' ▁goal ▁t ally ▁first . ▁ ▁Ret irement ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 7 , ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁G ier ▁announced ▁his ▁ret irement ▁from ▁playing ▁compet itive ▁football ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 3 5 . ▁G ier ▁is ▁set ▁to ▁focus ▁on ▁operating ▁Z en ith ▁Soccer ▁T ours ▁and ▁sp ending ▁more ▁time ▁with ▁his ▁family . ▁ ▁Ear lier ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁G ier ▁established ▁Z en ith ▁Soccer ▁T ours , ▁a ▁youth ▁football ▁program ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom . ▁The ▁idea ▁was ▁concept ed ▁by ▁G ier , ▁after ▁he ▁met ▁with ▁the ▁Philipp ine ▁national ▁youth ▁team ▁who ▁had ▁a ▁three - week ▁training ▁camp ▁in ▁the ▁UK ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁ ▁Co aching ▁career ▁On |
▁November ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁G ier ▁was ▁appointed ▁as ▁head ▁coach ▁of ▁the ▁women ' s ▁football ▁team ▁of ▁the ▁Oxford ▁University . ▁ ▁G ier ▁obtained ▁a ▁UEFA ▁A ▁co aching ▁lic ence ▁by ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁While ▁still ▁playing ▁for ▁the ▁national ▁team ▁and ▁As cot ▁United , ▁he ▁began ▁finishing ▁a ▁ 2 - year ▁course ▁to ▁obtain ▁the ▁UEFA ▁A ▁co aching ▁lic ence . ▁He ▁plans ▁to ▁coach ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁while ▁working ▁for ▁a ▁UEFA ▁Pro ▁Lic ence ▁that ▁would ▁make ▁him ▁el ig ible ▁to ▁coach ▁in ▁the ▁FA ▁Premier ▁League ▁and ▁UEFA ▁compet itions . ▁He ▁has ▁expressed ▁his ▁open ness ▁to ▁coach ▁for ▁the ▁Philipp ine ▁national ▁team . ▁ ▁As ide ▁from ▁co aching ▁at ▁Oxford , ▁G ier ▁also ▁works ▁with ▁Reading ▁as ▁its ▁development ▁coach ▁and ▁a ▁consult ant ▁for ▁a ▁private ▁school ▁in ▁Oxford shire . ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁Club ▁Ald ers hot ▁Town ▁Conference ▁National : ▁ 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 ▁Conference ▁League ▁Cup : ▁ 2 0 0 7 – 0 8 ▁ ▁International ▁Philippines ▁A FC ▁Challenge ▁Cup : ▁Third ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁Philipp ine ▁Peace ▁Cup : ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁G ier ▁is ▁married ▁and ▁has ▁two ▁children . ▁His ▁family ▁res ides ▁in ▁England . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : |
English ▁people ▁of ▁Filip ino ▁descent ▁Category : Fil ip ino ▁people ▁of ▁English ▁descent ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁As cot , ▁Ber k shire ▁Category : Fil ip ino ▁British ▁sports people ▁Category : English ▁football ers ▁Category : Fil ip ino ▁football ers ▁Category : Fil ip ino ▁exp atri ate ▁football ers ▁Category : Ph ili pp ines ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁def enders ▁Category : National ▁League ▁( English ▁football ) ▁players ▁Category : English ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : A ld ers hot ▁Town ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : C amb ridge ▁United ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : G ray s ▁Athlet ic ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : R ush den ▁& ▁Diam onds ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : W im ble don ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : W oking ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : A sc ot ▁United ▁F . C . ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁chain ▁of ▁restaur ants ▁that ▁operated ▁on ▁the ▁East ▁Coast ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁from ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁The ▁chain ' s ▁menu ▁focused ▁on ▁ste aks ▁and ▁lo bst ers . ▁A ▁family ▁run ▁business , ▁Valle ' s ▁ag gress ively ▁expanded ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁but ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁weather ▁the ▁financial ▁challeng es ▁of ▁the ▁gas ▁crisis |
▁and ▁the ▁resulting ▁economic ▁dow nt urn ; ▁increasing ▁labor ▁costs , ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁its ▁founder , ▁and ▁the ▁changing ▁d ining ▁hab its ▁of ▁its ▁customers . ▁ ▁The ▁last ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁closed ▁in ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Key ▁personnel ▁▁▁ ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁restaur ateur ▁who ▁owned ▁and ▁managed ▁the ▁e pon ym ously ▁named ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House , ▁from ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 . ▁Valle ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁L ett oman op ello , ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁and ▁imm igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁four . ▁ ▁His ▁family ▁settled ▁in ▁Port land , ▁Maine ▁where ▁Valle ▁eventually ▁opened ▁his ▁first ▁restaurant ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁ ▁Valle ▁was ▁known ▁as ▁a ▁hard ▁working ▁business man ▁who ▁logged ▁ 1 4 - ▁to ▁ 1 8 - hour ▁days ▁throughout ▁his ▁career . ▁Valle ▁was ▁married ▁to ▁the ▁former ▁Sue ▁Cr one ▁and ▁had ▁two ▁children , ▁Richard ▁and ▁Jud ith ▁Valle . ▁ ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁was ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Donald ▁and ▁Sue ▁Valle . ▁ ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁was ▁a ▁Korean ▁War ▁veter an ▁who ▁assumed ▁a ▁prominent ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁company ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s . ▁Following ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁his ▁father , ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁President ▁and ▁Chief ▁Executive ▁Officer |
▁until ▁November , ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁when ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 4 9 , ▁he ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁Arthur ▁W . ▁Hans on . ▁ ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁then ▁assumed ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁company ▁chairman . ▁ ▁He ▁maintained ▁that ▁position ▁until ▁he ▁sold ▁his ▁cont rolling ▁shares ▁of ▁the ▁company ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁died ▁on ▁July ▁ 8 , ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 6 4 . ▁ ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ▁was ▁the ▁daughter ▁and ▁second ▁child ▁of ▁Donald ▁and ▁Sue ▁Valle . ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ▁worked ▁as ▁the ▁company ▁vice - pres ident ▁until ▁she , ▁along ▁with ▁other ▁Valle ▁family ▁members , ▁sold ▁their ▁cont rolling ▁shares ▁of ▁stock ▁to ▁a ▁private ▁invest ment ▁group ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁Sub sequently , ▁she ▁used ▁the ▁proceed s ▁from ▁the ▁sale ▁to ▁purchase ▁the ▁original ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁located ▁in ▁Port land . ▁ ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ▁operated ▁the ▁restaurant ▁from ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁until ▁its ▁closure ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Arthur ▁W . ▁Hans on ▁assumed ▁control ▁and ▁ownership ▁of ▁the ▁company ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁He ▁began ▁his ▁career ▁with ▁Cle aves ▁Food ▁Service ▁Corporation ▁of ▁Silver ▁Spring , ▁Maryland ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 9 ▁he ▁joined ▁Valle ' s ▁as ▁the ▁manager ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁firm ' s ▁ste akh |
ouses . ▁ ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁appointed ▁him ▁vice ▁president ▁one ▁year ▁later ▁and ▁by ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁he ▁had ▁been ▁elev ated ▁to ▁executive ▁vice ▁president ▁for ▁operations . ▁ ▁Business ▁model ▁▁ ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁operated ▁as ▁a ▁full - service , ▁high ▁volume , ▁low ▁margin ▁restaurant ▁that ▁emphas ized ▁prime ▁ste aks , ▁fresh ▁sea fo od , ▁and ▁Maine ▁lo bst ers . ▁Each ▁of ▁the ▁restaur ants ▁was ▁built ▁to ▁seat ▁between ▁ 8 0 0 - 1 4 0 0 ▁customers . ▁A ▁large ▁wait ▁staff ▁trained ▁to ▁provide ▁prompt ▁service ▁allowed ▁for ▁a ▁fast ▁turn over ▁of ▁tables ▁by ▁keeping ▁the ▁average ▁dinner ▁time ▁to ▁less ▁than ▁an ▁hour . ▁By ▁the ▁mid ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁the ▁Boston ▁area ▁restaur ants ▁alone ▁were ▁serving ▁over ▁ 1 2 , 0 0 0 ▁lo bst ers ▁each ▁Friday ▁night ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁their ▁double ▁lo b ster ▁special ▁and ▁the ▁chain ▁was ▁serving ▁over ▁ 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁lo bst ers ▁a ▁week . ▁ ▁Early ▁in ▁his ▁career , ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁by pass ed ▁regional ▁meat ▁supp liers ▁and ▁established ▁exclusive ▁agre ements ▁with ▁Swift ▁and ▁Company ▁in ▁Chicago ▁which ▁sh ipped ▁be ef ▁directly ▁by ▁rail ▁car ▁to ▁his ▁Maine ▁restaur ants . ▁Vert ically ▁integrated , ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁company ' s ▁be ef ▁origin ated ▁from ▁Valle ' s ▁own ▁ran ch ▁in ▁Wy oming ▁called ▁the ▁" Circ le ▁V " |
▁and ▁was ▁then ▁sh ipped ▁to ▁sla ugh ter h ouses ▁in ▁Chicago . ▁Valle ▁also ▁inv ested ▁heavily ▁in ▁making ▁his ▁restaur ants ▁efficient . ▁In ▁a ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁interview ▁with ▁the ▁Boston ▁Glo be ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁showed ▁off ▁a ▁$ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁automatic ▁d ish w ash ing ▁machine ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁kitchen ▁of ▁the ▁chain ' s ▁new ▁$ 1 . 5 ▁million ▁Bra int ree , ▁Massachusetts , ▁restaurant . ▁Valle ▁also ▁pointed ▁out ▁the ▁row ▁of ▁bro ilers ▁and ▁the ▁large , ▁in - house ▁b ak ery ▁that ▁allowed ▁the ▁Bra int ree ▁location ▁to ▁serve ▁ 5 , 0 0 0 ▁customers ▁a ▁day . ▁ ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁had ▁a ▁reputation ▁as ▁a ▁t ire less ▁worker ▁and ▁expected ▁the ▁same ▁level ▁of ▁effort ▁from ▁his ▁employees . ▁Once , ▁when ▁taking ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁restaurant ▁own ers ▁through ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁ste ak ▁houses , ▁Valle ▁pointed ▁out ▁how ▁trim ▁his ▁workers ▁were ▁because ▁they ▁stayed ▁so ▁busy . ▁ ▁When ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁visitors ▁pointed ▁to ▁a ▁heavy ▁set ▁employee , ▁Valle ▁j oked ▁" He ' s ▁new . ▁Come ▁back ▁in ▁a ▁couple ▁of ▁months ▁and ▁you ▁will ▁see ▁he ' s ▁sl im med ▁down ." ▁ ▁Valle ' s ▁business ▁model ▁emphas ized ▁food ▁over ▁liqu or ▁with ▁food ▁account ing ▁for ▁over ▁ 8 5 % ▁of ▁the ▁company ' s ▁reven ues . ▁" We ▁haven ' t ▁been ▁in ▁the |
▁business ▁since ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁from ▁s elling ▁liqu or ▁but ▁good ▁food ▁and ▁good ▁service ." ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁said ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁interview . ▁ ▁Early ▁history ▁and ▁expansion ▁▁ ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁began ▁as ▁a ▁ 1 2 - se at ▁c afé ▁in ▁Port land , ▁Maine ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁The ▁ca fe ▁was ▁purchased ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Pro hib ition ▁by ▁Donald ▁Valle . ▁ ▁The ▁ca fe ▁was ▁successful ▁and ▁allowed ▁Valle ▁to ▁purchase ▁a ▁larger ▁restaurant ▁in ▁Port land ▁and ▁then ▁a ▁night club ▁in ▁Sc ar borough , ▁Maine ▁which ▁he ▁then ▁converted ▁into ▁a ▁restaurant . ▁Valle ▁next ▁expanded ▁to ▁K itter y , ▁Maine ▁where ▁he ▁constructed ▁his ▁first ▁restaurant ▁that ▁was ▁custom ▁designed ▁as ▁a ▁ste ak ▁house . ▁In ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 6 0 s ▁Valle ▁expanded ▁to ▁Massachusetts ▁where ▁he ▁established ▁three ▁Boston - area ▁ste ak ▁houses ▁in ▁S aug us , ▁Newton , ▁and ▁Bra int ree . ▁ ▁They ▁became , ▁and ▁remained , ▁three ▁of ▁the ▁bus iest ▁restaur ants ▁in ▁the ▁chain . ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 8 ▁the ▁company ▁went ▁public ▁and ▁its ▁shares ▁were ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁American ▁Stock ▁Exchange . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 6 9 , ▁Valle ' s ▁was ▁serving ▁over ▁ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁customers ▁a ▁week , ▁had ▁ 1 , 3 0 0 ▁employees ▁on ▁its |
▁pay roll , ▁and ▁had ▁created ▁and ▁issued ▁over ▁ 6 , 0 0 0 ▁of ▁its ▁own ▁credit ▁cards . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁the ▁company ▁had ▁expanded ▁into ▁Rh ode ▁Island , ▁Connecticut , ▁and ▁New ▁York ▁and ▁was ▁experien cing ▁record ▁ear nings ▁growth . ▁The ▁success ▁of ▁the ▁company ▁attract ed ▁a ▁buy out ▁offer ▁from ▁the ▁Campbell ▁S oup ▁Company . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁offer , ▁Valle ' s ▁was ▁operating ▁ 1 2 ▁restaur ants ▁in ▁Maine , ▁Massachusetts , ▁Rh ode ▁Island , ▁Connecticut , ▁and ▁New ▁York ▁and ▁had ▁five ▁additional ▁restaur ants ▁being ▁developed . ▁For ▁the ▁financial ▁period ▁ending ▁on ▁March ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 0 , ▁Valle ' s ▁had ▁n ett ed ▁$ 1 , 4 4 8 , 0 0 0 ▁on ▁sales ▁of ▁$ 1 9 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 . ▁Campbell ▁offered ▁to ▁purchase ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁company ' s ▁assets ▁and ▁assume ▁its ▁li abilities ▁for ▁$ 3 8 , 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 . ▁Several ▁months ▁after ▁the ▁offer , ▁negoti ations ▁col lapsed . ▁In ▁the ▁w ake ▁of ▁the ▁collapse , ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁stated ▁that ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁control ▁demanded ▁by ▁Campbell ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁det r iment al ▁to ▁the ▁continued ▁success ▁of ▁the ▁chain . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁the ▁company ▁had ▁begun ▁construction ▁on ▁two ▁additional ▁ste ak ▁houses ▁in ▁the |
▁Washington , ▁D . C . ▁area , ▁plus ▁another ▁restaurant ▁in ▁Atlanta . ▁Pl ans ▁for ▁restaur ants ▁in ▁Y onk ers , ▁Philadelphia , ▁Fort ▁La ud erd ale , ▁and ▁Day ton a ▁Beach ▁had ▁been ▁approved ▁and ▁construction ▁was ▁sl ated ▁to ▁begin ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 . ▁Valle ' s ▁had ▁also ▁agreed ▁to ▁sell ▁a ▁par cel ▁of ▁land ▁next ▁to ▁its ▁Hart ford ▁restaurant ▁to ▁a ▁national ▁mot el ▁chain ▁for ▁$ 3 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁and ▁to ▁serve ▁as ▁the ▁hotel ' s ▁sole ▁ban quet , ▁l oun ge , ▁and ▁d ining ▁facility . ▁ ▁Re ven ues ▁and ▁ear nings ▁continued ▁to ▁grow ▁into ▁the ▁mid - 7 0 s ▁but ▁at ▁a ▁slower ▁rate . ▁G row ing ▁infl ation , ▁un emp loyment ▁and ▁rising ▁gas ▁prices ▁caused ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁to ▁warn ▁invest ors ▁that ▁although ▁the ▁company ▁would ▁continue ▁to ▁expand , ▁ear nings ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁maintain ▁their ▁momentum . ▁" Infl ation , ▁the ▁c aut ious ▁attitude ▁of ▁the ▁consumer , ▁and ▁the ▁energy ▁crisis ▁are ▁un cert aint ies ▁facing ▁the ▁industry ." ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁both ▁reven ues ▁and ▁prof its ▁had ▁begun ▁to ▁decl ine . ▁ ▁Econom ic ▁challeng es , ▁decl ining ▁sales , ▁and ▁closure ▁▁ ▁Donald ▁Valle ' s ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁s add led ▁the ▁Valle ▁family ▁with ▁an ▁estate ▁tax ▁bill ▁it |
