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usion ▁among ▁the ▁Spanish - spe aking ▁r iders , ▁York ▁finished ▁second ▁overall . ▁Pe uge ot ▁direct eur ▁sport if , ▁Roland ▁Ber land , ▁said ▁" It ' s ▁rott en , ▁the ▁whole ▁pel oton ▁was ▁against ▁us . ▁It ▁seems ▁a ▁Sp ani ard ▁had ▁to ▁win ▁at ▁all ▁costs ." ▁L ' É qu ipe ' s ▁Philip ▁Bou vet ▁stated ▁York ▁was ▁" the ▁victim ▁of ▁a ▁form id able ▁Spanish ▁coalition ". ▁York ▁said ▁afterwards ▁" I ' ll ▁never ▁return ▁to ▁Spain ". ▁In ▁the ▁television ▁documentary ▁on ▁the ▁career ▁of ▁Robert ▁Mill ar , ▁" The ▁High ▁Life ", ▁York ▁critic ised ▁Ber land ▁for ▁his ▁handling ▁of ▁the ▁situation ▁on ▁the ▁road ▁when ▁Del g ado ▁attacked , ▁stating ▁that ▁Ber land ▁had ▁been ▁unable ▁to ▁negoti ate ▁support ▁from ▁other ▁non - Span ish ▁speaking ▁teams ▁during ▁the ▁stage ▁to ▁give ▁York ▁the ▁required ▁support ▁to ▁chase ▁down ▁Del g ado ' s ▁lead . ▁ ▁E arlier ▁that ▁year , ▁York ▁had ▁come ▁sixth ▁once ▁more ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁season ▁Paris – N ice , ▁with ▁Kelly ▁again ▁winning ▁in ▁his ▁run ▁of ▁seven ▁success ive ▁vict ories ▁in ▁the ▁event . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France , ▁York ▁finished ▁ele vent h . ▁In ▁September , ▁York ▁was ▁overall ▁winner ▁of ▁the ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁Catal un ya , ▁taking ▁the ▁leader ' s ▁jer sey ▁on ▁the ▁pen ult imate ▁stage , ▁a ▁ ▁individual ▁time ▁trial ▁at
▁T ort osa . ▁York ▁beat ▁Sean ▁Kelly , ▁the ▁previous ▁overall ▁winner , ▁by ▁three ▁seconds . ▁In ▁the ▁G iro ▁del ▁P iem onte , ▁York ▁finished ▁third ▁behind ▁Ch arly ▁M ott et . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁du ▁H aut ▁Var , ▁York ▁ended ▁seventh , ▁with ▁M ott et ▁again ▁the ▁vict or . ▁York ▁was ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁de ▁Wall onie ▁( won ▁by ▁Marc ▁Mad iot ). ▁York ▁was ▁sixth ▁in ▁two ▁races ▁won ▁by ▁Stephen ▁Roche , ▁the ▁Tour ▁M idi - Py re ne es – ▁now ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Route ▁du ▁Sud – ▁and ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁International . ▁In ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré , ▁York ▁placed ▁nin th ▁behind ▁a ▁winning ▁Phil ▁Anderson . ▁▁ 1 9 8 6 : ▁V u elta ▁runner ▁up ▁again ▁ ▁York ▁changed ▁teams ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁to ▁ride ▁for ▁Pan ason ic . ▁Despite ▁her ▁previous ▁comment ▁after ▁the ▁' 8 5 ▁race , ▁she ▁again ▁rode ▁in ▁the ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España . ▁York ▁won ▁stage ▁six ▁from ▁Sant ander ▁to ▁Lag os ▁de ▁Cov ad ong a ▁putting ▁her ▁into ▁the ▁leader ' s ▁jer sey . ▁On ▁stage ▁eleven ▁however , ▁a ▁ ▁time ▁trial ▁at ▁Vall ad olid , ▁Al var o ▁P ino ▁took ▁over ▁the ▁lead ▁and ▁retained ▁this ▁to ▁the ▁finish ▁with ▁York ▁finishing ▁second ▁overall ▁like ▁she ▁had ▁the ▁year ▁before
. ▁The ▁winning ▁margin ▁was ▁one ▁minute ▁and ▁six ▁seconds . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁York ▁was ▁racing ▁well ▁even ▁before ▁the ▁race ▁reached ▁the ▁mountains ▁with ▁a ▁third ▁in ▁the ▁team ▁time ▁trial ▁and ▁nin th ▁in ▁the ▁individual ▁time ▁trial ▁on ▁stage ▁nine . ▁York ▁was ▁placed ▁t enth ▁at ▁this ▁point . ▁This ▁improved ▁further ▁in ▁the ▁Py re ne es ▁on ▁stage ▁thirteen ▁from ▁P au ▁crossing ▁the ▁Tour mal et , ▁the ▁A spin , ▁the ▁P ey res our de ▁and ▁finishing ▁at ▁Super bag ner es . ▁York ▁finished ▁second ▁on ▁the ▁day ▁to ▁event ual ▁winner ▁of ▁the ▁race , ▁Greg ▁Lem ond . ▁This ▁placed ▁York ▁in ▁fourth ▁overall ▁at ▁this ▁point ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁lead ▁in ▁the ▁mountains ▁competition . ▁She ▁retained ▁this ▁to ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁stage ▁sevent een ▁between ▁G ap ▁and ▁Ser re ▁Che val ier . ▁However ▁York ▁was ▁batt ling ▁illness ▁and ▁began ▁to ▁sp iral ▁down ▁the ▁plac ings ▁in ▁a ▁struggle ▁just ▁to ▁stay ▁in ▁the ▁race . ▁In ▁the ▁stage ▁twenty ▁time ▁trial , ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁nin th ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁earlier ▁time ▁trial , ▁York ▁placed ▁ 1 1 2 th ▁over ▁ten ▁minutes ▁behind ▁the ▁stage ▁winner ▁( H in ault ). ▁York ▁started ▁stage ▁twenty - one ▁in ▁fif teenth ▁overall ▁but ▁climbed ▁off ▁her ▁bike ▁to ▁abandon ▁the ▁race ▁before ▁the ▁con ical ▁final ▁climb ▁of ▁the ▁day ▁up ▁the ▁P uy ▁de ▁D ô me . ▁In
▁other ▁races , ▁York ▁finished ▁second ▁overall ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁behind ▁Andrew ▁H amp sten . ▁York ▁was ▁sixth ▁in ▁the ▁V u elta ▁a ▁Ar ag ón ▁and ▁seventh ▁in ▁the ▁Esc al ada ▁a ▁Mont ju ï c . ▁▁ 1 9 8 7 : ▁G iro ▁d ' It alia ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁York ▁rode ▁the ▁G iro ▁d ' It alia ▁for ▁the ▁only ▁time ▁in ▁her ▁career . ▁The ▁race ▁provided ▁high ▁drama ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁controversy ▁between ▁two ▁r iders ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁Car rera ▁team , ▁Roberto ▁Vis ent ini ▁and ▁Roche . ▁The ▁two ▁team mates ▁batt led ▁each ▁other , ▁but ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁York ▁and ▁her ▁own ▁Pan ason ic ▁team - mate , ▁Erik ▁Bre uk ink , ▁challenging ▁for ▁the ▁race ▁made ▁this ▁risk y . ▁York ▁won ▁stage ▁ 2 1 ▁in ▁a ▁three - man ▁break away ▁with ▁Roche ▁and ▁Mar ino ▁Le jar re ta . ▁The ▁result ▁moved ▁her ▁up ▁to ▁second ▁overall ▁and ▁gave ▁Roche ▁the ▁win ▁as ▁Vis ent ini ▁fell , ▁broke ▁his ▁wrist ▁and ▁lost ▁six ▁more ▁minutes ▁on ▁what ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁his ▁last ▁day ▁in ▁the ▁race . ▁York ▁also ▁took ▁the ▁clim ber ' s ▁green ▁jer sey . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie , ▁York ▁finished ▁fourth , ▁a ▁race ▁won ▁by ▁Roche ▁as ▁was ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France . ▁York ▁finished ▁nineteenth ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France , ▁although
▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁stage ▁fourteen ▁from ▁P au ▁to ▁L uz ▁Ar d iden ▁York ▁again ▁enjoyed ▁her ▁z en ith ▁in ▁the ▁race ▁when ▁she ▁was ▁fifth ▁overall . ▁Like ▁the ▁year ▁before ▁she ▁had ▁been ▁helped ▁by ▁a ▁strong ▁showing ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁individual ▁time ▁trial . ▁However , ▁York ▁slipped ▁to ▁fifth , ▁then ▁sixth , ▁before ▁on ▁stage ▁ninete en ▁she ▁lost ▁over ▁fifteen ▁minutes ▁to ▁slide ▁out ▁of ▁cont ention . ▁El se where ▁York ▁was ▁fifth ▁in ▁Li ège – B ast og ne – Li ège ▁with ▁More no ▁Argent in ▁winning ▁for ▁the ▁third ▁year ▁running . ▁York ▁was ▁sixth ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁( G err it ▁Sol level d ▁won ) ▁and ▁seventh ▁in ▁the ▁Set man a ▁Catal ana ▁de ▁C icl isme ▁behind ▁ ▁winner ▁Vic ent ▁Bel da . ▁▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁York ▁joined ▁the ▁French ▁F ag or ▁team ▁as ▁had ▁Roche ▁and ▁Sche pers . ▁York ▁managed ▁her ▁best ▁position ▁in ▁a ▁one - day ▁' Mon ument ' ▁Classic , ▁third ▁in ▁Li ège – B ast og ne – Li ège ▁behind ▁Ad ri ▁van ▁der ▁Po el . ▁York ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁V u elta ▁a ▁Esp ana ▁and ▁finished ▁sixth ▁overall ▁with ▁Kelly ▁winning . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France , ▁after ▁struggling ▁in ▁the ▁Al ps , ▁on ▁stage ▁fourteen ▁she ▁lost ▁the ▁opportunity ▁of ▁a ▁repeat ▁Py re ne
es ▁stage ▁win ▁in ▁Gu zet - Ne ige . ▁York ▁led ▁over ▁each ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁two ▁clim bs ▁from ▁Bl agn ac . ▁In ▁sprint ing ▁up hill ▁to ▁the ▁finish ▁with ▁Phill ipe ▁Bou v at ier , ▁both ▁r iders ▁mist ook ▁a ▁g endar me ' s ▁signals , ▁took ▁a ▁wrong ▁turn ▁and ▁c ed ed ▁the ▁win ▁to ▁Mass imo ▁Gh iro tto . ▁York ▁finished ▁in ▁second ▁on ▁the ▁day ▁two ▁seconds ▁behind . ▁The ▁next ▁day ▁York ▁was ▁again ▁riding ▁at ▁the ▁front ▁when ▁leading ▁over ▁the ▁second ▁climb ▁but ▁cracked ▁and ▁finished ▁twenty - one ▁minutes ▁behind . ▁Stage ▁sevent een ▁was ▁the ▁last ▁she ▁would ▁complete ▁that ▁year . ▁High ▁plac ings ▁that ▁year ▁were ▁second ▁in ▁the ▁B ic ic let a ▁Vas ca ▁included ▁third ▁in ▁each ▁of ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁International ▁and ▁the ▁Route ▁de ▁Sud ▁( R on an ▁P ense c ▁won ). ▁York ▁was ▁e ighth ▁in ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁Catal un ya ] ▁and ▁nin th ▁in ▁Paris – ▁Nice . ▁▁ 1 9 8 9 : ▁A ▁third ▁Tour ▁stage ▁win ▁ ▁York ▁returned ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁her ▁previous ▁teams , ▁Z - Pe uge ot ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁now ▁known ▁and ▁was ▁second ▁overall ▁behind ▁M ott et ▁after ▁winning ▁stage ▁seven ▁in ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré . ▁York ▁was ▁a ▁stage ▁winner ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁and ▁a ▁runner
- up ▁in ▁the ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁de ▁Wall onie ▁to ▁Thomas ▁W eg m üll er . ▁She ▁rode ▁only ▁one ▁grand ▁tour ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁since ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁and ▁she ▁had ▁her ▁best ▁placing ▁in ▁the ▁tour ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁race . ▁She ▁won ▁stage ▁ten ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁from ▁C aut er ets ▁to ▁Super b agn ères . ▁York ▁was ▁first ▁to ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁all ▁four ▁of ▁that ▁days ▁clim bs ▁scaling ▁the ▁Tour mal et , ▁A spin , ▁and ▁P ey res our de ▁before ▁the ▁Super bag ner es ▁finish . ▁Ch arly ▁M ott et ▁was ▁dropped ▁from ▁the ▁three - man ▁group ▁approaching ▁the ▁finish ▁leaving ▁York ▁to ▁out ▁sprint ▁Del g ado ▁at ▁the ▁line . ▁York ▁was ▁placed ▁e ighth ▁at ▁this ▁point ▁and ▁ended ▁that ▁year ' s ▁tour ▁in ▁t enth . ▁In ▁the ▁autumn ▁York ▁was ▁overall ▁winner ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁with ▁her ▁decis ive ▁move ▁coming ▁in ▁a ▁long ▁two - man ▁break away ▁with ▁Mau ro ▁Gian etti ▁into ▁Card iff . ▁Gian etti ▁took ▁the ▁sprint ▁for ▁the ▁stage ▁but ▁York ▁comfort ably ▁stayed ▁in ▁yellow ▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁race . ▁Other ▁top ▁ten ▁plac ings ▁included ▁e ighth ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁V au cl use ▁( R ook s ▁won ) ▁and ▁nin th ▁in ▁the ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁of ▁the ▁Amer icas . ▁▁
1 9 9 0 : ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁ ▁Vict ory ▁in ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁arrived ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁York ▁was ▁in ▁a ▁stage ▁six , ▁two - person ▁break away ▁with ▁Th ier ry ▁Cl ave y rol at . ▁Both ▁r iders ▁finished ▁in ▁the ▁top ▁five ▁in ▁the ▁leading ▁group ▁the ▁next ▁day . ▁Stage ▁eight ▁was ▁an ▁individual ▁time ▁trial ▁and ▁despite ▁strong ▁time ▁trial ists ▁being ▁in ▁the ▁pel oton ▁such ▁as ▁Roche ▁and ▁T oni ▁Rom inger , ▁York ▁took ▁the ▁overall ▁title ▁with ▁Cl ave y rol at ▁the ▁runner ▁up . ▁York ▁was ▁runner ▁up ▁for ▁a ▁second ▁time ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁with ▁Kelly ▁the ▁vict or ▁that ▁year . ▁York ▁was ▁a ▁stage ▁winner ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁( M ott et ▁took ▁overall ▁prize ). ▁York ▁took ▁fourth ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁G iro ▁di ▁L omb ard ia ▁behind ▁G illes ▁Del ion . ▁In ▁between , ▁she ▁also ▁took ▁second ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁ham per ed ▁by ▁a ▁crash ▁on ▁the ▁last ▁day . ▁In ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁York ▁rode ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁team ▁intended ▁to ▁support ▁the ▁previous ▁year ' s ▁winner ▁and ▁reign ing ▁world ▁champion , ▁Greg ▁Le M ond . ▁The ▁Z ▁team ▁not ▁only ▁helped ▁deliver ▁the ▁yellow ▁jer sey ▁for ▁Le M ond
▁but ▁also ▁won ▁the ▁team ▁competition . ▁York ▁though ▁was ▁denied ▁the ▁yellow ▁cap ▁award ▁from ▁the ▁competition ▁her ▁team ▁led ▁from ▁stage ▁ten ▁on wards . ▁Stage ▁fourteen ▁was ▁the ▁last ▁she ▁completed ▁on ▁the ▁tour ▁that ▁year . ▁This ▁was ▁York ' s ▁third ▁and ▁last ▁withdrawal ▁from ▁the ▁eleven ▁times ▁she ▁rode ▁the ▁tour . ▁Other ▁plac ings ▁in ▁the ▁top ▁ten ▁that ▁year ▁included ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁V u elta ▁a ▁And al uc ía ▁and ▁nin th ▁in ▁La ▁Fl è che ▁Wall onne . ▁▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁▁ ▁York ▁won ▁a ▁stage ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁and ▁finished ▁fifth ▁overall . ▁That ▁year ▁was ▁her ▁best ▁overall ▁finish ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie , ▁second , ▁with ▁Rom inger ▁the ▁man ▁den ying ▁York ▁the ▁title . ▁She ▁was ▁second ▁in ▁the ▁debut ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁Class ique ▁des ▁Al pes , ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré , ▁fourth ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁and ▁fifth ▁in ▁the ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁of ▁the ▁Amer icas . ▁She ▁finished ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁in ▁seventy - second ▁place , ▁the ▁only ▁one ▁of ▁her ▁eight ▁fin ishes ▁in ▁the ▁tour ▁that ▁was ▁outside ▁the ▁top ▁twenty - five . ▁▁ 1 9 9 2 – 9 5 : ▁Later ▁racing ▁career ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁York ▁revealed ▁her ▁veget arian ism , ▁which ▁was ▁an
▁intention ▁to ▁improve ▁her ▁performance ▁on ▁the ▁bike . ▁" It ' s ▁not ▁a ▁principle – ▁it ' s ▁a ▁personal ▁thing . ▁I ' ve ▁read ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁books ▁about ▁it ". ▁York ▁completed ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁( 1 8 th ) ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁( 2 4 th ), ▁and ▁the ▁V u elta ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁( 2 0 th ) ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁( 1 5 th ). ▁ ▁In ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁dop ing ▁was ▁common ▁and ▁b ans ▁shorter , ▁York ▁tested ▁positive ▁for ▁test oster one ▁after ▁a ▁stage ▁of ▁the ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España , ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 . ▁She ▁was ▁fin ed ▁£ 1 , 1 0 0 , ▁lost ▁her ▁third ▁place ▁on ▁the ▁stage , ▁in cur red ▁a ▁ 1 0 - minute ▁time ▁penalty ▁and ▁was ▁given ▁a ▁three - month ▁suspended ▁ban . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁final ▁years ▁of ▁her ▁career , ▁she ▁achieved ▁top ▁ten ▁fin ishes ▁in ▁the ▁Set man a ▁Catal ana ▁de ▁C icl isme , ▁G iro ▁del ▁P iem ont i ▁and ▁Lie ge – ▁Bast og ne – ▁Lie ge ▁( all ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 ), ▁and ▁the ▁Class iques ▁des ▁Al pes ▁and ▁the ▁M idi ▁Lib re ▁( both ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 ). ▁However , ▁further ▁vict ories ▁largely
▁el uded ▁her . ▁Her ▁final ▁major ▁victory ▁came ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁when ▁she ▁won ▁the ▁National ▁Road ▁Race ▁Championship . ▁However , ▁soon ▁afterwards , ▁her ▁French ▁team ▁Le ▁Group ement ▁went ▁bust ▁and ▁York ▁retired ▁from ▁racing . ▁ ▁After ▁racing ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 7 , ▁York ▁became ▁the ▁coach ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁national ▁team , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁managed ▁the ▁Scottish ▁team ▁in ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain , ▁an ▁eight - day ▁round - B rit ain ▁stage ▁race . ▁She ▁also ▁worked ▁in ▁journal ism , ▁writing ▁for ▁several ▁cycl ing ▁magazines . ▁ ▁Abs ence ▁from ▁public ▁life ▁ ▁York ▁and ▁her ▁wife ▁were ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁separated ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 9 0 s . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁a ▁tab lo id ▁news ▁story ▁reported ▁that ▁York , ▁still ▁known ▁publicly ▁as ▁Robert ▁Mill ar , ▁was ▁now ▁living ▁as ▁a ▁woman . ▁The ▁story ▁hurt ▁York , ▁who ▁reduced ▁her ▁connections ▁with ▁cycl ing , ▁though ▁still ▁kept ▁up ▁some ▁writing ▁and ▁appeared ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁Commonwealth ▁Games ▁as ▁Mill ar . ▁Following ▁this , ▁however , ▁she ▁rec ed ed ▁further ▁from ▁view ▁and ▁cut ▁her ▁ties ▁with ▁cycl ing . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁journalist ▁Richard ▁Moore ▁wrote ▁a ▁bi ography ▁of ▁York ▁titled ▁In ▁Search ▁of ▁Robert ▁Mill ar . ▁After ▁initially ▁ref using ▁to ▁respond , ▁York ▁did
▁answer ▁some ▁of ▁Moore ' s ▁questions ▁via ▁email , ▁though ▁dramatically ▁cut ▁off ▁contact . ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁Moore ▁wrote ▁that ▁" It ▁is ▁impossible ▁to ▁put ▁a ▁date ▁on ▁Mill ar ' s ▁disappe arance . ▁It ▁was ▁more ▁a ▁fade - out ▁than ▁a ▁van ishing ▁act ... ▁ ▁These ▁days , ▁Mill ar ▁is ▁in ▁very ▁occasional ▁email ▁contact ▁with ▁one ▁or ▁two ▁former ▁acqu aint ances ▁but ▁his ▁where ab outs ▁are ▁a ▁mystery ". ▁ ▁Re - em erg ence ▁ ▁York ▁partially ▁returned ▁to ▁journal ism ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 s , ▁writing ▁a ▁blog ▁for ▁Cycl ing news ▁and ▁later ▁writing ▁occasionally ▁for ▁other ▁publications ▁including ▁The ▁Guard ian . ▁She ▁remained ▁a ▁private ▁figure , ▁but ▁following ▁her ▁announcement ▁of ▁her ▁gender ▁transition ▁ ▁joined ▁the ▁IT V 4 ▁comment ary ▁team ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁Tour ▁de ▁France . ▁ ▁In ▁popular ▁culture ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s ▁Mill ar ▁appeared ▁in ▁television ▁commercial s ▁for ▁K ell ogg ' s ▁' Start ' ▁cere al . ▁A ▁one - hour ▁Gran ada ▁Television ▁documentary ▁about ▁Mill ar ' s ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁racing ▁season , ▁entitled ▁The ▁High ▁Life , ▁which ▁also ▁included ▁appearances ▁by ▁All an ▁Pe iper ▁and ▁music ▁by ▁Steve ▁Win wood , ▁was ▁screen ed ▁in ▁Britain ▁on ▁the ▁e ve ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁Tour ▁de ▁France . ▁ ▁Robert
▁Mill ar – ▁The ▁High ▁Life ▁was ▁re dis covered ▁and ▁screen ed , ▁simultaneously ▁with ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁the ▁book , ▁at ▁Edinburgh ▁B ike ▁Week ▁Film ▁Festival ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁June ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁A ▁DVD ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁documentary ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Mill ar ▁auth ored ▁analyt ical ▁opinions ▁for ▁Cycl ing news ▁during ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁ ▁As ▁Mill ar , ▁York ▁married ▁a ▁French ▁woman , ▁Sylv ie ▁Trans ler , ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁No - one ▁from ▁York ' s ▁family ▁was ▁in ▁attendance , ▁nor ▁were ▁any ▁of ▁her ▁team - mates , ▁who ▁had ▁no ▁idea ▁she ▁even ▁had ▁a ▁girlfriend . ▁Pan ason ic ▁team - mate ▁Phil ▁Anderson ▁commented , ▁" He ▁didn ' t ▁seem ▁to ▁have ▁the ▁skills ▁for ▁getting ▁on ▁with ▁men , ▁let ▁alone ▁women ". ▁The ▁couple ▁were ▁believed ▁to ▁have ▁separated ▁by ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 9 0 s . ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁cycl ist , ▁York ▁had ▁a ▁reputation ▁for ▁being ▁t ac it urn ▁and ▁could ▁be ▁un co oper ative ▁with ▁the ▁media . ▁Jeff ▁Con nor , ▁author ▁of ▁W ide ▁E y ed ▁& ▁Leg less : ▁Inside ▁the ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁was ▁told ▁to ▁" f uck ▁off " ▁when ▁request ing ▁an ▁interview ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁Tour
▁de ▁France . ▁When ▁told ▁this , ▁comment ator ▁Phil ▁L ig get t ▁replied , ▁" That ▁sounds ▁like ▁Mill ar , ▁he ' s ▁been ▁really ▁awkward ▁with ▁us ▁in ▁the ▁past . ▁Person ally , ▁I ▁think ▁it ' s ▁a ▁dis gr ace . ▁He ▁has ▁a ▁duty ▁to ▁his ▁spons or ▁to ▁represent ▁the ▁team ▁and ▁you ▁don ' t ▁do ▁that ▁by ▁telling ▁journalists ▁to ▁' f uck ▁off ' ." ▁During ▁comment ary ▁for ▁Stage ▁ 2 3 ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁Tour ▁de ▁France , ▁L ig get t ▁stated ▁"[ It ▁has ▁been ▁a ] ▁very ▁disappoint ing ▁Tour ▁for ▁Robert . ▁He ▁has ▁lost ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁popularity , ▁too , ▁one ▁has ▁to ▁say . ▁He ▁won ' t ▁speak ▁to ▁journalists ▁and ▁the ▁team ▁itself ▁[ Pan ason ic ] ▁is ▁also ▁becoming ▁dis content ed ▁with ▁Robert ▁this ▁year ." ▁York ▁subsequently ▁left ▁Pan ason ic ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁season , ▁to ▁join ▁F ag or . ▁ ▁York ' s ▁' dis appe arance ' ▁during ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 s ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁attributed ▁to ▁her ▁ins ular ity ▁and ▁ecc entric ity . ▁At ▁the ▁time , ▁rum ours ▁of ▁her ▁gender ▁transition ▁were ▁largely ▁dis reg arded . ▁On ▁ 6 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁in ▁a ▁statement ▁on ▁Cycl ing news , ▁York ▁confirmed ▁her ▁gender ▁transition . ▁She
▁wrote ▁that : ▁ ▁York ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁former ▁professional ▁cycl ist ▁to ▁have ▁publicly ▁changed ▁gender . ▁ ▁Career ▁achievements ▁ ▁Major ▁results ▁ ▁Source : ▁▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁▁ 1 st ▁Road ▁race , ▁Scottish ▁Junior ▁Road ▁Championships ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Road ▁race , ▁National ▁Am ateur ▁Road ▁Championships ▁▁ 1 st ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁the ▁Peak ▁▁ 1 st ▁Scottish ▁Hill - Cl imb ▁Championship ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Premier ▁Cal endar ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Road ▁race , ▁National ▁Am ateur ▁Road ▁Championships ▁▁ 1 st ▁Overall ▁Mer lin ▁Pl age ▁Tro phy ▁▁ 1 st ▁Paris – Ev re ux ▁▁ 1 st ▁Overall ▁Route ▁de ▁France ▁( Under - 2 3 ) ▁▁ 1 st ▁GP ▁de ▁la ▁V ille ▁de ▁L ill ers ▁▁ 1 st ▁GP ▁de ▁la ▁B ouch erie ▁▁ 4 th ▁Road ▁race , ▁U CI ▁Am ateur ▁Road ▁World ▁Championships ▁ 1 9 8 0 ▁▁ 8 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁▁ 5 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁l ' A ude ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁l ' A ven ir ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁
1 0 ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁▁ 3 rd ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁du ▁H aut ▁Var ▁▁ 4 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Mountains ▁classification ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 1 1 ▁▁ 4 th ▁Overall ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁du ▁M idi ▁Lib re ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 4 ▁▁ 5 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 2 ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁Paris – N ice ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 1 1 ▁▁ 6 th ▁Road ▁race , ▁U CI ▁Road ▁World ▁Championships ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁Catal un ya ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Overall ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁Catal un ya ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España ▁▁ 3 rd ▁G iro ▁del ▁P iem onte ▁▁ 4 th ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁de ▁Wall onie ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁Paris – N ice ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁International ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁du ▁H aut ▁Var ▁▁ 9 th ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁▁ 1 0 th ▁Road ▁race , ▁U CI ▁Road ▁World ▁Championships ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 6 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁V u elta ▁a ▁Ar
ag ón ▁▁ 1 0 th ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁d ' Is berg ues ▁ 1 9 8 7 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁G iro ▁d ' It alia ▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Mountains ▁classification ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 2 1 ▁▁ 4 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁▁ 5 th ▁Li ège – B ast og ne – Li ège ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁Mediterranean ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁Catal an ▁Week ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁B ic ic let a ▁Vas ca ▁▁ 3 rd ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁International ▁▁ 3 rd ▁Overall ▁Route ▁du ▁Sud ▁▁ 3 rd ▁Li ège – B ast og ne – Li ège ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España ▁▁ 8 th ▁Overall ▁Vol ta ▁a ▁Catal un ya ▁▁ 9 th ▁Overall ▁Paris – N ice ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 7 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁de ▁Wall onie ▁▁ 3 rd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 4 ▁ 7 th ▁GP ▁B ess è ges ▁▁ 8 th ▁Paris – Cam ember t ▁▁ 9 th ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁des ▁Am éri ques ▁▁ 1 0 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 1 0 ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁▁ 1 st ▁
▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 4 ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁▁ 4 th ▁GP ▁O uest – Fr ance ▁▁ 4 th ▁G iro ▁di ▁L omb ard ia ▁▁ 4 th ▁V u elta ▁a ▁And al uc ia ▁▁ 7 th ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁de ▁R ennes ▁▁ 9 th ▁La ▁Fl è che ▁Wall onne ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Rom and ie ▁▁ 2 nd ▁Class ique ▁des ▁Al pes ▁▁ 4 th ▁Overall ▁Crit éri um ▁du ▁D au ph in é ▁Lib éré ▁▁ 4 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁▁ 5 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁de ▁Su isse ▁ 1 st ▁Stage ▁ 5 ▁▁ 5 th ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁des ▁Am éri ques ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁▁ 6 th ▁G iro ▁del ▁L az io ▁▁ 7 th ▁G iro ▁del ▁P iem onte ▁▁ 9 th ▁Overall ▁Catal an ▁Week ▁▁ 9 th ▁Li ège – B ast og ne – Li ège ▁▁ 9 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁Britain ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁▁ 6 th ▁Overall ▁Grand ▁Prix ▁du ▁M idi ▁Lib re ▁▁ 7 th ▁Overall ▁V u elta ▁a ▁Ast ur ias ▁▁ 9 th ▁Class ique ▁des ▁Al pes ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁▁ 6 th ▁Cop pa ▁Pl acci ▁▁ 7 th ▁Cop
pa ▁Sab at ini ▁▁ 9 th ▁Overall ▁Tour ▁of ▁Gal icia ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁▁ 1 st ▁ ▁Road ▁race , ▁National ▁Road ▁Championships ▁▁ 9 th ▁Class ique ▁des ▁Al pes ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁▁ ▁Scottish ▁Sports ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame : ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁ ▁British ▁Cycl ing ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame : ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁British ▁cycl ists ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁secondary ▁classification ▁winners ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁people ▁from ▁Glasgow ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Former ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁cycl ist ▁Philip pa ▁York ▁on ▁her ▁transition ▁from ▁Robert ▁Mill ar , ▁Tele graph ▁online ▁ 7 ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁retriev ed ▁ 1 1 ▁Apr ▁ 2 0 1 8 . ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁no ▁easy ▁way ▁of ▁becoming ▁Philip pa , ▁The ▁Daily ▁Tele graph , ▁ 1 1 ▁Apr ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Sport ▁pp ▁ 1 0 - 1 2 . ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : B rit ish ▁cycl ing ▁road ▁race ▁champions ▁Category : B rit ish ▁G iro ▁d ' It alia ▁stage ▁winners ▁Category : B rit ish ▁Tour ▁de ▁France ▁stage ▁winners ▁Category : B rit ish ▁V u elta ▁a ▁España ▁stage ▁winners ▁Category : C ycl ing ▁journalists ▁Category : G iro ▁d ' It alia ▁cycl ists ▁Category : People ▁educated
▁at ▁Shaw lands ▁Academy ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁cycl ists ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁cycl ing ▁coaches ▁Category : Sc ott ish ▁Sports ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in duct ees ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Glasgow ▁Category : Trans gender ▁and ▁trans sex ual ▁sports people ▁Category : Trans gender ▁and ▁trans sex ual ▁women ▁Category : T our ▁de ▁France ▁cycl ists ▁Category : T our ▁de ▁Su isse ▁stage ▁winners ▁Category : V u elta ▁a ▁España ▁cycl ists ▁Category : L GBT ▁sports people ▁from ▁Scotland ▁Category : L GBT ▁cycl ists ▁Category : B rit ish ▁Cycl ing ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in duct ees <0x0A> </s> ▁Brian ▁Patrick ▁Herbert ▁( born ▁June ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 9 4 7 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁author ▁who ▁lives ▁in ▁Washington ▁state . ▁He ▁is ▁the ▁elder ▁son ▁of ▁science ▁fiction ▁author ▁Frank ▁Herbert . ▁ ▁Brian ▁Herbert ' s ▁novels ▁include ▁Sid ney ' s ▁Com et , ▁Pr ison ers ▁of ▁Ar ion n , ▁Man ▁of ▁Two ▁World s ▁( written ▁with ▁his ▁father ), ▁and ▁Sud anna ▁Sud anna . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁Herbert ▁wrote ▁a ▁bi ography ▁of ▁his ▁father ▁titled ▁Dream er ▁of ▁D une : ▁The ▁Biography ▁of ▁Frank ▁Herbert . ▁The ▁younger ▁Herbert ▁has ▁edited ▁The ▁Songs ▁of ▁Mu ad ' d ib ▁and ▁the ▁Not ebook s ▁of ▁Frank ▁Herbert ' s ▁D une . ▁Brian ▁has ▁also ▁created ▁a ▁conc ord ance ▁for ▁the
▁D une ▁universe ▁based ▁on ▁his ▁father ' s ▁notes , ▁though , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁younger ▁Herbert , ▁there ▁are ▁no ▁immediate ▁plans ▁to ▁publish ▁it . ▁ ▁Career ▁Herbert ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁collabor ations ▁with ▁author ▁Kevin ▁J . ▁Anderson , ▁with ▁whom ▁he ▁has ▁written ▁multiple ▁pre qu els ▁to ▁his ▁father ' s ▁land mark ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁science ▁fiction ▁novel , ▁D une , ▁all ▁of ▁which ▁have ▁made ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁Best ▁S eller ▁list . ▁The ▁du o ▁began ▁with ▁the ▁tr il og ies ▁P rel ude ▁to ▁D une ▁ ▁( 1 9 9 9 – 2 0 0 1 ) ▁and ▁Leg ends ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 2 – 2 0 0 4 ). ▁Brian ▁and ▁Anderson ▁next ▁published ▁Hun ters ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 6 ) ▁and ▁Sand w orm s ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 7 ), ▁two ▁sequ els ▁to ▁Frank ▁Herbert ' s ▁original ▁D une ▁series ▁after ▁his ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁death , ▁which ▁was ▁left ▁in complete ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁Frank ' s ▁sixth ▁D une ▁novel , ▁Chapter house : ▁D une . ▁These ▁novels ▁are ▁based ▁on ▁an ▁outline ▁and ▁notes ▁left ▁behind ▁by ▁Frank ▁Herbert ▁for ▁what ▁he ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁D une ▁ 7 , ▁his ▁own ▁planned ▁seventh ▁novel ▁in ▁the ▁D une ▁series . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Brian ▁and ▁Anderson ▁began ▁publishing
▁Hero es ▁of ▁D une , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁four ▁novels ▁which ▁take ▁place ▁between ▁the ▁first ▁five ▁novels ▁of ▁Frank ▁Herbert ' s ▁six ▁original ▁D une ▁series , ▁but ▁only ▁two ▁were ▁successfully ▁published ▁and ▁so ▁the ▁inter ▁pre qu els ▁ended ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁Finally , ▁their ▁involvement ▁in ▁expanding ▁D une ▁ended ▁with ▁the ▁Great ▁Schools ▁of ▁D une ▁tr il ogy ▁( 2 0 1 2 - 2 0 1 6 ). ▁Furthermore , ▁Brian , ▁along ▁with ▁Kevin , ▁have ▁also ▁written ▁the ▁D une ▁short ▁stories ▁( 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 7 ). ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁Mar ried ▁since ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁Herbert ▁and ▁his ▁wife , ▁Jan ▁Herbert , ▁have ▁three ▁daughters ▁named ▁Julie , ▁Kim , ▁and ▁Marg aux ▁Bever ly ▁( named ▁after ▁Herbert ' s ▁mother , ▁Bever ly ▁Ann ▁Stuart - Her bert ). ▁Herbert ▁ ▁also ▁has ▁an ▁elder ▁half - s ister , ▁Pen ny ; ▁their ▁younger ▁brother , ▁LGBT ▁rights ▁activ ist ▁and ▁photographer ▁Bruce ▁Cal vin ▁Herbert , ▁died ▁of ▁A IDS ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁ ▁Works ▁ ▁Individual ▁ ▁Classic ▁Come backs ▁( 1 9 8 1 ) ▁ ▁Inc red ible ▁Insurance ▁Cl aim s ▁( 1 9 8 2 ) ▁ ▁Sid ney ' s ▁Com et ▁( 1 9 8 3 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Gar bage ▁Chron icles ▁( 1 9 8 5 ) ▁ ▁Man ▁of
▁Two ▁World s ▁( 1 9 8 6 ) ▁( with ▁Frank ▁Herbert ) ▁ ▁Sud anna , ▁Sud anna ▁( 1 9 8 6 ) ▁ ▁Pr ison ers ▁of ▁Ar ion n ▁( 1 9 8 7 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Race ▁for ▁God ▁( 1 9 9 0 ) ▁ ▁Memory makers ▁( 1 9 9 1 ) ▁( with ▁Marie ▁Land is ) ▁ ▁Blood ▁on ▁the ▁Sun ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁( with ▁Marie ▁Land is ) ▁The ▁Little ▁Green ▁Book ▁of ▁Chairman ▁Rah ma ▁( 2 0 1 4 ) ▁ ▁Time web ▁series ▁ ▁Time web ▁( 2 0 0 6 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Web ▁and ▁the ▁Stars ▁( 2 0 0 7 ) ▁ ▁Web d ancers ▁( 2 0 0 8 ) ▁ ▁Non - f iction ▁ ▁Dream er ▁of ▁D une : ▁The ▁Biography ▁of ▁Frank ▁Herbert ▁( 2 0 0 3 ) ▁ ▁The ▁For got ten ▁Hero es : ▁The ▁Hero ic ▁Story ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Mer chant ▁Marine ▁( 2 0 0 4 ) ▁ ▁D une ▁books ▁( all ▁with ▁Kevin ▁J . ▁Anderson ) ▁ ▁P rel ude ▁to ▁D une ▁tr il ogy ▁ ▁D une : ▁House ▁At re ides ▁( 1 9 9 9 ) ▁ ▁D une : ▁House ▁H ark on nen ▁( 2 0 0 0 ) ▁ ▁D une : ▁House ▁Cor r ino ▁( 2 0 0 1 ) ▁ ▁Leg ends ▁of ▁D une ▁ ▁D
une : ▁The ▁Butler ian ▁J ih ad ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁ ▁D une : ▁The ▁Machine ▁Cr us ade ▁( 2 0 0 3 ) ▁ ▁D une : ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁Cor rin ▁( 2 0 0 4 ) ▁ ▁Collection ▁( also ▁with ▁Frank ▁Herbert ) ▁ ▁The ▁Road ▁to ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 5 ) ▁ ▁D une ▁ 7 ▁ ▁Hun ters ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 6 ) ▁ ▁Sand w orm s ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 7 ) ▁ ▁Hero es ▁of ▁D une ▁ ▁Paul ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 8 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Wind s ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 0 9 ) ▁ ▁The ▁Th r one ▁of ▁D une ▁( C anc elled ) ▁( Origin ally ▁titled ▁Ir ul an ▁of ▁D une ) ▁ ▁Let o ▁of ▁D une ▁( C anc elled ) ▁( Title ▁may ▁have ▁changed ▁to ▁Golden ▁Path ▁of ▁D une ) ▁ ▁Great ▁Schools ▁of ▁D une ▁ ▁Sister hood ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 1 2 ) ▁ ▁M ent ats ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 1 4 ) ▁ ▁Nav ig ators ▁of ▁D une ▁( 2 0 1 6 ) ▁ ▁D une ▁short ▁stories ▁ ▁" D une : ▁A ▁Wh is per ▁of ▁Cal ad an ▁Se as " ▁ ▁" D une : ▁Hun ting ▁H ark on n ens " ▁ ▁" D
une : ▁Wh ipping ▁M ek " ▁ ▁" D une : ▁The ▁F aces ▁of ▁a ▁Mart yr " ▁ ▁" D une : ▁Sea ▁Child " ▁ ▁" D une : ▁Tre asure ▁in ▁the ▁Sand " ▁ ▁Hell hole ▁series ▁with ▁Kevin ▁J . ▁Anderson ▁Hell hole ▁( 2 0 1 1 ) ▁Hell hole ▁Aw aken ing ▁( 2 0 1 3 ) ▁Hell hole ▁In fer no ▁( 2 0 1 4 ) ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁, ▁Authors @ Google ▁video ▁talk . ▁October ▁ 7 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁ ▁Brian ▁Herbert ▁Inter view ▁with ▁A MC tv . com ▁Modern ▁S igned ▁Books ▁Blog T alk Radio ▁Inter view ▁with ▁Rod ger ▁Nich ols ▁about ▁The ▁Little ▁Green ▁Book ▁of ▁Chairman ▁Rah ma ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 4 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁novel ists ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁novel ists ▁Category : American ▁male ▁novel ists ▁Category : American ▁science ▁fiction ▁writers ▁Category : American ▁book ▁ed itors ▁Category : Writ ers ▁from ▁B ain bridge ▁Island , ▁Washington ▁Category : Writ ers ▁from ▁Seattle ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁American ▁male ▁writers ▁Category : N ov el ists ▁from ▁Washington ▁( state ) <0x0A> </s> ▁J éré my ▁Ber th od ▁( born ▁ 2 4 ▁April ▁ 1
9 8 4 ▁in ▁T ass in - la - Dem i - L une , ▁Rh ô ne ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁French ▁professional ▁football er . ▁ ▁Football ▁career ▁A ▁product ▁of ▁the ▁Olymp ique ▁Ly onna is ▁youth ▁academ y , ▁Ber th od ▁made ▁his ▁first ▁team ▁debut ▁on ▁ 1 3 ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 – 1 ▁home ▁draw ▁against ▁A J ▁A ux erre . ▁He ▁would ▁go ▁on ▁to ▁play ▁a ▁somewhat ▁important ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁team ' s ▁four ▁consecutive ▁L igue ▁ 1 ▁titles ▁( with ▁the ▁player ' s ▁presence ), ▁and ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁regular ▁selection ▁for ▁the ▁France ▁U - 2 1 ▁squad ▁during ▁that ▁time frame . ▁ ▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁l ' OL ▁agreed ▁to ▁transfer ▁Ber th od ▁to ▁AS ▁Mon aco ▁FC ▁for ▁a ▁fee ▁of ▁€ 2 m . ▁He ▁made ▁his ▁Mon aco ▁debut ▁in ▁the ▁season ' s ▁second ▁round , ▁a ▁ 1 – 2 ▁defeat ▁at ▁FC ▁L orient ▁– ▁picking ▁up ▁a ▁yellow ▁card ▁in ▁the ▁process ▁– ▁and ▁finished ▁the ▁season ▁with ▁ 1 2 ▁league ▁cont ests ▁played . ▁ ▁After ▁an ▁un im press ive ▁year ▁at ▁Mon aco , ▁Ber th od ▁made ▁a ▁summer ▁move ▁to ▁A ux erre . ▁Over ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁four ▁top ▁flight ▁seasons ▁he ▁was ▁used ▁solely ▁as ▁a ▁backup , ▁being ▁released ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 2 0
