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▁the ▁city ▁is ▁about ▁ 1 5 0 ▁meters , ▁the ▁depth ▁is ▁from ▁ 1 . 5 ▁to ▁ 6 . 5 ▁metres . ▁ ▁Ge ographical ▁coordinates : ▁ 4 5 ▁° ▁ 0 2 ▁ ′ ▁north ▁lat itude , ▁ 3 8 ▁° ▁ 5 9 ▁ ′ ▁east ▁long itude . ▁From ▁north ▁to ▁south ▁( with in ▁the ▁city ▁limits ) ▁K ras nod ar ▁stret ches ▁for ▁ 2 0 . 6 km , ▁and ▁from ▁east ▁to ▁west ▁for ▁ 3 0 . 1 km . ▁ ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁a ▁zone ▁of ▁se ism ic ▁activity . ▁Often ▁the ▁epic enter ▁of ▁the ▁earthqu ake ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁Black ▁Sea , ▁and ▁se ism ic ▁waves ▁reach ▁the ▁coastal ▁cities ▁and ▁even ▁K ras nod ar . ▁The ▁entire ▁history ▁of ▁observations ▁of ▁strong ▁earthqu akes ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁not ▁recorded , ▁however , ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁earthqu akes ▁with ▁an ▁intensity ▁of ▁ 4 ▁to ▁ 5 ▁points ▁were ▁observed . ▁ ▁Time ▁zone ▁▁ ▁K ras nod ar ▁comes ▁under ▁the ▁Moscow ▁Time ▁( MS K ), ▁UTC + 0 3 : 0 0 . ▁ ▁Cl imate ▁▁▁ ▁Average ▁annual ▁temperature : ▁ 1 2 ° C ▁ ▁Max imum ▁temperature : ▁ 4 0 . 7 ° C ▁ ▁Min imum ▁temperature : ▁- 3 2 . 9 °
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C ▁ ▁Rain fall , ▁mm : ▁ 7 3 5 ▁ ▁Average ▁wind ▁speed : ▁ 2 . 4 ▁meter ▁per ▁second ▁ ▁Air ▁hum idity : ▁ 7 2 % ▁ ▁Sun shine ▁hours : ▁ 2 , 1 3 9 ▁ ▁General ▁Character istics ▁ ▁The ▁climate ▁of ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁trans itional , ▁from ▁temper ate ▁contin ental ▁( D fa ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Kö ppen ▁climate ▁classification ) ▁to ▁dry ▁sub t rop ical ▁( C fb ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁Kö ppen ▁classification ). ▁The ▁climate ▁is ▁similar ▁to ▁cities ▁such ▁as ▁Paris , ▁Milan ▁and ▁New ▁York , ▁with ▁mild ▁win ters ▁without ▁steady ▁snow ▁cover ▁and ▁hot ▁sum mers . ▁ ▁Summer ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁the ▁longest ▁season ▁and ▁last s ▁for ▁ 5 ▁months ▁( May – Se ptember ). ▁Winter ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁short , ▁with ▁an ▁average ▁duration ▁of ▁ 4 0 ▁days , ▁from ▁about ▁mid - Jan uary ▁to ▁late ▁February . ▁The ▁short est ▁seasons ▁are ▁autumn ▁and ▁spring . ▁ ▁Tem per ature ▁ ▁The ▁average ▁air ▁temperature ▁in ▁K ras nod ar , ▁according ▁to ▁many ▁years ▁of ▁observations , ▁is ▁+ 1 2 . 0 ° C ▁( in ▁the ▁last ▁ 1 0 ▁years , ▁the ▁average ▁annual ▁temperature ▁has ▁been ▁kept ▁at ▁ 1 3 . 3 ° C ). ▁The ▁cold est ▁month ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁is ▁January ▁with ▁an ▁average ▁temperature ▁of ▁+
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▁ 0 . 8 ° C . ▁The ▁warm est ▁month ▁is ▁July , ▁with ▁an ▁average ▁daily ▁temperature ▁of ▁ 2 4 . 1 ° C . ▁The ▁highest ▁temperature ▁recorded ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁for ▁the ▁entire ▁observation ▁period ▁is ▁+ 4 0 . 7 ° C , ▁and ▁the ▁lowest ▁is ▁ 3 2 . 9 ° C ▁( Jan uary ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 4 0 ). ▁ ▁Rain ▁and ▁hum idity ▁ ▁Rain fall ▁during ▁the ▁year ▁falls ▁approximately ▁even ly , ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁difference ▁between ▁the ▁maximum ▁and ▁minimum . ▁The ▁absolute ▁maximum ▁occurs ▁in ▁June ▁( 8 6 mm ), ▁with ▁a ▁secondary ▁maximum ▁in ▁December ▁( 7 7 mm ). ▁The ▁minimum ▁precip itation ▁falls ▁in ▁August ▁( 4 4 mm ). ▁During ▁the ▁year , ▁the ▁average ▁number ▁of ▁days ▁with ▁precip itation ▁is ▁about ▁ 1 3 4 ▁( from ▁ 9 ▁days ▁in ▁August ▁to ▁ 1 9 ▁days ▁in ▁December ). ▁The ▁rain iest ▁month ▁was ▁June ▁ 1 9 8 8 , ▁when ▁ 3 0 7 mm ▁of ▁rain ▁fell ▁( at ▁a ▁rate ▁of ▁ 8 6 mm ). ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁turned ▁out ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁dri est ▁month ▁– ▁then ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁precip itation ▁at ▁all . ▁The ▁average ▁annual ▁precip itation ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁about ▁ 7 3 5 mm . ▁Air ▁hum
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idity ▁is ▁about ▁ 7 2 %, ▁in ▁the ▁summer ▁- ▁ 6 4 – 6 6 %, ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁winter ▁- ▁ 7 8 – 8 0 %. ▁ ▁We athers ▁ ▁Winter ▁ ▁Winter ▁is ▁usually ▁mild , ▁change able , ▁with ▁un stable ▁snow ▁cover . ▁The ▁average ▁daily ▁temperature ▁is ▁ 0 ▁... ▁+ ▁ 2 ▁° ▁С ; ▁However , ▁annually ▁there ▁are ▁both ▁fro sts ▁( most ▁often ▁in ▁clear ▁weather ▁during ▁the ▁passage ▁of ▁the ▁Ar ctic ▁ant icy clone ) ▁and ▁war ming ▁up ▁to ▁+ 1 5 ° C ▁and ▁above ▁( us ually ▁when ▁carrying ▁warm ▁air ▁from ▁the ▁south - west ). ▁In ▁some ▁cold ▁win ters , ▁temperatures ▁can ▁drop ▁to ▁− 2 0 ° C . ▁The ▁winter ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁short ▁- ▁on ▁average , ▁it ▁begins ▁in ▁early ▁January ▁and ▁ends ▁in ▁mid - F ebru ary , ▁however , ▁in ▁fact , ▁these ▁periods ▁can ▁vary ▁greatly . ▁Prec ip itation ▁can ▁fall ▁in ▁the ▁form ▁of ▁rain , ▁rarely ▁snow , ▁sle et ▁and ▁rain . ▁Recently , ▁the ▁cases ▁of ▁" free zing ▁rain ", ▁which ▁lead ▁to ▁serious ▁consequences . ▁ ▁Spring ▁ ▁The ▁beginning ▁of ▁spring ▁usually ▁falls ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁and ▁end ▁of ▁February , ▁however , ▁from ▁year ▁to ▁year ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁the ▁on set ▁of ▁spring ▁can ▁vary ▁greatly : ▁in ▁the ▁years ▁with ▁warm ▁win ters , ▁the ▁spring ▁begins ▁almost ▁at