▁was ▁not ▁prepared ▁to ▁pay . ▁Com b ined ▁with ▁decl ining ▁sales ▁and ▁increasing ▁costs ▁from ▁the ▁firm ' s ▁continued ▁expansion , ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁Richard ▁and ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ▁attempted ▁to ▁sell ▁their ▁cont rolling ▁shares ▁in ▁the ▁company ▁to ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁non - family ▁execut ives ▁and ▁private ▁invest ors ▁for ▁$ 1 7 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 . ▁Two ▁different ▁propos als ▁were ▁provided ▁to ▁share hold ers ▁over ▁a ▁ 2 4 - month ▁period . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁proposed ▁sale , ▁the ▁Valle ▁family ▁and ▁its ▁trust s ▁owned ▁ 6 6 . 7 % ▁of ▁the ▁company ' s ▁ 2 . 5 ▁million ▁common ▁stock ▁shares ▁out standing . ▁The ▁company ▁was ▁operating ▁ 3 2 ▁restaur ants ▁that ▁despite ▁generating ▁$ 6 5 , 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁sales , ▁had ▁lost ▁$ 5 6 9 , 0 0 0 ▁for ▁the ▁year ▁ending ▁on ▁March ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 8 1 . ▁During ▁the ▁effort ▁to ▁sell ▁their ▁shares , ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁stepped ▁aside ▁as ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁company . ▁In ▁his ▁place , ▁Arthur ▁W . ▁Hans on , ▁ 5 4 , ▁formerly ▁executive ▁vice ▁president ▁of ▁operations ▁became ▁president ▁and ▁also ▁acquired ▁the ▁newly ▁created ▁title ▁of ▁chief ▁executive ▁officer . ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁described ▁the ▁change ▁as ▁" the ▁start ▁of ▁[ a ] ▁re group ing " ▁that ▁would ▁allow ▁him |
▁to ▁focus ▁on ▁the ▁firm ' s ▁long ▁term ▁strategy ▁as ▁the ▁chairman . ▁Prior ▁to ▁the ▁final ization ▁of ▁the ▁buy out , ▁Valle ' s ▁had ▁already ▁begun ▁to ▁close ▁restaur ants ▁for ▁this ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁its ▁history . ▁Among ▁those ▁that ▁were ▁closed ▁was ▁the ▁Ro chester , ▁New ▁York ▁store ▁that ▁had ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 ▁and ▁had ▁never ▁turned ▁a ▁profit . ▁▁ ▁After ▁the ▁buy out , ▁the ▁chain ▁continued ▁to ▁sell ▁off ▁properties . ▁Between ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁and ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁the ▁company ▁sold ▁all ▁of ▁its ▁Florida ▁locations , ▁none ▁of ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁open ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁seven ▁years . ▁By ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁company ' s ▁largest ▁restaur ants ▁outside ▁of ▁Florida ▁had ▁also ▁closed ▁to ▁include ▁Fall ▁River , ▁Atlanta , ▁and ▁Miami . ▁The ▁Port land ▁restaurant ▁was ▁among ▁those ▁that ▁were ▁sold ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁when ▁Jud ith ▁Valle , ▁using ▁funds ▁from ▁the ▁buy out , ▁purchased ▁the ▁Port land ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁from ▁the ▁company ▁and ▁operated ▁the ▁restaurant ▁as ▁an ▁independent ▁entity . ▁Another ▁important ▁development ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁was ▁Arthur ▁Hans on ▁creating ▁the ▁Pol ar ▁Bear ▁R estaur ant ▁Corporation ▁head qu arter ed ▁in ▁Need ham , ▁Mass ▁as ▁the ▁parent ▁corpor ation ▁of ▁the ▁remaining ▁restaur ants . ▁By ▁agreement ▁with ▁Jud ith ▁Valle , ▁she ▁was |
▁allowed ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁" Val le ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House " ▁name ▁for ▁her ▁Port land ▁restaurant . ▁ ▁The ▁last ▁three ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁restaur ants ▁operating ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁Hans on ' s ▁corpor ation ▁closed ▁on ▁Friday , ▁December ▁ 2 7 , ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁The ▁restaur ants ▁were ▁located ▁in ▁K itter y , ▁Maine ; ▁And over , ▁Mass ; ▁and ▁Hart ford , ▁Connecticut . ▁ ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ' s ▁restaurant ▁continued ▁operating ▁in ▁Port land ▁as ▁" Val le ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House " ▁until ▁it ▁finally ▁closed ▁its ▁doors ▁on ▁Sunday , ▁August ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁Fact ors ▁and ▁events ▁contrib uting ▁to ▁the ▁closing ▁▁ ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁reasons ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁decl ine ▁of ▁the ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁chain . ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁In herit ance ▁tax es . ▁ ▁The ▁Valle ▁family ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁pay ▁the ▁s izable ▁inheritance ▁tax es ▁lev ied ▁on ▁the ▁estate ▁of ▁Donald ▁Valle ▁when ▁he ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁and ▁were ▁forced ▁to ▁liquid ate ▁the ▁business ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁meet ▁their ▁oblig ation ▁to ▁the ▁government . ▁ ▁In ▁a ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁interview , ▁Jud ith ▁Valle ▁said , ▁" No ▁matter ▁how ▁much ▁business ▁we ▁did , ▁we ▁couldn ' t ▁pay ▁the ▁government . ▁We ▁couldn ' t ▁break ▁even . ▁It ▁was ▁a ▁huge |
▁tax ▁bur den , ▁with ▁comp ounding ▁interest ." ▁▁ ▁Susan ▁Collins ▁( R ), ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Senator ▁from ▁Maine ▁subsequently ▁used ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁as ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁ad verse ▁effects ▁of ▁federal ▁tax ▁policies ▁and ▁argued ▁for ▁re vised ▁federal ▁laws ▁that ▁e ased ▁the ▁bur den ▁of ▁estate ▁tax es , ▁especially ▁on ▁family ▁owned ▁business es . ▁▁▁▁ ▁Econom ic ▁tur bul ence . ▁The ▁gas ▁crisis , ▁so aring ▁infl ation , ▁and ▁rising ▁labor ▁costs ▁batter ed ▁the ▁chain ▁from ▁the ▁mid - 7 0 s ▁through ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Other ▁companies ▁in ▁the ▁restaurant ▁industry , ▁particularly ▁those ▁in ▁a ▁similar ▁price ▁n iche ▁to ▁Valle ' s , ▁also ▁suffered ▁from ▁decl ining ▁sales . ▁In ▁a ▁July ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁interview ▁with ▁the ▁Boston ▁Glo be , ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁said ▁" The ▁gu y ▁who ▁went ▁out ▁twice ▁a ▁week ▁now ▁goes ▁out ▁once , ▁and ▁the ▁retired ▁senior ▁citiz en , ▁a ▁large ▁proportion ▁of ▁the ▁business , ▁tr ades ▁down ▁in ▁the ▁items ▁he ▁orders ." ▁ ▁Valle ▁also ▁c ited ▁the ▁steady ▁increases ▁in ▁the ▁minimum ▁w age ▁as ▁having ▁a ▁"... ▁a ▁r ipp le ▁effect . ▁If ▁you ▁pay ▁your ▁kitchen ▁men ▁$ 3 . 1 0 , ▁you ▁have ▁to ▁give ▁your ▁cook s ▁more ▁money , ▁the ▁chef , ▁the ▁meat ▁cut ter , ▁the ▁b aker , ▁the ▁host ess , ▁the |
▁c ash ier ." ▁R ising ▁labor ▁costs ▁were ▁ex ac erb ated ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁elim ination ▁of ▁the ▁" tip ▁credit " ▁which ▁allowed ▁restaur ants ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁hour ly ▁w ages ▁of ▁their ▁wait ▁staff s ▁by ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁tip . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁Valle ' s ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁repeatedly ▁raise ▁prices ▁to ▁offset ▁the ▁higher ▁labor ▁costs ▁and ▁predict ably , ▁customer ▁counts ▁dropped . ▁▁ ▁Ob sole te ▁business ▁model . ▁ ▁Working ▁against ▁Valle ' s ▁attempt ▁to ▁maintain ▁its ▁reven ues ▁was ▁the ▁emphas is ▁of ▁food ▁over ▁liqu or ▁despite ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁sale ▁of ▁alco hol ▁featured ▁higher ▁mark ups . ▁Valle ' s ▁also ▁placed ▁a ▁strong ▁emphas is ▁on ▁service ▁and ▁because ▁of ▁that ▁sh unn ed ▁the ▁self - service ▁sal ad - bar ▁concept ▁that ▁many ▁restaur ants ▁had ▁introduced ▁to ▁reduce ▁labor ▁costs . ▁As ▁energy ▁costs ▁increased , ▁Valle ' s ▁found ▁the ▁costs ▁of ▁maintain ing ▁their ▁exp ans ive ▁restaur ants ▁with ▁ban quet ▁rooms ▁that ▁se ated ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁bur den . ▁ ▁" Pe ople ▁aren ' t ▁having ▁the ▁big ▁ 3 0 0 ▁to ▁ 5 0 0 ▁person ▁wed d ings ▁anymore ," ▁said ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁interview . ▁" W ed d ings ▁are ▁now ▁more ▁like ▁ 1 0 0 ▁people ▁[ as ▁are |
] ▁the ▁annual ▁Christmas ▁ban qu ets ▁that ▁se ated ▁ 5 0 0 ▁to ▁ 9 0 0 ▁or ▁the ▁big ▁ret irement ▁party ." ▁ ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁calculated ▁the ▁average ▁size ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 8 0 ▁ban qu ets ▁one ▁restaurant ▁book ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁and ▁it ▁came ▁to ▁ 7 7 . 5 ▁people . ▁ ▁Support ing ▁the ▁large ▁restaur ants ▁were ▁five ▁a cre ▁par king ▁areas ▁that ▁also ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁company ' s ▁overhead ▁costs . ▁By ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁Richard ▁Valle ▁had ▁designed ▁a ▁down - s ized ▁restaurant ▁that ▁was ▁less ▁cost ly ▁to ▁staff , ▁heat , ▁light , ▁and ▁maintain ▁and ▁would ▁need ▁only ▁two ▁and ▁a ▁half ▁acres ▁of ▁land . ▁ ▁By ▁then , ▁the ▁company ' s ▁reven ues ▁had ▁begun ▁to ▁d eter ior ate ▁and ▁Valle ▁could ▁not ▁implement ▁the ▁new ▁design . ▁ ▁Valle ' s ▁was ▁also ▁fault ed ▁for ▁the ▁straight ▁line ▁architecture ▁of ▁its ▁large ▁d ining ▁rooms ▁that ▁caused ▁some ▁critics ▁to ▁compare ▁the ▁restaurant ▁to ▁a ▁c af eter ia . ▁Other ▁critics ▁question ed ▁the ▁wisdom ▁of ▁using ▁a ▁regional ▁New ▁England ▁menu ▁in ▁southern ▁locations ▁such ▁as ▁Atlanta ▁where ▁customers ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁were ▁un famil iar ▁with ▁cl am ▁ch ow der , ▁b aked ▁stuff ed ▁lo bst ers , ▁and ▁New ▁England - style ▁pot ▁ro ast . ▁ |
▁After math ▁▁ ▁Valle ' s ▁Ste ak ▁House ▁was ▁a ▁land mark ▁East ▁Coast ▁restaurant ▁for ▁dec ades ▁and ▁continues ▁to ▁be ▁discussed ▁in ▁various ▁articles ▁and ▁on ▁blog ▁sites . ▁Art ifact s ▁from ▁the ▁chain ▁are ▁sold ▁widely ▁on ▁e B ay ▁and ▁other ▁web ▁sites . ▁ ▁Since ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁Valle ' s ▁restaur ants ▁have ▁been ▁raz ed ▁or , ▁in ▁some ▁cases , ▁rep ur posed . ▁ ▁The ▁And over ▁location ▁which ▁was ▁among ▁the ▁last ▁to ▁close , ▁still ▁stands ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁comedy ▁club ▁and ▁a ▁bar ▁and ▁gr ill . ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Massachusetts - based ▁Italian ▁restaurant ▁chain ▁named ▁" Ch ate au ." ▁ ▁The ▁Bra int ree ▁restaurant ▁that ▁was ▁once ▁the ▁largest ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁bus iest ▁in ▁the ▁chain ▁subsequently ▁became ▁a ▁" H ill top ▁Ste ak house " ▁and ▁served ▁in ▁that ▁capacity ▁until ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁torn ▁down ▁to ▁make ▁way ▁for ▁a ▁Toy ota ▁deal ership . ▁ ▁The ▁K itter y ▁location ▁still ▁stands ▁but ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁a ▁restaurant . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Def unct ▁restaurant ▁ch ains ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Reg ional ▁restaurant ▁ch ains ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : R estaur ants ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁Category : R estaur ants ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category |
: Def unct ▁companies ▁based ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : Ste akh ouses ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : 1 9 3 3 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Maine ▁Category : 2 0 0 0 ▁dis est ab lish ments ▁in ▁Maine ▁Category : R estaur ants ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ph on ological ▁system ▁of ▁the ▁Old ▁English ▁language ▁under w ent ▁many ▁changes ▁during ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁its ▁existence . ▁These ▁included ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁v owel ▁sh ifts , ▁and ▁the ▁pal atal ization ▁of ▁vel ar ▁con son ants ▁in ▁many ▁positions . ▁ ▁For ▁historical ▁develop ments ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁Old ▁English ▁period , ▁see ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁language . ▁ ▁Ph on etic ▁trans cription ▁Vari ous ▁convent ions ▁are ▁used ▁below ▁for ▁describing ▁Old ▁English ▁words , ▁re construct ed ▁parent ▁forms ▁of ▁various ▁sorts ▁and ▁re construct ed ▁Pro to - West - G erman ic ▁( P W G ), ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁( PG ) ▁and ▁Pro to - Ind o - Europe an ▁( PI E ) ▁forms : ▁Form s ▁in ▁ital ics ▁denote ▁either ▁Old ▁English ▁words ▁as ▁they ▁appear ▁in ▁sp elling ▁or ▁re construct ed ▁forms ▁of ▁various ▁sorts . ▁Where ▁ph on em ic ▁ambigu ity ▁occurs ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁sp elling , ▁extra ▁dia crit ics ▁are ▁used ▁( ċ , ▁ ġ , ▁ ā , ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> , ▁ ē , |
▁ ī , ▁ ō , ▁ ū , ▁ <0xC8> <0xB3> ). ▁Form s ▁between ▁/ slash es / ▁or ▁[ bra ckets ] ▁indicate , ▁respectively , ▁broad ▁( phon em ic ) ▁or ▁narrow ▁( allo ph onic ) ▁pron unci ation . ▁S ounds ▁are ▁indicated ▁using ▁standard ▁IP A ▁notation . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁table ▁indicates ▁the ▁correspond ence ▁between ▁sp elling ▁and ▁pron unci ation ▁trans cribed ▁in ▁the ▁International ▁Ph on etic ▁Al phabet . ▁For ▁details ▁of ▁the ▁relevant ▁sound ▁systems , ▁see ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁ph on ology ▁and ▁Old ▁English ▁ph on ology . ▁ ▁{ | class =" wik itable " ▁! ▁Sound ▁!! ▁Sp elling ▁!! ▁Pr on unci ation ▁| - ▁! ▁Short ▁v ow els ▁| ▁o ▁e ▁etc . ▁| ▁ ▁etc . ▁| - ▁! ▁Short ▁nas al ▁v ow els ▁| ▁ ǫ ▁ ę ▁etc . ▁| ▁ ▁etc . ▁| - ▁! ▁Long ▁v ow els ▁| ▁ ō ▁ ē ▁etc . ▁| ▁ ▁etc . ▁| - ▁! ▁Long ▁nas al ▁v ow els ▁| ▁ <0xC7> <0xAD> ▁ ę ̄ ▁etc . ▁| ▁ ▁etc . ▁| - ▁! ▁Over long ▁v ow els ▁| ▁ ô ▁ ê ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁Over long ▁nas al ▁v ow els ▁| ▁ ǫ ̂ ▁ ę ̂ ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁" Long " ▁di ph th ongs ▁| ▁ ē a ▁ ē o ▁ |
ī o ▁ ī e ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁" Short " ▁di ph th ongs ▁| ▁e a ▁e o ▁io ▁ie ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁Old ▁English ▁un pal atal ized ▁vel ars 1 ▁| ▁c ▁sc ▁g ▁ng ▁gg ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁Old ▁English ▁pal atal ized ▁vel ars 1 ▁| ▁ ċ ▁s ċ ▁ ġ ▁n ġ ▁ ċ ġ ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁vel ars 1 ▁| ▁k ▁sk ▁g ; ▁sometimes ▁also ▁ ɣ ▁| ▁ ▁| - ▁! ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁vo iced ▁stops / fr ic atives 1 ▁| ▁b ▁d ▁g ; ▁sometimes ▁also ▁ β , ▁ ð ▁or ▁ đ , ▁ ɣ | ▁ ▁| } ▁▁ 1 Pro to - G erman ic ▁ ▁had ▁two ▁allo ph ones ▁each : ▁stops ▁ ▁and ▁fr ic atives ▁. ▁The ▁stops ▁occurred : ▁following ▁a ▁nas al ; ▁when ▁gem in ated ; ▁word - initial ly , ▁for ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁only ; ▁following ▁, ▁for ▁ ▁only . ▁By ▁West ▁German ic ▁times , ▁ ▁was ▁pron ounced ▁as ▁a ▁stop ▁ ▁in ▁all ▁positions . ▁The ▁fr ic ative ▁allo ph ones ▁are ▁sometimes ▁indicated ▁in ▁re construct ed ▁forms ▁to ▁make ▁it ▁easier ▁to ▁understand ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁Old ▁English ▁con son ants . ▁Old ▁English ▁retained ▁the ▁allo phony ▁, ▁which ▁in ▁case ▁of ▁pal atal ization ▁( see ▁below ) |