1 1 – 1 2 ▁as ▁his ▁team ▁ranked ▁ 2 0 th ▁and ▁last . ▁ ▁On ▁ 4 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁aged ▁nearly ▁ 2 9 , ▁Ber th od ▁moved ▁abroad ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time , ▁signing ▁a ▁two - year ▁contract ▁with ▁Norweg ian ▁club ▁Sar ps borg ▁ 0 8 . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 9 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁he ▁re - jo ined ▁ly on ▁as ▁semi - am ateur ▁to ▁help ▁team ▁with ▁many ▁injuries . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁Ber th od ' s ▁younger ▁brother , ▁Alexand re , ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁football er ▁( and ▁a ▁def ender ), ▁and ▁also ▁briefly ▁represented ▁Ly on . ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁ ▁Club ▁ ▁Olymp ique ▁ly onna is ▁ ▁Tro ph ée ▁des ▁Champions : ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁ ▁L igue ▁ 1 : ▁L igue ▁ 1 ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁ ▁International ▁ ▁France ▁U - 1 7 ▁ ▁U - 1 7 ▁World ▁Champion : ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁ ▁Career ▁statistics ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁T ass in - la - Dem i - L une
▁Category : F rench ▁football ers ▁Category : Fr ance ▁youth ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Fr ance ▁under - 2 1 ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁defend ers ▁Category : O lymp ique ▁Ly onna is ▁players ▁Category : AS ▁Mon aco ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : A J ▁A ux erre ▁players ▁Category : S ar ps borg ▁ 0 8 ▁F F ▁players ▁Category : L igue ▁ 1 ▁players ▁Category : El ites er ien ▁players ▁Category : F rench ▁exp atri ate ▁football ers ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁Norway <0x0A> </s> ▁This ▁article ▁is ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁all ▁ 2 6 ▁episodes ▁of ▁Future ▁Boy ▁Con an , ▁an ▁anime ▁television ▁series ▁by ▁N ip pon ▁An imation . ▁The ▁series ▁began ▁air ing ▁in ▁Japan ▁on ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁at ▁ 7 : 3 0 pm ▁on ▁the ▁N H K ▁TV ▁network ▁in ▁Japan . ▁It ▁ran ▁for ▁about ▁seven ▁months , ▁with ▁episode ▁ 2 6 ▁air ing ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁October ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁ ▁E pis odes ▁{ \| class =" wik itable " ▁style =" width : 1 0 0 %; ▁margin : auto ; ▁background : # FF F ;" ▁\| - ▁! ▁width =" 3 0 " ▁\| ▁# ▁!! ▁Title ▁!! ▁width =" 1 5 0 " ▁\| ▁Original ▁air ▁date ▁ ▁{{ E pisode ▁list ▁\| ▁Episode Number ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁ 2
6 ▁\| ▁Title ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁Den ou ement ▁\| ▁Trans lit Title ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁D aid an ' en ▁\| ▁Native Title ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁ 大 <0xE5> <0x9B> <0xA3> <0xE5> <0x86> <0x86> ▁\| ▁Native Title Lang Code ▁= ▁ja ▁ ▁\| ▁Original Air Date ▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁ ▁\| ▁Short Summary ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁= ▁On ▁its ▁way ▁to ▁High ▁Harbor , ▁the ▁passenger ▁ship ▁rec o vers ▁Con an , ▁Dy ce ▁and ▁Jim sy ▁from ▁the ▁sea ; ▁and ▁after ▁asking ▁Con an ▁to ▁look ▁after ▁L ana , ▁Dr . ▁La o ▁dies ▁cont ently . ▁S omet ime ▁later , ▁the ▁old ▁and ▁new ▁inhabitants ▁of ▁High ▁Harbor ▁conduct ▁a ▁double ▁celebration ▁surrounding ▁Dy ce ▁and ▁Mons ley ' s ▁wedding ▁and ▁the ▁rel a unch ▁of ▁the ▁Barr ac uda . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁sett lers , ▁including ▁Con an , ▁L ana , ▁Jim sy , ▁T era , ▁Luke , ▁Mons ley ▁and ▁the ▁Barr ac uda ''' s ▁crew , ▁leave ▁to ▁establish ▁a ▁new ▁colony ▁on ▁Rem nant ▁Island , ▁now ▁expanded ▁by ▁the ▁cat ac ly sm ▁into ▁a ▁new ▁continent . ▁}} ▁\| } ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁General ▁▁▁▁ ▁Specific ▁ ▁See ▁also Future ▁Boy ▁Con an '' ▁ ▁Future ▁Boy ▁Con an <0x0A> </s> ▁Operation ▁Term ite ▁took ▁place ▁during ▁the ▁Mal ay an ▁Emer gency . ▁It ▁involved ▁extensive ▁attacks ▁on ▁commun ist ▁camps , ▁dropping ▁over ▁ 2 0 0 ▁British ▁troops ▁into ▁the ▁j ungle . ▁Communist ▁casual ties
▁were ▁low ▁but ▁many ▁camps ▁were ▁destroyed . ▁ ▁The ▁R AA F ▁flew ▁in ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁operation . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Document ary ▁about ▁the ▁operation ▁ ▁Category : W ars ▁involving ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Category : Mal ay an ▁Emer gency ▁Category : J uly ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁events ▁Category : 1 9 5 4 ▁in ▁Mal aya <0x0A> </s> ▁S aul ces - Mon cl in ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁Ar den nes ▁department ▁in ▁northern ▁France . ▁ ▁Pop ulation ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Commun es ▁of ▁the ▁Ar den nes ▁department ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁IN SEE ▁ ▁Category : Comm unes ▁of ▁Ar den nes ▁( de part ment ) ▁Category : Ar den nes ▁communes ▁articles ▁needing ▁translation ▁from ▁French ▁Wikipedia <0x0A> </s> ▁Min is ink ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁▁ ▁Min is ink ▁- ▁a ▁lo os ely ▁defined ▁region ▁of ▁the ▁Upper ▁Del aware ▁Valley ▁in ▁north western ▁New ▁Jersey , ▁nort he astern ▁Pennsylvania , ▁and ▁around ▁Port ▁J erv is , ▁New ▁York , ▁first ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 9 0 s ▁Min is ink , ▁New ▁York ▁Min is ink ▁Ford , ▁New ▁York ▁Min is ink ▁Valley ▁Central ▁School ▁District ▁Min is ink ▁Valley ▁High _ Sch ool ▁ ▁Min is ink ▁Ar che ological ▁Site ▁- ▁A ▁Native ▁American ▁site ▁in ▁Sus sex ▁County , ▁New ▁Jersey ▁connected ▁to ▁Mun see ▁( Len ape ) ▁settlement ▁and ▁first ▁contact ▁with
▁European ▁sett lers ▁ ▁Battle ▁of ▁Min is ink ▁- ▁a ▁ 1 7 7 9 ▁battle ▁in ▁the ▁American ▁Revolution ary ▁War ▁ ▁Min is ink ▁Ang le ▁- ▁a ▁colonial ▁land ▁grant ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 8 th ▁Century ▁New ▁York ▁ ▁Min is ink ▁Pat ent ▁- ▁a ▁colonial ▁land ▁grant ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 8 th ▁Century ▁New ▁York <0x0A> </s> ▁Big ▁Night ▁is ▁the ▁nin th ▁studio ▁album ▁released ▁by ▁British - Austral ian ▁singer - s ong writer ▁Peter ▁Andre . ▁The ▁album ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁and ▁was ▁preced ed ▁by ▁the ▁lead ▁single , ▁" K id ". ▁ ▁Background ▁Andre ▁wanted ▁to ▁take ▁another ▁musical ▁direction ▁with ▁this ▁swing ▁music ▁album . ▁Peter ▁co - w rote ▁all ▁ 1 1 ▁songs ▁with ▁singer - s ong writer ▁Ste v ie ▁App leton . ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁he ▁released ▁the ▁first ▁song ▁off ▁this ▁album , ▁" K id ", ▁which ▁was ▁chosen ▁for ▁the ▁Dream Work s ▁animated ▁movie ▁Mr . ▁Pe ab ody ▁& ▁Sher man . ▁ ▁Kid ▁was ▁also ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁Aut umn ▁I cel and ▁TV ▁commercial s . ▁ ▁Crit ical ▁reception ▁ ▁C ary s ▁Jones ▁wrote ▁for ▁Entertainment - Focus ▁that ▁Big ▁Night ▁was ▁" a ▁really ▁great ▁effort ▁from ▁Peter ▁Andre ▁and ▁[ was ] ▁probably ▁the ▁best ▁album ▁that ▁he ▁[ had ] ▁ever ▁released " ▁and ▁Jan elle
▁T uck not t ▁of ▁Ren owned For Sound . com ▁claimed ▁that ▁" le aping ▁into ▁the ▁Big ▁Band / Sw ing / S oul / Bl ues ▁direction ▁of ▁Big ▁Night ▁[ was ] ▁a ▁risk ▁which ▁[ had ] ▁paid ▁off ▁nicely ▁for ▁Peter ▁Andre ". ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : P eter ▁Andre ▁albums ▁Category : 2 0 1 4 ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 ▁is ▁a ▁d warf ▁bar red ▁ir regular ▁galaxy ▁located ▁around ▁ 1 0 ▁million ▁light - year s ▁ ▁away ▁in ▁the ▁const ell ation ▁Can es ▁Ven atic i . ▁ ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 ▁is ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁M 9 4 ▁Group . ▁ ▁Character istics ▁ ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 ▁is ▁both ▁larger ▁and ▁br ighter ▁than ▁the ▁Small ▁Mag ellan ic ▁Cloud ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁a ▁star bur st ▁galaxy , ▁with ▁the ▁largest ▁star - forming ▁regions ▁( N GC ▁ 4 2 1 4 - I ▁and ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 - II ) ▁in ▁the ▁galaxy ' s ▁center . ▁Of ▁the ▁two , ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 - I ▁contains ▁a ▁super ▁star ▁cluster ▁rich ▁in ▁Wolf - Ray et ▁stars ▁and ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 - II ▁is ▁younger ▁( age ▁less ▁than ▁ 3 ▁million ▁years ), ▁including ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁star ▁clusters ▁and ▁stellar ▁associations . ▁ ▁NGC ▁ 4
2 1 4 ▁also ▁has ▁two ▁older ▁super ▁star ▁clusters , ▁both ▁with ▁an ▁age ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 ▁million ▁years ▁and ▁respective ▁masses ▁of ▁ 2 . 6 * 1 0 . 5 ▁and ▁ 1 . 5 * 1 0 6 ▁solar ▁masses . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 3 6 ▁- ▁a ▁similar ▁ir regular ▁galaxy ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁H ubble ▁Heritage ▁site : ▁Det ailed ▁information ▁on ▁the ▁H ST ▁picture ▁of ▁ 4 2 1 4 ▁ ▁Galaxy ▁NGC ▁ 4 2 1 4 : ▁A ▁star ▁formation ▁laboratory ▁E SA / H ubble ▁photo ▁release ▁ ▁Category : D warf ▁galaxies ▁Category : Ir regular ▁galaxies ▁Category : Bar red ▁ir regular ▁galaxies ▁Category : Can es ▁Ven atic i ▁ 4 2 1 4 ▁ 0 7 2 7 8 ▁ 3 9 2 2 5 <0x0A> </s> ▁G j erg j ▁K ast ri oti ▁( 6 ▁May ▁ 1 4 0 5 ▁– ▁ 1 7 ▁January ▁ 1 4 6 8 ), ▁known ▁as ▁Sk ander b eg ▁( ▁or ▁Sk ë nder be u ▁from ▁), ▁was ▁an ▁Alban ian ▁noble man ▁and ▁military ▁commander ▁who ▁led ▁a ▁rebell ion ▁against ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁in ▁what ▁is ▁today ▁Alban ia , ▁North ▁M aced onia , ▁Kos ovo , ▁ ▁Mont en eg ro ▁and ▁Ser bia . ▁ ▁A ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁noble ▁K ast ri oti ▁family , ▁he ▁was
▁sent ▁as ▁a ▁host age ▁to ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁court . ▁He ▁was ▁educated ▁there ▁and ▁entered ▁the ▁service ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁s ultan ▁for ▁the ▁next ▁twenty ▁years . ▁His ▁rise ▁through ▁the ▁ranks ▁cul min ated ▁in ▁his ▁appointment ▁as ▁san j ak bey ▁( govern or ) ▁of ▁the ▁San j ak ▁of ▁D ib ra ▁in ▁ 1 4 4 0 . ▁In ▁ 1 4 4 3 , ▁ ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ni š , ▁he ▁desert ed ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁rul er ▁of ▁K ru j ë , ▁S vet igr ad , ▁and ▁Mod ri č . ▁In ▁ 1 4 4 4 , ▁the ▁council ▁of ▁fe ud al ▁l ords ▁that ▁histor ians ▁would ▁later ▁call ▁the ▁League ▁of ▁Le zh ë ▁named ▁Sk ander b eg ▁its ▁chief ▁military ▁commander ▁( first ▁among ▁equals ). ▁The ▁league ▁consolid ated ▁nob ility ▁throughout ▁what ▁is ▁today ▁Northern ▁Alban ia , ▁under ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁V , ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁captain ▁general . ▁Thus , ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁Alban ia ▁was ▁united ▁under ▁a ▁single ▁leader . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁rebell ion ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁general ▁up r ising ▁of ▁Alban ians , ▁because ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁gain ▁support ▁in ▁the ▁Ven et ian - cont rolled ▁north ▁or ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman - cont rolled ▁south . ▁His ▁followers ▁included , ▁apart ▁from ▁Alban ians , ▁also ▁Sl av s ,
▁V l ach s , ▁and ▁Gree ks . ▁Despite ▁this ▁military ▁valor ▁he ▁was ▁not ▁able ▁to ▁do ▁more ▁than ▁to ▁hold ▁his ▁own ▁poss essions ▁within ▁the ▁very ▁small ▁area ▁in ▁today ' s ▁northern ▁Alban ia ▁where ▁almost ▁all ▁of ▁his ▁vict ories ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁took ▁place . ▁His ▁rebell ion ▁was ▁a ▁national ▁rebell ion . ▁The ▁resistance ▁led ▁by ▁him ▁brought ▁Alban ians ▁of ▁different ▁regions ▁and ▁dialect s ▁together ▁in ▁a ▁common ▁cause , ▁helping ▁define ▁the ▁ethnic ▁identity ▁of ▁the ▁Alban ians . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁military ▁skills ▁presented ▁a ▁major ▁obst acle ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁expansion , ▁and ▁many ▁in ▁western ▁Europe ▁considered ▁him ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁model ▁of ▁Christian ▁resistance ▁against ▁Muslims . ▁For ▁ 2 5 ▁years , ▁from ▁ 1 4 4 3 ▁to ▁ 1 4 6 8 , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 - man ▁army ▁mar ched ▁through ▁Ott oman ▁territory , ▁winning ▁against ▁consistently ▁larger ▁and ▁better - sup plied ▁Ott oman ▁forces . ▁He ▁was ▁greatly ▁adm ired ▁for ▁this . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁always ▁signed ▁himself ▁in ▁ ▁(" L ord ▁of ▁Alban ia "), ▁and ▁claimed ▁no ▁other ▁titles ▁but ▁that ▁in ▁surviving ▁documents . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁through ▁the ▁Treat y ▁of ▁Ga eta , ▁he ▁recognized ▁de ▁j ure ▁the ▁sovere ig nt y ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Nap les ▁over ▁Alban ia
, ▁ensuring ▁a ▁protective ▁alliance , ▁although ▁he ▁remained ▁a ▁de ▁fact o ▁independent ▁rul er . ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 0 – 6 1 , ▁he ▁supported ▁ ▁Ferd inand ▁I ▁of ▁Nap les ▁in ▁his ▁wars ▁against ▁John ▁of ▁An j ou ▁and ▁the ▁bar ons ▁who ▁supported ▁John ' s ▁claim ▁to ▁the ▁throne ▁of ▁Nap les . ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 3 , ▁he ▁became ▁the ▁chief ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁cr us ading ▁forces ▁of ▁Pope ▁P ius ▁II , ▁but ▁the ▁Pope ▁died ▁while ▁the ▁arm ies ▁were ▁still ▁gathering . ▁Together ▁with ▁Ven et ians , ▁he ▁fought ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁during ▁the ▁Ott oman – V en et ian ▁War ▁( 1 4 6 3 – 1 4 7 9 ) ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 4 6 8 . ▁He ▁ranks ▁high ▁in ▁the ▁military ▁history ▁of ▁that ▁time ▁as ▁the ▁most ▁persistent — and ▁ever - v ict orious — op ponent ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁in ▁its ▁hey day . ▁ ▁Name ▁ ▁The ▁original , ▁Latin ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁surn ame , ▁Cast ri oti ▁( also ▁as ▁Cast ri oth i ▁in ▁ 1 4 0 8 ), ▁is ▁rendered ▁in ▁modern ▁Alban ian ▁histor i ography ▁as ▁K ast ri oti . ▁In ▁correspondence ▁with ▁Sl av ic ▁regions , ▁ Đ ura đ ▁and ▁ Đ or đ e ▁are ▁used ▁for ▁his ▁first ▁name . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5
0 ▁his ▁full ▁name ▁was ▁written ▁in ▁Old ▁Sl av ic ▁Cyr ill ic ▁as ▁ Đ ura đ ▁K ast ri ot ▁( ). ▁ ▁G j erg j ▁is ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁equivalent ▁of ▁the ▁name ▁George . ▁Charles ▁du ▁F res ne ▁( 1 6 1 0 – 1 6 8 8 ), ▁writing ▁in ▁Latin , ▁used ▁Georg ius ▁Cast ri ot us ▁Sc ander b eg us ▁in ▁his ▁work . ▁C . ▁C . ▁Moore ▁in ▁his ▁bi ographical ▁work ▁on ▁Sk ander b eg ▁( 1 8 5 0 ) ▁used ▁Cast ri ot . ▁The ▁surn ame ▁is ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁Latin ▁cas tr um ▁via ▁the ▁Greek ▁word ▁ κ ά σ τ ρ ο ▁( ). ▁According ▁to ▁F an ▁N oli , ▁the ▁surn ame ▁is ▁a ▁to pon ym , ▁of ▁K ast ri ot ▁in ▁modern ▁nort he astern ▁Alban ia . ▁ ▁The ▁Ott oman ▁Tur ks ▁gave ▁him ▁the ▁name ▁ ا س ک ن د ر ▁ ب گ ▁ İ sk ender ▁be y ▁or ▁ İ sk ender ▁be ğ , ▁meaning ▁" L ord ▁Alexander ", ▁or ▁" Lead er ▁Alexander ", ▁which ▁has ▁been ▁rendered ▁as ▁Sc ander b eg ▁or ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁the ▁English ▁versions ▁of ▁his ▁bi ograph ies , ▁and ▁Sk ë nder be u ▁( or ▁Sk ë nder be j ) ▁is ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁version . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 4 5 0 ▁letter
▁in ▁Ser bian ▁and ▁Cyr ill ic ▁sent ▁to ▁R ag usa ▁by ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁he ▁was ▁signed ▁as ▁" С ке дер ь ▁бе г ь " ▁( Sk eder ▁beg ), ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 9 ▁as ▁" С к ен дь рь ▁бе г ь " ▁( Sk ender ▁beg ). ▁Latin ized ▁in ▁Bar let i ' s ▁version ▁as ▁Sc ander b eg i ▁and ▁translated ▁into ▁English ▁as ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁the ▁combined ▁app ell ative ▁is ▁assumed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁a ▁comparison ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁military ▁skill ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great . ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 3 , ▁his ▁name ▁was ▁written ▁in ▁Latin ▁as ▁Z or zi ▁Cast ri oti . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁ ▁There ▁have ▁been ▁many ▁theories ▁on ▁the ▁place ▁where ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁born . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁Sk ander b eg ▁bi ograph ers , ▁Fr ash ë ri , ▁has , ▁among ▁other , ▁interpreted ▁G jon ▁M uz aka ' s ▁book ▁of ▁gene al og ies , ▁sources ▁of ▁R aff a ele ▁M aff ei ▁(" il ▁Vol ter r ano "; ▁ 1 4 5 1 – 1 5 2 2 ), ▁and ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁def ter ▁( c ensus ) ▁of ▁ 1 4 6 7 , ▁and ▁placed ▁the ▁birth ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁the ▁small ▁village ▁of ▁Sin ë , ▁one ▁of
▁the ▁two ▁villages ▁owned ▁by ▁his ▁grandfather ▁Pal ▁K ast ri oti . ▁F an ▁N oli ' s ▁placement ▁of ▁the ▁year ▁of ▁birth ▁in ▁ 1 4 0 5 ▁is ▁now ▁largely ▁agreed ▁upon , ▁after ▁earlier ▁disag re ements , ▁and ▁lack ▁of ▁birth ▁documents ▁for ▁him ▁and ▁his ▁siblings . ▁His ▁father ▁G jon ▁K ast ri oti ▁held ▁a ▁territory ▁between ▁Le zh ë ▁and ▁P riz ren ▁that ▁included ▁Mat , ▁M ird it ë ▁and ▁D ib ë r ▁in ▁north - cent ral ▁Alban ia . ▁His ▁mother ▁was ▁V ois ava , ▁whose ▁origin ▁is ▁disput ed . ▁One ▁view ▁holds ▁that ▁she ▁was ▁a ▁Sl av ic ▁princess ▁from ▁the ▁P olog ▁region , ▁which ▁has ▁been ▁interpreted ▁as ▁her ▁being ▁a ▁possible ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Ser bian ▁Br ank ović ▁family ▁or ▁a ▁local ▁Bulgar ian ▁noble ▁family . ▁The ▁other ▁view ▁is ▁that ▁she ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁M uz aka ▁family , ▁daughter ▁of ▁Domin icus ▁alias ▁Mon cin us ▁a ▁relative ▁of ▁M uz aka ▁house . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁three ▁older ▁brothers , ▁Stan isha , ▁Rep osh ▁and ▁Constant ine , ▁and ▁five ▁sisters , ▁Mar a , ▁J el ena , ▁Angel ina , ▁V l aj ka ▁and ▁Mam ica . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁ge opol it ical ▁context s ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁changed ▁alleg iances ▁and ▁relig ions ▁when ▁all ied ▁to ▁Ven ice ▁as ▁a
▁Catholic ▁and ▁Ser bia ▁as ▁an ▁Orth odox ▁Christian . ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁later ▁became ▁a ▁v ass al ▁of ▁the ▁S ultan ▁since ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁century , ▁and , ▁as ▁a ▁consequence , ▁paid ▁t ribute ▁and ▁provided ▁military ▁services ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁( like ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁An k ara ▁ 1 4 0 2 ). ▁In ▁ 1 4 0 9 , ▁he ▁sent ▁his ▁el dest ▁son , ▁Stan isha , ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁S ultan ' s ▁host age . ▁According ▁to ▁Mar in ▁Bar let i , ▁a ▁primary ▁source , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁his ▁three ▁older ▁brothers , ▁Rep osh , ▁K ost and in , ▁and ▁Stan isha , ▁were ▁taken ▁by ▁the ▁S ultan ▁to ▁his ▁court ▁as ▁host ages . ▁However , ▁according ▁to ▁documents , ▁besides ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁only ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁brothers ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁probably ▁Stan isha , ▁was ▁taken ▁host age ▁and ▁had ▁been ▁con script ed ▁into ▁the ▁Dev ş ir me ▁system , ▁a ▁military ▁inst itute ▁that ▁en rolled ▁Christian ▁boys , ▁converted ▁them ▁to ▁Islam , ▁and ▁trained ▁them ▁to ▁become ▁military ▁officers . ▁Recent ▁histor ians ▁are ▁of ▁the ▁opinion ▁that ▁while ▁Stan isha ▁might ▁have ▁been ▁con script ed ▁at ▁a ▁young ▁age , ▁and ▁had ▁to ▁go ▁through ▁the ▁Dev ş ir me , ▁this ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁case ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg
, ▁who ▁is ▁assumed ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁sent ▁host age ▁to ▁the ▁S ultan ▁by ▁his ▁father ▁only ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 1 8 . ▁It ▁was ▁custom ary ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁that ▁a ▁local ▁ch ie ft ain , ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁S ultan , ▁would ▁send ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁children ▁to ▁the ▁S ultan ' s ▁court , ▁where ▁the ▁child ▁would ▁be ▁a ▁host age ▁for ▁an ▁un spec ified ▁time ; ▁this ▁way , ▁the ▁S ultan ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁exercise ▁control ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁ruled ▁by ▁the ▁host age ' s ▁father . ▁The ▁treatment ▁of ▁the ▁host ages ▁was ▁not ▁bad . ▁Far ▁from ▁being ▁held ▁in ▁a ▁prison , ▁the ▁host ages ▁were ▁usually ▁sent ▁to ▁the ▁best ▁military ▁schools ▁and ▁trained ▁to ▁become ▁future ▁military ▁leaders . ▁ ▁Ott oman ▁service ▁ 1 4 2 3 ▁to ▁ 1 4 4 3 ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁sent ▁as ▁a ▁host age ▁to ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁court ▁in ▁Ad rian ople ▁( E dir ne ) ▁in ▁ 1 4 1 5 , ▁and ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 4 2 3 . ▁It ▁is ▁assumed ▁that ▁he ▁remained ▁at ▁Mur ad ▁II ' s ▁court ▁as ▁i ç ▁o ğ lan ▁for ▁a ▁maximum ▁of ▁three ▁years , ▁where ▁he ▁received ▁military ▁training ▁at ▁E nder un . ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁existing ▁record ▁of ▁George ' s ▁name ▁is ▁the ▁First ▁Act ▁of ▁Hil and ar ▁from ▁ 1 4
2 6 , ▁when ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁and ▁his ▁four ▁sons ▁don ated ▁the ▁right ▁to ▁the ▁proceed s ▁from ▁taxes ▁collected ▁from ▁two ▁villages ▁in ▁M aced onia ▁( in ▁modern ▁M av ro vo ▁and ▁R ost u š a , ▁North ▁M aced onia ) ▁to ▁the ▁Ser bian ▁monaster y ▁of ▁Hil and ar . ▁After wards , ▁between ▁ 1 4 2 6 ▁and ▁ 1 4 3 1 , ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁and ▁his ▁sons , ▁with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁Stan isha , ▁purchased ▁four ▁ad el ph ates ▁( right s ▁to ▁res ide ▁on ▁mon astic ▁territory ▁and ▁receive ▁subs id ies ▁from ▁mon astic ▁resources ) ▁to ▁the ▁Saint ▁George ▁tower ▁and ▁to ▁some ▁property ▁within ▁the ▁monaster y ▁as ▁stated ▁in ▁the ▁Second ▁Act ▁of ▁Hil and ar . ▁ ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁E nder un , ▁the ▁s ultan ▁granted ▁Sk ander b eg ▁control ▁over ▁one ▁tim ar ▁( land ▁grant ) ▁which ▁was ▁near ▁the ▁territor ies ▁controlled ▁by ▁his ▁father . ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁concerned ▁that ▁the ▁s ultan ▁might ▁order ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁occup y ▁his ▁territory ▁and ▁informed ▁Ven ice ▁about ▁this ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 4 2 8 . ▁In ▁the ▁same ▁year ▁John ▁had ▁to ▁seek ▁forg iveness ▁from ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁Senate ▁because ▁Sk ander b eg ▁participated ▁in ▁Ott oman ▁military ▁campaigns ▁against ▁Christians . ▁In ▁ 1 4 3 0 , ▁John ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁battle ▁by
▁the ▁Ott oman ▁governor ▁of ▁Sk op je , ▁I sh ak ▁Bey , ▁and ▁as ▁a ▁result , ▁his ▁territor ial ▁poss essions ▁were ▁extremely ▁reduced . ▁Later ▁that ▁year , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁continued ▁fighting ▁for ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁in ▁his ▁exped itions , ▁and ▁gained ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁sip ah i . ▁Several ▁scholars ▁have ▁assumed ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁given ▁a ▁f ief dom ▁in ▁Nik opol ▁in ▁northern ▁Bulgar ia , ▁because ▁a ▁certain ▁" I sk ander ▁be y " ▁is ▁mentioned ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 4 3 0 ▁document ▁holding ▁f iefs ▁there . ▁Although ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁summon ed ▁home ▁by ▁his ▁relatives ▁when ▁G j erg j ▁A rian iti ▁and ▁Andrew ▁Th op ia ▁along ▁with ▁other ▁ch iefs ▁from ▁the ▁region ▁between ▁V lor ë ▁and ▁Sh k od ë r ▁organized ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁revol t ▁of ▁ 1 4 3 2 – 1 4 3 6 , ▁he ▁did ▁nothing , ▁remaining ▁loyal ▁to ▁the ▁s ultan . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 3 7 – 3 8 , ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁sub a ş i ▁( govern or ) ▁of ▁the ▁K ru j ë ▁sub a ş il ik ▁before ▁H iz ir ▁Bey ▁was ▁again ▁appointed ▁to ▁that ▁position ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 4 3 8 . ▁Until ▁May ▁ 1 4 3 8 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁controlled ▁a ▁relatively ▁large ▁tim ar ▁( of ▁the ▁vil ay et ▁of
▁D h imit ë r ▁Jon ima ) ▁composed ▁of ▁nine ▁villages ▁which ▁previously ▁belonged ▁to ▁his ▁father ▁( register ed ▁as ▁" J ovan ' s ▁land ", ▁). ▁According ▁to ▁ İ nal c ı k , ▁at ▁that ▁time ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁referred ▁to ▁in ▁Ott oman ▁documents ▁as ▁J uv an ▁o gl u ▁I sk ender ▁be y . ▁It ▁was ▁because ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁display ▁of ▁military ▁mer it ▁in ▁several ▁Ott oman ▁campaigns , ▁that ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁( r . ▁ 1 4 2 1 – 5 1 ) ▁had ▁given ▁him ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁val i . ▁At ▁that ▁time , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁leading ▁a ▁caval ry ▁unit ▁of ▁ 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men . ▁ ▁After ▁his ▁brother ▁Rep osh ' s ▁death ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁July ▁ 1 4 3 1 ▁and ▁the ▁later ▁deaths ▁of ▁K ost and in ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁father ▁( who ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 4 3 7 ), ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁his ▁surviving ▁brother ▁Stan isha ▁maintained ▁the ▁relations ▁that ▁their ▁father ▁had ▁with ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁R ag usa ▁and ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Ven ice ; ▁in ▁ 1 4 3 8 ▁and ▁ 1 4 3 9 , ▁they ▁sustained ▁their ▁father ' s ▁privile ges ▁with ▁those ▁states . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 4 3 8 – 4 3 ▁period , ▁he ▁is ▁thought
▁to ▁have ▁been ▁fighting ▁alongside ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁their ▁European ▁campaigns , ▁mostly ▁against ▁the ▁Christian ▁forces ▁led ▁by ▁Jan os ▁Hun y adi . ▁In ▁ 1 4 4 0 ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁appointed ▁san j ak bey ▁of ▁D ib ra . ▁ ▁During ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Alban ia ▁as ▁Ott oman ▁governor , ▁he ▁maintained ▁close ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁population ▁in ▁his ▁father ' s ▁former ▁properties ▁and ▁also ▁with ▁other ▁Alban ian ▁noble ▁families . ▁ ▁Reb ell ion ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁ ▁R ise ▁ ▁In ▁early ▁November ▁ 1 4 4 3 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁desert ed ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ni š , ▁while ▁fighting ▁against ▁the ▁cr us aders ▁of ▁John ▁Hun y adi . ▁According ▁to ▁some ▁earlier ▁sources , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁desert ed ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁K un ov ica ▁on ▁ 2 ▁January ▁ 1 4 4 4 . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁quit ▁the ▁field ▁along ▁with ▁ 3 0 0 ▁other ▁Alban ians ▁serving ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army . ▁He ▁immediately ▁led ▁his ▁men ▁to ▁K ru j ë , ▁where ▁he ▁arrived ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁November , ▁and ▁by ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁a ▁for ged ▁letter ▁from ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁to ▁the ▁Governor ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁he ▁became ▁lord ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁that ▁very ▁day . ▁To ▁reinforce ▁his ▁intention ▁of
▁gaining ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁domains ▁of ▁Z eta , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁pro claimed ▁himself ▁the ▁he ir ▁of ▁the ▁Bal š ić ▁family . ▁After ▁capt uring ▁some ▁less ▁important ▁surrounding ▁cast les ▁( Pet re la , ▁Pre z ë , ▁G uri ▁i ▁B ard h ë , ▁S vet igr ad , ▁Mod ri č , ▁and ▁others ) ▁he ▁raised , ▁according ▁to ▁Fr ash ë ri , ▁a ▁red ▁standard ▁with ▁a ▁black ▁double - headed ▁e agle ▁on ▁K ru j ë ▁( Al ban ia ▁uses ▁a ▁similar ▁flag ▁as ▁its ▁national ▁symbol ▁to ▁this ▁day ). ▁Sk ander b eg ▁abandoned ▁Islam , ▁re verted ▁to ▁Christianity , ▁and ▁ordered ▁others ▁who ▁had ▁embr aced ▁Islam ▁or ▁were ▁Muslim ▁colon ists ▁to ▁convert ▁to ▁Christianity ▁or ▁face ▁death . ▁From ▁that ▁time ▁on , ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁referred ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁" h ain ▁( tre acher ous ) ▁ İ sk ender ". ▁The ▁small ▁court ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁consisted ▁of ▁persons ▁of ▁various ▁ethnic ities . ▁Nin ac ▁V uk os ali ć , ▁a ▁Ser b , ▁was ▁the ▁di j ak ▁(" scribe ", ▁secretary ) ▁and ▁ch ancell or ▁at ▁the ▁court . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁the ▁manager ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁bank ▁account ▁in ▁R ag usa . ▁Members ▁of ▁the ▁Gaz ull i ▁family ▁had ▁important ▁roles ▁in ▁diplom acy , ▁finance , ▁and ▁purchase ▁of
▁arms . ▁John ▁Gaz ull i , ▁a ▁doctor , ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁the ▁court ▁of ▁king ▁Mat th ias ▁Cor vin us ▁to ▁coordinate ▁the ▁offensive ▁against ▁Me h med ▁II . ▁The ▁kn ight ▁Pal ▁Gaz ull i ▁was ▁travelling ▁frequently ▁to ▁Italy , ▁and ▁another ▁Gaz ull i , ▁Andrea , ▁was ▁amb assador ▁of ▁the ▁des pot ▁of ▁More a ▁in ▁R ag usa ▁before ▁becoming ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁court ▁in ▁ 1 4 6 2 . ▁Some ▁advent urers ▁also ▁followed ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁such ▁as ▁a ▁certain ▁John ▁New port , ▁a ▁Stefan ▁M aram onte , ▁amb assador ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁Milan ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 6 , ▁a ▁certain ▁St j ep an ▁R ado jev ic , ▁who ▁in ▁ 1 4 6 6 ▁provided ▁ships ▁for ▁a ▁trip ▁to ▁S plit , ▁a ▁certain ▁R usc us ▁from ▁C att aro , ▁and ▁others . ▁The ▁R ag us an ▁G ond ola / G und ul ić ▁merchant ▁family ▁had ▁a ▁role ▁similar ▁to ▁Gaz ull i . ▁ ▁Cor respond ence ▁was ▁written ▁in ▁Sl av ic , ▁Greek , ▁Latin , ▁and ▁Italian . ▁Doc uments ▁in ▁Latin ▁were ▁written ▁by ▁not aries ▁from ▁Italy ▁or ▁Ven et ian ▁territor ies ▁in ▁Alban ia . ▁ ▁In ▁Alban ia , ▁the ▁rebell ion ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁had ▁already ▁been ▁sm ould ering ▁for ▁years ▁before ▁Sk
ander b eg ▁desert ed ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army . ▁In ▁August ▁ 1 4 4 3 , ▁George ▁A rian iti ▁again ▁revol ted ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁of ▁central ▁Alban ia . ▁Under ▁Ven et ian ▁patron age , ▁on ▁ 2 ▁March ▁ 1 4 4 4 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁summon ed ▁Alban ian ▁noble men ▁in ▁the ▁Ven et ian - cont rolled ▁town ▁of ▁Le zh ë ▁and ▁they ▁established ▁a ▁military ▁alliance ▁known ▁in ▁histor i ography ▁as ▁the ▁League ▁of ▁Le zh ë . ▁Among ▁those ▁who ▁joined ▁the ▁military ▁alliance ▁were ▁the ▁powerful ▁Alban ian ▁noble ▁families ▁of ▁A rian iti , ▁D uk ag j ini , ▁M uz aka , ▁Z ah aria , ▁Th op ia , ▁Zen ev isi , ▁D ush man i ▁and ▁Sp ani , ▁and ▁also ▁the ▁Ser bian ▁noble man ▁Stefan ▁Cr no jev ić ▁of ▁Z eta . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁organized ▁a ▁mobile ▁defense ▁army ▁that ▁forced ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁to ▁dis per se ▁their ▁troops , ▁leaving ▁them ▁vulnerable ▁to ▁the ▁hit - and - run ▁tactics ▁of ▁the ▁Alban ians . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁fought ▁a ▁gu err illa ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁oppos ing ▁arm ies ▁by ▁using ▁the ▁mountain ous ▁terrain ▁to ▁his ▁advantage . ▁During ▁the ▁first ▁ 8 – 1 0 ▁years , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁commanded ▁an ▁army ▁of ▁generally ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0
– 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers , ▁but ▁only ▁had ▁absolute ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁men ▁from ▁his ▁own ▁domin ions , ▁and ▁had ▁to ▁convince ▁the ▁other ▁prin ces ▁to ▁follow ▁his ▁policies ▁and ▁tactics . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁occasionally ▁had ▁to ▁pay ▁t ribute ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁but ▁only ▁in ▁exceptional ▁circumstances , ▁such ▁as ▁during ▁the ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁or ▁his ▁travel ▁to ▁Italy ▁and ▁perhaps ▁when ▁he ▁was ▁under ▁pressure ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁that ▁were ▁too ▁strong . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 4 4 4 , ▁in ▁the ▁Pl ain ▁of ▁Tor vi oll , ▁the ▁united ▁Alban ian ▁arm ies ▁under ▁Sk ander b eg ▁faced ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁who ▁were ▁under ▁direct ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁general ▁Ali ▁P asha , ▁with ▁an ▁army ▁of ▁ 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁under ▁his ▁command ▁ 7 , 0 0 0 ▁inf antry ▁and ▁ 8 , 0 0 0 ▁caval ry . ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁caval ry ▁were ▁hidden ▁behind ▁enemy ▁lines ▁in ▁a ▁nearby ▁forest ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Ham za ▁K ast ri oti . ▁At ▁a ▁given ▁signal , ▁they ▁desc ended , ▁enc ir cl ed ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁and ▁gave ▁Sk ander b eg ▁a ▁much ▁needed ▁victory . ▁About ▁ 8 , 0 0 0 ▁Ott om ans ▁were ▁killed ▁and ▁ 2 ,
0 0 0 ▁were ▁captured . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁first ▁victory ▁echo ed ▁across ▁Europe ▁because ▁this ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁times ▁that ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁a ▁pit ched ▁battle ▁on ▁European ▁soil . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 0 ▁October ▁ 1 4 4 5 ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁force ▁of ▁ 9 , 0 0 0 – 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁under ▁F ir uz ▁P asha ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁prevent ▁Sk ander b eg ▁from ▁moving ▁into ▁M aced onia . ▁F ir uz ▁had ▁heard ▁that ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁army ▁had ▁dis band ed ▁for ▁the ▁time ▁being , ▁so ▁he ▁planned ▁to ▁move ▁quickly ▁around ▁the ▁Black ▁Dr in ▁valley ▁and ▁through ▁P riz ren . ▁These ▁movements ▁were ▁picked ▁up ▁by ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁sc outs , ▁who ▁moved ▁to ▁meet ▁F ir uz . ▁The ▁Ott om ans ▁were ▁l ured ▁into ▁the ▁M ok ra ▁valley , ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ▁with ▁a ▁force ▁of ▁ 3 , 5 0 0 ▁attacked ▁and ▁defeated ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁F ir uz ▁was ▁killed ▁along ▁with ▁ 1 , 5 0 0 ▁of ▁his ▁men . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁defeated ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁two ▁more ▁times ▁the ▁following ▁year , ▁once ▁when ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁from ▁O hr id ▁suffered ▁severe ▁losses , ▁and ▁again ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁O ton et ë ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁September ▁ 1
4 4 6 . ▁ ▁War ▁with ▁Ven ice ▁ 1 4 4 7 ▁to ▁ 1 4 4 8 ▁▁ ▁At ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁ins ur rection , ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Ven ice ▁was ▁supportive ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁considering ▁his ▁forces ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁buffer ▁between ▁them ▁and ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁Le zh ë , ▁where ▁the ▁e pon ym ous ▁league ▁was ▁established , ▁was ▁Ven et ian ▁territory , ▁and ▁the ▁assembly ▁met ▁with ▁the ▁approval ▁of ▁Ven ice . ▁The ▁later ▁affirm ation ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁his ▁rise ▁as ▁a ▁strong ▁force ▁on ▁their ▁borders , ▁however , ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁a ▁men ace ▁to ▁the ▁interests ▁of ▁the ▁Republic , ▁leading ▁to ▁a ▁w ors ening ▁of ▁relations ▁and ▁the ▁dispute ▁over ▁the ▁fort ress ▁of ▁D ag num ▁which ▁triggered ▁the ▁Alban ian - V en et ian ▁War ▁of ▁ 1 4 4 7 – 4 8 . ▁After ▁various ▁attacks ▁against ▁Bar ▁and ▁Ul cin j , ▁along ▁with ▁ Đ ura đ ▁Br ank ović ▁and ▁Stefan ▁Cr no jev ić , ▁and ▁Alban ians ▁of ▁the ▁area , ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁offered ▁rewards ▁for ▁his ▁assass ination . ▁The ▁Ven et ians ▁sought ▁by ▁every ▁means ▁to ▁over throw ▁Sk ander b eg ▁or ▁bring ▁about ▁his ▁death , ▁even ▁offering ▁a ▁life ▁pension ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 ▁golden ▁du c ats ▁annually ▁for ▁the ▁person ▁who ▁would ▁kill ▁him
. ▁During ▁the ▁conflict , ▁Ven ice ▁invited ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁to ▁attack ▁Sk ander b eg ▁simultaneously ▁from ▁the ▁east , ▁facing ▁the ▁Alban ians ▁with ▁a ▁two - front ▁conflict . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 4 ▁May ▁ 1 4 4 8 , ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁led ▁by ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁and ▁his ▁son ▁Me h med ▁laid ▁sie ge ▁to ▁the ▁castle ▁of ▁S vet igr ad . ▁The ▁Alban ian ▁g arr ison ▁in ▁the ▁castle ▁res isted ▁the ▁front al ▁assault s ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army , ▁while ▁Sk ander b eg ▁harass ed ▁the ▁bes ie ging ▁forces ▁with ▁the ▁remaining ▁Alban ian ▁army ▁under ▁his ▁personal ▁command . ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁July ▁ 1 4 4 8 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁won ▁a ▁battle ▁near ▁Sh k od ë r ▁against ▁a ▁Ven et ian ▁army ▁led ▁by ▁Andrea ▁Ven ier . ▁In ▁late ▁summer ▁ 1 4 4 8 , ▁due ▁to ▁a ▁lack ▁of ▁pot able ▁water , ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁g arr ison ▁eventually ▁sur rend ered ▁the ▁castle ▁with ▁the ▁condition ▁of ▁safe ▁passage ▁through ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁bes ie ging ▁forces , ▁a ▁condition ▁which ▁was ▁accepted ▁and ▁respected ▁by ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II . ▁Primary ▁sources ▁disagree ▁about ▁the ▁reason ▁why ▁the ▁bes ie ged ▁had ▁problems ▁with ▁the ▁water ▁in ▁the ▁castle : ▁While ▁Bar let i ▁and ▁B iem mi ▁maintained ▁that ▁a ▁dead ▁dog ▁was ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁castle
▁well , ▁and ▁the ▁g arr ison ▁refused ▁to ▁drink ▁the ▁water ▁since ▁it ▁might ▁corrupt ▁their ▁soul , ▁another ▁primary ▁source , ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁chronic ler , ▁con ject ured ▁that ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁found ▁and ▁cut ▁the ▁water ▁sources ▁of ▁the ▁castle . ▁Recent ▁histor ians ▁mostly ▁con cur ▁with ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁chronic ler ' s ▁version . ▁Although ▁his ▁loss ▁of ▁men ▁was ▁minimal , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁lost ▁the ▁castle ▁of ▁S vet igr ad , ▁which ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁strong hold ▁that ▁controlled ▁the ▁fields ▁of ▁M aced onia ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁he ▁bes ie ged ▁the ▁towns ▁of ▁Dur azzo ▁( mod ern ▁Dur r ë s ) ▁and ▁Le zh ë ▁which ▁were ▁then ▁under ▁Ven et ian ▁rule . ▁In ▁August ▁ 1 4 4 8 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁defeated ▁Must af a ▁P asha ▁in ▁D ib ë r ▁at ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁Or an ik . ▁Must af a ▁P asha ▁lost ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁and ▁was ▁captured , ▁along ▁with ▁twelve ▁high ▁officers . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁learned ▁from ▁these ▁officers ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁who ▁pushed ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁to ▁inv ade ▁Alban ia . ▁The ▁Ven et ians , ▁upon ▁hearing ▁of ▁the ▁defeat , ▁urged ▁to ▁establish ▁peace . ▁Must af a ▁P asha ▁was ▁soon ▁r ans omed ▁for ▁ 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁du
c ats ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁July ▁ 1 4 4 8 ▁Sk ander b eg ▁crossed ▁the ▁Dr in ▁River ▁with ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men , ▁meeting ▁a ▁Ven et ian ▁force ▁of ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Dan iele ▁I ur ichi , ▁governor ▁of ▁Sc ut ari . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁instruct ed ▁his ▁troops ▁on ▁what ▁to ▁expect ▁and ▁opened ▁battle ▁by ▁ordering ▁a ▁force ▁of ▁arch ers ▁to ▁open ▁fire ▁on ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁line . ▁The ▁battle ▁continued ▁for ▁hours ▁until ▁large ▁groups ▁of ▁Ven et ian ▁troops ▁began ▁to ▁fle e . ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁seeing ▁his ▁fle eing ▁advers aries , ▁ordered ▁a ▁full - scale ▁offensive , ▁rout ing ▁the ▁entire ▁Ven et ian ▁army . ▁The ▁Republic ' s ▁soldiers ▁were ▁ch ased ▁right ▁to ▁the ▁gates ▁of ▁Sc ut ari , ▁and ▁Ven et ian ▁prisoners ▁were ▁there after ▁par aded ▁outside ▁the ▁fort ress . ▁The ▁Alban ians ▁managed ▁to ▁inf lict ▁ 2 , 5 0 0 ▁casual ties ▁on ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁force , ▁capt uring ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁army ▁suffered ▁ 4 0 0 ▁casual ties , ▁most ▁on ▁the ▁right - wing . ▁The ▁peace ▁treat y , ▁negoti ated ▁by ▁Georg ius ▁Pel ino ▁and ▁signed ▁between ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁Ven
ice ▁on ▁ 4 ▁October ▁ 1 4 4 8 , ▁env ision ed ▁that ▁Ven ice ▁would ▁keep ▁D ag num ▁and ▁its ▁env ir ons , ▁but ▁would ▁c ede ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁the ▁territory ▁of ▁B uz ë g j arp ri ▁at ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁river ▁Dr in , ▁and ▁also ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁would ▁enjoy ▁the ▁privilege ▁of ▁buying , ▁tax - free , ▁ 2 0 0 ▁horse - loads ▁of ▁salt ▁annually ▁from ▁Dur azzo . ▁In ▁addition , ▁Ven ice ▁would ▁pay ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ 1 , 4 0 0 ▁du c ats . ▁During ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁cl ashes ▁with ▁Ven ice , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁intens ified ▁relations ▁with ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁of ▁Ar agon ▁( r . ▁ 1 4 1 6 – 1 4 5 8 ), ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁main ▁rival ▁of ▁Ven ice ▁in ▁the ▁Ad ri atic , ▁where ▁his ▁dreams ▁for ▁an ▁empire ▁were ▁always ▁opposed ▁by ▁the ▁Ven et ians . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁reasons ▁Sk ander b eg ▁agreed ▁to ▁sign ▁the ▁peace ▁treat y ▁with ▁Ven ice ▁was ▁the ▁advance ▁of ▁John ▁Hun y adi ' s ▁army ▁in ▁Kos ovo ▁and ▁his ▁invitation ▁for ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁expedition ▁against ▁the ▁s ultan . ▁However , ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁army ▁under ▁Sk ander b eg ▁did ▁not ▁participate ▁in ▁this ▁battle ▁as ▁he ▁was ▁prevented ▁from ▁joining ▁with ▁Hun y adi
' s ▁army . ▁It ▁is ▁believed ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁delayed ▁by ▁ Đ ura đ ▁Br ank ović , ▁then ▁all ied ▁with ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II , ▁although ▁Br ank ov ic ' s ▁exact ▁role ▁is ▁disput ed . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁rav aged ▁his ▁domains ▁as ▁a ▁punishment ▁for ▁the ▁desert ion ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁cause . ▁He ▁appears ▁to ▁have ▁mar ched ▁to ▁join ▁Hun y adi ▁immediately ▁after ▁making ▁peace ▁with ▁the ▁Ven et ians , ▁and ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁only ▁ 2 0 ▁miles ▁from ▁Kos ovo ▁Pol je ▁when ▁the ▁Hung arian ▁army ▁finally ▁broke . ▁ ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁( 1 4 5 0 ) ▁and ▁its ▁after math ▁▁ ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 4 5 0 , ▁two ▁years ▁after ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁had ▁captured ▁S vet igr ad , ▁they ▁laid ▁sie ge ▁to ▁K ru j ë ▁with ▁an ▁army ▁number ing ▁approximately ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁and ▁led ▁again ▁by ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁himself ▁and ▁his ▁son , ▁Me h med ▁II . ▁Following ▁a ▁sc or ched ▁earth ▁strategy ▁( th us ▁den ying ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁necessary ▁local ▁resources ), ▁Sk ander b eg ▁left ▁a ▁protective ▁g arr ison ▁of ▁ 1 , 5 0 0 ▁men ▁under ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁most ▁trusted ▁lie uten ants , ▁V r ana ▁Kont i , ▁while ,
▁with ▁the ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁army , ▁which ▁included ▁many ▁Sl av s , ▁Germans , ▁French men ▁and ▁Ital ians , ▁he ▁harass ed ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁camps ▁around ▁K ru j ë ▁by ▁continuously ▁attacking ▁S ultan ▁Mur ad ▁II ' s ▁supply ▁car av ans . ▁The ▁g arr ison ▁rep elled ▁three ▁major ▁direct ▁assault s ▁on ▁the ▁city ▁walls ▁by ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁causing ▁great ▁losses ▁to ▁the ▁bes ie ging ▁forces . ▁Ott oman ▁attempts ▁at ▁finding ▁and ▁cutting ▁the ▁water ▁sources ▁failed , ▁as ▁did ▁a ▁s apped ▁tunnel , ▁which ▁collapsed ▁suddenly . ▁An ▁offer ▁of ▁ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁asp ra ▁( O tt oman ▁silver ▁coins ) ▁and ▁a ▁promise ▁of ▁a ▁high ▁rank ▁as ▁an ▁officer ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁made ▁to ▁V r ana ▁Kont i , ▁were ▁both ▁rejected ▁by ▁him . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁First ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë , ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁merch ants ▁from ▁Sc ut ari ▁sold ▁food ▁to ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁and ▁those ▁of ▁Dur azzo ▁supplied ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁army . ▁An ▁angry ▁attack ▁by ▁Sk ander b eg ▁on ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁car av ans ▁raised ▁tension ▁between ▁him ▁and ▁the ▁Republic , ▁but ▁the ▁case ▁was ▁resolved ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁the ▁bail o ▁of ▁Dur azzo ▁who ▁stopped ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁merch ants ▁from ▁any ▁longer ▁furn ishing ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁Ven
et ians ' ▁help ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁not with standing , ▁by ▁September ▁ 1 4 5 0 , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁camp ▁was ▁in ▁dis array , ▁as ▁the ▁castle ▁was ▁still ▁not ▁taken , ▁the ▁mor ale ▁had ▁s unk , ▁and ▁disease ▁was ▁running ▁ramp ant . ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁acknowledged ▁that ▁he ▁could ▁not ▁capture ▁the ▁castle ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁by ▁force ▁of ▁arms ▁before ▁the ▁winter , ▁and ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 4 5 0 , ▁he ▁lifted ▁the ▁sie ge ▁and ▁made ▁his ▁way ▁to ▁Ed ir ne . ▁The ▁Ott om ans ▁suffered ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁casual ties ▁during ▁the ▁sie ge , ▁and ▁many ▁more ▁died ▁as ▁Mur ad ▁escaped ▁Alban ia . ▁A ▁few ▁months ▁later , ▁on ▁ 3 ▁February ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁Mur ad ▁died ▁in ▁Ed ir ne ▁and ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁his ▁son ▁Me h med ▁II ▁( r . ▁ 1 4 5 1 – 1 4 8 1 ). ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁sie ge , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁his ▁resources . ▁He ▁lost ▁all ▁of ▁his ▁poss essions ▁except ▁K ru j ë . ▁The ▁other ▁nob les ▁from ▁the ▁region ▁of ▁Alban ia ▁all ied ▁with ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁as ▁he ▁came ▁to ▁save ▁them ▁from ▁the ▁opp ression . ▁Even ▁after ▁the ▁s ultan ' s ▁withdrawal , ▁they ▁rejected ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁efforts ▁to ▁enforce
▁his ▁authority ▁over ▁their ▁domains . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁then ▁traveled ▁to ▁R ag usa , ▁urg ing ▁for ▁assistance , ▁and ▁the ▁R ag us ans ▁informed ▁Pope ▁Nicholas ▁V . ▁Through ▁financial ▁assistance , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁managed ▁to ▁hold ▁K ru j ë ▁and ▁reg ain ▁much ▁of ▁his ▁territory . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁success ▁brought ▁praise ▁from ▁all ▁over ▁Europe ▁and ▁amb ass ad ors ▁were ▁sent ▁to ▁him ▁from ▁Rome , ▁Nap les , ▁Hung ary , ▁and ▁Burg und y . ▁ ▁Cons olid ation ▁▁ ▁Although ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁achieved ▁success ▁in ▁res isting ▁Mur ad ▁II ▁himself , ▁har v ests ▁were ▁un product ive ▁and ▁fam ine ▁was ▁widespread . ▁After ▁being ▁rejected ▁by ▁the ▁Ven et ians , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁established ▁closer ▁connections ▁with ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁who , ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁appointed ▁him ▁as ▁" c apt ain ▁general ▁of ▁the ▁king ▁of ▁Ar agon ". ▁Following ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁requests , ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁helped ▁him ▁in ▁this ▁situation ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁parties ▁signed ▁the ▁Treat y ▁of ▁Ga eta ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁March ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁according ▁to ▁which ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁formally ▁a ▁v ass al ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁military ▁aid . ▁Authors ▁have ▁disag reed ▁on ▁whether ▁K ru j ë ▁belonged ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁or ▁to ▁Alf onso ▁V ;
▁while ▁C . ▁Mar ines co ▁claimed ▁that ▁K ru j ë ▁no ▁longer ▁belonged ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁but ▁to ▁Alf onso , ▁who ▁exerc ised ▁his ▁power ▁through ▁his ▁v icer oy , ▁this ▁thesis ▁was ▁rejected ▁by ▁A . ▁G eg aj , ▁who ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁dis pro port ion ▁in ▁numbers ▁between ▁the ▁Spanish ▁forces ▁( 1 0 0 ) ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁( around ▁ 1 0 – 1 5 ▁thousand ) ▁clearly ▁showed ▁that ▁the ▁city ▁belonged ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁It ▁is ▁presum ed ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁de ▁fact o ▁had ▁full ▁control ▁over ▁his ▁territor ies : ▁while ▁Nap les ' ▁arch ives ▁registered ▁payments ▁and ▁supplies ▁sent ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁they ▁do ▁not ▁mention ▁any ▁kind ▁of ▁payment ▁or ▁t ribute ▁by ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁Alf onso , ▁except ▁for ▁various ▁Ott oman ▁war ▁prisoners ▁and ▁b anners ▁sent ▁by ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁gift ▁to ▁the ▁King . ▁More ▁explicitly , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁recognized ▁Alf onso ' s ▁sovere ig nt y ▁over ▁his ▁lands ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁help ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁pl ed ged ▁to ▁respect ▁the ▁old ▁privile ges ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁and ▁Alban ian ▁territor ies ▁and ▁to ▁pay ▁Sk ander b eg ▁an ▁annual ▁ 1 , 5 0 0 ▁du c ats , ▁while ▁Sk ander b eg ▁pl ed ged ▁to ▁make
▁his ▁fe al ty ▁to ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁only ▁after ▁the ▁exp ulsion ▁of ▁Ott om ans ▁from ▁his ▁lands , ▁a ▁condition ▁never ▁reached ▁in ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁lifetime . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁married ▁Don ika , ▁the ▁daughter ▁of ▁George ▁A rian it ▁Kom nen i , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influential ▁Alban ian ▁noble men , ▁strengthen ing ▁the ▁ties ▁between ▁them , ▁a ▁month ▁after ▁the ▁treat y ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁April ▁ 1 4 5 1 ▁in ▁the ▁Orth odox ▁Ar den ica ▁Mon aster y , ▁Their ▁only ▁child ▁was ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁Me h med ▁was ▁focused ▁on ▁defe ating ▁the ▁K aram an ids ▁and ▁M ente ş e ▁in ▁the ▁East , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁in ▁his ▁intentions ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁Alban ia . ▁During ▁this ▁brief ▁period ▁of ▁rest , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁took ▁up ▁the ▁re building ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁and ▁ere cted ▁a ▁new ▁fort ress ▁in ▁Mod r ica ▁in ▁the ▁Dr in ▁Valley ▁near ▁S vet igr ad ▁( which ▁had ▁been ▁lost ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 4 4 8 ▁sie ge ) ▁where ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁had ▁previously ▁slipped ▁through ▁un hind ered . ▁The ▁fort ress ▁was ▁constructed ▁in ▁the ▁heat ▁of ▁summer ▁within ▁a ▁few ▁months ▁when ▁few ▁Ott oman ▁posts ▁were ▁present . ▁This ▁came ▁as ▁a ▁huge ▁blow ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁efforts ▁whose ▁Alban
ian ▁operations ▁were ▁thus ▁inhib ited . ▁ ▁Right ▁after ▁the ▁Treat y ▁of ▁Ga eta , ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁signed ▁other ▁treat ies ▁with ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁Alban ian ▁noble men , ▁including ▁George ▁A rian it ▁Kom nen i , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁Des pot ▁of ▁the ▁More a , ▁Dem et rios ▁Pal ai olog os . ▁These ▁efforts ▁show ▁that ▁Alf onso ▁thought ▁about ▁a ▁cr us ade ▁starting ▁from ▁Alban ia ▁and ▁More a , ▁which ▁however ▁never ▁took ▁place . ▁Following ▁the ▁treat y , ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 4 5 1 , ▁a ▁small ▁det achment ▁of ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Catal an ▁soldiers , ▁headed ▁by ▁Bernard ▁Va quer , ▁was ▁established ▁at ▁the ▁castle ▁of ▁K ru j ë . ▁One ▁year ▁later , ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 4 5 2 , ▁another ▁Catal an ▁noble man , ▁Ram on ▁d ' Or ta f à , ▁came ▁to ▁K ru j ë ▁with ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁v icer oy . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 3 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁paid ▁a ▁secret ▁visit ▁to ▁Nap les ▁and ▁the ▁V atic an , ▁probably ▁to ▁discuss ▁the ▁new ▁conditions ▁after ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁Constant in ople ▁and ▁the ▁planning ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁cr us ade ▁which ▁Alf onso ▁would ▁have ▁presented ▁to ▁Pope ▁Nicholas ▁V ▁in ▁a ▁meeting ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 3 – 5 4 . ▁During ▁the ▁five ▁years ▁which ▁followed ▁the ▁first
▁sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë , ▁Alban ia ▁was ▁allowed ▁some ▁res pite ▁as ▁the ▁new ▁s ultan ▁set ▁out ▁to ▁con quer ▁the ▁last ▁vest iges ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire , ▁but ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 2 ▁the ▁newly ▁acc ed ed ▁Ott oman ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II ▁ordered ▁his ▁first ▁campaign ▁against ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁An ▁expedition ▁was ▁sent ▁under ▁the ▁dual - command ▁of ▁T ah ip ▁P asha , ▁the ▁main ▁commander , ▁and ▁Ham za ▁P asha , ▁his ▁sub ord inate , ▁with ▁an ▁army ▁of ▁c . ▁ 2 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁split ▁between ▁the ▁two . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁gathered ▁ 1 4 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁and ▁mar ched ▁against ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁planned ▁to ▁first ▁defeat ▁Ham za ▁and ▁then ▁to ▁move ▁around ▁T ah ip ▁and ▁enc ir cle ▁him . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁did ▁not ▁give ▁Ham za ▁much ▁time ▁to ▁prepare ▁and , ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁July , ▁he ▁assault ed ▁immediately . ▁The ▁fierce ▁attack ▁made ▁short ▁work ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁force , ▁resulting ▁in ▁them ▁fle eing . ▁The ▁same ▁day ▁Sk ander b eg ▁attacked ▁T ah ip ' s ▁army ▁and ▁defeated ▁them , ▁with ▁T ah ip ▁killed ▁and ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁were ▁thus ▁left ▁without ▁their ▁commander ▁as ▁they ▁fled . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁victory ▁over
▁a ▁rul er ▁even ▁more ▁powerful ▁than ▁Mur ad ▁came ▁as ▁a ▁great ▁surprise ▁to ▁the ▁Alban ians . ▁During ▁this ▁period , ▁sk irm ishes ▁between ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁the ▁D uk ag j ini ▁family , ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁drag ging ▁on ▁for ▁years , ▁were ▁put ▁to ▁an ▁end ▁by ▁a ▁reconc ili atory ▁intervention ▁of ▁the ▁Pope , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 4 , ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y ▁between ▁them ▁was ▁finally ▁reached . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁April ▁ 1 4 5 3 , ▁Me h med ▁sent ▁another ▁expedition ▁to ▁Alban ia ▁under ▁I bra him ▁P asha . ▁The ▁same ▁day , ▁despite ▁the ▁storm s , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁launched ▁a ▁swift ▁caval ry ▁attack ▁which ▁broke ▁into ▁the ▁enemy ▁camp ▁causing ▁disorder ▁and ▁chaos . ▁I bra him ▁was ▁killed ▁in ▁action ▁along ▁with ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁of ▁his ▁men . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁army ▁continued ▁lo oting ▁before ▁returning ▁to ▁Deb ar . ▁He ▁returned ▁triumph antly ▁with ▁his ▁army ▁with ▁whom ▁he ▁had ▁split ▁his ▁boot y . ▁Five ▁weeks ▁later ▁Me h med ▁II ▁captured ▁Constant in ople , ▁which ▁deeply ▁trou bled ▁the ▁Christian ▁states ▁of ▁Europe . ▁Me h med , ▁by ▁then ▁called ▁" the ▁Con quer or ", ▁turned ▁his ▁attention ▁to ▁finally ▁defe ating ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Hung ary ▁and ▁crossing ▁into ▁Italy . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁informed ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁that
▁he ▁had ▁conqu ered ▁some ▁territor ies ▁and ▁a ▁castle , ▁and ▁Alf onso ▁replied ▁some ▁days ▁later ▁that ▁soon ▁Ram on ▁d ' Or ta f à ▁would ▁return ▁to ▁continue ▁the ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁promised ▁more ▁troops ▁and ▁supplies . ▁In ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁ 1 4 5 4 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁informed ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁and ▁the ▁Pope ▁about ▁a ▁possible ▁Ott oman ▁invasion ▁and ▁asked ▁for ▁help . ▁The ▁Pope ▁sent ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁du c ats ▁while ▁Alf onso ▁sent ▁ 5 0 0 ▁inf antry ▁and ▁a ▁certain ▁amount ▁of ▁money ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁Senate ▁was ▁resent ing ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁alliance ▁with ▁Nap les , ▁an ▁old ▁enemy ▁of ▁Ven ice . ▁F requ ently ▁they ▁delayed ▁their ▁t ributes ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁this ▁was ▁long ▁a ▁matter ▁of ▁dispute ▁between ▁the ▁parties , ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg ▁threatening ▁war ▁on ▁Ven ice ▁at ▁least ▁three ▁times ▁between ▁ 1 4 4 8 – 5 8 , ▁and ▁Ven ice ▁conced ing ▁in ▁a ▁conc ili atory ▁tone . ▁ ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 4 5 4 , ▁Ram on ▁d ' Or ta f à ▁returned ▁to ▁K ru j ë , ▁this ▁time ▁with ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁v icer oy ▁of ▁Alban ia , ▁Greece , ▁and ▁Sl av onia , ▁with ▁a ▁personal
▁letter ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁the ▁Captain - General ▁of ▁the ▁Ne apol itan - aligned ▁armed ▁forces ▁in ▁parts ▁of ▁Alban ia ▁( M agn ific o ▁et ▁st ren uo ▁vi ro ▁Georg io ▁Cast ri oti , ▁dic to ▁Sc and ar be ch , ▁gent ium ▁armor um ▁nost rar um ▁in ▁part ib us ▁Alban ie ▁general i ▁capit ane o , ▁cons ili ario ▁f idel i ▁nob is ▁d ile ct o ). ▁Along ▁with ▁d ' Or ta f à , ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁also ▁sent ▁the ▁cler ics ▁Fra ▁Loren zo ▁da ▁Pal er ino ▁and ▁Fra ▁Giovanni ▁dell ' A qu ila ▁to ▁Alban ia ▁with ▁a ▁flag ▁em bro ider ed ▁with ▁a ▁white ▁cross ▁as ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁the ▁Cr us ade ▁which ▁was ▁about ▁to ▁begin . ▁Even ▁though ▁this ▁cr us ade ▁never ▁material ized , ▁the ▁Ne apol itan ▁troops ▁were ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁Ber at , ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁almost ▁entirely ▁ann ih il ated ▁and ▁were ▁never ▁replaced . ▁ ▁The ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁Ber at , ▁the ▁first ▁real ▁test ▁between ▁the ▁arm ies ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁s ultan ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁ended ▁up ▁in ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁victory . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁bes ie ged ▁the ▁town ' s ▁castle ▁for ▁months , ▁causing ▁the ▁dem oral ized ▁Ott oman ▁officer ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁the ▁castle ▁to ▁promise ▁his ▁surrender . ▁At ▁that ▁point
, ▁Sk ander b eg ▁relaxed ▁his ▁grip , ▁split ▁his ▁forces , ▁and ▁depart ed ▁the ▁sie ge , ▁leaving ▁behind ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁gener als , ▁M uz ak ë ▁Top ia , ▁and ▁half ▁of ▁his ▁caval ry ▁on ▁the ▁banks ▁of ▁the ▁O sum ▁River ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁final ize ▁the ▁surrender . ▁It ▁was ▁a ▁cost ly ▁error — the ▁Ott om ans ▁saw ▁this ▁moment ▁as ▁an ▁opportunity ▁for ▁attack ▁and ▁sent ▁a ▁large ▁caval ry ▁force , ▁led ▁by ▁Is ak - B eg , ▁to ▁reinforce ▁the ▁g arr ison . ▁The ▁Alban ian ▁forces ▁l ull ed ▁into ▁a ▁false ▁sense ▁of ▁security . ▁The ▁Ott om ans ▁caught ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁caval ry ▁by ▁surprise ▁while ▁they ▁were ▁resting ▁on ▁the ▁banks ▁of ▁the ▁O sum ▁River , ▁and ▁almost ▁all ▁the ▁ 5 , 0 0 0 ▁Alban ian ▁caval ry ▁laying ▁sie ge ▁to ▁Ber at ▁was ▁killed . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁forces ▁belonged ▁to ▁George ▁A rian iti , ▁whose ▁role ▁as ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁greatest ▁support ▁dimin ished ▁after ▁the ▁defeat . ▁The ▁attitude ▁of ▁other ▁Alban ian ▁nob ility ▁was ▁also ▁somewhat ▁affected . ▁ ▁M ois i ▁G ole mi ▁defect ed ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁Alban ia ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 6 ▁as ▁the ▁commander ▁of ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁of ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁men , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁Sk ander b
eg ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Or an ik ▁and ▁lost ▁his ▁territory ▁of ▁Deb ar ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁toward ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁March ▁ 1 4 5 6 . ▁On ▁ 5 ▁April ▁ 1 4 5 6 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁entered ▁K ru ja ▁and ▁M ois i ▁fled ▁to ▁him ▁profess ing ▁his ▁willing ness ▁to ▁take ▁up ▁arms ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ▁p ard oned ▁him , ▁remaining ▁loyal ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 4 6 4 . ▁From ▁time ▁to ▁time , ▁Ven ice ▁succeeded ▁in ▁stir ring ▁up ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁relatives ▁and ▁we aker ▁neighbors , ▁who ▁set ▁up ▁in ▁opposition ▁to ▁him ▁the ▁elderly ▁George ▁A rian iti ▁as ▁" c apt ain ▁of ▁all ▁Alban ia " ▁from ▁Sc ut ari ▁to ▁Dur ra zo ▁in ▁ 1 4 5 6 , ▁but ▁in ▁clan ▁war fare ▁Sk ander b eg ▁usually ▁had ▁the ▁upper ▁hand . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁took ▁over ▁poss essions ▁of ▁the ▁Zen ev isi ▁and ▁the ▁Bal š ić ▁as ▁well . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁followers ▁that ▁ruled ▁over ▁northern ▁Alban ia ▁and ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁ch ie ft ains ▁on ▁both ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁Tom or ▁mountains ▁remained ▁loyal ▁to ▁him . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 6 , ▁one ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁nep he ws , ▁George ▁Stre z ▁Bal š ić , ▁sold
▁the ▁Mod ri č ▁fort ress ▁( now ▁in ▁North ▁M aced onia ) ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁for ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁silver ▁du c ats . ▁He ▁tried ▁to ▁cover ▁up ▁the ▁act ; ▁however , ▁his ▁tre ason ▁was ▁discovered ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁prison ▁in ▁Nap les . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 6 , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁son , ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II , ▁was ▁born . ▁Ham za ▁K ast ri oti , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁own ▁nep hew ▁and ▁his ▁closest ▁collabor ator , ▁lost ▁his ▁hope ▁of ▁success ion ▁after ▁the ▁birth ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁son ▁and ▁defect ed ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁year . ▁In ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 4 5 7 , ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁number ing ▁approximately ▁ 7 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁inv aded ▁Alban ia ▁with ▁the ▁hope ▁of ▁destroying ▁Alban ian ▁resistance ▁once ▁and ▁for ▁all . ▁This ▁army ▁was ▁led ▁by ▁Is ak - B eg ▁and ▁Ham za ▁K ast ri oti , ▁the ▁commander ▁who ▁knew ▁all ▁about ▁Alban ian ▁tactics ▁and ▁strategy . ▁After ▁w reak ing ▁much ▁damage ▁to ▁the ▁countryside , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁set ▁up ▁camp ▁at ▁U j eb ard ha ▁field , ▁halfway ▁between ▁Le zh ë ▁and ▁K ru j ë . ▁After ▁having ▁avoided ▁the ▁enemy ▁for ▁months , ▁calm ly ▁giving ▁to
▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁his ▁European ▁neighb ours ▁the ▁impression ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁defeated , ▁on ▁ 2 ▁September ▁Sk ander b eg ▁attacked ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁in ▁their ▁enc amp ments ▁and ▁defeated ▁them ▁killing ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁Ott om ans , ▁capt uring ▁ 1 5 , 0 0 0 ▁and ▁ 2 4 ▁standards , ▁and ▁all ▁the ▁ric hes ▁in ▁the ▁camp . ▁This ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁famous ▁vict ories ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁over ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁which ▁led ▁to ▁a ▁five - year ▁peace ▁treat y ▁with ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II . ▁Ham za ▁was ▁captured ▁and ▁sent ▁to ▁det ention ▁in ▁Nap les . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁vict orious ▁Battle ▁of ▁U j ë b ard ha , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁Pap acy ▁under ▁Pope ▁Cal i xt us ▁III ▁were ▁intens ified . ▁The ▁reason ▁was ▁that ▁during ▁this ▁time , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁military ▁undert ak ings ▁involved ▁considerable ▁expense ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁contribution ▁of ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁of ▁Ar agon ▁was ▁not ▁sufficient ▁to ▁def ray . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 7 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁requested ▁help ▁from ▁Cal i xt us ▁III . ▁Being ▁himself ▁in ▁financial ▁difficulties , ▁the ▁po pe ▁could ▁do ▁no ▁more ▁than ▁send ▁Sk ander b eg ▁a ▁single ▁gal ley ▁and ▁a ▁modest ▁sum ▁of ▁money , ▁promising ▁more ▁ships ▁and
▁larger ▁amounts ▁of ▁money ▁in ▁the ▁future . ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁December ▁ 1 4 5 7 , ▁Cal i xt us ▁III ▁declared ▁Sk ander b eg ▁a ▁Captain - General ▁of ▁the ▁Cur ia ▁( H oly ▁See ) ▁in ▁the ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁The ▁Pope ▁gave ▁him ▁the ▁title ▁Athlet a ▁Christ i , ▁or ▁Champion ▁of ▁Christ . ▁ ▁Meanwhile , ▁R ag usa ▁bl unt ly ▁refused ▁to ▁release ▁the ▁funds ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁collected ▁in ▁Dal mat ia ▁for ▁the ▁cr us ade ▁and ▁which , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Pope , ▁were ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁distributed ▁in ▁equal ▁parts ▁to ▁Hung ary , ▁Bos nia , ▁and ▁Alban ia . ▁The ▁R ag us ans ▁even ▁entered ▁into ▁negotiations ▁with ▁Me h med . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁December ▁ 1 4 5 7 , ▁Cal i xt us ▁threatened ▁Ven ice ▁with ▁an ▁inter dict ▁and ▁repeated ▁the ▁threat ▁in ▁February ▁ 1 4 5 8 . ▁As ▁the ▁captain ▁of ▁the ▁Cur ia , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁appointed ▁the ▁du ke ▁of ▁Le uk as ▁( S anta ▁Ma ura ), ▁Leon ardo ▁III ▁T oc co , ▁formerly ▁the ▁prince ▁of ▁Ar ta ▁and ▁" des pot ▁of ▁the ▁Rh om ae ans ", ▁a ▁figure ▁known ▁in ▁Southern ▁Ep irus , ▁as ▁a ▁lieutenant ▁in ▁his ▁native ▁land . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 7 ▁June ▁ 1 4 5 8 , ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁V ▁died ▁at
▁Nap les ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ▁sent ▁em iss aries ▁to ▁his ▁son ▁and ▁success or , ▁King ▁Ferd inand . ▁According ▁to ▁historian ▁C . ▁Mar ines co , ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁King ▁Alf onso ▁marked ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Ar ag ones e ▁dream ▁of ▁a ▁Mediterranean ▁Empire ▁and ▁also ▁the ▁hope ▁for ▁a ▁new ▁cr us ade ▁in ▁which ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁assigned ▁a ▁leading ▁role . ▁The ▁relationship ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁with ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Nap les ▁continued ▁after ▁Alf onso ▁V ' s ▁death , ▁but ▁the ▁situation ▁had ▁changed . ▁Ferd inand ▁I ▁was ▁not ▁as ▁able ▁as ▁his ▁father ▁and ▁now ▁it ▁was ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁turn ▁to ▁help ▁King ▁Ferd inand ▁to ▁reg ain ▁and ▁maintain ▁his ▁kingdom . ▁In ▁ 1 4 5 9 ▁Sk ander b eg ▁captured ▁the ▁fort ress ▁of ▁S ati ▁from ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁and ▁c ed ed ▁it ▁to ▁Ven ice ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁secure ▁cord ial ▁relationship ▁with ▁Sign oria . ▁The ▁reconc iliation ▁reached ▁the ▁point ▁where ▁Pope ▁P ius ▁II ▁suggested ▁entr ust ing ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁domin ions ▁to ▁Ven ice ▁during ▁his ▁Italian ▁expedition . ▁ ▁After ▁Ser bian ▁Des pot ▁Stefan ▁Br ank ović ▁was ▁d eth ron ed ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 4 5 9 , ▁he ▁trav elled ▁to ▁Alban ia ▁and ▁stayed ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁supported ▁his ▁anti - O tt oman ▁activities ,
▁for ging ▁plans ▁to ▁rec apture ▁Ser bia ▁from ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁return ▁to ▁S med ere vo . ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 4 6 0 ▁Des pot ▁Stefan ▁married ▁Angel ina ▁A rian iti , ▁the ▁sister ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁wife ▁Don ika . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁gave ▁the ▁d eth ron ed ▁Des pot ▁Stefan ▁an ▁unknown ▁estate ▁as ▁app an age . ▁With ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁recommendations , ▁Des pot ▁Stefan ▁moved ▁to ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 4 6 1 ▁or ▁ 1 4 6 6 . ▁ ▁Italian ▁expedition ▁ 1 4 6 0 ▁to ▁ 1 4 6 2 ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 0 , ▁King ▁Ferd inand ▁had ▁serious ▁problems ▁with ▁another ▁up r ising ▁of ▁the ▁An ge v ins ▁and ▁asked ▁for ▁help ▁from ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁This ▁invitation ▁worried ▁King ▁Ferd inand ' s ▁opponents , ▁and ▁Sig ism ondo ▁Pand ol fo ▁Mal at esta ▁declared ▁that ▁if ▁Ferd inand ▁of ▁Nap les ▁received ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁Mal at esta ▁would ▁go ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁In ▁the ▁month ▁of ▁September ▁ 1 4 6 0 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁dis pat ched ▁a ▁company ▁of ▁ 5 0 0 ▁caval ry ▁under ▁his ▁nep hew , ▁Ivan ▁Stre z ▁Bal š ić . F erd inand ' s ▁main ▁rival ▁Prince ▁of ▁Tar anto ▁Giovanni ▁Antonio ▁Or s ini ▁tried ▁to ▁dis su ade
▁Sk ander b eg ▁from ▁this ▁enterprise ▁and ▁even ▁offered ▁him ▁an ▁alliance . ▁This ▁did ▁not ▁affect ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁who ▁answered ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁October ▁ 1 4 6 0 , ▁that ▁he ▁o wed ▁fe al ty ▁to ▁the ▁Ar agon ▁family , ▁especially ▁in ▁times ▁of ▁hard ship . ▁In ▁his ▁response ▁to ▁Or s ini , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁mentioned ▁that ▁the ▁Alban ians ▁never ▁betray ▁their ▁friends ▁and ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Py rr hus ▁of ▁Ep irus , ▁and ▁reminded ▁Or s ini ▁of ▁Py rr hus ' ▁vict ories ▁in ▁southern ▁Italy . ▁When ▁the ▁situation ▁became ▁critical , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁made ▁a ▁three - year ▁arm ist ice ▁with ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁on ▁ 1 7 ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 1 , ▁and ▁in ▁late ▁August ▁ 1 4 6 1 , ▁landed ▁in ▁Ap ul ia ▁with ▁an ▁expedition ary ▁force ▁of ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁caval ry ▁and ▁ 2 , 0 0 0 ▁inf antry . ▁At ▁Bar lett a ▁and ▁Tr ani , ▁he ▁managed ▁to ▁defeat ▁the ▁Italian ▁and ▁An ge vin ▁forces ▁of ▁Or s ini ▁of ▁Tar anto , ▁secured ▁King ▁Ferd inand ' s ▁throne , ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁Alban ia . ▁King ▁Ferd inand ▁was ▁grateful ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁for ▁this ▁intervention ▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁his ▁life : ▁at ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁death , ▁he ▁reward
ed ▁his ▁descend ants ▁with ▁the ▁castle ▁of ▁Tr ani , ▁and ▁the ▁properties ▁of ▁Monte ▁Sant ' Ang elo ▁and ▁San ▁Giovanni ▁Rot ondo . ▁ ▁Last ▁years ▁After ▁secur ing ▁Nap les , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁returned ▁home ▁after ▁being ▁informed ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁movements . ▁There ▁were ▁three ▁Ott oman ▁arm ies ▁approaching ▁Alban ia . ▁The ▁first , ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Sin an ▁P asha , ▁was ▁defeated ▁at ▁M ok ra ▁( in ▁M aked ons ki ▁Bro d ). ▁Upon ▁hearing ▁of ▁the ▁defeat , ▁Me h med ▁II ▁dis pat ched ▁a ▁second ▁army ▁under ▁Has an ▁Bey . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁Has an ▁confront ed ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁M ok ra ▁where ▁the ▁latter ▁was ▁defeated ▁and ▁lost ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁his ▁forces ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁being ▁wounded ▁himself , ▁he ▁sur rend ered ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁was ▁imprison ed . ▁The ▁second ▁army , ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Has an ▁be y , ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁O hr id , ▁where ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁commander ▁was ▁captured . ▁The ▁third ▁Ott oman ▁army , ▁a ▁force ▁of ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁under ▁Kar aza ▁be y ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁of ▁Sk op je . ▁This ▁forced ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II ▁to ▁agree ▁to ▁a ▁ 1 0 - year ▁arm ist ice ▁which ▁was ▁signed ▁in ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 3 ▁in ▁Sk op je . ▁Sk ander b