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▁the ▁end ▁of ▁January , ▁smoothly ▁“ flow ing ” ▁from ▁deep ▁autumn , ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁years ▁with ▁severe ▁win ters ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁spring ▁may ▁be ▁already ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁March . ▁March , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁winter , ▁is ▁very ▁un stable ▁in ▁the ▁weather ▁plan : ▁war ming ▁can ▁be ▁sharply ▁replaced ▁by ▁cold , ▁often ▁fro st , ▁and ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁Wind ▁is ▁also ▁characteristic ▁of ▁March , ▁often ▁strong . ▁The ▁weather ▁becomes ▁more ▁stable ▁only ▁in ▁April , ▁when ▁trees ▁begin ▁to ▁blo om ▁( us ually ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁April , ▁but ▁sometimes ▁in ▁mid - M arch ), ▁and ▁the ▁winds ▁sub side ▁only ▁by ▁May . ▁Al ready ▁in ▁early ▁May , ▁the ▁average ▁daily ▁temperature ▁begins ▁to ▁exceed ▁+ 1 5 ° C ▁- ▁summer ▁is ▁coming . ▁ ▁Summer ▁ ▁Summer ▁is ▁the ▁longest ▁season ▁in ▁K ras nod ar . ▁On ▁average , ▁its ▁duration ▁is ▁ 1 5 5 − 1 6 0 ▁days , ▁which ▁is ▁ 5 ▁months . ▁Character ized ▁by ▁sun shine . ▁In ▁May ▁- ▁June ▁temperature ▁rarely ▁exceed s ▁+ 3 0 ° C , ▁however , ▁hum idity ▁and ▁natural ▁conve ction ▁lead ▁to ▁frequent ▁short - term ▁thunder storm ▁show ers . ▁In ▁July ▁– ▁August , ▁the ▁air ▁becomes ▁much ▁dri er , ▁rain ▁and ▁thunder storm s ▁at ▁this ▁time ▁are ▁most ▁often ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁activity ▁of ▁atm ospher ic
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▁front s , ▁so ▁the ▁precip itation ▁becomes ▁much ▁less . ▁The ▁average ▁temperature ▁in ▁July ▁and ▁August ▁is ▁about ▁+ 2 5 ▁° ▁С , ▁while ▁the ▁daily ▁maximum ▁often ▁exceed s ▁the ▁ 3 0 - degree ▁mark . ▁Most ▁often , ▁it ▁is ▁during ▁this ▁period ▁that ▁ 4 0 - degree ▁heat ▁waves ▁are ▁observed . ▁In ▁September , ▁the ▁most ▁comfortable ▁weather ▁is ▁usually ▁observed : ▁in ▁the ▁afternoon ▁the ▁air ▁is ▁still ▁war ming ▁up ▁to ▁+ ▁ 2 5 ▁... ▁+ ▁ 3 0 ▁° ▁С , ▁however , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁a ▁strong ▁sun , ▁and ▁at ▁night ▁a ▁pleasant ▁cool ness ▁falls . ▁Usually , ▁in ▁the ▁second ▁half ▁of ▁September ▁( in ▁recent ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁October ), ▁cool ▁days ▁with ▁cloud y ▁and ▁rain y ▁weather ▁occur ▁- ▁this ▁indicates ▁the ▁on set ▁of ▁autumn . ▁ ▁Aut umn ▁ ▁Aut umn ▁comes ▁in ▁early ▁to ▁mid - Oct ober . ▁It ▁usually ▁continues ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁December , ▁only ▁in ▁warm ▁years ▁it ▁can ▁last ▁until ▁mid - Jan uary ▁and ▁slowly ▁move ▁into ▁spring . ▁The ▁average ▁temperature ▁does ▁not ▁exceed ▁ 1 5 ▁° ▁С . ▁There ▁are ▁much ▁more ▁cloud y ▁days , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁precip itation . ▁Up ▁to ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁December , ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁to ▁return ▁warm ▁( up ▁to ▁+ ▁ 2 0 ▁... ▁+ ▁ 2 5 ▁° ▁С ), ▁dry ▁and ▁sun ny ▁weather ▁-
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▁“ Ind ian ▁summer ”. ▁In ▁November , ▁winds ▁begin ▁to ▁blow , ▁although ▁not ▁as ▁strong ▁as ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁spring . ▁In ▁December , ▁it ▁is ▁often ▁over cast ▁with ▁slight ▁but ▁periodic ▁precip itation . ▁The ▁first ▁fro sts ▁can ▁be ▁observed ▁in ▁time ▁from ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁November ▁to ▁mid - De cember , ▁and ▁the ▁first ▁snow ▁most ▁often ▁occurs ▁in ▁late ▁November - mid - De cember . ▁However , ▁the ▁first ▁snow ▁often ▁does ▁not ▁lie ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁or ▁three ▁days ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁preval ence ▁of ▁positive ▁temperatures , ▁so ▁the ▁New ▁Year ▁is ▁most ▁often ▁snow less . ▁ ▁H ydro graph y ▁ ▁The ▁K ub an ▁River , ▁the ▁longest ▁river ▁in ▁the ▁entire ▁North ▁C au cas ian ▁region , ▁flows ▁through ▁the ▁city . ▁Its ▁length ▁is ▁ 8 7 0 km , ▁and ▁the ▁bas in ▁area ▁is ▁ 5 7 9 0 0 km ². ▁On ▁the ▁flat ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁river ▁created ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁artificial ▁reserv oirs . ▁In ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁K ub an ▁is ▁characterized ▁by ▁the ▁tort u osity ▁of ▁the ▁channel . ▁In ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁its ▁natural ▁movement , ▁the ▁river ▁broke ▁through ▁the ▁neck ▁loops , ▁straight ening ▁its ▁course . ▁The ▁former ▁root ▁formed ▁flood plain ▁l akes ▁- ▁old ▁ladies . ▁An ▁example ▁of ▁an ▁old ▁lake ▁is ▁the ▁Lake ▁Old ▁K ub an ▁near ▁K ras nod ar .