▁became ▁. ▁Later , ▁non - pal atal ized ▁ ▁became ▁ ▁word - initial ly . ▁The ▁allo phony ▁ ▁was ▁broken ▁when ▁ ▁merged ▁with ▁, ▁the ▁vo iced ▁allo phone ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Ph on ological ▁processes ▁ ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁ph on ological ▁processes ▁affected ▁Old ▁English ▁in ▁the ▁period ▁before ▁the ▁earliest ▁documentation . ▁The ▁processes ▁affected ▁especially ▁v ow els ▁and ▁are ▁the ▁reason ▁that ▁many ▁Old ▁English ▁words ▁look ▁significantly ▁different ▁from ▁related ▁words ▁in ▁languages ▁such ▁as ▁Old ▁High ▁German , ▁which ▁is ▁much ▁closer ▁to ▁the ▁common ▁West ▁German ic ▁ancest or ▁of ▁both ▁languages . ▁The ▁processes ▁took ▁place ▁chron olog ically ▁in ▁roughly ▁the ▁order ▁described ▁below ▁( with ▁uncertainty ▁in ▁ordering ▁as ▁noted ). ▁ ▁Abs or ption ▁of ▁nas als ▁before ▁fr ic atives ▁This ▁is ▁the ▁source ▁of ▁such ▁altern ations ▁as ▁modern ▁English ▁five , ▁mouth , ▁us ▁versus ▁German ▁fünf , ▁M und , ▁uns . ▁For ▁detail ▁see ▁Ing va e onic ▁nas al ▁spir ant ▁law . ▁ ▁First ▁a - front ing ▁ ▁The ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁languages ▁under w ent ▁a ▁sound ▁change ▁in ▁their ▁development ▁from ▁Pro to - West - G erman ic ▁by ▁which ▁ ā ▁, ▁unless ▁followed ▁by ▁ ▁or ▁nas al ized , ▁was ▁front ed ▁to ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁. ▁This ▁was ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁later ▁process ▁affect ing ▁short ▁a , ▁which ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright |
ening ▁or ▁First ▁Front ing ▁( see ▁below ). ▁Nas al ized ▁ ą ̄ ▁and ▁the ▁sequences ▁ ā n , ▁ ā m ▁were ▁una ffect ed ▁and ▁were ▁later ▁raised ▁to ▁ <0xC7> <0xAD> , ▁ ō n , ▁ ō m ▁( see ▁below ). ▁( This ▁may ▁be ▁taken ▁to ▁imply ▁that ▁a ▁nas al ▁con son ant ▁n , ▁m ▁caused ▁a ▁preceding ▁long ▁v owel ▁to ▁nas al ize .) ▁In ▁the ▁non - West - S ax on ▁dialect s ▁of ▁English ▁( including ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect ▁underlying ▁Modern ▁English ) ▁the ▁front ed ▁v owel ▁was ▁further ▁raised ▁to ▁ ē ▁: ▁W . S . ▁sl <0xC7> <0xA3> pan , ▁s ċ ē ap ▁( < ▁Pro to - West - G erman ic ▁* sl ā p ą n , ▁* sk ā p ă ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* sl ē pan ą , ▁sk ē p ą ) ▁versus ▁Ang li an ▁sl ē pan , ▁s ċ ē p . ▁The ▁Modern ▁English ▁descend ants ▁sleep ▁and ▁sheep ▁reflect ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁v owel ; ▁the ▁West ▁Sax on ▁words ▁would ▁have ▁developed ▁to ▁* s le ap , ▁* she ap . ▁ ▁The ▁v owel ▁affected ▁by ▁this ▁change , ▁which ▁is ▁re construct ed ▁as ▁being ▁a ▁low ▁back ▁v owel ▁ ā ▁ ▁in ▁Pro to - West - G erman ic , ▁was ▁the ▁ref lex ▁of ▁Pro |
to - G erman ic ▁. ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁in ▁Ang lo - F ris ian , ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁/ ɛ ː / ▁simply ▁remained ▁a ▁front ▁v owel , ▁developing ▁to ▁Old ▁English ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁or ▁ ē ▁without ▁ever ▁passing ▁through ▁an ▁intermediate ▁stage ▁as ▁the ▁back ▁v owel ▁[ ɑ ː ] ▁ ▁However , ▁borrow ings ▁such ▁as ▁Old ▁English ▁str <0xC7> <0xA3> t ▁from ▁Latin ▁str ā ta ▁( via ) ▁and ▁the ▁backing ▁to ▁ ō ▁before ▁nas als ▁are ▁much ▁easier ▁to ▁explain ▁under ▁the ▁assumption ▁of ▁a ▁common ▁West ▁German ic ▁stage ▁* ā . ▁ ▁Mon oph th ong ization ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁/ ai / ▁was ▁mon oph th ong ized ▁( sm ooth ed ) ▁to ▁ ▁( ). ▁This ▁occurred ▁after ▁first ▁a - front ing . ▁For ▁example , ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* st ain az ▁became ▁Old ▁English ▁st ā n ▁( mod ern ▁stone ) ▁( cf . ▁Old ▁F ris ian ▁st ē n ▁vs . ▁Goth ic ▁st á in , ▁Old ▁High ▁German ▁ste in ). ▁In ▁many ▁cases , ▁the ▁resulting ▁ ▁was ▁later ▁front ed ▁to ▁ ▁by ▁i - mut ation : ▁d <0xC7> <0xA3> lan ▁" to ▁divide " ▁( cf . ▁Old ▁F ris ian ▁d ē la ▁vs . ▁Goth ic ▁d á il jan , ▁Old ▁High ▁German ▁teil en ). ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that |
▁this ▁mon oph th ong ization ▁occurred ▁via ▁the ▁height ▁harm on isation ▁that ▁produced ▁the ▁other ▁di ph th ongs ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁( pres umably ▁through ▁an ▁intermediate ▁stage : ▁ ▁> ▁ ▁> ▁). ▁ ▁Second ▁a - front ing ▁ ▁The ▁second ▁part ▁of ▁a - front ing , ▁called ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening ▁or ▁First ▁Front ing , ▁is ▁very ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁first ▁part ▁except ▁that ▁it ▁affect s ▁short ▁a ▁instead ▁of ▁long ▁ ā . ▁Here ▁a ▁ ▁is ▁front ed ▁to ▁ æ ▁ ▁unless ▁followed ▁by ▁ ▁or ▁nas al ized , ▁the ▁same ▁conditions ▁as ▁applied ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁part . ▁ ▁Import antly , ▁a - front ing ▁was ▁blocked ▁by ▁n , ▁m ▁only ▁in ▁str essed ▁sy ll ables , ▁not ▁un str essed ▁sy ll ables , ▁which ▁accounts ▁for ▁forms ▁like ▁ ġ ef en ▁( former ly ▁ ġ ef æ n ) ▁" g iven " ▁from ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* ge ban az . ▁However , ▁the ▁inf init ive ▁ ġ ef an ▁retain s ▁its ▁back ▁v owel ▁due ▁to ▁a - rest oration ▁( see ▁the ▁explanation ▁given ▁in ▁that ▁section ▁for ▁the ▁similar ▁case ▁of ▁far en ▁vs . ▁far an ). ▁ ▁Di ph th ong ▁height ▁harm on ization ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁had ▁the ▁closing ▁di ph th ongs ▁ ▁( and ▁, ▁an ▁allo phone ▁of ▁ |
▁when ▁an ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁followed ▁in ▁the ▁next ▁sy ll able ). ▁In ▁Old ▁English , ▁these ▁( except ▁, ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁mon oph th ong ized , ▁as ▁noted ▁above ) ▁developed ▁into ▁di ph th ongs ▁of ▁a ▁generally ▁less ▁common ▁type ▁in ▁which ▁both ▁elements ▁are ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁height , ▁called ▁height - harm onic ▁di ph th ongs . ▁This ▁process ▁is ▁called ▁di ph th ong ▁height ▁harm on ization . ▁Specifically : ▁▁ ▁under w ent ▁a - front ing ▁to ▁ ▁and ▁was ▁then ▁harm on ized ▁to ▁, ▁sp elled ▁e a ▁( or ▁in ▁modern ▁texts ▁ ē a ). ▁▁ ▁was ▁harm on ized ▁to ▁, ▁sp elled ▁e o ▁( or ▁in ▁modern ▁texts ▁ ē o ). ▁▁ ▁was ▁already ▁harm onic ; ▁it ▁became ▁a ▁separate ▁ph on eme ▁, ▁sp elled ▁io ▁ ▁( or ▁in ▁modern ▁texts ▁ ī o ). ▁( This ▁interpretation ▁is ▁somewhat ▁controvers ial ; ▁see ▁below .) ▁ ▁Old ▁English ▁di ph th ongs ▁also ▁arose ▁from ▁other ▁later ▁processes , ▁such ▁as ▁breaking , ▁pal atal ▁di ph th ong ization , ▁back ▁mut ation ▁and ▁i - mut ation , ▁which ▁also ▁gave ▁an ▁additional ▁di ph th ong ▁ie ▁. ▁The ▁di ph th ongs ▁could ▁occur ▁both ▁short ▁( mon ot onic ) ▁ ▁and ▁long ▁. ▁ ▁Some ▁sources ▁re construct ▁other ▁ph on etic ▁forms ▁that ▁are ▁not ▁height - harm onic ▁for ▁some |
▁or ▁all ▁of ▁these ▁Old ▁English ▁di ph th ongs . ▁The ▁first ▁elements ▁of ▁ ē a , ▁ ē o , ▁ ī o ▁are ▁generally ▁accepted ▁to ▁have ▁had ▁the ▁qual ities ▁[ æ ], ▁[ e ], ▁[ i ] ▁( ev idence ▁for ▁these ▁qual ities ▁comes ▁from ▁the ▁behavior ▁of ▁breaking ▁and ▁back ▁mut ation ▁as ▁described ▁below ; ▁the ▁Middle ▁English ▁development ▁of ▁short ▁e a ▁into ▁ ▁could ▁also ▁provide ▁some ▁evidence ▁for ▁the ▁ph on etic ▁real ization ▁of ▁ ē a ). ▁However , ▁the ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁elements ▁of ▁these ▁di ph th ongs ▁are ▁more ▁varied . ▁There ▁are ▁anal ys es ▁that ▁treat ▁all ▁of ▁these ▁di ph th ongs ▁as ▁ending ▁in ▁a ▁sch wa ▁sound ▁[ ə ]; ▁i . e . ▁ ē a , ▁ ē o , ▁ ī o ▁= ▁[ æ ə ], ▁[ e ə ], ▁[ i ə ] ▁. ▁For ▁io ▁and ▁ie , ▁the ▁height - harm onic ▁interpret ations ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁are ▁controvers ial , ▁with ▁many ▁( es pecially ▁more ▁traditional ) ▁sources ▁assuming ▁that ▁the ▁pron unci ation ▁matched ▁the ▁sp elling ▁( , ▁), ▁and ▁hence ▁that ▁these ▁di ph th ongs ▁were ▁of ▁the ▁opening ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁height - harm onic ▁type . ▁Late ▁in ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁standard ▁West ▁Sax on ▁dialect , ▁io ▁( both ▁long ▁and ▁short ) ▁merged ▁with ▁e o , ▁which ▁is , |
▁in ▁fact , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁notice able ▁differences ▁between ▁early ▁Old ▁English ▁( c . ▁ 9 0 0 ) ▁and ▁late ▁Old ▁English ▁( c . ▁ 1 0 0 0 ). ▁ ▁Bre aking ▁and ▁retra ction ▁V owel ▁breaking ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁is ▁the ▁di ph th ong ization ▁of ▁the ▁short ▁front ▁v ow els ▁ ▁to ▁short ▁di ph th ongs ▁ ▁when ▁followed ▁by ▁, ▁ ▁or ▁by ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁plus ▁another ▁con son ant . ▁Long ▁ ▁similarly ▁broke ▁to ▁, ▁but ▁only ▁when ▁followed ▁by ▁. ▁The ▁gem in ates ▁r r ▁and ▁ll ▁usually ▁count ▁as ▁r ▁or ▁l ▁plus ▁another ▁con son ant , ▁but ▁breaking ▁does ▁not ▁occur ▁before ▁ll ▁produced ▁by ▁West ▁German ic ▁gem ination ▁( the ▁/ i / ▁or ▁/ j / ▁in ▁the ▁following ▁sy ll able ▁prevents ▁breaking ). ▁▁ ▁were ▁lower ed ▁to ▁ ▁in ▁late ▁Old ▁English ▁( see ▁above ). ▁ ▁The ▁exact ▁conditions ▁for ▁breaking ▁vary ▁somewhat ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁sound ▁being ▁broken : ▁ ▁Short ▁ ▁breaks ▁before ▁h , ▁r C , ▁l C , ▁where ▁C ▁is ▁any ▁con son ant . ▁Short ▁ ▁breaks ▁before ▁h , ▁r C , ▁l h , ▁l c , ▁w , ▁i . e . ▁compared ▁to ▁ ▁it ▁is ▁also ▁broken ▁before ▁w , ▁but ▁is ▁broken ▁before ▁l ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁combination ▁l h ▁and ▁sometimes ▁l c . ▁Short ▁ ▁breaks ▁before ▁h , ▁r |
C , ▁w . ▁However , ▁it ▁does ▁not ▁break ▁before ▁w i , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect s ▁breaking ▁before ▁r C i ▁happens ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁combination ▁* r zi ▁( e . g . ▁Ang li an ▁i or re ▁" anger " ▁from ▁* ir z ij ą ▁but ▁af ir ran ▁from ▁* a + fir rij an ą ). ▁Long ▁ ī ▁and ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁break ▁only ▁before ▁h . ▁ ▁Ex amples : we or pan ▁ ▁" to ▁throw " ▁< ▁we arp ▁ ▁" th rew ▁( sing .) " ▁< ▁fe oh ▁ ▁" m oney " ▁< ▁fe a ht ▁ ▁" f ought ▁( sing .) " ▁< ▁he al p ▁ ▁" help ed ▁( sing .) " ▁< ▁ ▁( but ▁no ▁breaking ▁in ▁help an ▁" to ▁help " ▁because ▁the ▁con son ant ▁after ▁ ▁is ▁not ▁) fe orr ▁ ▁" far " ▁< ▁fe all an ▁ ▁" to ▁fall " ▁< ▁ ▁( but ▁tell an ▁< ▁earlier ▁ ▁is ▁not ▁broken ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁following ▁/ j /) e ol h ▁ ▁" el k " ▁< ▁li orn ian , ▁le orn ian ▁ ▁" to ▁learn " ▁< ▁earlier ▁n ē ah ▁" near " ▁ ▁( cf . ▁" n igh ") ▁< ▁l ē on ▁" to ▁l end " ▁ ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁▁ ▁The ▁i - mut ation ▁of ▁broken ▁ |
▁( wh ether ▁long ▁or ▁short ) ▁is ▁sp elled ▁ie ▁( poss ibly ▁, ▁see ▁above ). ▁ ▁Ex amples : hw ier f þ ▁" turn s " ▁( in tr .) ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁i - mut ation ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁breaking ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁ ▁< ▁early ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁h w ier fan ▁" to ▁turn " ▁( tr .) ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁i - mut ation ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁breaking ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁a - front ing ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁n ī eh st ▁" near est " ▁( cf . ▁" next ") ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁i - mut ation ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁breaking ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁a - front ing ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁l ī e ht an ▁" to ▁light en " ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁i - mut ation ▁< ▁ ▁+ ▁breaking ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁in ▁some ▁dialect s ▁ ▁was ▁back ed ▁( ret ract ed ) ▁to ▁ ▁() ▁rather ▁than ▁broken , ▁when ▁occurr ing ▁in ▁the ▁circumstances ▁described ▁above ▁that ▁would ▁normally ▁trigger ▁breaking . ▁This ▁happened ▁in ▁the ▁dialect ▁of ▁Ang lia ▁that ▁partially ▁under lies ▁Modern ▁English , ▁and ▁explains ▁why ▁Old ▁English ▁ce ald ▁appears ▁as ▁Modern ▁English ▁" c old " ▁( act ually ▁from ▁Ang li an ▁Old ▁English ▁cal d ) ▁rather ▁than ▁"* che ald " ▁( the ▁expected ▁result |
▁of ▁ce ald ). ▁ ▁Both ▁breaking ▁and ▁retra ction ▁are ▁fund ament ally ▁phen omena ▁of ▁assim ilation ▁to ▁a ▁following ▁vel ar ▁con son ant . ▁While ▁ ▁is ▁in ▁fact ▁a ▁vel ar ▁con son ant , ▁, ▁, ▁and ▁ ▁are ▁less ▁obviously ▁so . ▁It ▁is ▁therefore ▁assumed ▁that , ▁at ▁least ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁occurrence ▁of ▁breaking ▁and ▁retra ction ▁( se ver al ▁hundred ▁years ▁before ▁recorded ▁Old ▁English ), ▁ ▁was ▁pron ounced ▁ ▁or ▁similar ▁– ▁at ▁least ▁when ▁following ▁a ▁v owel ▁– ▁and ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁before ▁a ▁con son ant ▁had ▁a ▁vel ar ▁or ▁retro flex ▁quality ▁and ▁were ▁already ▁pron ounced ▁ ▁and ▁, ▁or ▁similar . ▁ ▁A - rest oration ▁After ▁breaking ▁occurred , ▁short ▁ ▁( and ▁in ▁some ▁dialect s ▁long ▁ ▁as ▁well ) ▁was ▁back ed ▁to ▁ ▁() ▁when ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁back ▁v owel ▁in ▁the ▁following ▁sy ll able . ▁This ▁is ▁called ▁a - rest oration , ▁because ▁it ▁partly ▁restored ▁original ▁, ▁which ▁had ▁earlier ▁been ▁front ed ▁to ▁ ▁( see ▁above ). ▁( Note : ▁The ▁situation ▁is ▁complicated ▁somewhat ▁by ▁a ▁later ▁change ▁called ▁second ▁front ing , ▁but ▁this ▁did ▁not ▁affect ▁the ▁standard ▁West ▁Sax on ▁dialect ▁of ▁Old ▁English .) ▁ ▁Because ▁strong ▁mascul ine ▁and ▁neut er ▁n oun s ▁have ▁back ▁v ow els ▁in ▁pl ural ▁end ings , ▁altern ations ▁with ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁singular ▁vs |
. ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁pl ural ▁are ▁common ▁in ▁this ▁n oun ▁class : ▁ ▁A - rest oration ▁occurred ▁before ▁the ▁* ō ▁of ▁the ▁weak ▁verb ▁suffix ▁* - ō j -, ▁although ▁this ▁surfaces ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁as ▁the ▁front ▁v owel ▁i , ▁as ▁in ▁ ▁" to ▁make " ▁< ▁* m ak ō jan -. ▁ ▁Bre aking ▁( see ▁above ) ▁occurred ▁between ▁a - front ing ▁and ▁a - rest oration . ▁This ▁order ▁is ▁necessary ▁to ▁account ▁for ▁words ▁like ▁sl ē an ▁" to ▁sl ay " ▁( pr on ounced ▁) ▁from ▁original ▁* s la han : ▁ ▁> ▁ ▁( a - front ing ) ▁> ▁ ▁( bre aking ; ▁in hib its ▁a - rest oration ) ▁> ▁ ▁( h - loss ) ▁> ▁ ▁( v owel ▁co ales c ence , ▁compens atory ▁length ening ). ▁ ▁A - rest oration ▁interact ed ▁in ▁a ▁tricky ▁fashion ▁with ▁a - front ing ▁( Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening ) ▁to ▁produce ▁e . g . ▁far an ▁" to ▁go " ▁from ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* far an ą ▁but ▁far en ▁" g one " ▁from ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* far an az . ▁Basically : ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁key ▁difference ▁is ▁in ▁steps ▁ 3 ▁and ▁ 4 , ▁where ▁nas al ized ▁ ą ▁is ▁una ffect ed ▁by ▁a - front |
ing ▁even ▁though ▁the ▁sequence ▁an ▁is ▁in ▁fact ▁affected , ▁since ▁it ▁occurs ▁in ▁an ▁un str essed ▁sy ll able . ▁This ▁leads ▁to ▁a ▁final - s yll able ▁difference ▁between ▁a ▁and ▁ æ , ▁which ▁is ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁preceding ▁sy ll able ▁in ▁step ▁ 4 . ▁ ▁Pal atal ization ▁Pal atal ization ▁of ▁the ▁vel ar ▁con son ants ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁occurred ▁in ▁certain ▁environments , ▁mostly ▁involving ▁front ▁v ow els . ▁( The ▁ph on eme ▁ ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁had ▁two ▁allo ph ones : ▁ ▁after ▁ ▁or ▁when ▁gem in ated , ▁and ▁ ▁everywhere ▁else .) ▁This ▁pal atal ization ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁what ▁occurred ▁in ▁Italian ▁and ▁Swedish . ▁When ▁pal atal ized : ▁ ▁became ▁▁ ▁became ▁▁ ▁became ▁▁▁ ▁became ▁ ▁( a ▁vo iced ▁pal atal ▁fr ic ative ; ▁it ▁would ▁later ▁become ▁[ j ], ▁but ▁not ▁before ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁older ▁ ▁in ▁certain ▁positions ▁discussed ▁below ) ▁ ▁The ▁context s ▁for ▁pal atal ization ▁were ▁sometimes ▁different ▁for ▁different ▁sounds : ▁Before ▁, ▁for ▁example : ċ ī dan ▁(" to ▁ch ide "), ▁b ē ċ ▁(" books ", ▁from ▁earlier ▁), ▁s ē ċ an ▁(" se ek ", ▁from ▁earlier ▁) ▁() b ry ċ ġ ▁(" bridge ", ▁from ▁earlier ▁West ▁German ic ▁ ▁after ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁) ▁() ġ if þ ▁(" g ives ") ▁() ▁Before ▁other ▁front ▁v |