eg ▁did ▁not ▁want ▁peace , ▁but ▁Tan ush ▁Th op ia ' s ▁willing ness ▁for ▁peace ▁prev ailed . ▁Tan ush ▁himself ▁went ▁to ▁T iv oli ▁to ▁explain ▁to ▁the ▁Pope ▁why ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁opt ed ▁for ▁peace ▁with ▁Me h med ▁II . ▁He ▁pointed ▁out ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁would ▁be ▁ready ▁to ▁go ▁back ▁to ▁war ▁should ▁the ▁Pope ▁ask ▁for ▁it . Me an while , ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁Ven ice ▁towards ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁changed ▁per cept ibly ▁because ▁it ▁entered ▁a ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁( 1 4 6 3 – 7 9 ). ▁During ▁this ▁period ▁Ven ice ▁saw ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁an ▁in val uable ▁al ly , ▁and ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁August ▁ 1 4 6 3 , ▁the ▁ 1 4 4 8 ▁peace ▁treat y ▁was ▁renew ed ▁with ▁other ▁conditions ▁added : ▁the ▁right ▁of ▁as yl um ▁in ▁Ven ice , ▁an ▁article ▁st ip ulating ▁that ▁any ▁Ven et ian – O tt oman ▁treat y ▁would ▁include ▁a ▁guarantee ▁of ▁Alban ian ▁independence , ▁and ▁allowing ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁several ▁Ven et ian ▁ships ▁in ▁the ▁Ad ri atic ▁around ▁Le zh ë . ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 4 6 3 , ▁Pope ▁P ius ▁II ▁tried ▁to ▁organize ▁a ▁new ▁cr us ade ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁similar ▁to ▁what ▁Pope ▁Nicholas ▁V ▁and ▁Pope ▁Cal i xt us ▁III ▁tried
▁before . ▁P ius ▁II ▁invited ▁all ▁Christian ▁nob ility ▁to ▁join , ▁and ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁immediately ▁answered ▁the ▁appeal . ▁So ▁did ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁who ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁November ▁ 1 4 6 3 ▁declared ▁war ▁on ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁when ▁a ▁force ▁of ▁ 1 4 , 0 0 0 ▁was ▁sent ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁ Ş er emet ▁be y ▁to ▁reinforce ▁fort ress es ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁O hr id . ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁upcoming ▁cr us ade ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Ven ice ▁decided ▁to ▁aid ▁Sk ander b eg ▁by ▁sending ▁ 5 0 0 ▁caval ry ▁and ▁ 5 0 0 ▁inf antry ▁under ▁the ▁cond ott iero ▁Antonio ▁da ▁C osen za , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁C im ar osto . ▁On ▁ 1 4 ▁or ▁ 1 5 ▁September ▁after ▁l uring ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁gates ▁of ▁O hr id ▁and ▁fe ign ing ▁a ▁retreat , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁forces ▁assault ed ▁and ▁defeated ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁g arr ison . ▁ Ş er emet ▁lost ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁and ▁his ▁son ▁was ▁captured . ▁The ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁were ▁purs ued ▁by ▁the ▁Alban ian - V en et ian ▁ones . ▁ ▁P ius ▁II ' s ▁planned ▁cr us ade ▁env ision ed ▁as sem bling ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers ▁in ▁Tar anto
, ▁while ▁another ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁would ▁be ▁gathered ▁by ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁They ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁mar shall ed ▁in ▁Dur azzo ▁under ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁leadership ▁and ▁would ▁have ▁formed ▁the ▁central ▁front ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁However , ▁P ius ▁II ▁died ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 4 6 4 , ▁at ▁the ▁crucial ▁moment ▁when ▁the ▁cr us ading ▁arm ies ▁were ▁gathering ▁and ▁preparing ▁to ▁march ▁in ▁An con a , ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁again ▁left ▁alone ▁facing ▁the ▁Ott om ans . In ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 5 , ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Va ik al , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁fought ▁and ▁defeated ▁Ball aban ▁Bad era , ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁Alban ian ▁san j ak bey ▁of ▁O hr id . ▁However , ▁during ▁an ▁amb ush ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁battle , ▁Ball aban ▁managed ▁to ▁capture ▁some ▁important ▁Alban ian ▁noble men , ▁including ▁caval ry ▁commander ▁M ois i ▁G ole mi , ▁chief ▁army ▁quarter master ▁Vlad an ▁G j ur ica , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁nep hew ▁M uz aka , ▁and ▁ 1 8 ▁other ▁officers . ▁These ▁were ▁immediately ▁sent ▁to ▁Constant in ople ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁sk inned ▁alive ▁for ▁fifteen ▁days ▁and ▁later ▁cut ▁to ▁pieces ▁and ▁thrown ▁to ▁the ▁dogs . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁ple as ▁to ▁have ▁them ▁back , ▁by ▁either ▁r ans om
▁or ▁prisoner ▁exchange , ▁failed . ▁Later ▁that ▁same ▁year , ▁two ▁other ▁Ott oman ▁arm ies ▁appeared ▁on ▁the ▁borders . ▁The ▁commander ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁arm ies ▁was ▁Ball aban ▁P asha , ▁who , ▁together ▁with ▁Jak up ▁Bey , ▁the ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁army , ▁planned ▁a ▁double - fl ank ▁en velop ment . ▁Sk ander b eg , ▁however , ▁attacked ▁Ball aban ' s ▁forces ▁at ▁the ▁Second ▁Battle ▁of ▁V aj kal , ▁where ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁were ▁defeated . ▁This ▁time , ▁all ▁Ott oman ▁prisoners ▁were ▁sl ain ▁in ▁an ▁act ▁of ▁revenge ▁for ▁the ▁previous ▁execution ▁of ▁Alban ian ▁capt ains . ▁The ▁other ▁Ott oman ▁army , ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Jak up ▁Bey , ▁was ▁also ▁defeated ▁some ▁days ▁later ▁in ▁K ash ari ▁field ▁near ▁T ir ana . ▁ ▁Second ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁and ▁its ▁after math ▁( 1 4 6 6 – 6 7 ) ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 6 , ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II ▁personally ▁led ▁an ▁army ▁of ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁into ▁Alban ia ▁and ▁laid ▁the ▁Second ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë , ▁as ▁his ▁father ▁had ▁attempted ▁ 1 6 ▁years ▁earlier . ▁The ▁town ▁was ▁def ended ▁by ▁a ▁g arr ison ▁of ▁ 4 , 4 0 0 ▁men , ▁led ▁by ▁Prince ▁Tan ush ▁Th op ia . ▁After ▁several ▁months
▁of ▁sie ge , ▁destruction ▁and ▁kill ings ▁all ▁over ▁the ▁country , ▁Me h med ▁II , ▁like ▁his ▁father , ▁saw ▁that ▁se izing ▁K ru j ë ▁was ▁impossible ▁for ▁him ▁to ▁accomplish ▁by ▁force ▁of ▁arms . ▁Sub sequently , ▁he ▁left ▁the ▁sie ge ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁I stan bul . ▁However , ▁he ▁left ▁the ▁force ▁of ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁under ▁Ball aban ▁P asha ▁to ▁maintain ▁the ▁sie ge ▁by ▁building ▁a ▁castle ▁in ▁central ▁Alban ia , ▁which ▁he ▁named ▁Il - bas an ▁( mod ern ▁El bas an ), ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁support ▁the ▁sie ge . ▁Dur azzo ▁would ▁be ▁the ▁next ▁target ▁of ▁the ▁s ultan ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁strong ▁base ▁opposite ▁the ▁Italian ▁coast . In ▁ 1 4 6 6 , ▁on ▁his ▁return ▁trip ▁to ▁I stan bul , ▁Me h med ▁II ▁exp atri ated ▁Dor othe os , ▁the ▁Arch b ishop ▁of ▁O hr id ▁and ▁his ▁cler ks ▁and ▁boy ars ▁because ▁of ▁their ▁anti - O tt oman ▁activities ▁and ▁collaboration ▁with ▁reb els ▁from ▁Alban ia ▁during ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁rebell ion . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁spent ▁the ▁following ▁winter ▁of ▁ 1 4 6 6 – 6 7 ▁in ▁Italy , ▁of ▁which ▁several ▁weeks ▁were ▁spent ▁in ▁Rome ▁trying ▁to ▁persu ade ▁Pope ▁Paul ▁II ▁to ▁give ▁him ▁money . ▁At ▁one ▁point , ▁he ▁was
▁unable ▁to ▁pay ▁for ▁his ▁hotel ▁bill , ▁and ▁he ▁commented ▁bitter ly ▁that ▁he ▁should ▁be ▁fighting ▁against ▁the ▁Church ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁Ott om ans . ▁Only ▁when ▁Sk ander b eg ▁left ▁for ▁Nap les ▁did ▁Pope ▁Paul ▁II ▁give ▁him ▁ 2 , 3 0 0 ▁du c ats . ▁The ▁court ▁of ▁Nap les , ▁whose ▁policy ▁in ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁h ing ed ▁on ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁resistance , ▁was ▁more ▁generous ▁with ▁money , ▁arm aments , ▁and ▁supplies . ▁However , ▁it ▁is ▁probably ▁better ▁to ▁say ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁fin anced ▁and ▁equipped ▁his ▁troops ▁largely ▁from ▁local ▁resources , ▁rich ly ▁supplement ed ▁by ▁Ott oman ▁boot y . ▁It ▁is ▁safe ▁to ▁say ▁that ▁the ▁pap acy ▁was ▁generous ▁with ▁praise ▁and ▁encour agement , ▁but ▁its ▁financial ▁subs id ies ▁were ▁limited . ▁It ▁is ▁possible ▁that ▁the ▁Cur ia ▁only ▁provided ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ 2 0 , 0 0 0 ▁du c ats ▁in ▁all , ▁which ▁could ▁have ▁paid ▁the ▁wages ▁of ▁ 2 0 ▁men ▁over ▁the ▁whole ▁period ▁of ▁conflict . ▁ ▁However , ▁on ▁his ▁return ▁he ▁all ied ▁with ▁L ek ë ▁D uk ag j ini , ▁and ▁together ▁on ▁ 1 9 ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 7 , ▁they ▁first ▁attacked ▁and ▁defeated , ▁in ▁the ▁K rr ab ë ▁region , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁reinforce ments ▁commanded ▁by ▁Y on uz ,
▁Ball aban ' s ▁brother . ▁Y on uz ▁himself ▁and ▁his ▁son , ▁Hay dar ▁were ▁taken ▁prisoner . ▁Four ▁days ▁later , ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 7 , ▁they ▁attacked ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁laying ▁sie ge ▁to ▁K ru j ë . ▁The ▁Second ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁was ▁eventually ▁broken , ▁resulting ▁in ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Ball aban ▁P asha ▁by ▁an ▁Alban ian ▁ar que bus ier ▁named ▁George ▁Aleks i . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Ball aban , ▁Ott oman ▁forces ▁were ▁left ▁surrounded ▁and ▁according ▁to ▁Bern and ino ▁de ▁Ger ald inis , ▁a ▁Ne apol itan ▁function ary , ▁ 1 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁remained ▁in ▁the ▁bes ie ging ▁camp . ▁Those ▁inside ▁the ▁enc ir c lement ▁asked ▁to ▁leave ▁freely ▁to ▁Ott oman ▁territory , ▁offering ▁to ▁surrender ▁all ▁that ▁was ▁within ▁the ▁camp ▁to ▁the ▁Alban ians . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁prepared ▁to ▁accept , ▁but ▁many ▁nob les ▁refused . ▁The ▁Alban ians ▁thus ▁began ▁to ▁ann ih il ate ▁the ▁surrounded ▁Ott oman ▁army ▁before ▁they ▁cut ▁a ▁narrow ▁path ▁through ▁their ▁opponents ▁and ▁fled ▁through ▁D ib ra . ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁April ▁ 1 4 6 7 , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁entered ▁K ru j ë . ▁The ▁victory ▁was ▁well - re ceived ▁among ▁the ▁Alban ians , ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁recru its ▁increased ▁as
▁documented ▁by ▁Ger ald ini : ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁in ▁his ▁camp ▁with ▁ 1 6 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁and ▁every ▁day ▁his ▁camp ▁grows ▁with ▁young ▁warriors . ▁The ▁victory ▁was ▁also ▁well ▁received ▁in ▁Italy ▁with ▁contempor aries ▁hoping ▁for ▁more ▁such ▁news . ▁Meanwhile , ▁the ▁Ven et ians ▁had ▁taken ▁advantage ▁of ▁Me h med ' s ▁absence ▁in ▁Alban ia ▁and ▁sent ▁a ▁fleet ▁under ▁V ett ore ▁Cap ello ▁into ▁the ▁A e ge an . ▁Cap ello ▁attacked ▁and ▁occupied ▁the ▁islands ▁of ▁I mb ros ▁and ▁Lem nos ▁after ▁which ▁he ▁s ailed ▁back ▁and ▁laid ▁sie ge ▁to ▁Pat ras . ▁Ö mer ▁Bey , ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁commander ▁in ▁Greece , ▁led ▁a ▁relief ▁force ▁to ▁Pat ras ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁initially ▁rep elled ▁before ▁turning ▁on ▁his ▁purs u ers , ▁forcing ▁them ▁to ▁fle e , ▁ending ▁their ▁campaign . After ▁these ▁events , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁forces ▁bes ie ged ▁El bas an ▁but ▁failed ▁to ▁capture ▁it ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁artillery ▁and ▁sufficient ▁number ▁of ▁soldiers . ▁ ▁The ▁destruction ▁of ▁Ball aban ▁P asha ' s ▁army ▁and ▁the ▁sie ge ▁of ▁El bas an ▁forced ▁Me h med ▁II ▁to ▁march ▁against ▁Sk ander b eg ▁again ▁in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 4 6 7 . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ret reated ▁to ▁the ▁mountains ▁while ▁Ott oman ▁grand ▁v iz ier ▁Mah m ud ▁P asha
▁Angel ović ▁purs ued ▁him ▁but ▁failed ▁to ▁find ▁him ▁because ▁Sk ander b eg ▁succeeded ▁in ▁fle eing ▁to ▁the ▁coast . ▁Me h med ▁II ▁energet ically ▁purs ued ▁the ▁attacks ▁against ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁strong holds ▁while ▁sending ▁det ach ments ▁to ▁raid ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁poss essions ▁( especially ▁Dur azzo ) ▁and ▁to ▁keep ▁them ▁isolated . ▁The ▁Ott om ans ▁failed ▁again , ▁in ▁their ▁third ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë , ▁to ▁take ▁the ▁city ▁and ▁sub j ug ate ▁the ▁country , ▁but ▁the ▁degree ▁of ▁destruction ▁was ▁immense . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁in curs ions , ▁the ▁Alban ians ▁suffered ▁a ▁great ▁number ▁of ▁casual ties , ▁especially ▁to ▁the ▁civilian ▁population , ▁while ▁the ▁economy ▁of ▁the ▁country ▁was ▁in ▁ru ins . ▁The ▁above ▁problems , ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁many ▁Alban ian ▁noble men , ▁and ▁the ▁new ▁alliance ▁with ▁L ek ë ▁D uk ag j ini , ▁caused ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁call ▁together ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 4 6 8 ▁all ▁the ▁remaining ▁Alban ian ▁noble men ▁to ▁a ▁conference ▁in ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁strong hold ▁of ▁Le zh ë ▁to ▁discuss ▁the ▁new ▁war ▁strategy ▁and ▁to ▁re structure ▁what ▁remained ▁from ▁the ▁League ▁of ▁Le zh ë . ▁During ▁that ▁period , ▁Sk ander b eg ▁fell ▁ill ▁with ▁mal aria ▁and ▁died ▁on ▁ 1 7 ▁January ▁ 1 4 6 8 , ▁aged ▁ 6 2 . ▁
▁After math ▁ ▁In ▁Western ▁Europe ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁mour ned ▁by ▁prin ces ▁and ▁other ▁rul ers ▁such ▁as ▁Ferd inand ▁I . ▁In ▁a ▁cond olence ▁letter ▁written ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁wid ow ▁dated ▁ 2 4 ▁February ▁ 1 4 6 8 , ▁Ferd inand ▁expressed ▁pain ▁of ▁having ▁lost ▁his ▁friend ▁and ▁promised ▁assistance ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁family . ▁During ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁lifetime , ▁his ▁assistance ▁to ▁King ▁Al ph on se ▁I ▁by ▁sending ▁troops ▁to ▁qu ell ▁an ▁up r ising ▁and ▁later ▁his ▁expedition ▁to ▁suppress ▁a ▁revol t ▁on ▁behalf ▁of ▁King ▁Ferd inand ▁led ▁to ▁Alban ian ▁mer cen aries ▁and ▁other ▁soldiers ▁being ▁allowed ▁by ▁the ▁Ne apol itan ▁mon arch s ▁to ▁settle ▁villages ▁in ▁Southern ▁Italy . ▁With ▁the ▁death ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁his ▁domains ▁by ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁Alban ian ▁leaders ▁and ▁other ▁Alban ians ▁found ▁refuge ▁in ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Nap les . ▁These ▁events ▁and ▁migrations ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁Ar b ë resh ▁community ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁their ▁settlement s ▁in ▁southern ▁Italy ▁that ▁still ▁exist ▁in ▁the ▁modern ▁era . ▁ ▁Ivan ▁Stre z ▁Bal š ić ▁was ▁perceived ▁by ▁Ven ice ▁as ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁success or . ▁After ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁death ▁Ivan ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁Go j ko ▁Bal
š ić , ▁together ▁with ▁Le ke , ▁Pro gon ▁and ▁Nicholas ▁D uk ag j ini , ▁continued ▁to ▁fight ▁for ▁Ven ice . ▁In ▁ 1 4 6 9 ▁Ivan ▁requested ▁from ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁Senate ▁to ▁return ▁him ▁his ▁conf isc ated ▁property ▁consisting ▁of ▁Castle ▁Pet re la , ▁wo iv od ate ▁of ▁" T erra ▁nu ova " ▁of ▁K ru je ▁( unknown ▁position ), ▁territory ▁between ▁K ru je ▁and ▁Dur r ë s ▁and ▁villages ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁of ▁Bush nes h ▁( t oday ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁K od ë r - Th uman ë ▁municip ality ). ▁Ven ice ▁largely ▁conced ed ▁to ▁the ▁wishes ▁of ▁Ivan ▁Bal š ić ▁and ▁installed ▁him ▁as ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁success or . ▁ ▁After ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁death , ▁Ven ice ▁asked ▁and ▁obtained ▁from ▁his ▁wid ow ▁the ▁permission ▁to ▁defend ▁K ru j ë ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁fort ress es ▁with ▁Ven et ian ▁g arr isons . ▁K ru j ë ▁held ▁out ▁during ▁its ▁fourth ▁sie ge , ▁started ▁in ▁ 1 4 7 7 ▁by ▁G ed ik ▁Ah med ▁P asha , ▁until ▁ 1 6 ▁June ▁ 1 4 7 8 , ▁when ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁star ved ▁to ▁death ▁and ▁finally ▁sur rend ered ▁to ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II ▁himself . ▁Dem oral ized ▁and ▁severely ▁weak ened ▁by ▁hunger ▁and ▁lack ▁of ▁supplies ▁from ▁the ▁year
- long ▁sie ge , ▁the ▁defend ers ▁sur rend ered ▁to ▁Me h med , ▁who ▁had ▁promised ▁to ▁allow ▁them ▁to ▁leave ▁un har med ▁in ▁exchange . ▁As ▁the ▁Alban ians ▁were ▁walking ▁away ▁with ▁their ▁families , ▁however , ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁killed ▁the ▁men ▁and ▁en sl aved ▁the ▁women ▁and ▁children . ▁In ▁ 1 4 7 9 , ▁an ▁Ott oman ▁army , ▁headed ▁again ▁by ▁Me h med ▁II , ▁bes ie ged ▁and ▁captured ▁Sh k od ë r , ▁reducing ▁Ven ice ' s ▁Alban ian ▁poss essions ▁to ▁only ▁Dur azzo , ▁Ant iv ari , ▁and ▁D ul c ign o . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁son ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II ▁continued ▁the ▁resistance ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans , ▁and ▁tried ▁to ▁liber ate ▁territor ies ▁from ▁Ott oman ▁rule ▁in ▁ 1 4 8 1 – 8 4 . ▁In ▁addition , ▁a ▁major ▁revol t ▁in ▁ 1 4 9 2 ▁occurred ▁in ▁southern ▁Alban ia , ▁mainly ▁in ▁the ▁Lab ë ria ▁region , ▁and ▁Bay az id ▁II ▁was ▁personally ▁involved ▁with ▁crushing ▁the ▁resistance . ▁In ▁ 1 5 0 1 , ▁George ▁Cast ri ot ▁II , ▁grand son ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁son ▁of ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II , ▁along ▁with ▁Pro gon ▁D uk ag j ini ▁and ▁around ▁ 1 5 0 – 2 0 0 ▁str ati oti , ▁went ▁to ▁Le zh
ë ▁and ▁organized ▁a ▁local ▁up r ising , ▁but ▁that ▁too ▁was ▁un successful . ▁The ▁Ven et ians ▁evac uated ▁Dur azzo ▁in ▁ 1 5 0 1 . ▁▁ ▁After ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁Alban ia ▁to ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Nap les ▁gave ▁land ▁and ▁noble ▁title ▁to ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁family , ▁the ▁Cast ri ota . ▁His ▁family ▁were ▁given ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁D uch y ▁of ▁San ▁Piet ro ▁in ▁Gal at ina ▁and ▁the ▁County ▁of ▁S ole to ▁ ▁in ▁the ▁Province ▁of ▁L ec ce , ▁Italy . ▁His ▁son , ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II , ▁ ▁married ▁Jer ina ▁Br ank ović , ▁daughter ▁of ▁Ser bian ▁des pot ▁L azar ▁Br ank ović ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁last ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁Pal ai olog os . ▁ ▁Two ▁lines ▁of ▁the ▁Cast ri ota ▁family ▁lived ▁in ▁southern ▁Italy , ▁one ▁of ▁which ▁desc ended ▁from ▁P ardo ▁Cast ri ota ▁Sc ander b eg ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁from ▁Ach ille ▁Cast ri ota ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁who ▁were ▁both ▁biological ▁sons ▁of ▁Ferr ante , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁John ▁Cast ri ot ▁II ▁and ▁his ▁wife ▁Jer ina . ▁They ▁were ▁highly ▁ranked ▁Italian ▁nob ility ▁and ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁S over e ign ▁Military ▁Order ▁of ▁Mal ta . ▁ ▁The ▁only ▁legitimate ▁daughter ▁of ▁Duke ▁Ferr ante , ▁Ire ne ▁Cast ri ota ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁born