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▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁significant ▁slope ▁of ▁the ▁channel , ▁the ▁K ub an ▁is ▁distinguished ▁by ▁a ▁fast ▁current , ▁a ▁great ▁destruct ive ▁force ▁during ▁flood s ▁and ▁flood s . ▁The ▁amplitude ▁of ▁fluctuations ▁in ▁the ▁water ▁level ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁reaches ▁ 5 ▁meters . ▁To ▁reg ulate ▁flow ▁built ▁reserv oirs . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁the ▁filling ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁artificial ▁reserv oir ▁of ▁the ▁K ras nod ar ▁K rai ▁– ▁the ▁K ras nod ar ▁reserv oir , ▁which ▁finally ▁reg ulated ▁the ▁K ub an ▁river ▁flow . ▁E arlier , ▁the ▁Kar as un ▁river ▁flow ed ▁through ▁the ▁territory ▁of ▁the ▁city . ▁Now ▁it ▁is ▁Pok rov sky ▁L akes . ▁ ▁Environmental ▁situation ▁ ▁he ▁environmental ▁situation ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁determined ▁by ▁researchers ▁as ▁tense . ▁Of ▁particular ▁relev ance ▁is ▁the ▁problem ▁of ▁air ▁pollution ▁by ▁road . ▁In ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁through ▁which ▁large ▁high ways ▁pass , ▁the ▁excess ▁of ▁the ▁perm iss ible ▁rate ▁of ▁hydro car b ons , ▁carbon ▁mon ox ide ▁and ▁nit rogen ▁ox ide ▁ ▁is ▁recorded ▁- ▁from ▁ 1 . 5 ▁to ▁ 7 ▁times . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁to ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁K ras nod ar ▁registered ▁the ▁most ▁cars ▁per ▁cap ita ▁among ▁Russian ▁cities . ▁If ▁for ▁Moscow ▁this ▁figure ▁is ▁ 8 4
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6 ▁cars ▁per ▁ 1 0 0 0 ▁people , ▁in ▁K ras nod ar ▁it ▁is ▁ 1 , 0 6 3 ▁cars . ▁In ▁the ▁summer , ▁transit ▁transport ▁begins ▁to ▁play ▁an ▁important ▁role , ▁when ▁car ▁traffic ▁increases ▁to ▁ 2 ▁million ▁cars . ▁ ▁Scient ists ▁have ▁noted ▁a ▁very ▁high ▁level ▁of ▁air ▁pollution ▁caused ▁by ▁the ▁performance ▁of ▁electric ▁power ▁facilities , ▁enter prises ▁of ▁the ▁pet ro chem ical , ▁oil ▁ref ining ▁and ▁fuel ▁industries . ▁In ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁city . ▁The ▁content ▁of ▁nit rogen ▁and ▁carbon ▁dio x ide ▁in ▁the ▁air ▁is ▁ 1 . 5 – 2 ▁times ▁higher ▁than ▁in ▁other ▁areas . ▁This ▁situation ▁is ▁explained ▁by ▁the ▁constant ▁flow ▁of ▁these ▁sub stances ▁from ▁enter prises ▁located ▁in ▁other ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁city , ▁with ▁prev ailing ▁w ester ly , ▁nort he astern ▁and ▁eas ter ly ▁winds . ▁The ▁industrial ▁district ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁suff ers ▁the ▁most ▁from ▁pollution , ▁often ▁due ▁to ▁impro per ▁operation ▁or ▁mal function ▁of ▁dust ▁collecting ▁and ▁gas ▁cleaning ▁equipment . ▁Nevertheless , ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁results ▁of ▁a ▁study ▁conducted ▁by ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Natural ▁Resources ▁and ▁Environment ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁K ras nod ar ▁ranks ▁third ▁in ▁the ▁pur ity ▁of ▁air ▁among ▁cities ▁in ▁Russia ▁with ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁over ▁ 5 0 0 ▁thousand ▁people . ▁ ▁Water ▁bodies ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁experience ▁a ▁high ▁anth rop ogen
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ic ▁load . ▁In ▁water , ▁the ▁perm iss ible ▁concentr ations ▁of ▁harmful ▁sub stances , ▁including ▁comp ounds ▁of ▁copper , ▁iron , ▁pet role um ▁hydro car b ons , ▁and ▁nit r ates , ▁are ▁several ▁times ▁exceed ed . ▁ ▁Administr ative ▁divisions ▁ ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁K ras nod ar ▁City ▁District ▁and ▁that ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁K ras nod ar ▁K rai . ▁K ras nod ar ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁ 4 ▁districts . ▁ ▁The ▁formation ▁or ▁mer ger ▁of ▁districts ▁can ▁only ▁be ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁K ras nod ar ▁City ▁D uma ▁on ▁the ▁proposal ▁of ▁the ▁Mayor ▁of ▁K ras nod ar . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁K ras nod ar ▁ ▁K ras nod ar ▁K rai ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : K ras nod ar ▁K ras nod ar <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁following ▁list ▁of ▁countries ▁by ▁coffee ▁production ▁catalog ues ▁sovere ign ▁states ▁that ▁have ▁con duc ive ▁climate ▁and ▁infrastructure ▁to ▁foster ▁the ▁production ▁of ▁coffee ▁beans . ▁Many ▁of ▁these ▁countries ▁maintain ▁substantial ▁supply - chain ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁coffee house ▁chains ▁and ▁enter prises . ▁These ▁coffee h ouses ▁play ▁a ▁prominent ▁role ▁in ▁supporting ▁developing ▁econom ies ▁by ▁w aging ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁coffee ▁wars ▁to ▁gain ▁market ▁share . ▁Often ▁these ▁coffee house ▁chains ▁pay ▁a ▁premium ▁above ▁market ▁price ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁al lev iate ▁fair ▁trade ▁and ▁sustainable ▁farming ▁concerns .
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▁Develop ing ▁countries ▁that ▁participate ▁in ▁the ▁coffee ▁market ▁w ield ▁consider ate ▁influence ▁on ▁global ▁coffee ▁economics . ▁ ▁Main ▁ex por ters ▁by ▁country ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁World ▁Atl as , ▁the ▁main ▁ex por ters ▁of ▁coffee ▁beans ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁are : ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Coffee ▁wars ▁List ▁of ▁coffee house ▁chains ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Colombia ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Brazil ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Gu atem ala ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Kenya ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Hawaii ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁Mexico ▁Coffee ▁production ▁in ▁the ▁Philippines ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁▁ ▁Coffee <0x0A> </s> ▁Low ell ▁Jay ▁Mil ken ▁( born ▁November ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁business man , ▁phil anth rop ist , ▁and ▁co - found er ▁and ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation . ▁He ▁is ▁also ▁the ▁founder ▁of ▁the ▁T AP ▁System ▁for ▁Te acher ▁and ▁Student ▁Adv ance ment ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁co - found er ▁of ▁Know ledge ▁Universe , ▁a ▁provider ▁of ▁early ▁childhood ▁education . ▁Mil ken ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁senior ▁vice - pres ident ▁in ▁the ▁junk ▁bond - tr ading ▁operation ▁of ▁Dre x el ▁Burn ham ▁Lam bert , ▁headed ▁by ▁his ▁brother ▁Michael ▁Mil ken . ▁ ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁has ▁founded ▁several ▁more ▁non profit ▁organizations , ▁including ▁the ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation ▁and ▁the ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken
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▁Center . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁he ▁was ▁named ▁one ▁of ▁America ' s ▁most ▁generous ▁phil anth rop ists ▁by ▁W orth ▁magazine . ▁As ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation , ▁he ▁presents ▁of ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Educ ator ▁Awards ▁several ▁times ▁each ▁year . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁▁ ▁Low ell ▁Jay ▁Mil ken ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁November ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 9 4 8 , ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁and ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁Enc ino , ▁California . ▁He ▁is ▁the ▁second ▁son ▁of ▁Bernard ▁and ▁Fer ne ▁Mil ken ; ▁his ▁older ▁brother ▁Michael ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁and ▁a ▁sister ▁J oni ▁born ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 8 . ▁The ▁family ▁moved ▁to ▁the ▁San ▁Fernando ▁Valley ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 3 , ▁where ▁Low ell ▁attended ▁schools ▁in ▁the ▁California ▁public ▁school ▁system ▁including ▁H es by ▁Element ary ▁School ▁in ▁Enc ino , ▁Port ola ▁Junior ▁High ▁School ▁in ▁Tar z ana , ▁and ▁Birmingham ▁High ▁School ▁in ▁Van ▁Nu ys . ▁ ▁Mil ken ▁graduated ▁Ph i ▁B eta ▁K appa ▁and ▁sum ma ▁cum ▁la ude ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Berkeley . ▁He ▁earned ▁a ▁J . D . ▁degree ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Los ▁Angeles , ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Order ▁of ▁the ▁Co if ▁honor ▁society ▁and ▁an ▁editor ▁of ▁the ▁U CL A ▁Law ▁Review . ▁Mil ken ▁graduated ▁in ▁the ▁top ▁ten
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▁percent ▁of ▁his ▁class ▁at ▁U CL A ▁School ▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁Business ▁career ▁▁ ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁from ▁U CL A ▁Law , ▁Mil ken ▁joined ▁the ▁law ▁firm ▁of ▁Ire ll ▁& ▁Man ella , ▁where ▁he ▁specialized ▁in ▁business ▁and ▁tax ▁law . ▁He ▁spent ▁four ▁years ▁working ▁as ▁an ▁associate ▁at ▁the ▁Los ▁Angeles - based ▁firm . ▁Mil ken ▁particularly ▁enjoyed ▁and ▁exc elled ▁at ▁the ▁tax - stud y ▁lun ches ▁at ▁Ire ll ▁& ▁Man ella , ▁where ▁a ▁senior ▁attorney ▁at ▁the ▁firm ▁presented ▁a ▁complicated ▁case ▁and ▁the ▁lawyers ▁in ▁attendance ▁attempted ▁to ▁come ▁up ▁with ▁unique ▁solutions . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁he ▁joined ▁Dre x el ▁Burn ham ▁Lam bert ' s ▁High ▁Y ield ▁and ▁Convert ible ▁Bond ▁Department , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" j unk ▁bond " ▁department . ▁His ▁brother ▁Michael ▁Mil ken ▁had ▁moved ▁the ▁operation ▁to ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁the ▁year ▁before , ▁and ▁he ▁hired ▁Low ell ▁to ▁serve ▁as ▁a ▁department al ▁senior ▁vice - pres ident ▁until ▁he ▁resigned ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 9 . ▁His ▁duties ▁were ▁reported ▁to ▁be ▁" most ly ▁administrative ", ▁but ▁he ▁also ▁provided ▁financial ▁analysis ▁of ▁companies . ▁Low ell ▁was ▁most ▁interested ▁in ▁bankrupt cies ▁and ▁dist ressed ▁fin ances ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁utilize ▁his ▁tax ▁policy ▁experience ▁from ▁Ire ll ▁& ▁Man ella . ▁He ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁registered ▁representative ▁with ▁any ▁secur ities ▁exchange . ▁
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▁In ▁March ▁ 1 9 8 9 , ▁after ▁a ▁long ▁investigation , ▁the ▁government ▁ind icted ▁Michael ▁with ▁ 9 8 ▁counts ▁of ▁rack ete ering ▁and ▁fraud . ▁The ▁ind ict ment ▁also ▁named ▁Low ell ▁in ▁two ▁charges ▁of ▁rack ete ering ▁and ▁ 1 1 ▁counts ▁of ▁fraud . ▁Michael ▁ple aded ▁guilty ▁and ▁went ▁to ▁prison . ▁As ▁part ▁of ▁that ▁deal , ▁the ▁government ▁dropped ▁charges ▁against ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken , ▁but ▁in ▁March ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁he ▁was ▁bar red ▁from ▁working ▁in ▁the ▁secur ities ▁industry ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁settlement ▁with ▁the ▁Sec ur ities ▁and ▁Exchange ▁Commission . ▁It ▁has ▁been ▁suggested ▁that ▁the ▁government ▁ind icted ▁Low ell ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁put ▁pressure ▁on ▁Michael ▁to ▁settle ▁the ▁case ▁against ▁him , ▁a ▁tact ic ▁condem ned ▁as ▁un eth ical ▁by ▁some ▁legal ▁scholars . ▁" I ▁am ▁trou bled ▁by ▁– ▁and ▁other ▁scholars ▁are ▁trou bled ▁by ▁– ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁putting ▁relatives ▁on ▁the ▁barg aining ▁table ," ▁said ▁Viv ian ▁Ber ger , ▁a ▁professor ▁at ▁Columbia ▁University ▁Law ▁School , ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁interview ▁with ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times . ▁In ▁articles ▁in ▁the ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁Times ▁and ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 , ▁Low ell ▁was ▁characterized ▁as ▁an ▁" un ass uming ▁family ▁man " ▁being ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁" b arg aining ▁chip ", ▁ind icted ▁only ▁to ▁put
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▁pressure ▁on ▁his ▁brother . ▁ ▁Low ell ▁later ▁became ▁chairman ▁and ▁a ▁share holder ▁of ▁Her on ▁International , ▁a ▁real ▁estate ▁firm ▁in ▁London , ▁England . ▁He ▁acquired ▁a ▁majority ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁company ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 9 0 s . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 6 , ▁Low ell ▁co - found ed ▁Know ledge ▁Universe ▁with ▁Michael ▁Mil ken ▁and ▁Larry ▁Ell ison . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁they ▁became ▁the ▁sole ▁owners ▁of ▁the ▁company . ▁In ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁Know ledge ▁Universe ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁early ▁childhood ▁education ▁company ▁and ▁operates ▁under ▁the ▁Kinder C are ▁Learning ▁Cent ers , ▁Know ledge ▁Begin nings , ▁C CL C , ▁The ▁Gro ve ▁School , ▁Champions ▁and ▁Cambridge ▁Schools ▁brands . ▁Intern ation ally , ▁it ▁overse es ▁early ▁childhood ▁education , ▁K - 1 2 ▁education ▁and ▁post - secondary ▁education ▁programs ▁and ▁is ▁head qu arter ed ▁in ▁Singapore . ▁Low ell ▁served ▁as ▁vice - chair man ▁of ▁Know ledge ▁Universe ▁Education ▁and ▁he ▁is ▁Chairman ▁of ▁Know ledge ▁Universe ▁Education ▁Hold ings ▁Inc . ▁In ▁July ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Know ledge ▁Universe ▁Education ▁was ▁sold ▁to ▁Switzerland - based ▁Part ners ▁Group ▁for ▁und is closed ▁terms . ▁ ▁Phil anth ropy ▁▁ ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁co - found ed ▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁and ▁serves ▁as ▁its ▁chairman . ▁He ▁also ▁established ▁the ▁Low ell
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▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁to ▁support ▁and ▁provide ▁funding ▁for ▁organizations ▁and ▁initiatives ▁that ▁strengthen ▁communities ▁through ▁education ▁and ▁lif el ong ▁learning . ▁ ▁He ▁created ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Educ ator ▁Awards ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁First ▁presented ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁the ▁award ▁program ▁works ▁with ▁state ▁departments ▁of ▁education ▁to ▁identify ▁teachers , ▁princip als ▁and ▁education ▁specialists ▁who ▁are ▁improving ▁student ▁achievement , ▁making ▁significant ▁contributions ▁to ▁a ▁school ' s ▁level ▁of ▁excell ence ▁and ▁elev ating ▁the ▁teaching ▁profession . ▁As ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 7 – 1 8 ▁school ▁year , ▁the ▁National ▁Mil ken ▁Educ ator ▁Network ▁counts ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 , 7 0 0 ▁educ ators ▁among ▁the ▁recip ients ▁of ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Educ ator ▁Award . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 0 , ▁Mil ken ▁founded ▁the ▁Mil ken ▁Arch ive ▁of ▁Jewish ▁Music , ▁a ▁project ▁to ▁preserve ▁the ▁music ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Jewish ▁experience . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁Mil ken ▁founded ▁the ▁T AP ▁System ▁for ▁Te acher ▁and ▁Student ▁Adv ance ment , ▁a ▁comprehensive ▁school ▁reform ▁currently ▁impact ing ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁educ ators ▁and ▁ 2 . 5 ▁million ▁students ▁across ▁the ▁country . ▁The ▁system ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁four ▁integrated ▁and ▁aligned ▁elements : ▁Mult iple ▁careers ▁paths , ▁continuous ▁school - based ▁professional ▁development , ▁instruction ally -