ow els ▁and ▁di ph th ongs , ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁word - initial ▁ ▁and ▁all ▁, ▁for ▁example : ċ eor l ▁(" ch url "), ▁ ċ ē as ▁(" ch ose ▁( sg .) "), ▁ ċ e ald ▁(" c old ") ▁( initial ▁) ġ e af ▁ ▁(" g ave "), ▁ ġ e ard ▁(" yard ") ▁() ▁After ▁ ▁( poss ibly ▁with ▁an ▁interven ing ▁/ n /), ▁unless ▁a ▁back ▁v owel ▁followed , ▁for ▁example : i ċ ▁(" I "), ▁d ī ċ ▁(" d itch , ▁di ke ") ▁() ▁In ▁w ic u ▁(" weak "), ▁the ▁ ▁is ▁not ▁affected ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁following ▁ ▁For ▁ ▁and ▁/ sk / ▁only , ▁after ▁other ▁front ▁v ow els ▁( ), ▁unless ▁a ▁back ▁v owel ▁followed , ▁for ▁example : we ġ ▁(" way "), ▁n æ ġ l ▁(" n ail "), ▁m <0xC7> <0xA3> ġ ▁(" relative ") ▁() f is ċ ▁(" fish ") ▁() ▁In ▁weg as ▁(" ways ") ▁the ▁ ▁is ▁not ▁affected ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁following ▁ ▁In ▁ ā sci an ▁(" ask ", ▁from ▁earlier ▁) ▁the ▁ ▁remains ▁For ▁word - initial ▁/ sk /, ▁always , ▁even ▁when ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁back ▁v owel ▁or ▁, ▁for ▁example : s ċ ip ▁(" ship "), ▁s ċ uld or ▁(" should er "), ▁s ċ ort ▁(" short "), ▁s ċ r ū d |
▁(" d ress ", ▁giving ▁modern ▁shr oud ) ▁() ▁ ▁The ▁pal at als ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁revert ed ▁to ▁their ▁non - pal atal ▁equival ents ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁when ▁they ▁came ▁to ▁stand ▁immediately ▁before ▁a ▁con son ant , ▁even ▁if ▁this ▁occurred ▁at ▁a ▁significantly ▁later ▁period , ▁as ▁when ▁* s ē ċ i þ ▁(" se eks ") ▁became ▁s ē c þ , ▁and ▁* sen ġ i þ ▁(" sing es ") ▁became ▁s eng þ . ▁ ▁Pal atal ization ▁occurred ▁after ▁a - rest oration ▁and ▁before ▁i - mut ation ▁( although ▁it ▁is ▁unclear ▁whether ▁it ▁occurred ▁before ▁or ▁after ▁h - loss ). ▁Thus , ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁occur ▁in ▁gal an ▁" to ▁sing " ▁( cf . ▁modern ▁English ▁reg ale ), ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁ ▁back ed ▁from ▁ ▁due ▁to ▁a - rest oration . ▁Similarly , ▁pal atal ization ▁occurred ▁in ▁d æ ġ ▁(" day "), ▁but ▁not ▁in ▁a - rest ored ▁dag as ▁(" days "; ▁c f . ▁dialect al ▁English ▁da w es ▁" days ") ▁or ▁in ▁dag ung ▁(" dawn ", ▁where ▁the ▁ ▁represents ▁the ▁ref lex ▁of ▁un pal atal ized ▁). ▁Nor ▁did ▁it ▁occur ▁in ▁c yn ing ▁(" king "), ▁c emb an ▁(" to ▁comb ") ▁or ▁g ē s ▁(" ge ese "), ▁where ▁the ▁front ▁v ow els ▁ ▁developed ▁from ▁earlier ▁ ▁due ▁to ▁i - mut ation |
. ▁ ▁In ▁many ▁instances ▁where ▁a ▁ ċ / c , ▁ ġ / g , ▁or ▁s ċ / sc ▁altern ation ▁would ▁be ▁expected ▁within ▁a ▁parad ig m , ▁it ▁was ▁le ve led ▁out ▁by ▁anal ogy ▁at ▁some ▁point ▁in ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁language . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁vel ar ▁of ▁s ē c þ ▁" he ▁see ks " ▁has ▁replaced ▁the ▁pal atal ▁of ▁s ē ċ an ▁" to ▁seek " ▁in ▁Modern ▁English ; ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁the ▁pal atal ized ▁forms ▁of ▁bes ē ċ an ▁have ▁replaced ▁the ▁vel ar ▁forms , ▁giving ▁modern ▁b ese ech . ▁ ▁The ▁sounds ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁had ▁almost ▁certainly ▁split ▁into ▁distinct ▁ph on emes ▁by ▁Late ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁the ▁dialect ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Old ▁English ▁documents ▁are ▁written . ▁This ▁is ▁suggested ▁by ▁such ▁near - min imal ▁pairs ▁as ▁dr in can ▁ ▁(" dr ink ") ▁vs . ▁d ren ċ an ▁ ▁(" d rench "), ▁and ▁g ē s ▁ ▁(" ge ese ") ▁vs . ▁ ġ ē ▁ ▁(" you "). ▁Nevertheless , ▁there ▁are ▁few ▁true ▁minimal ▁pairs , ▁and ▁vel ars ▁and ▁pal at als ▁often ▁alternate ▁with ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁ways ▁rem in is cent ▁of ▁allo ph ones , ▁for ▁example : ċ ē os an ▁ ▁(" to ▁choose ") ▁vs . ▁cur on ▁ ▁(" ch ose ", ▁pl ural ▁form ) |
ġ ē ot an ▁ ▁(" to ▁pour ") ▁vs . ▁gut on ▁ ▁(" p oured ", ▁pl ural ▁form ) ▁The ▁vo iced ▁vel ars ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁were ▁still ▁allo ph ones ▁of ▁a ▁single ▁ph on eme ▁( although ▁by ▁now ▁ ▁was ▁the ▁form ▁used ▁in ▁initial ▁position ); ▁similarly , ▁their ▁respective ▁pal atal ized ▁ref lex es ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁are ▁anal ys ed ▁as ▁allo ph ones ▁of ▁a ▁single ▁ph on eme ▁ ▁at ▁this ▁stage . ▁This ▁ ▁also ▁included ▁older ▁instances ▁of ▁ ▁which ▁derived ▁from ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁, ▁and ▁could ▁stand ▁before ▁back ▁v ow els , ▁as ▁in ▁ ġ e ong ▁ ▁(" you ng "; ▁from ▁P G mc ▁) ▁and ▁ ġ e oc ▁ ▁(" y oke "; ▁from ▁P G mc ▁). ▁( See ▁also ▁Old ▁English ▁ph on ology : ▁d ors al ▁con son ants .) ▁ ▁Standard ▁Old ▁English ▁sp elling ▁did ▁not ▁reflect ▁the ▁split , ▁and ▁used ▁the ▁same ▁letter ▁ ▁for ▁both ▁ ▁and ▁, ▁and ▁ ▁for ▁both ▁ ▁() ▁and ▁ ▁( ). ▁In ▁the ▁standard ▁modern ized ▁orth ography ▁( as ▁used ▁here ), ▁the ▁vel ar ▁and ▁pal atal ▁variants ▁are ▁distinguished ▁with ▁a ▁dia crit ic : ▁ ▁stands ▁for ▁, ▁ ▁for ▁, ▁ ▁for ▁ ▁and ▁, ▁and ▁ ▁for ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁The ▁gem in ates ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁written ▁, ▁, ▁, ▁. ▁ ▁Lo an |
words ▁from ▁Old ▁Nor se ▁typically ▁do ▁not ▁display ▁any ▁pal atal ization , ▁showing ▁that ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁they ▁were ▁borrow ed ▁the ▁pal atal – vel ar ▁distinction ▁was ▁no ▁longer ▁allo ph onic ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁sets ▁were ▁now ▁separate ▁ph on emes . ▁Comp are , ▁for ▁example , ▁the ▁modern ▁double t ▁sh irt ▁and ▁sk irt ; ▁these ▁both ▁derive ▁from ▁the ▁same ▁German ic ▁root , ▁but ▁sh irt ▁under w ent ▁Old ▁English ▁pal atal ization , ▁whereas ▁sk irt ▁comes ▁from ▁a ▁Nor se ▁borrow ing ▁which ▁did ▁not . ▁Similarly , ▁give , ▁an ▁un pal atal ized ▁Nor se ▁borrow ing , ▁existed ▁alongside ▁( and ▁eventually ▁disp la ced ) ▁the ▁regularly ▁pal atal ized ▁y ive . ▁Other ▁later ▁loan words ▁similarly ▁escaped ▁pal atal ization : ▁compare ▁ship ▁( from ▁pal atal ized ▁Old ▁English ▁s ċ ip ) ▁with ▁ski pper ▁( bor row ed ▁from ▁un pal atal ized ▁Dutch ▁sch i pper ). ▁ ▁Second ▁front ing ▁Second ▁front ing ▁front ed ▁ ▁to ▁, ▁and ▁ ▁to ▁, ▁later ▁than ▁related ▁processes ▁of ▁a - front ing ▁and ▁a - rest oration . ▁Second ▁front ing ▁did ▁not ▁affect ▁the ▁standard ▁West ▁Sax on ▁dialect ▁of ▁Old ▁English . ▁In ▁fact , ▁it ▁took ▁place ▁only ▁in ▁a ▁relatively ▁small ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁area ▁( English ▁Mid lands ) ▁where ▁the ▁Mer cian ▁dialect ▁was ▁spoken . ▁Mer cian ▁itself ▁was ▁a ▁sub dia lect |
▁of ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect ▁( which ▁includes ▁all ▁of ▁Central ▁and ▁Northern ▁England ). ▁ ▁Pal atal ▁di ph th ong ization ▁The ▁front ▁v ow els ▁e , ▁ ē , ▁ æ , ▁and ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁usually ▁become ▁the ▁di ph th ongs ▁ie , ▁ ī e , ▁e a , ▁and ▁ ē a ▁after ▁ ċ , ▁ ġ , ▁and ▁s ċ : s ċ ier an ▁" to ▁cut ", ▁s ċ ear ▁" cut ▁( p ast ▁sing .) ", ▁s ċ ē aron ▁" cut ▁( p ast ▁pl .) ", ▁which ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁conjug ation ▁class ▁( IV ) ▁as ▁ber an ▁" to ▁carry ", ▁b ær ▁" car ried ▁( sing .) ", ▁b <0xC7> <0xA3> ron ▁" car ried ▁( pl .) " ġ ief an ▁" to ▁give ", ▁ ġ e af ▁" g ave ▁( sing .) ", ▁ ġ ē af on ▁" g ave ▁( pl .) ", ▁ ġ ief en ▁" g iven ", ▁which ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁same ▁conjug ation ▁class ▁( V ) ▁as ▁t red an ▁" to ▁t read ", ▁tr æ d ▁" t rod ▁( sing .) ", ▁tr <0xC7> <0xA3> don ▁" t rod ▁( pl .) ", ▁t red en ▁" t rod den " ▁ ▁In ▁a ▁similar ▁way , ▁the ▁back ▁v ow els ▁u , ▁o , ▁and ▁a ▁were ▁sp elled ▁as ▁e o ▁and ▁e |
a ▁after ▁ ċ , ▁ ġ , ▁and ▁s ċ : * ġ ung ▁> ▁ ġ e ong ▁" you ng " ▁( cf . ▁German ▁j ung )* s ċ ol de ▁> ▁s ċ e ol de ▁" should " ▁( cf . ▁German ▁sollte )* s ċ adu ▁> ▁s ċ ead u ▁" shadow " ▁( cf . ▁Dutch ▁sch ad uw ) ▁ ▁Most ▁likely , ▁the ▁second ▁process ▁was ▁simply ▁a ▁sp elling ▁convention , ▁and ▁a , ▁o , ▁u ▁actually ▁did ▁not ▁change ▁in ▁pron unci ation : ▁the ▁v owel ▁u ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁pron ounced ▁in ▁ ġ e ong , ▁o ▁in ▁s ċ e ol de , ▁and ▁a ▁in ▁s ċ ead u . ▁This ▁is ▁suggested ▁by ▁their ▁develop ments ▁in ▁Middle ▁and ▁Modern ▁English . ▁If ▁ ġ e ong ▁and ▁s ċ e ol de ▁had ▁the ▁di ph th ong ▁e o , ▁they ▁would ▁develop ▁into ▁Modern ▁English ▁* y eng ▁and ▁* she eld ▁instead ▁of ▁young ▁and ▁should . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁less ▁agreement ▁about ▁the ▁first ▁process . ▁The ▁traditional ▁view ▁is ▁that ▁e , ▁ ē , ▁ æ , ▁and ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁actually ▁became ▁di ph th ongs , ▁but ▁a ▁minor ity ▁view ▁is ▁that ▁they ▁remained ▁as ▁mon oph th ongs : s ċ ier an ▁s ċ ear ▁s ċ ē aron ▁ ġ ief an ▁ ġ e af ▁ ġ ē af |
on ▁ ġ ief en ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁arguments ▁in ▁favor ▁of ▁this ▁view ▁are ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁corresponding ▁process ▁involving ▁back ▁v ow els ▁is ▁indeed ▁purely ▁orth ographic , ▁and ▁that ▁di ph th ong izations ▁like ▁ ▁→ ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁→ ▁ ▁( if ▁this ▁is ▁the ▁correct ▁interpretation ▁of ▁orth ographic ▁ie ) ▁are ▁ph on et ically ▁un mot iv ated ▁in ▁the ▁context ▁of ▁a ▁preceding ▁pal atal ▁or ▁postal ve olar ▁con son ant . ▁ ▁Met ath esis ▁of ▁r ▁Original ▁sequences ▁of ▁an ▁r ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁short ▁v owel ▁met ath es ized , ▁with ▁the ▁v owel ▁and ▁r ▁switching ▁places . ▁This ▁normally ▁only ▁occurred ▁when ▁the ▁next ▁following ▁con son ant ▁was ▁s ▁or ▁n , ▁and ▁sometimes ▁d . ▁The ▁r ▁could ▁be ▁initial ▁or ▁follow ▁another ▁con son ant , ▁but ▁not ▁a ▁v owel . ▁Before ▁s : ▁ber stan ▁" to ▁burst " ▁( I cel and ic ▁br esta ), ▁g æ rs ▁" gr ass " ▁( G oth ic ▁gr as ), ▁ þ ers can ▁" to ▁th resh " ▁( G oth ic ▁ þ ris kan ) ▁Before ▁n : ▁by r nan ▁~ ▁be orn an ▁" to ▁burn ▁( in tr .) " ▁( G oth ic ▁br inn an ), ▁ir nan ▁" to ▁run " ▁( G oth ic ▁r inn an ), ▁ ī ren ▁" ir on " ▁( < ▁* ī |
s ren ▁< ▁ ī ser n ; ▁Goth ic ▁e is arn ), ▁w ær na ▁" w ren " ▁( I cel and ic ▁r ind ill ), ▁ ær n ▁" house " ▁( G oth ic ▁ra zn ) ▁Before ▁d : ▁ þ ir da ▁" third " ▁( G oth ic ▁ þ rid ja ), ▁North umb rian ▁bird ▁" ch ick , ▁nest ling " ▁( standard ▁b ry d ) ▁ ▁Not ▁all ▁potential ▁words ▁to ▁which ▁met ath esis ▁can ▁apply ▁are ▁actually ▁affected , ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁above ▁words ▁also ▁appear ▁in ▁their ▁un met ath es ized ▁form ▁( e . g . ▁gr æ s ▁" gr ass ", ▁r inn an ▁" to ▁run ", ▁w ren na ▁" w ren ", ▁rare ▁forms ▁br ust æ n ▁" bur st ▁( p ast ▁part .) ", ▁ þ res c enne ▁" to ▁th resh ", ▁on b ran ▁" set ▁fire ▁to ▁( p ast )", ▁ ī ser n ▁" ir on ", ▁ren - ▁" house ", ▁ þ rid da ▁" third "; ▁br idd es ▁" bird s " ▁in ▁Ch au cer ). ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁words ▁have ▁come ▁down ▁to ▁Modern ▁English ▁in ▁their ▁un met ath es ized ▁forms . ▁ ▁Met ath esis ▁in ▁the ▁other ▁direction ▁occasionally ▁occurs ▁before ▁h t , ▁e . g . ▁w ro h te ▁" work ed " ▁( cf . |
▁ob sol es cent ▁wr ought ; ▁Goth ic ▁wur ht a ), ▁North umb rian ▁bre ht ▁~ ▁b ry ht ▁" br ight " ▁( G oth ic ▁ba ír ht s ), ▁f ry ht o ▁" f right " ▁( G oth ic ▁fa ú rh tei ), ▁w ry ht a ▁" maker " ▁( cf . ▁w right ; ▁Old ▁Sax on ▁wur ht io ). ▁Un met ath es ized ▁forms ▁of ▁all ▁of ▁these ▁words ▁also ▁occur ▁in ▁Old ▁English . ▁The ▁phenomen on ▁occurred ▁in ▁most ▁German ic ▁languages . ▁ ▁I - mut ation ▁( i - um la ut ) ▁ ▁Like ▁most ▁other ▁German ic ▁languages , ▁Old ▁English ▁under w ent ▁a ▁process ▁known ▁as ▁i - mut ation ▁or ▁i - um la ut . ▁This ▁involved ▁the ▁front ing ▁or ▁raising ▁of ▁v ow els ▁under ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁following ▁sy ll able . ▁Among ▁its ▁effects ▁were ▁the ▁new ▁front ▁rounded ▁v ow els ▁, ▁and ▁likely ▁the ▁di ph th ong ▁ ▁( see ▁above ). ▁The ▁original ▁following ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁that ▁triggered ▁the ▁um la ut ▁was ▁often ▁lost ▁at ▁a ▁later ▁stage . ▁The ▁um la ut ▁is ▁responsible ▁for ▁such ▁modern ▁English ▁forms ▁as ▁men , ▁feet , ▁m ice ▁( compare ▁the ▁singular s ▁man , ▁foot , ▁mouse ), ▁elder , ▁el dest ▁( compare ▁old ), ▁fill ▁( compare ▁full ), ▁length ▁( compare |
▁long ), ▁etc . ▁ ▁For ▁details ▁of ▁the ▁changes , ▁see ▁German ic ▁um la ut , ▁and ▁particularly ▁the ▁section ▁on ▁i - mut ation ▁in ▁Old ▁English . ▁ ▁Final ▁a - loss ▁Ab sol utely ▁final ▁un str essed ▁low ▁v ow els ▁(- æ ▁from ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁- a ( z ) ▁by ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening , ▁and ▁- ą ) ▁were ▁lost . ▁Note ▁that ▁final ▁- z ▁was ▁lost ▁already ▁in ▁West ▁German ic ▁times . ▁Pre ced ing ▁- j -, ▁- ij -, ▁and ▁- w - ▁were ▁vocal ized ▁to ▁- i , ▁- ī ▁and ▁- u , ▁respectively . ▁This ▁occurred ▁after ▁breaking , ▁since ▁P G ▁ ▁was ▁affected , ▁becoming ▁O E ▁bear u , ▁while ▁words ▁in ▁P G ▁* - uz ▁were ▁not . ▁( App ar ent ▁instances ▁of ▁such ▁breaking ▁are ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁later ▁process ▁of ▁back ▁mut ation , ▁which ▁did ▁not ▁apply ▁across ▁all ▁con son ants , ▁c f . ▁un bro ken ▁West ▁Sax on ▁O E ▁ter u ▁" te ar " ▁< ▁P G ▁ ▁but ▁broken ▁s me oru ▁" gre ase " ▁< ▁P G ▁, ▁where ▁back ▁mut ation ▁did ▁not ▁apply ▁across ▁- r - ▁in ▁West ▁Sax on .) ▁It ▁also ▁probably ▁occurred ▁after ▁a - rest oration ; ▁see ▁that ▁section ▁for ▁examples ▁showing ▁this . ▁It ▁apparently ▁occurred ▁before ▁high ▁v owel |
▁loss , ▁because ▁the ▁preceding ▁vocal ized ▁sem iv ow els ▁were ▁affected ▁by ▁this ▁process ; ▁e . g . ▁g ā d ▁" lack " ▁< ▁* g ā du ▁( by ▁high - v owel ▁loss ) ▁< ▁P G ▁ ▁( cf . ▁Goth ic ▁ga id w ). ▁It ▁is ▁unclear ▁whether ▁it ▁occurred ▁before ▁or ▁after ▁i - mut ation . ▁ ▁Med ial ▁sync op ation ▁In ▁med ial ▁sy ll ables , ▁short ▁low ▁and ▁mid ▁v ow els ▁() ▁are ▁deleted ▁in ▁all ▁open ▁sy ll ables . ▁ ▁Short ▁high ▁v ow els ▁() ▁are ▁deleted ▁in ▁open ▁sy ll ables ▁following ▁a ▁long ▁sy ll able , ▁but ▁usually ▁remain ▁following ▁a ▁short ▁sy ll able ; ▁this ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁high ▁v owel ▁loss . ▁ ▁S ync op ation ▁of ▁low / mid ▁v ow els ▁occurred ▁after ▁i - mut ation ▁and ▁before ▁high ▁v owel ▁loss . ▁An ▁example ▁demonstr ating ▁that ▁it ▁occurred ▁after ▁i - mut ation ▁is ▁m æ ġ den ▁" ma iden ": ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁sync op ation ▁of ▁short ▁low / mid ▁v ow els ▁had ▁occurred ▁before ▁i - mut ation , ▁the ▁result ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁would ▁be ▁** me ġ den . ▁ ▁An ▁example ▁showing ▁that ▁sync op ation ▁occurred ▁before ▁high ▁v owel ▁loss ▁is ▁s ā w ( o ) l ▁" s oul ": ▁P G ▁* s ai wal ō |
▁> ▁* s ā wal u ▁> ▁* s ā w lu ▁( med ial ▁sync op ation ) ▁> ▁s ā w l ▁" s oul ". ▁( By - form ▁s ā wol ▁is ▁due ▁to ▁v owel ▁ep enth esis .) ▁Had ▁it ▁occurred ▁after ▁high ▁v owel ▁loss , ▁the ▁result ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁would ▁be ▁** s ā w lu . ▁ ▁High ▁v owel ▁loss ▁In ▁an ▁un str essed ▁open ▁sy ll able , ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁( including ▁final ▁ ▁from ▁earlier ▁) ▁were ▁lost ▁when ▁following ▁a ▁long ▁sy ll able ▁( i . e . ▁one ▁with ▁a ▁long ▁v owel ▁or ▁di ph th ong , ▁or ▁followed ▁by ▁two ▁con son ants ), ▁but ▁not ▁when ▁following ▁a ▁short ▁sy ll able ▁( i . e . ▁one ▁with ▁a ▁short ▁v owel ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁single ▁con son ant ). ▁This ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁two ▁types ▁of ▁context s : ▁Ab sol utely ▁word - final ▁In ▁a ▁med ial ▁open ▁sy ll able ▁ ▁Word - final ▁ ▁High - v owel ▁loss ▁caused ▁many ▁parad ig ms ▁to ▁split ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁length ▁of ▁the ▁root ▁sy ll able , ▁with ▁- u ▁or ▁- e ▁( from ▁* - i ) ▁appearing ▁after ▁short ▁but ▁not ▁long ▁sy ll ables . ▁For ▁example , ▁femin ine ▁ ō - st em ▁n oun s ▁in ▁the ▁nom . ▁s g .: ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E |