▁to ▁Andre ana ▁Ac qu av iva ▁d ' Ar ag ona ▁from ▁the ▁N ard ò ▁du kes , ▁inherited ▁the ▁Cast ri ota ▁p ater nal ▁estate , ▁bringing ▁the ▁D uch y ▁of ▁Gal at ina ▁and ▁County ▁of ▁S ole to ▁into ▁the ▁San se ver ino ▁family ▁after ▁her ▁marriage ▁with ▁Prince ▁Piet rant onio ▁San se ver ino ▁( 1 5 0 8 – 1 5 5 9 ). ▁They ▁had ▁a ▁son , ▁Nicol ò ▁Bernard ino ▁San se ver ino ▁( 1 5 4 1 – 1 6 0 6 ). ▁ ▁Leg acy ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁The ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ' s ▁expansion ▁ground ▁to ▁a ▁halt ▁during ▁the ▁time ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁forces ▁res isted . ▁He ▁has ▁been ▁cred ited ▁with ▁being ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁reasons ▁for ▁the ▁delay ▁of ▁Ott oman ▁expansion ▁into ▁Western ▁Europe , ▁giving ▁the ▁Italian ▁principal ities ▁more ▁time ▁to ▁better ▁prepare ▁for ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁arrival . ▁While ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁resistance ▁certainly ▁played ▁a ▁vital ▁role , ▁it ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁numerous ▁relevant ▁events ▁that ▁played ▁out ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 1 5 th ▁century . ▁Much ▁credit ▁must ▁also ▁go ▁to ▁the ▁successful ▁resistance ▁mounted ▁by ▁Vlad ▁III ▁Dr ac ula ▁in ▁Wall ach ia ▁and ▁Stephen ▁III ▁the ▁Great ▁of ▁M old avia , ▁who ▁dealt ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁their ▁worst ▁defeat ▁at ▁Vas l ui , ▁among ▁many ▁others , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁defe ats ▁inf lict
ed ▁upon ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁by ▁Hun y adi ▁and ▁his ▁Hung arian ▁forces . ▁Sk ander b eg ▁is ▁considered ▁today ▁a ▁command ing ▁figure ▁not ▁only ▁in ▁the ▁national ▁consciousness ▁of ▁Alban ians ▁but ▁also ▁of ▁ 1 5 th - century ▁European ▁history . ▁According ▁to ▁arch ival ▁documents , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁doubt ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁already ▁achieved ▁a ▁reputation ▁as ▁a ▁hero ▁in ▁his ▁own ▁time . ▁The ▁failure ▁of ▁most ▁European ▁nations , ▁with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁Nap les , ▁to ▁give ▁him ▁support , ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁failure ▁of ▁Pope ▁P ius ▁II ' s ▁plans ▁to ▁organize ▁a ▁promised ▁cr us ade ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁meant ▁that ▁none ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁vict ories ▁permanently ▁hind ered ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁from ▁inv ading ▁the ▁Western ▁B alk ans . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 4 8 1 ▁S ultan ▁Me h met ▁II ▁captured ▁O tr anto ▁and ▁mass ac red ▁the ▁male ▁population , ▁thus ▁prov ing ▁what ▁Sk ander b eg ▁had ▁been ▁warning ▁about . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁main ▁legacy ▁was ▁the ▁inspiration ▁he ▁gave ▁to ▁all ▁of ▁those ▁who ▁saw ▁in ▁him ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁the ▁struggle ▁of ▁Christ end om ▁against ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire . ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁struggle ▁against ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁became ▁highly ▁significant ▁to ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁people . ▁Among ▁the ▁Ar ber esh ▁( It alo - Al ban
ians ) ▁the ▁memory ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁his ▁explo its ▁was ▁maintained ▁and ▁survived ▁through ▁songs , ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁a ▁Sk ander b eg ▁cycle . ▁During ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁National ▁Aw aken ing ▁Sk ander b eg ▁also ▁became ▁a ▁central ▁symbol ▁to ▁the ▁emerging ▁Alban ian ▁national ism ▁of ▁late ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁and ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁cultural ▁aff inity ▁with ▁Europe . ▁It ▁strengthen ed ▁Alban ian ▁solid arity , ▁made ▁them ▁more ▁conscious ▁of ▁their ▁identity , ▁and ▁was ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁inspiration ▁in ▁their ▁struggle ▁for ▁national ▁unity , ▁freedom , ▁and ▁independence . ▁Cont emporary ▁Muslim ▁Alban ians ▁de emph as ize ▁the ▁( Christ ian ) ▁religious ▁heritage ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁by ▁viewing ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁def ender ▁of ▁the ▁nation ▁and ▁he ▁is ▁promoted ▁as ▁an ▁Alban ian ▁symbol ▁of ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁West . ▁ ▁The ▁trouble ▁Sk ander b eg ▁gave ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ' s ▁military ▁forces ▁was ▁such ▁that ▁when ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁found ▁the ▁grave ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁the ▁church ▁of ▁St . ▁Nicholas ▁in ▁Le zh ë , ▁they ▁opened ▁it ▁and ▁made ▁am u lets ▁of ▁his ▁bones , ▁believing ▁that ▁these ▁would ▁confer ▁bra very ▁on ▁the ▁wear er . ▁Indeed , ▁the ▁damage ▁inf lict ed ▁to ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Army ▁was ▁such ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁sl ain ▁three ▁thousand ▁Ott om ans ▁with ▁his
▁own ▁hand ▁during ▁his ▁campaigns . ▁Among ▁stories ▁told ▁about ▁him ▁was ▁that ▁he ▁never ▁slept ▁more ▁than ▁five ▁hours ▁at ▁night ▁and ▁could ▁cut ▁two ▁men ▁as under ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁stroke ▁of ▁his ▁sc im itar , ▁cut ▁through ▁iron ▁hel m ets , ▁kill ▁a ▁wild ▁bo ar ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁stroke , ▁and ▁cle ave ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁a ▁buff alo ▁with ▁another . ▁James ▁Wol fe , ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁forces ▁at ▁Quebec , ▁spoke ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁a ▁commander ▁who ▁" exc els ▁all ▁the ▁officers , ▁ancient ▁and ▁modern , ▁in ▁the ▁conduct ▁of ▁a ▁small ▁defensive ▁army ". ▁On ▁ 2 7 ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Congress ▁issued ▁a ▁resolution ▁" hon oring ▁the ▁ 6 0 0 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁birth ▁of ▁G j erg j ▁K ast ri oti ▁( Sc ander b eg ), ▁states man , ▁diplom at , ▁and ▁military ▁genius , ▁for ▁his ▁role ▁in ▁saving ▁Western ▁Europe ▁from ▁Ott oman ▁occupation ." ▁F ully ▁understanding ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁the ▁hero ▁to ▁the ▁Alban ians , ▁Nazi ▁Germany ▁formed ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁W aff en ▁Mountain ▁Division ▁of ▁the ▁SS ▁Sk ander b eg ▁( 1 st ▁Alban ian ) ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁composed ▁of ▁ 6 , 4 9 1 ▁Kos ovo ▁Alban ian ▁recru its . ▁ ▁In ▁literature ▁and ▁art ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁two ▁known ▁works ▁of ▁literature ▁written
▁about ▁Sk ander b eg ▁which ▁were ▁produced ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century . ▁The ▁first ▁was ▁written ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁ 1 4 8 0 ▁by ▁Ser bian ▁writer ▁Martin ▁Seg on ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Bishop ▁of ▁Ul cin j ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁notable ▁ 1 5 th - century ▁human ists , ▁a ▁short ▁but ▁very ▁important ▁bi ographical ▁sketch ▁on ▁Sk ander b eg ▁( ). ▁Another ▁ 1 5 th - century ▁literary ▁work ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁characters ▁was ▁Mem oirs ▁of ▁a ▁Jan iss ary ▁() ▁written ▁in ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁ 1 4 9 0 – 9 7 ▁by ▁Kon stant in ▁M ih ail ović , ▁a ▁Ser b ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁jan iss ary ▁in ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Army . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁gathered ▁quite ▁a ▁post hum ous ▁reputation ▁in ▁Western ▁Europe . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁and ▁ 1 7 th ▁centuries , ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁were ▁under ▁the ▁su zer ain ty ▁of ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁who ▁were ▁at ▁the ▁gates ▁of ▁Vienna ▁in ▁ 1 6 8 3 ▁and ▁narr atives ▁of ▁the ▁hero ic ▁Christian ' s ▁resistance ▁to ▁the ▁" M os lem ▁h ord es " ▁ ▁capt iv ated ▁readers ' ▁attention ▁in ▁the ▁West . ▁Books ▁on ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁prince ▁began ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁Western ▁Europe ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 6 th ▁century
. ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁was ▁the ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁life ▁and ▁de eds ▁of ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁Prince ▁of ▁the ▁E pi ro tes ▁( ; ▁Rome , ▁ 1 5 0 8 ), ▁published ▁a ▁mere ▁four ▁decades ▁after ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁death , ▁written ▁by ▁Alban ian - V en et ian ▁historian ▁Mar inus ▁Bar let ius , ▁who , ▁after ▁experiencing ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁capture ▁of ▁his ▁native ▁Sc ut ari ▁first hand , ▁settled ▁in ▁Pad ua ▁where ▁he ▁became ▁re ctor ▁of ▁the ▁parish ▁church ▁of ▁St . ▁Ste phan . ▁Bar let i ▁dedicated ▁his ▁work ▁to ▁Don ▁Ferr ante ▁K ast ri oti , ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁grand child , ▁and ▁to ▁poster ity . ▁The ▁book ▁was ▁first ▁published ▁in ▁Latin . ▁Bar let i ▁is ▁sometimes ▁in accur ate ▁in ▁favour ▁of ▁his ▁hero , ▁for ▁example , ▁according ▁to ▁Gib bon , ▁Bar let i ▁claims ▁that ▁the ▁S ultan ▁was ▁killed ▁by ▁disease ▁under ▁the ▁walls ▁of ▁K ru j ë . ▁Bar let i ' s ▁in accur acies ▁were ▁noticed ▁prior ▁to ▁Gib bon ▁by ▁La on ik os ▁Ch alk ok ond yles . ▁He ▁made ▁up ▁sp urious ▁correspondence ▁between ▁Vlad isl av ▁II ▁of ▁Wall ach ia ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ▁wrong ly ▁assign ing ▁it ▁to ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 4 4 3 ▁instead ▁of ▁to ▁the ▁year ▁of ▁ 1 4 4 4 ,
▁and ▁also ▁invented ▁correspondence ▁between ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁S ultan ▁Me h med ▁II ▁to ▁match ▁his ▁interpret ations ▁of ▁events . ▁ ▁Francis c us ▁Bl anc us , ▁a ▁Catholic ▁b ishop ▁born ▁in ▁Alban ia , ▁also ▁wrote ▁Sc ander b eg s ' s ▁bi ography , ▁Georg ius ▁Cast ri ot us , ▁Ep ire ns is ▁vul go ▁Sc ander be gh , ▁E pi rot ar um ▁Prince ps ▁Fort iss im us ▁published ▁in ▁Latin ▁in ▁ 1 6 3 6 . ▁French ▁philos opher ▁Vol ta ire ▁held ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁hero ▁in ▁very ▁high ▁consideration ▁in ▁his ▁works . ▁Sir ▁William ▁Temple ▁considered ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁be ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁seven ▁greatest ▁ch iefs ▁without ▁a ▁crown , ▁along ▁with ▁Bel is arius , ▁Fl av ius ▁A et ius , ▁John ▁Hun y adi , ▁Gon z alo ▁Fern ández ▁de ▁C ó rd oba , ▁Alexander ▁F arn ese , ▁and ▁William ▁the ▁Sil ent . ▁Lud v ig ▁Hol berg , ▁a ▁Dan ish ▁writer ▁and ▁philos opher , ▁claimed ▁that ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁gener als ▁in ▁history . ▁ ▁The ▁Italian ▁bar o que ▁composer ▁Antonio ▁V ival di ▁composed ▁an ▁opera ▁entitled ▁Sc ander b eg ▁( first ▁performed ▁ 1 7 1 8 ), ▁lib ret to ▁written ▁by ▁Antonio ▁Sal vi . ▁Another ▁opera , ▁entitled ▁Sc ander berg , ▁was ▁composed ▁by ▁ 1 8
th - century ▁French ▁composer ▁François ▁Franc œur ▁( first ▁performed ▁ 1 7 3 5 ). ▁In ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁century , ▁Alban ian ▁composer ▁P ren k ë ▁Jak ova ▁composed ▁a ▁third ▁opera , ▁entitled ▁G j erg j ▁K ast ri oti ▁Sk ë nder be u , ▁which ▁premier ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 8 ▁for ▁the ▁ 5 0 0 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁hero ' s ▁death . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁is ▁the ▁protagon ist ▁of ▁three ▁ 1 8 th - century ▁British ▁traged ies : ▁William ▁Hav ard ' s ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁A ▁Tr aged y ▁( 1 7 3 3 ), ▁George ▁L illo ' s ▁The ▁Christian ▁Hero ▁( 1 7 3 5 ), ▁and ▁Thomas ▁Wh inc op ' s ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁Or , ▁Love ▁and ▁Liberty ▁( 1 7 4 7 ). ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁po ets ▁and ▁compos ers ▁have ▁also ▁drawn ▁inspiration ▁from ▁his ▁military ▁career . ▁The ▁French ▁ 1 6 th - century ▁poet ▁R ons ard ▁wrote ▁a ▁poem ▁about ▁him , ▁as ▁did ▁the ▁ 1 9 th - century ▁American ▁poet , ▁Henry ▁W ad sw orth ▁Long f ellow . ▁Gib bon , ▁the ▁ 1 8 th - century ▁historian , ▁held ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁high ▁regard ▁with ▁pan egy ric ▁expressions . ▁ ▁G iam mar ia ▁B iem mi , ▁an ▁Italian ▁priest , ▁published ▁a
▁work ▁on ▁Sk ander b eg ▁titled ▁Ist oria ▁di ▁G ior gio ▁Cast ri oto ▁Sc ander b eg - Be gh ▁in ▁B res cia , ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 2 . ▁He ▁claimed ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁found ▁a ▁work ▁published ▁in ▁Ven ice ▁in ▁ 1 4 8 0 ▁and ▁written ▁by ▁an ▁Alban ian ▁human ist ▁from ▁Bar ▁( now ▁in ▁Mont en eg ro ), ▁whose ▁brother ▁was ▁a ▁warrior ▁in ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁personal ▁guard . ▁According ▁to ▁B iem mi , ▁the ▁work ▁had ▁lost ▁pages ▁dealing ▁with ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁youth , ▁the ▁events ▁from ▁ 1 4 4 3 ▁to ▁ 1 4 4 9 , ▁the ▁Sie ge ▁of ▁K ru j ë ▁( 1 4 6 7 ), ▁and ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁death . ▁B iem mi ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁the ▁work ▁as ▁Ant iv ar ino ▁(" the ▁man ▁from ▁Bar "), ▁however , ▁this ▁was ▁B iem mi ' s ▁invention ▁( a ▁for gery ) ▁that ▁some ▁histor ians ▁( F an ▁S . ▁N oli ▁and ▁A than ase ▁G eg aj ) ▁had ▁not ▁discovered ▁and ▁used ▁as ▁source ▁in ▁their ▁works . ▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ▁is ▁also ▁mentioned ▁by ▁the ▁Prince - B ishop ▁of ▁Mont en eg ro , ▁Pet ar ▁II ▁Pet ro vi ć - N j ego š , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁po ets ▁of ▁Ser
bian ▁literature , ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 8 4 7 ▁epic ▁poem ▁The ▁Mountain ▁W re ath , ▁and ▁in ▁False ▁Ts ar ▁Stephen ▁the ▁Little ▁( 1 8 5 1 ). ▁In ▁ 1 8 5 5 , ▁Cam ille ▁P ag anel ▁wrote ▁Hist oire ▁de ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁Crime an ▁War , ▁whereas ▁in ▁the ▁length y ▁poet ic ▁tale ▁Ch ilde ▁Harold ' s ▁Pil gr image ▁( 1 8 1 2 – 1 8 1 9 ), ▁By ron ▁wrote ▁with ▁adm iration ▁about ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁his ▁warrior ▁nation . ▁Ser bian ▁play wright ▁J ovan ▁Ster ija ▁Pop ović ▁wrote ▁and ▁published ▁a ▁play ▁based ▁on ▁Sk ender b eg ' s ▁life ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 8 . ▁Po et ▁and ▁president ▁of ▁Mat ica ▁Sr ps ka ▁J ovan ▁Sub oti ć ▁wrote ▁an ▁epic ▁poem ▁inspired ▁by ▁battles ▁led ▁by ▁Sk ender b eg . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁poet ic ▁work ▁on ▁Sk ander b eg ▁in ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁language ▁was ▁composed ▁by ▁N . ▁Fr as her i ▁and ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 8 . ▁ ▁The ▁Great ▁War rior ▁Sk ander b eg ▁( , ▁), ▁a ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁Alban ian - S ov iet ▁bi ographical ▁film , ▁earned ▁an ▁International ▁Prize ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁Cann es ▁Film ▁Festival . ▁The ▁film ▁was ▁re - record ed ▁and ▁updated ▁for ▁high -
definition ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 0 0 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁Alban ian ▁independence . ▁▁▁ ▁Sk ander b eg ' s ▁memory ▁has ▁been ▁en gr aved ▁in ▁many ▁museum s , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Sk ander b eg ▁Museum ▁next ▁to ▁K ru j ë ▁Castle . ▁Many ▁mon uments ▁are ▁dedicated ▁to ▁his ▁memory ▁in ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁cities ▁of ▁T ir ana ▁( in ▁Sk ander b eg ▁Square ▁by ▁Od h ise ▁P ask ali ), ( in ▁and ▁outside ▁Sk ander b eg ▁Museum ▁by ▁J ana q ▁Pa ço ) ▁K ru j ë , ▁and ▁P esh k op i . ▁A ▁palace ▁in ▁Rome ▁in ▁which ▁Sk ander b eg ▁res ided ▁during ▁his ▁ 1 4 6 6 – 6 7 ▁visits ▁to ▁the ▁V atic an ▁is ▁still ▁called ▁Pal azzo ▁Sk ander b eg ▁and ▁currently ▁houses ▁the ▁Italian ▁museum ▁of ▁past a : ▁the ▁palace ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁P ia zza ▁Sc ander b eg , ▁between ▁the ▁Font ana ▁di ▁Tre vi ▁and ▁the ▁Qu ir inal ▁Palace . ▁Also ▁in ▁Rome , ▁a ▁statue ▁by ▁fl orent ine ▁sculpt or ▁Rom ano ▁Roman elli ▁ ▁is ▁dedicated ▁to ▁the ▁Alban ian ▁hero ▁in ▁P ia zza ▁Alban ia . ▁Mon uments ▁or ▁stat ues ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁have ▁also ▁been ▁ere cted ▁in ▁the ▁cities ▁of ▁Sk op je ▁and ▁Deb ar , ▁in ▁North ▁M aced onia ; ▁P rist ina , ▁in ▁Kos ovo ;
▁Gen eva , ▁in ▁Switzerland ; ▁Br uss els , ▁in ▁Belgium ; ▁London , ▁in ▁England ; ▁and ▁other ▁settlement s ▁in ▁southern ▁Italy ▁where ▁there ▁is ▁an ▁Ar b ë resh ë ▁community . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁a ▁statue ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁was ▁un ve iled ▁on ▁the ▁grounds ▁of ▁St . ▁Paul ' s ▁Alban ian ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁in ▁Roche ster ▁Hills , ▁Michigan . ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁statue ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁to ▁be ▁ere cted ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁novel ▁M ek ami , ▁Kas em ▁Tre b esh ina ▁port r ays ▁Alban ian ▁national ▁hero ▁Sk ander b eg ▁as ▁a ▁horse ▁th ief ▁and ▁ethnic ▁Alban ians ▁as ▁cow ards ▁who ▁offer ▁their ▁wives ▁and ▁daughters ▁to ▁Turkish ▁warriors , ▁who ▁are ▁port rayed ▁as ▁hero ic . ▁ ▁His ▁name ▁is ▁also ▁comm emor ated ▁in ▁Sk ander b eg ▁Military ▁University ▁in ▁T ir ana ; ▁Sk ë nder be u ▁Stadium , ▁home ▁of ▁K F ▁Sk ë nder be u ▁Kor ç ë ; ▁and ▁the ▁Order ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Ar ms ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ ▁My th ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ ▁Tim eline ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ ▁Year ▁of ▁Sk ander b eg ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁S ources ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Bl anc um , ▁Francis c us ▁( 1 6 3 6 )

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