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focus ed ▁teacher ▁evaluation , ▁and ▁performance - based ▁compensation ▁for ▁educ ators . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁Mil ken ▁founded ▁an ▁independent ▁public ▁charity ▁to ▁support ▁and ▁manage ▁the ▁T AP ▁System , ▁The ▁National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Excell ence ▁in ▁Te aching ▁( NI ET ), ▁and ▁has ▁since ▁served ▁as ▁its ▁chairman . ▁ ▁The ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Center ▁was ▁established ▁by ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁in ▁partnership ▁with ▁Kansas ▁Mil ken ▁Educ ator ▁Norman ▁Con ard . ▁The ▁public ▁non profit ▁organization ▁disco vers , ▁develop s ▁and ▁commun icates ▁the ▁stories ▁of ▁uns ung ▁heroes ▁who ▁have ▁made ▁a ▁profound ▁and ▁positive ▁difference ▁on ▁the ▁course ▁of ▁history ▁and ▁includes ▁a ▁ 6 , 0 0 0 - square - foot ▁museum ▁space ▁with ▁permanent ▁and ▁rot ating ▁exhib itions . ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁the ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Center ▁for ▁Un sung ▁Hero es ▁opened ▁a ▁museum ▁in ▁Fort ▁Scott , ▁Kansas . ▁ ▁Mil ken ▁has ▁partner ed ▁with ▁the ▁Pro state ▁Cancer ▁Foundation ▁to ▁present ▁the ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Pro state ▁Cancer ▁Foundation ▁Young ▁Invest igator ▁Award ▁to ▁scientists ▁for ▁work ▁in ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁pro state ▁cancer . ▁ ▁The ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Institute ▁for ▁Business ▁Law ▁and ▁Policy ▁was ▁founded ▁at ▁U CL A ▁School ▁of ▁Law ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁with ▁an ▁initial ▁end ow ment
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▁of ▁two ▁million ▁dollars ▁from ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁Family ▁Foundation , ▁the ▁Hoff mit z ▁Mil ken ▁Center ▁for ▁Typ ography ▁was ▁established ▁at ▁Art Center ▁College ▁of ▁Design ▁in ▁Pas ad ena , ▁California . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁Mil ken ▁gave ▁an ▁additional ▁$ 2 ▁million ▁gift ▁to ▁the ▁Hoff mit z ▁Mil ken ▁Center . ▁ ▁Cont ro vers ies ▁ ▁Ch arg es ▁of ▁illegal ▁secur ities ▁trading ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 9 , ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁was ▁charged ▁with ▁ 1 1 ▁counts ▁of ▁ill icit ▁activity ▁related ▁to ▁illegal ▁secur ities ▁trading , ▁stock ▁manip ulation ▁and ▁corporate ▁mer gers ▁and ▁acquis itions ▁related ▁to ▁un law ful ▁secur ities ▁trading . ▁While ▁Low ell ' s ▁brother ▁was ▁sent enced ▁to ▁ 1 0 ▁years ▁in ▁prison ▁and ▁fin ed ▁$ 6 0 0 ▁million , ▁charges ▁against ▁Low ell ▁were ▁eventually ▁dropped ▁as ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁ple a ▁deal . ▁ ▁Law suit ▁against ▁author ▁of ▁" Den ▁of ▁Th ie ves " ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁funded ▁$ 1 . 6 ▁million ▁to ▁back ▁a ▁lawsuit ▁against ▁best - selling ▁author ▁James ▁B . ▁Stewart ▁for ▁a ▁passage ▁written ▁in ▁Stewart ' s ▁book , ▁" Den ▁of ▁Th ie ves ", ▁which ▁was ▁about ▁the ▁roles ▁of ▁Low ell ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁Michael ▁in ▁ins ider ▁trading ▁sc and als ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0
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s . ▁In ▁the ▁lawsuit , ▁Michael ▁F . ▁Arm strong , ▁the ▁criminal ▁defense ▁lawyer ▁who ▁represented ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken , ▁alleged ▁that ▁the ▁book ▁wrong ly ▁accused ▁Arm strong ▁of ▁preparing ▁a ▁false ▁aff id av it ▁for ▁a ▁witness ▁to ▁sign ▁to ▁ex on er ate ▁Low ell ▁Mil ken ▁on ▁charges ▁of ▁viol ating ▁security ▁laws . ▁ ▁An ▁Associ ate ▁Justice ▁of ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁passage ▁concerning ▁Arm strong ' s ▁lies ▁were ▁substant ially ▁true ▁and ▁dismissed ▁the ▁charges . ▁ ▁Awards ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁Mil ken ▁was ▁named ▁one ▁of ▁America ' s ▁most ▁generous ▁phil anth rop ists ▁by ▁W orth ▁magazine . ▁His ▁work ▁in ▁business ▁and ▁phil anth ropy ▁has ▁been ▁recognized ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Association ▁of ▁State ▁Bo ards ▁of ▁Education , ▁the ▁Hor ace ▁Mann ▁League ▁and ▁the ▁National ▁Association ▁of ▁Second ary ▁School ▁Pr incip als . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁event ▁" Only ▁in ▁America : ▁Jewish ▁Music ▁in ▁a ▁Land ▁of ▁Freedom ", ▁Mil ken ▁was ▁hon ored ▁by ▁the ▁Jewish ▁The ological ▁Sem inary ▁of ▁America ▁for ▁his ▁contribution ▁to ▁Jewish ▁culture ▁in ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁Mil ken ▁Arch ive . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁He brew ▁Union ▁College ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁presented ▁Mil ken ▁with ▁a ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Hum ane ▁Let ters , ▁honor is ▁causa . ▁Mil ken ▁was ▁hon ored ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁U
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CL A ▁School ▁of ▁Law ' s ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁Al umn us ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁for ▁his ▁accomplish ments ▁in ▁public ▁and ▁community ▁service , ▁particularly ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁of ▁education ▁and ▁school ▁reform . ▁ ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Mil ken ▁accepted ▁an ▁honor ary ▁Doctor ate ▁of ▁Hum ane ▁Let ters ▁from ▁Chap man ▁University ' s ▁George ▁L . ▁Ar gy ros ▁School ▁of ▁Business ▁and ▁Econom ics ▁at ▁Chap man ▁University . ▁The ▁Education ▁Commission ▁of ▁the ▁States ▁hon ored ▁Mil ken ▁as ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁recipient ▁of ▁the ▁James ▁Bry ant ▁Con ant ▁Award . ▁The ▁award ▁is ▁named ▁for ▁the ▁co - found er ▁of ▁Education ▁Commission ▁of ▁the ▁States ▁and ▁former ▁president ▁of ▁Harvard ▁University , ▁and ▁recogn izes ▁outstanding ▁individual ▁contributions ▁to ▁American ▁education . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 4 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : American ▁billion aires ▁Category : J ew ish ▁American ▁phil anth rop ists ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Bus iness people ▁from ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁Category : Phil anth rop ists ▁from ▁California ▁Category : U CL A ▁School ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁California , ▁Berkeley ▁al umn i ▁Category : People ▁from ▁the ▁San ▁Fernando ▁Valley <0x0A> </s> ▁Br ach iac anth a ▁step h ani , ▁or ▁Ste phan ' s ▁lady ▁be et le , ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁lady ▁be et le ▁in ▁the ▁family