▁ ġ ief u ▁" g ift " ▁but ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁l ā r ▁" te aching "; ▁neut er ▁a - st em ▁n oun s ▁in ▁the ▁nom ./ acc . ▁pl .: ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁sci pu ▁" ships " ▁but ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁word ▁" words "; ▁mascul ine ▁i - st em ▁n oun s ▁in ▁the ▁nom ./ acc . ▁s g .: ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁wine ▁" friend " ▁but ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁ ġ iest ▁" gu est "; ▁u - st em ▁n oun s ▁in ▁the ▁nom ./ acc . ▁s g .: ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁sun u ▁" son " ▁but ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁hand ▁" hand "; ▁strong ▁ad ject ives ▁in ▁the ▁femin ine ▁nom . ▁s g . ▁and ▁neut er ▁nom ./ acc . ▁pl .: ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁til u ▁" good ▁( f em . ▁nom . ▁s g ., ▁neut . ▁nom ./ acc . ▁pl .) " ▁but ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁g ō d ▁" good ▁( f em . ▁nom . ▁s g ., ▁neut . ▁nom ./ acc . ▁pl .) "; ▁weak ▁class ▁ 1 ▁imper atives : ▁O E ▁fre me ▁" perform !" ▁vs . ▁h ī er ▁" he ar !" ▁( PG ▁st ems ▁* fr ami - ▁and |
▁* h au zi -, ▁respectively ; ▁it ' s ▁unclear ▁if ▁the ▁imper atives ▁ended ▁in ▁* - i ▁or ▁* - ī ). ▁This ▁loss ▁affected ▁the ▁pl ural ▁of ▁root ▁n oun s , ▁e . g . ▁Pre PG ▁* ▁> ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁ ▁" fe et ▁( nom .) ". ▁All ▁such ▁n oun s ▁had ▁long - s yll able ▁st ems , ▁and ▁so ▁all ▁were ▁without ▁ending ▁in ▁the ▁pl ural , ▁with ▁the ▁pl ural ▁marked ▁only ▁by ▁i - mut ation . ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁two - s yll able ▁n oun s ▁consisting ▁of ▁two ▁short ▁sy ll ables ▁were ▁treated ▁as ▁if ▁they ▁had ▁a ▁single ▁long ▁sy ll able ▁— ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁equivalence ▁found ▁elsewhere ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁German ic ▁languages , ▁e . g . ▁in ▁the ▁handling ▁of ▁Sie vers ' ▁law ▁in ▁Pro to - N or se , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁metric ▁rules ▁of ▁German ic ▁all iter ative ▁poetry . ▁Hence , ▁final ▁high ▁v ow els ▁are ▁dropped . ▁However , ▁in ▁a ▁two - s yll able ▁n oun ▁consisting ▁of ▁a ▁long ▁first ▁sy ll able , ▁the ▁length ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁sy ll able ▁determ ines ▁whether ▁the ▁high ▁v owel ▁is ▁dropped . ▁Ex amples ▁( all ▁are ▁neut er ▁n oun s ): ▁Short - short : ▁wer od ▁" t ro op ", ▁pl . ▁wer od ▁( tre |
ated ▁as ▁equivalent ▁to ▁a ▁single ▁long ▁sy ll able , ▁or ▁more ▁correctly ▁as ▁a ▁single ▁long ▁foot ) ▁Short - long : ▁f æ re ld ▁" j our ney ", ▁pl . ▁f æ re ld Long - short : ▁h ē af od ▁" head ", ▁pl . ▁h ē af du ▁( from ▁* h ē af odu ) ▁Long - long : ▁ ī ser n ▁" ir on ", ▁pl . ▁ ī ser n Note ▁also ▁the ▁following ▁apparent ▁exceptions : ▁O E ▁w ī tu ▁" p un ish ments " ▁( pl . ▁of ▁w ī te ) ▁< ▁P G ▁; ▁O E ▁r ī ċ ( i ) u ▁" king dom s " ▁( pl . ▁of ▁r ī ċ e ) ▁< ▁P G ▁; ▁O E ▁wil du ▁" w ild " ▁( f em . ▁of ▁w ilde ) ▁< ▁P G ▁; ▁O E ▁str eng þ u ▁" str ength " ▁< ▁P G ▁. ▁In ▁reality , ▁these ▁aren ' t ▁exceptions ▁because ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁high - v owel ▁loss ▁the ▁words ▁had ▁the ▁same ▁two - s yll able ▁long - short ▁root ▁structure ▁as ▁h ē af od ▁( see ▁above ). ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁high - v owel ▁loss ▁must ▁have ▁occurred ▁after ▁i - mut ation ▁but ▁before ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁internal ▁-( i ) j -, ▁which ▁occurred ▁shortly ▁after ▁i - mut ation . |
▁ ▁Word - med ial ▁ ▁Parad ig m ▁split ▁also ▁occurred ▁med ial ly ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁high - v owel ▁loss , ▁e . g . ▁in ▁the ▁past ▁t ense ▁forms ▁of ▁Class ▁I ▁weak ▁forms : ▁P G ▁* d ō mid ē ▁> ▁O E ▁d ē m de ▁"( he ) ▁jud ged " ▁P G ▁* fram id ē ▁> ▁O E ▁f rem ede ▁"( he ) ▁did , ▁performed ▁( a ▁duty )" ▁ ▁Norm ally , ▁sync op ation ▁( i . e . ▁v owel ▁loss ) ▁does ▁not ▁occur ▁in ▁closed ▁sy ll ables , ▁e . g . ▁Eng lis ċ e ▁" English ", ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> r esta ▁" ear liest ", ▁s ċ ē aw unge ▁" a ▁showing , ▁ins pection " ▁( each ▁word ▁with ▁an ▁inf lect ed ▁ending ▁following ▁it ). ▁However , ▁sync op ation ▁passes ▁its ▁usual ▁limits ▁in ▁certain ▁West ▁Sax on ▁ver bal ▁and ▁ad ject ival ▁forms , ▁e . g . ▁the ▁present ▁t ense ▁of ▁strong ▁ver bs ▁( b irst ▁"( you ) ▁carry " ▁< ▁P G ▁* ber is - tu , ▁bir þ ▁"( he ) ▁car ries " ▁< ▁P G ▁* ber i þ , ▁similarly ▁d ē m st , ▁d ē m þ ▁"( you ) ▁judge , ▁( he ) ▁jud ges ") ▁and ▁compar ative ▁ad ject ives ▁( ġ in ġ sta ▁" you |
ng est " ▁< ▁P G ▁* j ung ist ô , ▁similarly ▁str en ġ sta ▁" strong est ", ▁l <0xC7> <0xA3> sta ▁" le ast " ▁< ▁* l <0xC7> <0xA3> s esta ▁< ▁P G ▁* lais ist ô ). ▁ ▁When ▁both ▁med ial ▁and ▁final ▁high - v owel ▁loss ▁can ▁operate ▁in ▁a ▁single ▁word , ▁med ial ▁but ▁not ▁final ▁loss ▁occurs : ▁ ▁P G ▁* str ang i þ ō ▁> ▁W G ▁* str ang i þ u ▁> ▁* str eng þ u ▁" str ength "; ▁ ▁P G ▁* ha ub ud ō ▁> ▁W G ▁* ha ub ud u ▁> ▁* h ē af du ▁" head s ". ▁This ▁implies ▁that ▁final ▁high - v owel ▁loss ▁must ▁preced e ▁med ial ▁high - v owel ▁loss ; ▁else ▁the ▁result ▁would ▁be ▁** str eng þ , ▁h ē af d . ▁ ▁L oss ▁of ▁-( i ) j - ▁In ternal ▁- j - ▁and ▁its ▁Sie vers ' ▁law ▁variant ▁- ij -, ▁when ▁they ▁still ▁remained ▁in ▁an ▁internal ▁sy ll able , ▁were ▁lost ▁just ▁after ▁high - v owel ▁loss , ▁but ▁only ▁after ▁a ▁long ▁sy ll able . ▁Hence : ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁W G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁w ī tu ▁" p un ish ments " ▁( if ▁- ij - ▁were ▁lost ▁before ▁high - v owel ▁loss , ▁the ▁result ▁would ▁be |
▁** w ī t ); ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁* d ø ̄ m ij an ▁( after ▁i - mut ation ) ▁> ▁O E ▁d ē man ▁" to ▁judge " ▁( cf . ▁NE ▁de em ); ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁W G ▁ ▁> ▁* s æ tt jan ą ▁( after ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening ) ▁> ▁* sett jan ▁( after ▁i - mut ation ) ▁> ▁O E ▁sett an ▁" to ▁set ". ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁in ▁Pro to - G erman ic , ▁the ▁non - S ie vers '- law ▁variant ▁- j - ▁occurred ▁only ▁after ▁short ▁sy ll ables , ▁but ▁due ▁to ▁West ▁German ic ▁gem ination , ▁a ▁con son ant ▁directly ▁preceding ▁the ▁- j - ▁was ▁double d , ▁creating ▁a ▁long ▁sy ll able . ▁West ▁German ic ▁gem ination ▁didn ' t ▁apply ▁to ▁, ▁leaving ▁a ▁short ▁sy ll able , ▁and ▁hence ▁ ▁wasn ' t ▁lost ▁in ▁such ▁circumstances : ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁O E ▁er ian ▁" to ▁p low ". ▁ ▁By ▁Sie vers ' ▁law , ▁the ▁variant ▁ ▁occurred ▁only ▁after ▁long ▁sy ll ables , ▁and ▁thus ▁was ▁always ▁lost ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁still ▁word - internal ▁at ▁this ▁point . ▁ ▁When ▁- j - ▁and ▁- ij - ▁became ▁word - final ▁after ▁loss ▁of ▁a ▁following ▁v owel ▁or ▁v owel + / z /, ▁they ▁were ▁converted ▁into |
▁- i ▁and ▁- ī , ▁respectively . ▁The ▁former ▁was ▁affected ▁by ▁high - v owel ▁loss , ▁sur f acing ▁as ▁- e ▁when ▁not ▁deleted ▁( i . e . ▁after ▁), ▁while ▁the ▁latter ▁always ▁surfaces ▁as ▁- e : ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁W G ▁ ▁> ▁* k un ni ▁> ▁* k yn ni ▁> ▁O E ▁c yn n ▁" kin , ▁family , ▁kind "; ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁W G ▁ ▁( West ▁German ic ▁gem ination ▁didn ' t ▁apply ▁to ▁/ r /) ▁> ▁* h ari ▁> ▁* her i ▁> ▁O E ▁here ▁" ar my "; ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁* w ī t ī ▁> ▁O E ▁w ī te ▁" p un ishment ". ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁loss ▁of ▁med ial ▁- j - ▁occurred ▁slightly ▁earlier ▁than ▁loss ▁of ▁- ij -, ▁and ▁in ▁particular ▁before ▁high - v owel ▁loss . ▁This ▁appears ▁to ▁be ▁necessary ▁to ▁explain ▁short ▁- j ō ▁stem ▁words ▁like ▁ny tt ▁" use ": ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁W G ▁ ▁> ▁* ny tt ju ▁( by ▁i - mut ation ) ▁> ▁* ny tt u ▁( by ▁j - loss ) ▁> ▁O E ▁ny tt ▁( by ▁high - v owel ▁delet ion ). ▁If ▁high - v owel ▁delet ion ▁occurred ▁first , ▁the ▁result ▁would ▁pres umably ▁be ▁an ▁un att ested ▁** ny tte . ▁ ▁A ▁similar ▁loss |
▁of ▁-( i ) j - ▁occurred ▁in ▁the ▁other ▁West ▁German ic ▁languages , ▁although ▁after ▁the ▁earliest ▁records ▁of ▁those ▁languages ▁( es pecially ▁Old ▁Sax on , ▁which ▁still ▁has ▁written ▁sett ian , ▁h ē li and ▁corresponding ▁to ▁Old ▁English ▁sett an ▁" to ▁set ", ▁h <0xC7> <0xA3> l end ▁" s av ior "). ▁Some ▁details ▁are ▁different , ▁as ▁the ▁form ▁kun ni ▁with ▁retained ▁- i ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Old ▁Sax on , ▁Old ▁Dutch ▁and ▁Old ▁High ▁German ▁( but ▁note ▁Old ▁F ris ian ▁k enn , ▁kin ). ▁ ▁This ▁did ▁not ▁affect ▁the ▁new ▁ ▁( < ▁) ▁formed ▁from ▁pal atal ization ▁of ▁P G ▁, ▁suggesting ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁still ▁a ▁pal atal ▁fr ic ative ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁change . ▁For ▁example , ▁P G ▁ ▁> ▁early ▁O E ▁* ▁> ▁O E ▁wr ē ġ an ▁( ). ▁ ▁Back ▁mut ation ▁Back ▁mut ation ▁( s ometimes ▁back ▁um la ut , ▁g utt ural ▁um la ut , ▁u - um la ut , ▁or ▁vel ar ▁um la ut ) ▁is ▁a ▁change ▁that ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁late ▁pre histor ic ▁Old ▁English ▁and ▁caused ▁short ▁e , ▁i ▁and ▁sometimes ▁a ▁to ▁break ▁into ▁a ▁di ph th ong ▁( e o , ▁io , ▁e a ▁respectively , ▁similar ▁to ▁breaking ) ▁when ▁a ▁back ▁v owel ▁( u , ▁o , ▁ ō , ▁a ) ▁occurred |
▁in ▁the ▁following ▁sy ll able . ▁Ex amples : se of on ▁" se ven " ▁< ▁* se b un ▁( cf . ▁Goth ic ▁sib un ) he ol ( o ) stor ▁" h iding ▁place , ▁cover " ▁( cf . ▁English ▁hol ster ) ▁< ▁earlier ▁hel ustr ▁< ▁* h ul estr ▁< ▁* h ul ist ran ▁( cf . ▁Goth ic ▁h ul istr ) e of or ▁" bo ar " ▁< ▁* eb ur az ▁( cf . ▁Old ▁High ▁German ▁e bur ) he or ot ▁" hart " ▁< ▁* her ut az ▁( cf . ▁Old ▁High ▁German ▁h ir uz ) mi ol uc , ▁me ol uc ▁" mil k " ▁< ▁* mel uk z ▁( cf . ▁Goth ic ▁mil u ks ) li of ast , ▁le of ast ▁" you ▁( sg .) ▁live " ▁< ▁* lib aste alu ▁" ale " ▁< ▁* alu þ Note ▁that ▁io ▁turned ▁into ▁e o ▁in ▁late ▁Old ▁English . ▁ ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁restrictions ▁govern ed ▁whether ▁back ▁mut ation ▁took ▁place : ▁Gener ally ▁it ▁only ▁took ▁place ▁when ▁a ▁single ▁con son ant ▁followed ▁the ▁v owel ▁being ▁broken . ▁In ▁the ▁standard ▁West ▁Sax on ▁dialect , ▁back ▁mut ation ▁only ▁took ▁place ▁before ▁lab ial s ▁( f , ▁b , ▁w ) ▁and ▁liqu ids ▁( l , ▁r ). ▁In ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect , ▁it |
▁took ▁place ▁before ▁all ▁con son ants ▁except ▁c , ▁g ▁( Ang li an ▁me odu ▁" me ad ", ▁e os ol ▁" don key " ▁vs . ▁West ▁Sax on ▁med u , ▁es ol ). ▁In ▁the ▁Kent ish ▁dialect , ▁it ▁took ▁place ▁before ▁all ▁con son ants ▁( K ent ish ▁bre ogo ▁" price " ▁vs . ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁Ang li an ▁b reg u , ▁bre go ). ▁Back ▁mut ation ▁of ▁a ▁normally ▁took ▁place ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁Mer cian ▁sub dia lect ▁of ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect . ▁Standard ▁e alu ▁" ale " ▁is ▁a ▁borrow ing ▁from ▁Mer cian . ▁Similar ▁borrow ings ▁are ▁po etic ▁be adu ▁" b attle " ▁and ▁e a for a ▁" son , ▁he ir ", ▁c f . ▁Goth ic ▁af ar ▁( many ▁po etic ▁words ▁were ▁borrow ed ▁from ▁Mer cian ). ▁On ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁standard ▁be alu ▁" ev il " ▁( arch . ▁b ale ) ▁and ▁bear u ▁" gro ve " ▁o we ▁their ▁e a ▁due ▁to ▁breaking ▁— ▁their ▁forms ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁breaking ▁were ▁* bal w ą , ▁* bar w az , ▁and ▁the ▁gen itive ▁singular s ▁in ▁Old ▁English ▁are ▁be al w es , ▁bear w es . ▁ ▁Ang li an ▁sm o othing ▁In ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁( i . e . ▁Mer cian ▁and ▁North umb rian ) ▁dialect |
s ▁of ▁Old ▁English , ▁a ▁process ▁called ▁sm o othing ▁und id ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁effects ▁of ▁breaking . ▁In ▁particular , ▁before ▁a ▁vel ar ▁ ▁or ▁before ▁an ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁vel ar , ▁di ph th ongs ▁were ▁reduced ▁to ▁mon oph th ongs . ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁context ▁for ▁sm o othing ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁context ▁for ▁the ▁earlier ▁process ▁of ▁breaking ▁that ▁produced ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁di ph th ongs ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁place . ▁In ▁particular : ea ▁> ▁ æ ▁before ▁a ▁vel ar , ▁e ▁before ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁+ ▁vel ar ē a ▁> ▁ ē e o ▁> ▁e ē o ▁> ▁ ē io ▁> ▁i ī o ▁> ▁ ī This ▁change ▁preced ed ▁h - loss ▁and ▁v owel ▁assim ilation . ▁ ▁Note ▁also ▁that ▁the ▁di ph th ongs ▁ie ▁and ▁ ī e ▁did ▁not ▁exist ▁in ▁Ang li an ▁( or ▁in ▁fact ▁in ▁any ▁dialect ▁other ▁than ▁West ▁Sax on ). ▁ ▁H - loss ▁In ▁the ▁same ▁context s ▁where ▁the ▁vo ic eless ▁fr ic atives ▁ ▁become ▁vo iced , ▁i . e . ▁between ▁v ow els ▁and ▁between ▁a ▁vo iced ▁con son ant ▁and ▁a ▁v owel , ▁ ▁is ▁lost , ▁with ▁compens atory ▁length ening ▁of ▁the ▁preceding ▁v owel ▁if ▁it ▁is ▁short . ▁This ▁occurs ▁after ▁breaking ; ▁hence ▁breaking ▁before ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁takes ▁place ▁regardless ▁of ▁whether ▁the |
▁ ▁is ▁lost ▁by ▁this ▁rule . ▁An ▁un str essed ▁short ▁v owel ▁is ▁absor bed ▁into ▁the ▁preceding ▁long ▁v owel . ▁ ▁Ex amples : s ċ ō s ▁" sh oe " ▁( gen .) ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁, ▁c f . ▁s ċ ō h ▁( nom .) f ē os ▁" m oney " ▁( gen .) ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁, ▁c f . ▁fe oh ▁( nom .) w ē al as ▁" fore ign ers , ▁Wel sh ▁people " ▁< ▁ ▁< ▁, ▁c f . ▁we al h ▁( sing .) ▁ ▁V owel ▁assim ilation ▁Two ▁v ow els ▁that ▁occurred ▁in ▁hi atus ▁( i . e . ▁next ▁to ▁each ▁other , ▁with ▁no ▁con son ant ▁separ ating ) ▁col lapsed ▁into ▁a ▁single ▁long ▁v owel . ▁Many ▁occurr ences ▁were ▁due ▁to ▁h - loss , ▁but ▁some ▁came ▁from ▁other ▁sources , ▁e . g . ▁loss ▁of ▁ ▁or ▁ ▁after ▁a ▁front ▁v owel . ▁( L oss ▁of ▁ ▁occurred ▁early , ▁in ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁times . ▁L oss ▁of ▁ ▁occurred ▁later , ▁after ▁i - um la ut .) ▁If ▁the ▁first ▁v owel ▁was ▁e ▁or ▁i ▁( long ▁or ▁short ), ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁v owel ▁was ▁a ▁back ▁v owel , ▁a ▁di ph th ong ▁resulted . ▁Ex amples : s ċ ō s ▁" sh oe " ▁( gen .) |
▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* sk ō has ▁( see ▁under ▁h - loss ) f ē os ▁" m oney " ▁( gen .) ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* fe has ▁( see ▁under ▁h - loss ) fr ē ond ▁" friend " ▁< ▁fr ī ond ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* f rij ō nd z ▁( two ▁sy ll ables , ▁c f . ▁Goth ic ▁fri j ō nd s ) s <0xC7> <0xA3> m ▁" se a " ▁( dat . ▁pl .) ▁< ▁s <0xC7> <0xA3> um ▁< ▁* s <0xC7> <0xA3> w um ▁< ▁* s <0xC7> <0xA3> w im iz ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* s ai w im iz Pal atal ▁um la ut ▁Pal atal ▁um la ut ▁is ▁a ▁process ▁where by ▁short ▁e , ▁e o , ▁io ▁appear ▁as ▁i ▁( occ asion ally ▁ie ) ▁before ▁final ▁h t , ▁h s , ▁h þ . ▁Ex amples : ri ht ▁" right " ▁( cf . ▁German ▁recht ) c ni ht ▁" boy " ▁( mod . ▁kn ight ) ▁( cf . ▁German ▁K ne cht ) s ie x ▁" six " ▁( cf . ▁German ▁sechs ) b ri ht , ▁b ry ht ▁" br ight " ▁( cf . ▁non - met ath es ized ▁Old ▁English ▁forms ▁be or ht , ▁( Ang li an ) ▁ber ht |
, ▁Dutch ▁bre cht ) h li h þ ▁"( he ) ▁laugh s " ▁< ▁* h le h þ ▁< ▁* hl æ hi þ ▁+ ▁i - mut ation ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* h la hi þ ▁( cf . ▁h lie h han ▁" to ▁laugh " ▁< ▁Pro to - G erman ic ▁* h lah jan ą ) ▁ ▁Un str essed ▁v owel ▁reduction ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁steady ▁v owel ▁reduction ▁in ▁un str essed ▁sy ll ables , ▁in ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁stages : ▁In ▁West ▁German ic ▁times , ▁absolutely ▁final ▁non - nas al ▁* - ō ▁( but ▁not ▁e . g . ▁* - ō z , ▁* - ô ▁or ▁* - <0xC7> <0xAD> ) ▁was ▁raised ▁and ▁short ened ▁to ▁- u . ▁All ▁other ▁final - s yll able ▁* ō ▁were ▁lower ed ▁to ▁* ā . ▁By ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening , ▁these ▁ended ▁up ▁as ▁* - <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁( l ater ▁- æ ). ▁Over long ▁* ô , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁* ō ▁in ▁med ial ▁sy ll ables , ▁were ▁una ffect ed . ▁Although ▁v owel ▁nas ality ▁pers isted ▁at ▁least ▁up ▁through ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁times ▁and ▁likely ▁through ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁a - rest oration , ▁it ▁was ▁eventually ▁lost ▁( in ▁str essed ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁un str essed ▁sy ll ables ), ▁with ▁non - |
nas al ▁v ow els ▁the ▁result . ▁Final ▁a - loss ▁deleted ▁word - final ▁short ▁un str essed ▁low ▁v ow els ▁(* - æ ▁< ▁P G ▁* - az , ▁* - a ▁< ▁P G ▁* - ą ), ▁causing ▁preceding ▁sem iv ow els ▁- j - ▁- ij - ▁- w - ▁to ▁become ▁vocal ized ▁to ▁- i ▁- ī ▁- u . ▁Med ial ▁sync op ation ▁deleted ▁word - med ial ▁short ▁un str essed ▁low / mid ▁v ow els ▁in ▁open ▁sy ll ables . ▁This ▁may ▁be ▁the ▁same ▁process ▁as ▁final ▁a - loss . ▁High - v owel ▁loss ▁deleted ▁short ▁un str essed ▁high ▁v ow els ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁in ▁open ▁sy ll ables ▁following ▁a ▁long ▁sy ll able , ▁whether ▁word - final ▁or ▁word - med ial . ▁All ▁un str essed ▁long ▁and ▁over long ▁v ow els ▁were ▁short ened , ▁with ▁remaining ▁long ▁ ō , ▁ ô ▁short ening ▁to ▁a . ▁This ▁produced ▁five ▁final - s yll able ▁short ▁v ow els , ▁which ▁remained ▁into ▁early ▁documented ▁Old ▁English ▁( back ▁a , ▁u ; ▁front ▁ æ , ▁e , ▁i ). ▁By ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁Old ▁English ▁documents , ▁however , ▁all ▁three ▁front ▁short ▁v ow els ▁had ▁merged ▁into ▁e . ▁Ab sol utely ▁final ▁- u ▁tends ▁to ▁be ▁written ▁u ▁( s ometimes ▁o ); ▁but ▁before |
▁a ▁con son ant , ▁it ▁is ▁normally ▁written ▁o ▁( e . g . ▁se ov on ▁" se ven " ▁< ▁P G ▁* s ib un ). ▁Exception s ▁are ▁the ▁end ings ▁- ung , ▁-( s ) um , ▁- uc ▁and ▁when ▁the ▁root ▁has ▁u ▁in ▁it , ▁e . g . ▁d ug u þ ▁" band ▁of ▁war riors ; ▁prosper ity ". ▁Final - s yll able ▁e ▁is ▁written ▁i ▁in ▁the ▁end ings ▁- ing , ▁- i ġ , ▁-( l ) i ċ , ▁- is ċ , ▁- i ht . ▁ ▁A ▁table ▁showing ▁these ▁develop ments ▁in ▁more ▁detail ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Pro to - G erman ic : ▁Later ▁develop ments . ▁ ▁V owel ▁length ening ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁ 8 th ▁or ▁early ▁ 9 th ▁century , ▁short ▁str essed ▁v ow els ▁were ▁length ened ▁before ▁certain ▁groups ▁of ▁con son ants : ▁l d , ▁m b , ▁ nd , ▁ng , ▁r d , ▁r l , ▁r n , ▁rs + v owel . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁length ened ▁v ow els ▁would ▁be ▁short ened ▁again ▁by ▁or ▁during ▁the ▁Middle ▁English ▁period ; ▁this ▁applied ▁particularly ▁before ▁the ▁clusters ▁beginning ▁r . ▁Ex amples ▁of ▁words ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁length ening ▁has ▁been ▁preserved ▁are : ċ ild ▁> ▁ ċ ī ld ▁> ▁mod . ▁child ▁ ▁( but ▁length ening ▁did |
▁not ▁occur ▁if ▁another ▁con son ant ▁immediately ▁followed , ▁as ▁in ▁ ċ ild ru , ▁giving ▁modern ▁children ▁with ▁) ▁al d ▁> ▁ ā ld ▁> ▁mod . ▁old ▁ ▁( but ▁length ening ▁did ▁not ▁occur ▁in ▁the ▁ante pen ult imate ▁sy ll able , ▁as ▁in ▁al d orm ann , ▁giving ▁modern ▁al der man , ▁with ▁an ▁originally ▁short ▁a ) cl im ban ▁> ▁cl ī m ban ▁> ▁mod . ▁clim b ▁grund ▁> ▁gr ū nd ▁> ▁mod . ▁ground ▁ ▁lang ▁> ▁l ā ng ▁> ▁mod . ▁long ▁( ā ▁went ▁regularly ▁to ▁ ō ▁but ▁was ▁short ened ▁in ▁this ▁position ▁in ▁late ▁Middle ▁English ; ▁compare ▁Sc ots ▁lang ▁where ▁the ▁short ening ▁occurred ▁first ) ▁ ▁Di ph th ong ▁changes ▁In ▁Late ▁West ▁Sax on ▁( but ▁not ▁in ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect s ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁period ) ▁io ▁and ▁ ī o ▁were ▁merged ▁into ▁e o ▁and ▁ ē o . ▁Also , ▁the ▁earlier ▁West ▁Sax on ▁di ph th ongs ▁ie ▁and ▁ ī e ▁had ▁developed ▁into ▁what ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁" unst able ▁i ", ▁mer ging ▁into ▁ ▁in ▁Late ▁West ▁Sax on . ▁For ▁further ▁detail , ▁see ▁Old ▁English ▁di ph th ongs . ▁All ▁of ▁the ▁remaining ▁Old ▁English ▁di ph th ongs ▁were ▁mon oph th ong ized ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁Middle ▁English ▁period : ▁see ▁Middle ▁English ▁str essed ▁v owel ▁changes |
. ▁ ▁Dia lect s ▁ ▁Old ▁English ▁had ▁four ▁major ▁dialect ▁groups : ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁Mer cian , ▁North umb rian , ▁and ▁Kent ish . ▁West ▁Sax on ▁and ▁Kent ish ▁occurred ▁in ▁the ▁south , ▁approximately ▁to ▁the ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁River ▁Th ames . ▁Mer cian ▁constit uted ▁the ▁middle ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁divided ▁from ▁the ▁southern ▁dialect s ▁by ▁the ▁Th ames ▁and ▁from ▁North umb rian ▁by ▁the ▁H umber ▁and ▁Mer sey ▁rivers . ▁North umb rian ▁en comp ass ed ▁the ▁area ▁between ▁the ▁H umber ▁and ▁the ▁F irth ▁of ▁For th ▁( including ▁what ▁is ▁now ▁sout he astern ▁Scotland ▁but ▁was ▁once ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁North umb ria ). ▁In ▁the ▁south , ▁the ▁eastern most ▁portion ▁was ▁Kent ish ▁and ▁everywhere ▁else ▁was ▁West ▁Sax on . ▁Mer cian ▁and ▁North umb rian ▁are ▁often ▁grouped ▁together ▁as ▁" Ang li an ". ▁ ▁The ▁biggest ▁differences ▁occurred ▁between ▁West ▁Sax on ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁groups . ▁The ▁differences ▁occurred ▁mostly ▁in ▁the ▁front ▁v ow els , ▁and ▁particularly ▁the ▁di ph th ongs . ▁( However , ▁North umb rian ▁was ▁distinguished ▁from ▁the ▁rest ▁by ▁much ▁less ▁pal atal ization . ▁Form s ▁in ▁Modern ▁English ▁with ▁hard ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁where ▁a ▁pal atal ized ▁sound ▁would ▁be ▁expected ▁from ▁Old ▁English ▁are ▁due ▁either ▁to ▁North umb rian ▁influence ▁or ▁to ▁direct ▁borrow ing ▁from ▁Sc and in av ian |
. ▁Note ▁that , ▁in ▁fact , ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁pal atal ization ▁in ▁North umb rian ▁was ▁probably ▁due ▁to ▁heavy ▁Sc and in av ian ▁influence .) ▁ ▁The ▁early ▁history ▁of ▁Kent ish ▁was ▁similar ▁to ▁Ang li an , ▁but ▁som etime ▁around ▁the ▁nin th ▁century ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁front ▁v ow els ▁ æ , ▁e , ▁y ▁( long ▁and ▁short ) ▁merged ▁into ▁e ▁( long ▁and ▁short ). ▁The ▁further ▁discussion ▁concerns ▁the ▁differences ▁between ▁Ang li an ▁and ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁with ▁the ▁understanding ▁that ▁Kent ish , ▁other ▁than ▁where ▁noted , ▁can ▁be ▁derived ▁from ▁Ang li an ▁by ▁front - v owel ▁mer ger . ▁The ▁primary ▁differences ▁were : ▁Original ▁( post ▁Ang lo - F ris ian ▁bright ening ) ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁was ▁raised ▁to ▁ ē ▁in ▁Ang li an ▁but ▁remained ▁in ▁West ▁Sax on . ▁This ▁occurred ▁before ▁other ▁changes ▁such ▁as ▁breaking , ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁affect ▁ <0xC7> <0xA3> ▁caused ▁by ▁i - um la ut ▁of ▁ ā . ▁Hence , ▁e . g ., ▁d <0xC7> <0xA3> lan ▁" to ▁divide " ▁< ▁* d ail ij an ▁appears ▁the ▁same ▁in ▁both ▁dialect s , ▁but ▁West ▁Sax on ▁sl <0xC7> <0xA3> pan ▁" to ▁sleep " ▁appears ▁as ▁sl ē pan ▁in ▁Ang li an . ▁( Note ▁the ▁corresponding ▁v owel ▁difference ▁in ▁the ▁sp elling ▁of ▁" de al " ▁< ▁d <0xC7> <0xA3> lan |
▁vs . ▁" sleep " ▁< ▁Ang li an ▁sl ē pan .) ▁The ▁West ▁Sax on ▁v ow els ▁ie / ī e , ▁caused ▁by ▁i - um la ut ▁of ▁long ▁and ▁short ▁e a , ▁e o , ▁io , ▁did ▁not ▁appear ▁in ▁Ang li an . ▁Instead , ▁i - um la ut ▁of ▁e a ▁and ▁rare ▁e o ▁is ▁sp elled ▁e , ▁and ▁i - um la ut ▁of ▁io ▁remains ▁as ▁io . ▁Bre aking ▁of ▁short ▁ ▁to ▁e a ▁did ▁not ▁happen ▁in ▁Ang li an ▁before ▁ ▁and ▁a ▁con son ant ; ▁instead , ▁the ▁v owel ▁was ▁ret ract ed ▁to ▁. ▁When ▁mut ated ▁by ▁i - um la ut , ▁it ▁appears ▁again ▁as ▁ æ ▁( vs . ▁West ▁Sax on ▁ie ). ▁Hence , ▁Ang li an ▁cal d ▁" c old " ▁vs . ▁West ▁Sax on ▁ ċ e ald . ▁Mer ger ▁of ▁e o ▁and ▁io ▁( long ▁and ▁short ) ▁occurred ▁early ▁in ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁but ▁much ▁later ▁in ▁Ang li an . ▁Many ▁instances ▁of ▁di ph th ongs ▁in ▁Ang li an , ▁including ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁cases ▁caused ▁by ▁breaking , ▁were ▁turned ▁back ▁into ▁mon oph th ongs ▁again ▁by ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁" Ang li an ▁sm o othing ", ▁which ▁occurred ▁before ▁c , ▁h , ▁g , ▁alone ▁or ▁preced ed ▁by ▁r ▁or ▁l . ▁This ▁accounts ▁for ▁some |
▁of ▁the ▁most ▁notice able ▁differences ▁between ▁standard ▁( i . e . ▁West ▁Sax on ) ▁Old ▁English ▁and ▁Modern ▁English ▁sp elling . ▁E . g . ▁ ē age ▁" ey e " ▁became ▁ ē ge ▁in ▁Ang li an ; ▁n ē ah ▁" near " ▁became ▁Ang li an ▁n ē h , ▁later ▁raised ▁to ▁n ī h ▁in ▁the ▁transition ▁to ▁Middle ▁English ▁by ▁raising ▁of ▁ ē ▁before ▁h ▁( h ence ▁" n igh " ▁in ▁Modern ▁English ); ▁n ē ah st ▁" near est " ▁become ▁Ang li an ▁n ē h st , ▁short ened ▁to ▁ne h st ▁in ▁late ▁Old ▁English ▁by ▁v owel - short ening ▁before ▁three ▁con son ants ▁( h ence ▁" next " ▁in ▁Modern ▁English ). ▁ ▁As ▁mentioned ▁above , ▁Modern ▁English ▁der ives ▁mostly ▁from ▁the ▁Ang li an ▁dialect ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁standard ▁West ▁Sax on ▁dialect ▁of ▁Old ▁English . ▁However , ▁since ▁London ▁s its ▁on ▁the ▁Th ames ▁near ▁the ▁boundary ▁of ▁the ▁Ang li an , ▁West ▁Sax on , ▁and ▁Kent ish ▁dialect s , ▁some ▁West ▁Sax on ▁and ▁Kent ish ▁forms ▁have ▁entered ▁Modern ▁English . ▁For ▁example , ▁" bury " ▁has ▁its ▁sp elling ▁derived ▁from ▁West ▁Sax on ▁and ▁its ▁pron unci ation ▁from ▁Kent ish ▁( see ▁below ). ▁ ▁The ▁North umb rian ▁dialect , ▁which ▁was ▁spoken ▁as ▁far ▁north ▁as ▁Edinburgh , ▁surv ives ▁as |
▁the ▁Sc ots ▁language ▁spoken ▁in ▁Scotland ▁and ▁parts ▁of ▁Northern ▁Ireland . ▁The ▁distingu ishing ▁feature ▁of ▁North umb rian , ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁pal atal ization ▁of ▁vel ars , ▁is ▁still ▁evident ▁in ▁double ts ▁between ▁Sc ots ▁and ▁Modern ▁English ▁such ▁as ▁k irk ▁/ ▁" ch urch ", ▁brig ▁/ ▁" bridge ", ▁k ist ▁/ ▁" ch est ", ▁ye uk ▁/ ▁" itch " ▁( O E ▁ ġ y ċ ċ an ▁< ▁P G mc ▁j uk jan ą ). ▁( However , ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁ph on etic ▁differences ▁between ▁Sc ots ▁and ▁Modern ▁English ▁post date ▁the ▁Old ▁English ▁period : ▁see ▁Ph on ological ▁history ▁of ▁Sc ots ▁for ▁more ▁details .) ▁ ▁Sum mary ▁of ▁v owel ▁develop ments ▁ ▁Ch anges ▁leading ▁up ▁to ▁Middle ▁and ▁Modern ▁English ▁For ▁a ▁detailed ▁description ▁of ▁the ▁changes ▁between ▁Old ▁English ▁and ▁Middle / Mod ern ▁English , ▁see ▁the ▁article ▁on ▁the ▁ph on ological ▁history ▁of ▁English . ▁A ▁summary ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁v owel ▁changes ▁is ▁presented ▁below . ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁sp elling ▁of ▁Modern ▁English ▁largely ▁reflect s ▁Middle ▁English ▁pron unci ation . ▁Note ▁also ▁that ▁this ▁table ▁presents ▁only ▁the ▁general ▁develop ments . ▁Many ▁exception al ▁out comes ▁occurred ▁in ▁particular ▁environments , ▁e . g . ▁v ow els ▁were ▁often ▁length ened ▁in ▁late ▁Old ▁English ▁before ▁; ▁v ow els ▁changed ▁in ▁complex ▁ways ▁before ▁, ▁throughout ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁English |
; ▁v ow els ▁were ▁di ph th ong ized ▁in ▁Middle ▁English ▁before ▁; ▁new ▁di ph th ongs ▁arose ▁in ▁Middle ▁English ▁by ▁the ▁combination ▁of ▁v ow els ▁with ▁Old ▁English ▁w , ▁g ▁ ▁> ▁, ▁and ▁ ġ ▁; ▁etc . ▁The ▁only ▁conditional ▁development ▁considered ▁in ▁detail ▁below ▁is ▁Middle ▁English ▁open - s yll able ▁length ening . ▁Note ▁that , ▁in ▁the ▁column ▁on ▁modern ▁sp elling , ▁CV ▁means ▁a ▁sequence ▁of ▁a ▁single ▁con son ant ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁v owel . ▁ ▁Note ▁that ▁the ▁Modern ▁English ▁v owel ▁usually ▁sp elled ▁au ▁( B rit ish ▁, ▁American ▁) ▁does ▁not ▁appear ▁in ▁the ▁above ▁chart . ▁Its ▁main ▁source ▁is ▁late ▁Middle ▁English ▁/ au /, ▁which ▁come ▁from ▁various ▁sources : ▁Old ▁English ▁aw ▁and ▁ag ▁(" c law " ▁< ▁cla w u , ▁" law " ▁< ▁l agu ); ▁di ph th ong ization ▁before ▁ ▁(" s ought " ▁< ▁s ō h te , ▁" t aught " ▁< ▁t ā h te , ▁" d augh ter " ▁< ▁do ht or ); ▁borrow ings ▁from ▁Latin ▁and ▁French ▁(" fa wn " ▁< ▁Old ▁French ▁fa une , ▁" Paul " ▁< ▁Latin ▁Paul us ). ▁Other ▁sources ▁are ▁Early ▁Modern ▁English ▁length ening ▁of ▁ ▁before ▁ ▁(" s alt , ▁all "); ▁occas ional ▁short ening ▁and ▁later ▁re - length ening ▁of ▁Middle ▁English ▁ ▁(" bro ad " |
▁< ▁ ▁< ▁br ā d ); ▁and ▁in ▁American ▁English , ▁length ening ▁of ▁short ▁o ▁before ▁un vo iced ▁fr ic atives ▁and ▁vo iced ▁vel ars ▁(" dog , ▁long , ▁off , ▁cross , ▁moth ", ▁all ▁with ▁ ▁in ▁American ▁English , ▁at ▁least ▁in ▁dialect s ▁that ▁still ▁maintain ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁ ▁and ▁). ▁ ▁As ▁mentioned ▁above , ▁Modern ▁English ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁Middle ▁English ▁of ▁London , ▁which ▁is ▁derived ▁largely ▁from ▁Ang li an ▁Old ▁English , ▁with ▁some ▁ad mi xture ▁of ▁West ▁Sax on ▁and ▁Kent ish . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁notice able ▁differences ▁among ▁the ▁dialect s ▁is ▁the ▁handling ▁of ▁original ▁Old ▁English ▁. ▁By ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁written ▁Old ▁English ▁documents , ▁the ▁Old ▁English ▁of ▁Kent ▁had ▁already ▁un r ounded ▁ ▁to ▁, ▁and ▁the ▁late ▁Old ▁English ▁of ▁Ang lia ▁un r ounded ▁ ▁to ▁. ▁In ▁the ▁West ▁Sax on ▁area , ▁ ▁remained ▁as ▁such ▁well ▁into ▁Middle ▁English ▁times , ▁and ▁was ▁written ▁u ▁in ▁Middle ▁English ▁documents ▁from ▁this ▁area . ▁Some ▁words ▁with ▁this ▁sound ▁were ▁borrow ed ▁into ▁London ▁Middle ▁English , ▁where ▁the ▁un famil iar ▁ ▁was ▁subst it uted ▁with ▁. ▁Hence : ▁" g ild " ▁< ▁gy ld an , ▁" did " ▁< ▁dy de , ▁" sin " ▁< ▁syn n , ▁" mind " ▁< ▁my nd , ▁" d iz zy " ▁< ▁d ys i ġ |