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▁C oc cin ell idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁North ▁America . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : C oc cin ell idae ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Be et les ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 <0x0A> </s> ▁Slow ▁television , ▁or ▁slow ▁TV ▁( N or weg ian : ▁S akte - TV ), ▁is ▁a ▁term ▁used ▁for ▁a ▁genre ▁of ▁" mar athon " ▁television ▁coverage ▁of ▁an ▁ordinary ▁event ▁in ▁its ▁complete ▁length . ▁Its ▁name ▁is ▁derived ▁both ▁from ▁the ▁long ▁end urance ▁of ▁the ▁broadcast ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁from ▁the ▁natural ▁slow ▁pace ▁of ▁the ▁television ▁program ' s ▁progress . ▁It ▁was ▁popular ised ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 s ▁by ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁Broad cast ing ▁Corporation ▁( NR K ), ▁beginning ▁with ▁the ▁broadcast ▁of ▁a ▁ 7 - hour ▁train ▁journey ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁ ▁Background ▁An ▁early ▁example ▁of ▁extended ▁length ▁cin emat ography ▁was ▁artist ▁Andy ▁War hol ' s ▁ 1 9 6 4 ▁film ▁Sleep , ▁which ▁showed ▁poet ▁John ▁Gi orno ▁sleeping ▁for ▁five ▁hours ▁and ▁twenty ▁minutes . ▁ ▁War hol ' s ▁production ▁process ▁involved ▁s plic ing ▁and ▁loop ing ▁of ▁film ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁originally ▁shot ▁in ▁ 3 - 4 ▁minute ▁lengths . ▁ ▁The ▁concept ▁was ▁adapted ▁to ▁slow ▁television ▁on ▁local ▁TV ▁broadcast ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 ▁by ▁W PI X
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, ▁to ▁V HS ▁video ▁tape ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁company ▁Video 1 2 5 , ▁to ▁satellite ▁TV ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁by ▁Bahn ▁TV , ▁and ▁to ▁live ▁TV ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁by ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁Broad cast ing ▁Corporation ▁( NR K ). ▁▁ ▁The ▁latest ▁evolution ▁of ▁the ▁concept ▁started ▁with ▁the ▁N R K ' s ▁coverage ▁of ▁the ▁longest ▁driver ' s ▁eye ▁view ▁at ▁that ▁time , ▁showing ▁the ▁complete ▁ 7 - hour ▁train ▁ride ▁along ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Line ▁() ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 . ▁It ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁the ▁live ▁coverage ▁of ▁the ▁H urt igr uten ▁ship ▁ ▁during ▁its ▁ 1 3 4 - hour ▁voyage ▁from ▁Ber gen ▁to ▁Kir ken es ▁starting ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁ ▁Both ▁events ▁received ▁extensive ▁attention ▁in ▁both ▁Norweg ian ▁and ▁foreign ▁media , ▁and ▁were ▁considered ▁a ▁great ▁success ▁with ▁coverage ▁numbers ▁exceed ing ▁all ▁expectations ▁and ▁record ▁ratings ▁for ▁the ▁N R K 2 ▁channel . ▁ ▁E arlier ▁examples ▁ ▁The ▁Y ule ▁Log ▁ ▁Begin ning ▁in ▁Christmas ▁ 1 9 6 6 , ▁New ▁York ▁City ▁television ▁station ▁W PI X ▁showed ▁a ▁film ▁of ▁a ▁y ule ▁log ▁burning ▁in ▁a ▁fire place , ▁accompanied ▁by ▁classic ▁Christmas ▁music ▁playing ▁in ▁the ▁background ▁and ▁broadcast ▁without ▁commercial ▁inter ruption . ▁ ▁It ▁does ▁not
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, ▁however , ▁strictly ▁qualify ▁as ▁slow ▁television ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁made ▁art ific ially ▁long ▁by ▁loop ing ▁the ▁original ▁film . ▁ ▁Night ▁Walk / N ight ▁M oves / N ight ▁R ide ▁ ▁Another ▁early ▁for ay ▁into ▁slow ▁television ▁was ▁Night ▁Walk , ▁Night ▁R ide ▁and ▁Night ▁M oves , ▁a ▁tri o ▁of ▁late ▁night ▁programs ▁which ▁a ired ▁on ▁the ▁Global ▁Television ▁Network ▁in ▁Canada ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 9 0 s . ▁Air ing ▁in ▁the ▁overnight ▁hours ▁when ▁most ▁television ▁stations ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁running ▁a ▁test ▁pattern , ▁the ▁three ▁programs ▁each ▁depicted ▁a ▁different ▁first - person ▁view ▁of ▁a ▁walking ▁or ▁driving ▁trip ▁through ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁downtown ▁Toronto , ▁with ▁a ▁m ellow ▁jazz ▁sound track . ▁Only ▁two ▁episodes ▁of ▁Night ▁Walk ▁and ▁one ▁episode ▁of ▁the ▁others ▁were ▁ever ▁actually ▁produced , ▁although ▁they ▁were ▁r er un ▁every ▁night ▁from ▁their ▁debut ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁to ▁their ▁cancellation ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 . ▁ ▁Fish cam ▁ ▁N R K ▁( N or way ) ▁▁ ▁Starting ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁N R K , ▁Norway ' s ▁public ▁service ▁broad c aster , ▁has ▁produced ▁several ▁slow ▁television ▁programs ▁that ▁have ▁gained ▁high ▁ratings . ▁ ▁() ▁was ▁named ▁Word ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁in ▁Norway ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁▁ 2 0 0 9 : ▁Berg
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ens ban en ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁▁ ▁N R K ' s ▁first ▁for ay ▁into ▁slow ▁television ▁was ▁the ▁program ▁Berg ens ban en ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁– ▁train ▁journey ▁across ▁Southern ▁Norway , ▁which ▁depicted ▁the ▁ 7 - hour ▁train ▁journey ▁from ▁Ber gen ▁to ▁Os lo ▁along ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Line ▁( ). ▁It ▁was ▁a ired ▁on ▁N R K 2 ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁and ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁described ▁as ▁" the ▁icon ic ▁slow - TV ▁program ". ▁The ▁event ▁was ▁planned ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 0 0 - year ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Line . ▁Four ▁cameras ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁produce ▁the ▁documentary , ▁showing ▁both ▁exterior ▁and ▁interior ▁views , ▁along ▁with ▁interviews ▁with ▁crew , ▁train ▁conduct ors , ▁histor ians , ▁past ▁workers ▁and ▁passengers . ▁The ▁train ▁went ▁through ▁ 1 8 2 ▁tunn els . ▁Arch ival ▁cl ips ▁from ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Railway ' s ▁ 1 0 0 - year ▁history ▁were ▁shown ▁when ▁the ▁train ▁passed ▁through ▁tunn els , ▁to ▁make ▁the ▁final ▁show ▁last ▁exactly ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁the ▁train ▁trip . ▁The ▁show ▁was ▁first ▁broadcast ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁while ▁the ▁recording ▁had ▁been ▁done ▁earlier ▁during ▁summer . ▁ ▁The ▁program ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁an ▁average ▁of ▁ 1 7 6 , 0 0 0 ▁viewers , ▁and ▁ 1
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, 2 4 6 , 0 0 0 ▁Norweg ian ▁viewers ▁( 2 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ) ▁were ▁watching ▁the ▁event ▁at ▁least ▁once ▁during ▁its ▁screening ▁time . ▁The ▁event ▁received ▁attention ▁in ▁both ▁Norweg ian ▁and ▁foreign ▁media , ▁and ▁has ▁received ▁renew ed ▁attention ▁and ▁appreciation , ▁mainly ▁among ▁its ▁Norweg ian ▁followers . ▁▁ 2 0 1 0 : ▁By ban en ▁i ▁Ber gen ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁The ▁ 2 8 - minute ▁presentation ▁By ban en ▁i ▁Ber gen ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁showed ▁a ▁trip ▁on ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Light ▁Rail ▁from ▁N est t un ▁to ▁Ber gen , ▁shortly ▁after ▁the ▁opening ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁in ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁▁ 2 0 1 0 : ▁Fl å ms b ana ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁success ▁from ▁the ▁Ber gen ▁Line , ▁N R K ▁also ▁fil med ▁the ▁Fl å m ▁Line ▁in ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁Fl å ms b ana ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁– ▁scen ic ▁tourist ▁route , ▁train ▁journey ▁depicted ▁the ▁trip ▁along ▁the ▁Fl å m ▁Line , ▁a ▁ ▁railway ▁that ▁desc ends ▁ ▁from ▁My rd al ▁to ▁Fl å m ▁on ▁the ▁S og ne f j ord . ▁It ▁was ▁broadcast ▁on ▁N R K 1 ▁on ▁ 5 ▁September ▁at ▁ 0 8 . 0 5 , ▁lasting ▁ 5 8 ▁minutes ,