▁" fo ol ish ", ▁" l ift " ▁< ▁ly ft ▁" air ", ▁etc . ▁show ▁the ▁normal ▁( Ang li an ) ▁development . ▁" m uch " ▁< ▁my ċ el ▁shows ▁the ▁West ▁Sax on ▁development . ▁" mer ry " ▁< ▁my ri ġ ▁shows ▁the ▁Kent ish ▁development . ▁" build " ▁< ▁by ld an ▁and ▁" bus y " ▁< ▁by si ġ ▁have ▁their ▁sp elling ▁from ▁West ▁Sax on ▁but ▁pron unci ation ▁from ▁Ang li an . ▁" bury " ▁ ▁< ▁by r ġ an ▁has ▁its ▁sp elling ▁from ▁West ▁Sax on ▁but ▁its ▁pron unci ation ▁from ▁Kent ish . ▁Note ▁that ▁some ▁apparent ▁instances ▁of ▁modern ▁e ▁for ▁Old ▁English ▁y ▁are ▁actually ▁regular ▁develop ments , ▁particularly ▁where ▁the ▁y ▁is ▁a ▁development ▁of ▁earlier ▁( West ▁Sax on ) ▁ie ▁from ▁i - mut ation ▁of ▁e a , ▁as ▁the ▁normal ▁i - mut ation ▁of ▁e a ▁in ▁Ang li an ▁is ▁e ; ▁for ▁example , ▁" st ern " ▁< ▁st yr ne ▁< ▁* st arn ij az , ▁" ste el " ▁< ▁st <0xC8> <0xB3> le ▁< ▁* st ah li ją ▁( cf . ▁Old ▁Sax on ▁ste h li ). ▁Also , ▁some ▁apparent ▁instances ▁of ▁modern ▁u ▁for ▁Old ▁English ▁y ▁may ▁actually ▁be ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁a ▁related ▁form ▁with ▁un mut ated ▁u , ▁e . g . ▁" s und |
ry " ▁< ▁synd ri ġ , ▁influenced ▁by ▁su nd or '' ▁" ap art , ▁differently " ▁( cf . ▁" to ▁su nder " ▁and ▁" as under "). ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : English ▁ph on ology ▁Ph on ology <0x0A> </s> ▁S J ▁Returns ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁Korean ▁reality ▁show ▁of ▁Super ▁Junior ▁that ▁show cases ▁their ▁lives ▁and ▁show ▁the ▁char ms ▁of ▁each ▁member , ▁that ▁a ired ▁on ▁Na ver ▁TV ▁and ▁V ▁Live . ▁The ▁show ▁was ▁first ▁a ired ▁on ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Plot ▁ ▁This ▁show ▁will ▁follow ▁Super ▁Junior ' s ▁every day ▁life . ▁In ▁season ▁ 1 ▁the ▁show ▁show c ased ▁their ▁com eb ack ▁story ▁for ▁their ▁ 8 th ▁album ▁after ▁ 2 ▁years ▁of ▁hi atus ▁as ▁a ▁group . ▁The ▁show ▁was ▁put ▁on ▁an ▁end ▁after ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁their ▁com eb ack ▁album . ▁Season ▁ 1 ▁was ▁a ired ▁from ▁October ▁ 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁to ▁November ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁every ▁Monday ▁to ▁Friday ▁at ▁ 1 1 : 0 0 ▁AM ▁K ST ▁and ▁on ▁J T BC 2 ▁from ▁December ▁ 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁at ▁ 9 : 0 0 ▁p . m . ▁K ST . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 6 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Label ▁S J ▁announced ▁that ▁the ▁show ▁would ▁be |
▁back ▁with ▁Season ▁ 2 . ▁During ▁the ▁second ▁season ▁of ▁the ▁show , ▁the ▁group ▁had ▁a ▁totally ▁different ▁theme ▁from ▁the ▁last ▁season ▁and ▁showed ▁ref res hing ▁new ▁char ms ▁of ▁the ▁members ▁where ▁they ▁show ▁the ▁best ▁food ▁around ▁Tokyo . ▁Season ▁ 2 ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁November ▁ 5 ▁to ▁December ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 8 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Label ▁S J ▁announced ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁be ▁launch ing ▁“ S J ▁Returns ▁ 3 ,” ▁which ▁followed ▁the ▁members ▁on ▁their ▁individual ▁activities , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁their ▁prepar ations ▁for ▁their ▁new ▁album ▁that ▁will ▁be ▁released ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁year . ▁At ▁no on ▁K ST ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 6 , ▁Super ▁Junior ▁released ▁an ▁intro duct ory ▁video ▁to ▁“ S J ▁Returns ▁ 3 ” ▁and ▁explained , ▁“ Super ▁Junior ’ s ▁individual ▁hi atus es ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁army , ▁which ▁last ed ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁in ▁total , ▁are ▁finally ▁over . ▁Please ▁t une ▁in ▁to ▁see ▁the ▁nine ▁members ▁of ▁Super ▁Junior ▁who ▁are ▁back ▁from ▁the ▁army ▁prepare ▁for ▁our ▁nin th ▁album .” ▁ ▁Season ▁ 3 ▁a ired ▁on ▁September ▁ 9 ▁to ▁October ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁Super ▁Junior ' s ▁Yes ung ▁and ▁D ong ha e ▁posted ▁a ▁picture ▁that ▁stated ▁that ▁Super ▁Junior ▁are ▁Fil ming ▁S |
j ▁Returns ▁ 4 ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁would ▁air ▁soon . Le ete uk ▁also ▁stated ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁day ▁on ▁YouTube ▁live ▁that ▁S J ▁Returns ▁season ▁ 4 ▁will ▁be ▁back ▁and ▁plans ▁to ▁air ▁in ▁May , ▁The ▁season ▁ 4 ▁te aser ▁a ired ▁on ▁April ▁ 2 7 , ▁ 2 0 2 0 , ▁and ▁will ▁release ▁its ▁first ▁episode ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 2 0 . ▁On ▁their ▁second ▁te aser , ▁the ▁members ▁tell ▁the ▁concept ▁for ▁S j ▁Returns ▁ 4 ▁will ▁be ▁‘ for ▁el f ’ ▁where ▁the ▁show ▁will ▁follow ▁the ▁request ▁from ▁fans . ▁They ▁also ▁telling ▁that ▁this ▁season ▁will ▁be ▁an ▁long ▁program ▁ ▁Cast ▁ ▁The ▁show ' s ▁cast ▁is ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁Super ▁Junior ▁members . ▁▁ ▁Season ▁ 1 ▁- ▁Season ▁ 4 ▁: ▁ ▁Le ete uk ▁ ▁He ech ul ▁ ▁Sh ind ong ▁ ▁E un hy uk ▁ ▁D ong ha e ▁ ▁Si won ▁ ▁Season ▁ 3 ▁- ▁Season ▁ 4 ▁: ▁▁ ▁Yes ung ▁ ▁R ye ow ook ▁ ▁Ky u hy un ▁ ▁Season ▁ 1 ▁: ▁ ▁Yes ung ▁ ▁S ung min ▁( app eared ▁on ▁the ▁special ▁episode ) ▁ ▁Ky u hy un ▁( app eared ▁on ▁the ▁special ▁episode ) ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Epis odes ▁ ▁Season ▁ 1 ▁ ▁Season ▁ 2 ▁ ▁Season ▁ 3 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : Super |
▁Junior ▁television ▁series ▁Category : T ele vision ▁series ▁by ▁SM ▁C & C <0x0A> </s> ▁Palmar ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁An atom y , ▁rel ating ▁to ▁the ▁pal m ▁of ▁the ▁hand ▁▁ ▁Palmar ▁ap one u ros is , ▁deep ▁fas cia ▁connecting ▁and ▁within ▁the ▁mus cles ▁of ▁the ▁pal m ▁ ▁Palmar ▁arch es ▁( disambiguation ), ▁various ▁combinations ▁of ▁ar ter ies ▁in ▁the ▁hand ▁and ▁arm ▁ ▁Palmar ▁ar ter ies ▁( disambiguation ), ▁several ▁sets ▁of ▁ar ter ies ▁in ▁the ▁hand ▁ ▁Palmar ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁median ▁n erve , ▁a ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁median ▁n erve ▁that ▁ar ises ▁at ▁the ▁lower ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁for ear m . ▁ ▁Palmar ▁branch ▁of ▁u ln ar ▁n erve , ▁continu ation ▁of ▁one ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁u ln ar ▁n erve ▁into ▁the ▁hand ▁ ▁Palmar ▁car pal ▁branch : ▁ ▁Palmar ▁car pal ▁branch ▁of ▁radial ▁ar tery , ▁a ▁small ▁blood ▁vessel ▁that ▁cross es ▁the ▁w rist ▁b ones ▁to ▁join ▁with ▁the ▁pal mar ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁u ln ar ▁ar tery ▁ ▁Palmar ▁car pal ▁branch ▁of ▁u ln ar ▁ar tery , ▁a ▁small ▁blood ▁vessel ▁that ▁cross es ▁the ▁w rist ▁b ones ▁to ▁join ▁with ▁the ▁pal mar ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁radial ▁ar tery ▁ ▁Palmar ▁car pal ▁lig ament , ▁the ▁thick ened ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁deep ▁for ear m ▁fas cia ▁on ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁w rist ▁ ▁Palmar ▁cre ase |
, ▁a ▁cre ase ▁in ▁the ▁surface ▁of ▁the ▁pal m ▁ ▁Palmar ▁digital ▁n erves ▁( disambiguation ), ▁several ▁sets ▁of ▁n erves ▁in ▁the ▁fingers ▁ ▁Palmar ▁digital ▁ve ins , ▁blood ▁vessels ▁on ▁the ▁pal m ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁fingers ▁ ▁Palmar ▁er yth ema , ▁red den ing ▁of ▁the ▁pal ms ▁ ▁Palmar ▁grasp ▁ref lex , ▁a ▁primitive ▁ref lex ▁seen ▁in ▁new born s ▁ ▁Palmar ▁radi ou ln ar ▁lig ament , ▁a ▁narrow ▁band ▁of ▁fib ers ▁in ▁the ▁w rist ▁joining ▁the ▁ends ▁of ▁the ▁arm ▁b ones ▁ ▁Places ▁▁ ▁Palmar , ▁Sant ander , ▁a ▁municipality ▁in ▁the ▁Sant ander ▁Department , ▁Colombia ▁ ▁Palmar , ▁Uruguay , ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁Sor iano ▁Department , ▁Uruguay ▁ ▁Palmar ▁Ar rib a , ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁Santiago ▁province ▁of ▁the ▁Domin ican ▁Republic ▁ ▁Palmar ▁de ▁Bra vo , ▁a ▁town ▁and ▁municipality ▁in ▁the ▁Mexican ▁state ▁of ▁P ue bla ▁ ▁Palmar ▁de ▁O co a , ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁Az ua ▁province ▁of ▁the ▁Domin ican ▁Republic ▁ ▁Palmar ▁de ▁V are la , ▁a ▁municipality ▁and ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁Colomb ian ▁department ▁of ▁Atl ánt ico ▁ ▁Palmar ▁Norte ▁( N orth ▁Palmar ), ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁O sa ▁region , ▁P unt aren as ▁province , ▁Costa ▁Rica ▁ ▁Palmar ▁River , ▁a ▁river ▁of ▁Venezuela ▁ ▁Palmar ▁Sur ▁( S outh ▁Palmar ), ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁the ▁O sa ▁region , ▁P unt aren |
as ▁province , ▁Costa ▁Rica ▁ ▁El ▁Palmar ▁de ▁Tro ya , ▁a ▁small ▁village ▁near ▁U tr era , ▁in ▁And alus ia , ▁Spain ▁ ▁San ▁Jose ▁Palmar , ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁Orange ▁Walk ▁District , ▁Bel ize ▁ ▁Other ▁uses ▁ ▁Palmar ▁( football ▁club ), ▁a ▁football ▁club ▁in ▁São ▁Tom é ▁and ▁Pr ín cipe ▁ ▁Palmar ▁de ▁Jun co , ▁a ▁sports ▁ven ue ▁in ▁the ▁neighborhood ▁of ▁P ue blo ▁Nue vo , ▁Mat anz as , ▁Cuba ▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Palmar , ▁Marian ▁appar ition ▁ ▁Palmar ian ▁Catholic ▁Church , ▁Independent ▁Catholic ▁den om ination ▁ ▁C athedral - Bas il ica ▁of ▁Our ▁Crown ed ▁Mother ▁of ▁Palmar , ▁Palmar ian ▁Catholic ▁c athedral ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Pal ma ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Palmar es ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Pal mer ▁( disambiguation ) ▁ ▁Vol ar ▁( disambiguation ), ▁an ▁an atom ical ▁term ▁sometimes ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁syn onym <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁St . ▁Joseph ▁C athedral ▁() ▁Also ▁T ula ▁de ▁All ende ▁C athedral ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁Catholic ▁religious ▁building ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁T ula ▁de ▁All ende ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁H idal go ▁in ▁Mexico , ▁which ▁was ▁originally ▁a ▁convent ▁raised ▁by ▁the ▁evangel izers ▁of ▁the ▁Francis can ▁order ▁during ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Spanish ▁con quest . ▁E lev ated ▁to ▁rank ▁of ▁c athedral ▁and ▁dedicated ▁to ▁the ▁Patri arch ▁St . ▁Joseph , ▁it ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first |
▁convent s ▁raised ▁in ▁Mexico ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁representative ▁of ▁that ▁period . ▁ ▁Pope ▁John ▁XX III ▁on ▁February ▁ 2 7 , ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁decre ed ▁the ▁ere ction ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁dioc ese ▁in ▁Mexico ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁T ula ▁de ▁All ende , ▁and ▁until ▁September ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 6 1 , ▁when ▁the ▁Dioc ese ' s ▁dec ree ▁was ▁ere cted ▁for ▁the ▁Apost ol ic ▁De legate ▁of ▁those ▁dates , ▁who ▁gave ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁c athedral ▁to ▁the ▁then ▁Francis can ▁parish ▁church ▁of ▁T ula . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Roman ▁Catholic ism ▁in ▁Mexico ▁St . ▁Joseph ' s ▁C athedral ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁c athed r als ▁in ▁Mexico ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁churches ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 5 5 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁Four ▁the ▁Record ▁is ▁the ▁fourth ▁studio ▁album ▁by ▁American ▁country ▁music ▁singer ▁and ▁song writer ▁Mir anda ▁Lam bert . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁by ▁R CA ▁Records ▁Nash ville . ▁This ▁was ▁her ▁first ▁studio ▁album ▁to ▁be ▁released ▁from ▁that ▁label ▁after ▁a ▁corpor ate ▁re construct ing ▁at ▁Sony ▁Music ▁Nash ville . ▁ ▁The ▁album ▁was ▁a ▁w ides p read ▁critical ▁success ▁and ▁the ▁highest - chart ing ▁record ▁of ▁Lam bert ' s ▁career ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁reaching ▁number ▁three ▁on ▁the ▁Billboard ▁ 2 |
0 0 . ▁It ▁eventually ▁sold ▁over ▁one ▁million ▁copies ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁A ▁del ux e ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁album ▁was ▁also ▁released , ▁which ▁included ▁a ▁bonus ▁song ▁and ▁a ▁DVD . ▁ ▁Writing ▁and ▁recording ▁ ▁Lam bert ▁wrote ▁or ▁co - w rote ▁six ▁of ▁the ▁album ' s ▁tracks . ▁It ▁was ▁recorded ▁in ▁sessions ▁at ▁Jup iter ▁Studios ▁in ▁Seattle , ▁Sug ar hill ▁Rec ording ▁Studios ▁in ▁Houston , ▁The ▁C ave ▁in ▁Dallas , ▁W inc raft ▁Music ▁Studios ▁in ▁England , ▁and ▁the ▁Nash ville - based ▁stud ios ▁Ron nie ' s ▁Place , ▁Sound ▁Stage ▁Studios , ▁and ▁T rag edy / T rag edy ▁Studios . ▁ ▁Release ▁and ▁promotion ▁Lam bert ▁announced ▁in ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁that ▁Four ▁the ▁Record ▁would ▁be ▁released ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁A ▁month ▁later , ▁Sony ▁Music ▁Nash ville ▁announced ▁that ▁Lam bert ▁and ▁label mate ▁Josh ▁Thompson ▁would ▁transfer ▁to ▁R CA ▁Nash ville ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁corpor ate ▁rest ruct uring . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁week ▁of ▁release , ▁the ▁album ▁sold ▁ 1 3 3 , 0 0 0 ▁copies ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁deb uted ▁at ▁number ▁three ▁on ▁the ▁Billboard ▁ 2 0 0 , ▁making ▁it ▁the ▁highest - chart ing ▁album ▁of ▁Lam bert ' s ▁career ▁at ▁that ▁time . ▁It ▁also ▁deb uted ▁at ▁number ▁one ▁on ▁the ▁Billboard ▁Top |
▁Country ▁Albums . ▁The ▁album ▁was ▁cert ified ▁plat in um ▁by ▁the ▁Rec ording ▁Indust ry ▁Association ▁of ▁America ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁and ▁by ▁September ▁of ▁that ▁year , ▁it ▁had ▁sold ▁ 1 , 0 1 4 , 0 0 0 ▁copies ▁in ▁the ▁US . ▁ ▁Crit ical ▁reception ▁▁ ▁Four ▁the ▁Record ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁w ides p read ▁critical ▁acc laim . ▁At ▁Met ac rit ic , ▁which ▁assign s ▁a ▁normal ized ▁rating ▁out ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 ▁to ▁reviews ▁from ▁main stream ▁publications , ▁the ▁album ▁received ▁an ▁average ▁score ▁of ▁ 8 3 , ▁based ▁on ▁ 1 2 ▁reviews . ▁Stephen ▁Thomas ▁Er le w ine ▁from ▁All Music ▁believed ▁Lam bert ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁expand ▁sty list ically ▁by ▁re lying ▁more ▁on ▁other ▁song writ ers ▁for ▁the ▁record : ▁" She ' s ▁dig ging ▁deeper ▁than ▁ever ▁before ▁and ▁finding ▁considerable ▁rich es ." ▁In ▁Country ▁Week ly , ▁Ken ▁T ucker ▁de emed ▁it ▁her ▁best ▁album ▁so ▁far ▁and ▁ha iled ▁Lam bert ▁as ▁a ▁m ature d ▁" inter pre ter ▁of ▁songs , ▁whether ▁she ' s ▁written ▁them ▁or ▁not ", ▁while ▁Gene v ieve ▁Kos ki ▁from ▁The ▁A . V . ▁Club ▁felt ▁it ▁show c ased ▁some ▁of ▁her ▁most ▁intr igu ing ▁songs ▁yet , ▁prov ing ▁" her ▁willing ness ▁to ▁color ▁outside ▁the ▁lines ▁of ▁country - music |
▁convention ▁goes ▁beyond ▁lyr ical ▁statements ▁of ▁bad - ass itude ." ▁Entertainment ▁Week ly ▁critic ▁M ika el ▁Wood ▁said ▁she ▁expl ored ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁human ▁emot ions ▁and ▁m ood s ▁on ▁the ▁record , ▁which ▁he ▁called ▁her ▁" most ▁v ivid ▁effort ▁yet , ▁with ▁br illi antly ▁observed ▁songs ▁about ▁l ust ▁(' F ine ▁T une ') ▁and ▁disappoint ment ▁(' S ame ▁Old ▁You '), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁a ▁stir ring ▁celebr ation ▁of ▁divers ity ▁(' All ▁K inds ▁of ▁K inds '). " ▁ ▁Some ▁review ers ▁were ▁less ▁enthus i astic . ▁Writing ▁for ▁MS N ▁Music , ▁Robert ▁Christ g au ▁called ▁Four ▁the ▁Record ▁a ▁" basic ▁quality ▁country ▁album " ▁highlight ed ▁by ▁the ▁harder ▁opening ▁songs ▁before ▁del ving ▁into ▁tr ite ▁ball ads ▁c ater ing ▁to ▁the ▁house w ife ▁dem ographic , ▁such ▁as ▁" D ear ▁Diam ond ", ▁" Ok lahoma ▁Sky ", ▁and ▁" B etter ▁in ▁the ▁Long ▁Run ". ▁Sp in ▁magazine ' s ▁The on ▁We ber ▁l ament ed ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁lyr ics , ▁which ▁he ▁found ▁" flat , ▁even ▁when ▁they ' re ▁Lam bert ' s ", ▁while ▁Jon ▁Car aman ica ▁of ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁viewed ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁for ay ▁into ▁alternative ▁country ▁featuring ▁some ▁of ▁her ▁least ▁inspired ▁singing ▁and ▁song writing . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Person nel ▁Cred its ▁are ▁adapted ▁from ▁All Music . ▁ ▁Mus icians |