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▁and ▁around ▁ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁viewers ▁watched ▁the ▁entire ▁program , ▁for ▁a ▁market ▁share ▁of ▁ 4 0 %. ▁▁ 2 0 1 1 : ▁H urt igr uten ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁▁ ▁H urt igr uten ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁– ▁a ▁coastal ▁voyage ▁from ▁Ber gen ▁to ▁Kir ken es ▁depicted ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁Coast al ▁Express ▁() ▁ship ▁ ▁on ▁a ▁ 1 3 4 - hour ▁voyage ▁from ▁Ber gen ▁to ▁Kir ken es . ▁The ▁program ▁started ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁at ▁ 1 9 : 4 5 ▁C ET ▁on ▁N R K ▁and ▁trans mitted ▁the ▁entire ▁journey ▁live ▁and ▁non - stop . ▁ ▁A ▁total ▁of ▁ 1 1 ▁cameras — three ▁fixed , ▁a ▁bow ▁camera ▁and ▁a ▁gy ro ▁stabil ized ▁C ine flex ▁camera — record ed ▁the ▁boat . ▁ ▁The ▁broadcast ▁was ▁shown ▁live ▁on ▁N R K 2 ▁in ▁Norway , ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁internet ▁for ▁international ▁viewers ▁and ▁Norweg ians ▁abroad , ▁available ▁in ▁Norweg ian ▁and ▁English . ▁The ▁broadcast ▁received ▁greater ▁attention ▁and ▁popularity ▁than ▁the ▁previous ▁Berg ens ban en ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁show , ▁both ▁in ▁media ▁and ▁by ▁viewers . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁weekend ▁of ▁ 1 7 – 1 9 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁ 2 , 5 4 2 , 0 0 0 ▁people , ▁or ▁approximately ▁half ▁the ▁Norweg ian
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▁population , ▁visited ▁the ▁live ▁broadcast . ▁At ▁its ▁peak , ▁ 6 9 2 , 0 0 0 ▁people ▁followed ▁the ▁broadcast ▁at ▁ 2 3 : 4 5 ▁Sunday ▁night , ▁as ▁the ▁boat ▁was ▁heading ▁into ▁the ▁T roll f j ord ▁in ▁L of ot en . ▁The ▁broadcast ▁has ▁set ▁a ▁world ▁record ▁as ▁being ▁the ▁world ' s ▁longest ▁live ▁television ▁documentary ▁and ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁Gu in ness ▁Book ▁of ▁Records . ▁The ▁previous ▁record ▁was ▁ 1 3 ▁hours ▁against ▁their ▁ 1 3 4 ▁hours . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁H urt igr uten ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁was ▁included ▁in ▁N ors k ▁D ok ument ar v ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Memory ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Program me . ▁▁ 2 0 1 2 : ▁L ak se el va ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Sal mon ▁river ▁– ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁was ▁a ▁ 2 4 - hour - long ▁live ▁broadcast ▁on ▁N R K 1 ▁and ▁N R K 2 ▁that ▁depicted ▁the ▁opening ▁day ▁of ▁fishing ▁season ▁on ▁the ▁G aul a ▁River ▁in ▁Tr ø nd el ag ▁and ▁lasted ▁from ▁ 3 1 ▁May ▁to ▁ 1 ▁June ▁ 2 0 1 2 . ▁It ▁consisted ▁of ▁a ▁ 4 0 - minute ▁introduction ▁on ▁N R K 1 , ▁ 1 8 ▁hours ▁of ▁live ▁sal mon ▁fishing ▁on ▁N R K 2 ,
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▁and ▁a ▁ 3 - hour ▁regular ▁broadcast ▁on ▁N R K 1 . ▁Around ▁ 1 . 6 ▁million ▁watched ▁the ▁broadcast , ▁earning ▁ 1 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁market ▁share . ▁▁ 2 0 1 2 : ▁Tele mark sk anal en ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Tele mark sk anal en ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁– ▁channel ▁boat ▁trip ▁was ▁a ▁ 1 2 - hour ▁cruise ▁along ▁the ▁Tele mark ▁Canal ▁that ▁was ▁broadcast ▁live ▁on ▁N R K 2 ▁on ▁Sunday ▁ 2 6 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 2 . ▁ 1 , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁watched ▁the ▁broadcast ▁in ▁Norway , ▁for ▁a ▁market ▁share ▁of ▁ 2 9 ▁percent . ▁▁ 2 0 1 2 : ▁Nord lands ban en ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Nord lands ban en ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁– ▁season ▁by ▁season ▁– ▁train ▁journey ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁Ar ctic ▁Circle ▁depicted ▁a ▁ 9 - hour ▁and ▁ 5 0 ▁minute ▁journey ▁on ▁the ▁Nord land ▁Line ▁railway ▁from ▁Tr ond heim ▁to ▁Bod ø . ▁It ▁was ▁broadcast ▁on ▁N R K 2 ▁on ▁ 2 9 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁and ▁had ▁a ▁view ership ▁of ▁around ▁ 1 . 2 ▁million , ▁for ▁a ▁market ▁share ▁of ▁ 1 3 ▁percent . ▁▁ 2 0 1 3 : ▁Nas j onal ▁ved k vel d ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 5 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁N
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R K ▁broadcast ▁the ▁ 1 2 - hour - long ▁broadcast ▁National ▁Wood ▁Night ▁on ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁fire wood . ▁Near ly ▁a ▁million ▁people , ▁or ▁ 2 0 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁population , ▁tun ed ▁in ▁at ▁some ▁point ▁of ▁the ▁program . ▁The ▁broadcast ▁was ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁best - selling ▁book ▁by ▁Lars ▁My tt ing , ▁Sol id ▁Wood : ▁All ▁About ▁Ch op ping , ▁D rying ▁and ▁St acking ▁Wood ▁— ▁and ▁the ▁Soul ▁of ▁Wood - B urn ing . ▁The ▁show ▁consisted ▁of ▁four ▁hours ▁of ▁ordinary ▁produced ▁television , ▁followed ▁by ▁showing ▁eight ▁hours ▁of ▁a ▁live ▁fire place . ▁The ▁show ▁received ▁international ▁attention , ▁including ▁an ▁article ▁in ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times ▁ ▁and ▁a ▁segment ▁on ▁The ▁Col bert ▁Report . ▁▁ 2 0 1 3 : ▁Som mer å pent ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Summer ▁Entertainment ▁Show ▁– ▁coastal ▁cruise ▁with ▁entertainment ▁show , ▁a ▁journey ▁from ▁Os lo ▁to ▁Kir ken es ▁and ▁back ▁was ▁a ▁coastal ▁cruise ▁with ▁entertainment ▁from ▁Os lo ▁to ▁Kir ken es ▁and ▁back . ▁The ▁approximately ▁ 3 7 9 - hour ▁show ▁was ▁broadcast ▁live ▁on ▁N R K 1 ▁from ▁Saturday ▁ 2 2 ▁June ▁to ▁Sunday ▁ 1 0 ▁August ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁▁ 2 0 1 3 : ▁Nas j onal ▁stri k ke k vel d ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁N R
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K ▁a ired ▁National ▁Kn itting ▁Night , ▁a ▁ 1 2 - hour ▁show ▁dep ict ing ▁a ▁non - stop ▁kn itting ▁mar athon ▁which ▁attempted ▁to ▁break ▁the ▁Gu in ness ▁World ▁record ▁for ▁kn itting ▁a ▁swe ater ▁from ▁beginning ▁to ▁end . ▁An ▁N R K ▁spokes person ▁described ▁the ▁show ▁as ▁" the ▁femin ine ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁fire wood ▁show ." ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 : ▁ 2 0 0 ▁år ▁på ▁ 2 0 0 ▁min utter ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 ▁years ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 ▁minutes ▁- ▁lecture ▁performed ▁by ▁professor ▁Frank ▁A are b rot , ▁political ▁scientist ▁Frank ▁A are b rot ▁gave ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 - minute ▁lecture ▁on ▁the ▁past ▁ 2 0 0 ▁years ▁of ▁Norweg ian ▁history . ▁ 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁viewers ▁watched ▁the ▁broadcast , ▁which ▁ran ▁from ▁ 8 : 0 5 ▁to ▁ 1 1 : 3 0 ▁am ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁February , ▁gaining ▁a ▁ 1 5 ▁percent ▁share ▁of ▁view ership . ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 : ▁ 1 8 1 4 ▁på ▁ 2 4 ▁tim ar ▁▁ 1 8 1 4 ▁in ▁ 2 4 ▁hours ▁comm emor ated ▁the ▁signing ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Norway ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 4 . ▁Around ▁ 5 0 ▁academ ics ▁lect ured ▁for ▁ 2 4 ▁hours ▁straight ▁from ▁R ik ss alen ▁in ▁E ids v oll