▁▁▁ ▁Richard ▁Ben nett ▁– ▁guitar , ▁bou z ou ki ▁( 1 3 ) ▁▁ ▁Sarah ▁Bu xt on ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( tra cks ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Brand i ▁Carl ile ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 7 ) ▁Matt ▁Chamber lain ▁– ▁drums , ▁per cussion ▁ ▁Glen ▁Dun can ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 2 ) ▁ ▁Kar en ▁Fair child ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 1 ) ▁ ▁Don ▁Henry ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 ) ▁John ▁Bar low ▁Jar vis ▁– ▁piano ▁ ▁Jay ▁Joy ce ▁– ▁guitar , ▁cla vin et ▁( 8 ), ▁slide ▁ac oust ic ▁( 8 ), ▁p ump ▁organ ▁( 1 ) ▁ ▁Josh ▁K elle y ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 8 ) ▁ ▁Mir anda ▁Lam bert ▁– ▁lead ▁vocals ▁ ▁Greg ▁Le isz ▁– ▁do bro , ▁steel ▁guitar ▁ ▁Bet sey ▁Long ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 3 ) ▁ ▁Pat ty ▁Lov eless ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 6 ) ▁ ▁All ison ▁Mo orer ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 4 ) ▁ ▁Gordon ▁M ote ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 2 ) ▁ ▁K ace y ▁Mus gra ves ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 5 ) ▁ ▁St oney ▁La R ue ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 ) ▁ ▁Kim ber ly ▁Sch lap man ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 1 ) ▁ ▁R andy ▁Sc ru gg s ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 2 , ▁ 9 ) ▁ ▁Bla ke ▁Sh el ton ▁– ▁du et ▁vocals |
▁( 1 2 ) ▁ ▁Chris ▁St ap leton ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 1 3 ) ▁ ▁Gl enn ▁W orf ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 2 ) ▁ ▁Scot ty ▁W ray ▁– ▁background ▁vocals ▁( 9 ) ▁ ▁R andy ▁Sc ru gg s ▁– ▁ban jo , ▁guitar , ▁mand olin ▁ ▁Steve ▁Win wood ▁– ▁B - 3 ▁Organ ▁( 8 ) ▁ ▁Gl enn ▁W orf ▁– ▁bass ▁guitar , ▁u pr ight ▁bass , ▁P icked ▁piano ▁( 6 ) ▁ ▁Production ▁▁▁ ▁Ch uck ▁Ain lay ▁– ▁engineering , ▁mixing , ▁producer ▁ ▁En zo ▁Ang iler i ▁– ▁hair ▁sty list ▁ ▁Jud y ▁For de - B la ir ▁– ▁cre ative ▁producer , ▁l iner ▁notes ▁ ▁Steven ▁Christ ensen ▁– ▁vocal ▁recording ▁ ▁T amm ie ▁Harris ▁Cle ek ▁– ▁imag ing , ▁photo ▁production ▁ ▁Martin ▁Fe ve year ▁– ▁vocal ▁recording ▁ ▁T racy ▁B ask ette - F lean er ▁– ▁cre ative ▁director , ▁design ▁ ▁T iff any ▁G iff ord ▁– ▁sty list ▁ ▁Em ory ▁G ord y , ▁Jr . ▁– ▁vocal ▁recording ▁ ▁Brit t any ▁Ham lin ▁– ▁production ▁coord ination ▁ ▁Ryan ▁Krieg ▁– ▁assistant ▁engineer , ▁mixing ▁assistant ▁ ▁Frank ▁L idd ell ▁– ▁producer ▁ ▁Stephen ▁Marc ussen ▁– ▁master ing ▁ ▁My lah ▁Mor ales ▁– ▁make - up ▁ ▁R ande e ▁St . ▁Nicholas ▁– ▁phot ography ▁ ▁Lisa ▁Ram sey - Per kins ▁– ▁A & |
R ▁ ▁Br andon ▁Sch ex n ay der ▁– ▁assistant ▁engineer , ▁mixing ▁assistant ▁ ▁James ▁Tow ler ▁– ▁engineering ▁ ▁Stewart ▁Whit more ▁– ▁digital ▁editing ▁ ▁Gl enn ▁W orf ▁– ▁producer ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Week ly ▁charts ▁ ▁Year - end ▁charts ▁ ▁Cert ifications ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁albums ▁Category : M ir anda ▁Lam bert ▁albums ▁Category : R CA ▁Records ▁albums ▁Category : Al bum s ▁produced ▁by ▁Ch uck ▁Ain lay ▁Category : Al bum s ▁produced ▁by ▁Frank ▁L idd ell <0x0A> </s> ▁Sw all own est ▁Min ers ▁W elf are ▁F . C . ▁was ▁an ▁English ▁football ▁club ▁located ▁in ▁Sw all own est , ▁She ff ield , ▁South ▁York shire . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁club ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁York shire ▁Football ▁League ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s , ▁compet ing ▁in ▁Division ▁ 1 ▁on ▁three ▁occasions . ▁They ▁also ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁FA ▁Am ateur ▁Cup ▁and ▁the ▁FA ▁V ase . ▁ ▁League ▁and ▁cup ▁history ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁League ▁''' Y ork shire ▁League ▁Division ▁ 2 ▁Prom oted : ▁ 1 9 6 1 – 6 2 , ▁ 1 9 6 8 – 6 9 ▁ ▁Cup ▁None ▁ ▁Records ▁Best ▁League ▁performance : ▁ 8 th , ▁York shire ▁League ▁Division ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 2 – 6 3 ▁Best ▁FA ▁Am ateur ▁Cup ▁performance : ▁ |
4 th ▁Qual ifying ▁Round , ▁ 1 9 6 1 – 6 2 ▁Best ▁FA ▁V ase ▁performance : ▁ 1 st ▁Round , ▁ 1 9 7 4 – 7 5 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Def unct ▁football ▁clubs ▁in ▁South ▁York shire ▁Category : Def unct ▁football ▁clubs ▁in ▁England ▁Category : Y ork shire ▁Football ▁League ▁Category : She ff ield ▁Association ▁League ▁Category : M ining ▁association ▁football ▁teams ▁in ▁England <0x0A> </s> ▁is ▁a ▁railway ▁station ▁on ▁the ▁My ō k ō ▁H ane uma ▁Line ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁J ō ets u , ▁Ni ig ata , ▁Japan , ▁operated ▁by ▁the ▁third - se ctor ▁operating ▁railway ▁company ▁E ch igo ▁Tok ime ki ▁Railway . ▁ ▁L ines ▁Min ami - T ak ada ▁Station ▁is ▁served ▁by ▁the ▁ 3 7 . 7 km ▁E ch igo ▁Tok ime ki ▁Railway ▁My ō k ō ▁H ane uma ▁Line ▁from ▁ ▁to ▁, ▁and ▁is ▁located ▁ 2 9 . 0 ▁kilom eters ▁from ▁the ▁starting ▁point ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁at ▁ ▁and ▁ 6 6 . 3 ▁kilom eters ▁from ▁. ▁ ▁Station ▁layout ▁The ▁station ▁has ▁one ▁side ▁platform ▁serving ▁a ▁single ▁bi - direction al ▁track , ▁with ▁the ▁station ▁building ▁located ▁directly ▁on ▁the ▁platform . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁un att ended . ▁ ▁Ad j acent ▁stations ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁station ▁opened ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁December ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁on ▁the ▁Shin |
ets u ▁Main ▁Line . ▁With ▁the ▁priv at ization ▁of ▁J NR ▁on ▁ 1 ▁April ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁the ▁station ▁came ▁under ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁J R ▁East . ▁ ▁From ▁ 1 4 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁with ▁the ▁opening ▁of ▁the ▁H ok ur iku ▁Sh ink ansen ▁extension ▁from ▁ ▁to ▁, ▁local ▁passenger ▁operations ▁over ▁sections ▁of ▁the ▁Shin ets u ▁Main ▁Line ▁running ▁roughly ▁parallel ▁to ▁the ▁new ▁sh ink ansen ▁line ▁were ▁re ass igned ▁to ▁different ▁third - se ctor ▁railway ▁operating ▁companies . ▁From ▁this ▁date , ▁Min ami - T ak ada ▁Station ▁became ▁a ▁station ▁on ▁the ▁E ch igo ▁Tok ime ki ▁Railway ▁My ō k ō ▁H ane uma ▁Line . ▁ ▁Pass enger ▁statistics ▁In ▁fis cal ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁the ▁station ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁an ▁average ▁of ▁ 8 3 5 ▁passengers ▁daily ▁( board ing ▁passengers ▁only ). ▁ ▁S urr ounding ▁area ▁ ▁Tak ada ▁Com mer cial ▁High ▁School ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁railway ▁stations ▁in ▁Japan ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁E ch igo ▁Tok ime ki ▁Railway ▁Station ▁information ▁▁ ▁Tim et able ▁for ▁Min ami - T ak ada ▁Station ▁▁ ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁in ▁Ni ig ata ▁Pref ect ure ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 1 ▁Category : 1 9 6 1 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Japan ▁Category : |
St ations ▁of ▁E ch igo ▁Tok ime ki ▁Railway ▁Category : J ō ets u , ▁Ni ig ata <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁actions ▁by ▁govern ments ▁of ▁commun ist ▁states ▁have ▁been ▁subject ▁to ▁criticism . ▁According ▁to ▁critics , ▁the ▁rule ▁by ▁commun ist ▁parties ▁leads ▁to ▁total itar ian ism , ▁political ▁repr ession , ▁restrictions ▁of ▁human ▁rights , ▁poor ▁economic ▁performance ▁and ▁cultural ▁and ▁art istic ▁c ensor ship . ▁Western ▁criticism ▁of ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁is ▁also ▁been ▁ground ed ▁in ▁criticism ▁of ▁social ism ▁by ▁econom ists ▁such ▁as ▁Friedrich ▁Hay ek ▁and ▁Mil ton ▁Fried man , ▁who ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁state ▁ownership ▁and ▁planned ▁economy ▁characteristic ▁of ▁Soviet - style ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁were ▁responsible ▁for ▁economic ▁st agn ation ▁and ▁short age ▁econom ies , ▁providing ▁few ▁in cent ives ▁for ▁individuals ▁to ▁improve ▁product ivity ▁and ▁eng age ▁in ▁entrepr ene ur ship . ▁R uling ▁commun ist ▁parties ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁challeng ed ▁by ▁domestic ▁diss ent . ▁ ▁In ▁Eastern ▁Europe , ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁diss idents ▁Aleks andr ▁Sol z hen its yn ▁and ▁V ác lav ▁H avel ▁gained ▁international ▁prom in ence ▁as ▁did ▁the ▁works ▁of ▁dis ill usion ed ▁ex - comm un ists ▁such ▁as ▁Mil ovan ▁Dj il as , ▁who ▁condem ned ▁the ▁new ▁class ▁or ▁nom enk l atura ▁system ▁that ▁had ▁emer ged ▁under ▁commun ist ▁rule . ▁Commun ism : ▁Promise ▁and ▁Pract ice ▁( 1 9 7 3 |
) ▁detailed ▁what ▁its ▁author ▁term ed ▁flag rant ▁g aps ▁between ▁official ▁Soviet ▁policies ▁of ▁equality ▁and ▁economic ▁justice ▁and ▁the ▁reality ▁of ▁the ▁emer gence ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁class ▁in ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁and ▁in ▁other ▁commun ist ▁countries , ▁which ▁th riv ed ▁at ▁the ▁exp ense ▁of ▁the ▁remaining ▁population . ▁Major ▁criticism ▁has ▁also ▁come ▁from ▁the ▁anti - St alin ist ▁left ▁and ▁other ▁social ists . ▁ ▁Crit ic ism ▁of ▁anti - comm un ism ▁and ▁counter - crit ic ism ▁of ▁economic ▁development ▁under ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁is ▁diverse . ▁Supp or ters ▁of ▁various ▁r uling ▁commun ist ▁parties ▁have ▁argued ▁that ▁accounts ▁of ▁political ▁repr ession ▁are ▁ex agger ated ▁by ▁anti - comm un ists ▁and ▁that ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁provided ▁some ▁human ▁rights ▁such ▁as ▁economic , ▁social ▁and ▁cultural ▁rights ▁not ▁found ▁under ▁capital ist ▁states , ▁including ▁the ▁rights ▁that ▁everyone ▁is ▁treated ▁equal ▁regardless ▁of ▁education ▁or ▁financial ▁stability ; ▁that ▁any ▁citiz en ▁can ▁keep ▁a ▁job ; ▁or ▁that ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁more ▁efficient ▁and ▁equal ▁distribution ▁of ▁resources . ▁Some ▁claim ▁that ▁commun ist ▁states ▁experienced ▁greater ▁economic ▁development ▁than ▁they ▁would ▁have ▁otherwise , ▁or ▁that ▁their ▁leaders ▁were ▁forced ▁to ▁take ▁har sh ▁measures ▁to ▁defend ▁their ▁countries ▁against ▁the ▁Western ▁B loc ▁during ▁the ▁Cold ▁War . ▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁Russian ▁Revolution , ▁commun ist ▁party ▁rule ▁was ▁cons olid ated ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁Soviet ▁Russia |
▁( l ater ▁the ▁largest ▁constitu ent ▁republic ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union , ▁formed ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 9 2 2 ) ▁and ▁critic ized ▁immediately ▁dom est ically ▁and ▁intern ation ally . ▁During ▁the ▁first ▁Red ▁Sc are ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁the ▁take over ▁of ▁Russia ▁by ▁the ▁commun ist ▁B ols he vik s ▁was ▁considered ▁by ▁many ▁a ▁threat ▁to ▁free ▁mark ets , ▁religious ▁freedom ▁and ▁liberal ▁dem ocracy . ▁Meanwhile , ▁under ▁the ▁tut el age ▁of ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁the ▁only ▁party ▁permitted ▁by ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁constitution , ▁state ▁institutions ▁were ▁int imately ▁ent w ined ▁with ▁those ▁of ▁the ▁party . ▁By ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁Joseph ▁St alin ▁cons olid ated ▁the ▁regime ' s ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁country ' s ▁economy ▁and ▁society ▁through ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁economic ▁planning ▁and ▁five - year ▁plans . ▁ ▁Between ▁the ▁Russian ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁Soviet - style ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁only ▁spread ▁to ▁one ▁state ▁that ▁was ▁not ▁later ▁incorpor ated ▁into ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁was ▁established ▁in ▁neighbor ing ▁Mong olia , ▁a ▁traditional ▁out post ▁of ▁Russian ▁influence ▁border ing ▁the ▁Si ber ian ▁region . ▁However , ▁throughout ▁much ▁of ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁Amer icas ▁criticism ▁of ▁the ▁domestic ▁and ▁foreign ▁policies ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁regime ▁among ▁ant ic ommun ists ▁continued ▁un ab |
ated . ▁After ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁took ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁territ ories ▁reached ▁by ▁the ▁Red ▁Army , ▁establish ing ▁what ▁later ▁became ▁known ▁as ▁Eastern ▁B loc . ▁Following ▁the ▁Chinese ▁Revolution , ▁the ▁People ' s ▁Republic ▁of ▁China ▁was ▁proc laimed ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 9 ▁under ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁Chinese ▁Commun ist ▁Party . ▁ ▁Between ▁the ▁Chinese ▁Revolution ▁and ▁the ▁last ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁commun ist ▁rule ▁spread ▁throughout ▁East ▁Asia ▁and ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁Third ▁World ▁and ▁new ▁commun ist ▁reg imes ▁became ▁the ▁subject ▁of ▁extensive ▁local ▁and ▁international ▁criticism . ▁Crit ic isms ▁of ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁and ▁third ▁world ▁commun ist ▁reg imes ▁have ▁been ▁strongly ▁anch ored ▁in ▁scholar ship ▁on ▁total itar ian ism , ▁which ▁as ser ts ▁that ▁commun ist ▁parties ▁maintain ▁themselves ▁in ▁power ▁without ▁the ▁consent ▁of ▁the ▁populations ▁and ▁they ▁rule ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁repr ession , ▁secret ▁police , ▁propag anda ▁dis sem in ated ▁through ▁the ▁state - control led ▁mass ▁media , ▁repr ession ▁of ▁free ▁discussion ▁and ▁criticism , ▁mass ▁surve ill ance ▁and ▁state ▁terror . ▁These ▁studies ▁of ▁total itar ian ism ▁influenced ▁Western ▁histor i ography ▁on ▁commun ism ▁and ▁Soviet ▁history , ▁particularly ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁Robert ▁Con quest ▁and ▁Richard ▁P ipes ▁on ▁St alin ism , ▁the ▁Great ▁Pur ge , ▁the ▁Gul ag ▁and ▁the ▁Soviet ▁fam ine ▁of ▁ 1 9 |
3 2 – 1 9 3 3 . ▁ ▁Are as ▁of ▁criticism ▁▁ ▁Crit ic isms ▁of ▁commun ist ▁reg imes ▁have ▁centered ▁on ▁many ▁topics , ▁including ▁their ▁effects ▁on ▁the ▁economic ▁development , ▁human ▁rights , ▁foreign ▁policy , ▁scientific ▁progress ▁and ▁environmental ▁de grad ation ▁of ▁the ▁countries ▁they ▁rule . ▁ ▁Political ▁repr ession ▁is ▁a ▁topic ▁in ▁many ▁influ ential ▁works ▁critical ▁of ▁commun ist ▁rule , ▁including ▁Robert ▁Con quest ' s ▁accounts ▁of ▁St alin ' s ▁Great ▁Pur ge ▁in ▁The ▁Great ▁T error ▁and ▁the ▁Soviet ▁fam ine ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 2 – 1 9 3 3 ▁in ▁The ▁Har vest ▁of ▁Sor row ; ▁Richard ▁P ipes ' ▁account ▁of ▁the ▁" Red ▁T error " ▁during ▁the ▁Russian ▁Civil ▁War ; ▁R . J . ▁Rum mel ' s ▁work ▁on ▁" demo cide "; ▁Aleks andr ▁Sol z hen its yn ' s ▁account ▁of ▁St alin ' s ▁forced ▁labor ▁cam ps ▁in ▁The ▁Gul ag ▁Arch ip el ago ; ▁and ▁St é ph ane ▁Cour to is ' ▁account ▁of ▁execution s , ▁forced ▁labor ▁cam ps ▁and ▁mass ▁star v ation ▁in ▁commun ist ▁reg imes ▁as ▁a ▁general ▁category , ▁with ▁particular ▁attention ▁to ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁under ▁Joseph ▁St alin ▁and ▁China ▁under ▁Ma o ▁Z ed ong . ▁ ▁Soviet - style ▁central ▁planning ▁and ▁state ▁ownership ▁has ▁been ▁another ▁topic ▁of ▁criticism ▁of ▁commun ist ▁rule . ▁Works ▁by ▁econom |
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