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s by g ningen , ▁the ▁building ▁where ▁the ▁constitution ▁was ▁originally ▁signed . ▁The ▁show ▁broadcast ▁from ▁ 9 ▁May ▁to ▁ 1 0 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁with ▁a ▁view ership ▁of ▁ 6 6 9 , 0 0 0 , ▁or ▁ 6 ▁percent ▁market ▁share . ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 : ▁Pi ip - show ▁ ▁Pi ip - show ▁featured ▁footage ▁from ▁a ▁camera ▁set ▁up ▁to ▁record ▁the ▁activities ▁of ▁birds ▁and ▁other ▁wildlife ▁at ▁a ▁bird ▁fe eder ▁decorated ▁to ▁look ▁like ▁a ▁coffee ▁shop . ▁A ▁website ▁run ▁by ▁N R K ▁stream ed ▁live ▁footage ▁from ▁the ▁camera ▁for ▁three ▁months , ▁and ▁N R K 2 ▁also ▁featured ▁a ▁ 1 4 - hour ▁television ▁program ▁showing ▁live ▁footage ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁with ▁a ▁view ership ▁of ▁ 2 4 3 , 0 0 0 . ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 : ▁Sal me b oka ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 8 – 3 0 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁N R K ▁a ired ▁the ▁ 6 0 - hour ▁H ym nal ▁- ▁cover ▁to ▁cover . ▁The ▁show ▁depicted ▁about ▁ 2 0 0 ▁cho irs , ▁including ▁around ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 - 4 , 0 0 0 ▁sing ers ▁and ▁solo ists , ▁performing ▁the ▁entire ▁contents ▁of ▁the ▁Church ▁of ▁Norway ' s ▁national ▁h ym
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nal , ▁published ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁performances ▁took ▁place ▁live ▁at ▁V år ▁Fr ue ▁Church ▁in ▁Tr ond heim , ▁though ▁some ▁recorded ▁performances ▁came ▁from ▁ 1 1 ▁other ▁sites ▁such ▁as ▁Kar as j ok ▁in ▁northern ▁Norway ▁and ▁Dec or ah , ▁Iowa . ▁The ▁church ▁was ▁open ▁throughout ▁the ▁show , ▁and ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 6 , 0 0 0 ▁visitors ▁dropped ▁in . ▁ ▁A ▁total ▁of ▁ 2 . 2 ▁million ▁viewers ▁tun ed ▁in ▁at ▁some ▁point ▁during ▁the ▁program , ▁with ▁an ▁average ▁of ▁ 8 7 , 0 0 0 ▁at ▁any ▁one ▁time . ▁▁ 2 0 1 5 : ▁Kr ig ▁på ▁ 2 0 0 ▁min utter ▁ ▁War ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 ▁minutes ▁featured ▁a ▁ 2 0 0 - minute ▁lecture ▁from ▁Frank ▁A are b rot ▁on ▁the ▁subject ▁of ▁war . ▁It ▁was ▁broadcast ▁on ▁ 9 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁the ▁ 7 5 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁occupation ▁of ▁Norway ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 0 . ▁The ▁program ▁received ▁a ▁view ership ▁of ▁ 2 3 8 , 0 0 0 ▁ ▁with ▁a ▁market ▁share ▁of ▁ 2 1 . 4 ▁percent . ▁▁ 2 0 1 5 : ▁Som mer b å ten ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Summer ▁boat ▁– ▁coastal ▁cruise ▁with ▁entertainment ▁show , ▁a ▁journey ▁from ▁V ads ø ▁to ▁Os lo
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▁depicted ▁a ▁live ▁coastal ▁cruise ▁from ▁V ads ø ▁in ▁northern ▁Norway ▁to ▁Os lo ▁in ▁southern ▁Norway . ▁The ▁show ▁lasted ▁from ▁Sunday ▁ 2 1 ▁June ▁until ▁Saturday ▁ 1 5 ▁August . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 : ▁ ▁Salt stra umen ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Salt stra umen ▁– ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁was ▁a ▁ 1 2 - hour ▁show ▁dep ict ing ▁live ▁footage ▁from ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁stra it ▁of ▁Salt stra umen , ▁site ▁of ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁strongest ▁tid al ▁current s ▁in ▁the ▁world . ▁It ▁was ▁broadcast ▁on ▁ 7 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 : ▁Sk ib lad ners ▁se il as ▁– ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁ ▁Sk ib lad ner ▁cruise ▁– ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁was ▁a ▁week - long ▁show ▁dep ict ing ▁footage ▁of ▁a ▁cruise ▁of ▁the ▁p addle ▁ste amer ▁Sk ib lad ner ▁on ▁lake ▁M j ø sa ▁in ▁southern ▁Norway , ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁broadcast ▁to ▁coinc ide ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 6 0 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁ship ' s ▁launch . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 : ▁USA - val get : ▁ 2 2 7 ▁år ▁på ▁ 2 2 7 ▁min utter ▁ ▁In ▁US ▁E lections : ▁ 2 2 7 ▁years ▁in ▁ 2 2 7 ▁minutes , ▁Frank ▁A are b rot ▁spent ▁ 2 2 7 ▁minutes ▁discussing ▁the ▁US ▁presidential ▁election ▁of ▁
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2 0 1 6 ▁and ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁elections ▁in ▁the ▁US . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 - present ▁▁▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁R ib ba ▁– ▁grad ▁for ▁grad ▁( The ▁p ork ▁rib ▁– ▁degree ▁for ▁degree ) ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁Re inf ly tt ing ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( Re inde er ▁migration ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁Som mer t og et ▁( The ▁summer ▁train ) ▁Bes se gg en ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( B esse gg en ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁G rieg ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( G rieg ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁Mons en ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( M ons en ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Kl ok ken ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( The ▁clock ▁– ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁ 2 0 2 0 ▁S val b ard ▁min utt ▁for ▁min utt ▁( S val b ard ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ) ▁ ▁Inter action ▁through ▁social ▁media ▁During ▁the ▁ 1 3 4 ▁hour ▁broadcast ▁of ▁the ▁H urt igr uten ▁trip , ▁the ▁show ▁received ▁massive ▁attention ▁among ▁Norweg ian ▁followers ▁in ▁the ▁social ▁media ▁arena . ▁On ▁Facebook , ▁Twitter , ▁and ▁blogs , ▁people ▁talked ▁about ▁the ▁trip ▁and ▁how ▁they ▁followed ▁its ▁progress ion . ▁ ▁As ▁the ▁boat ▁moved ▁north , ▁place ▁names ▁popped ▁up ▁in ▁the ▁top ▁ 1 0 , ▁such ▁as ▁ ▁# Sort
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land ▁and ▁# T roll f j ord . ▁Around ▁midnight ▁Saturday ▁there ▁was ▁one ▁twe et ▁about ▁H urt igr uten ▁per ▁six ▁seconds . ▁During ▁the ▁broadcast , ▁cities ▁competed ▁in ▁arr anging ▁the ▁greatest ▁wel coming ▁committee ▁at ▁the ▁different ▁har b ors ▁and ▁three ▁different ▁wedding ▁proposals ▁were ▁captured ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 3 6 ▁hours . ▁ ▁International ▁attention ▁The ▁H urt igr uten ▁– ▁minute ▁by ▁minute ▁broadcast ▁was ▁also ▁shown ▁online ▁with ▁many ▁viewers ▁abroad ; ▁ 4 6 ▁percent ▁of ▁online ▁viewers ▁were ▁outside ▁Norway . ▁The ▁major ▁countries ▁were ▁Denmark ▁( 7 % ), ▁United ▁States ▁( 4 % ), ▁Germany ▁( 4 % ), ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁( 4 % ), ▁and ▁France ▁( 4 % ), ▁gaining ▁attention ▁in ▁international ▁media . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁days ▁of ▁the ▁broadcast ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁Emb assy ▁in ▁Se oul ▁organized ▁a ▁campaign ▁on ▁the ▁sub way ▁to ▁promote ▁Norway . ▁A ▁bill board ▁set ▁up ▁in ▁Sam g ak ji ▁sub way ▁station ▁in ▁downtown ▁Se oul ▁was ▁set ▁up ▁to ▁broadcast ▁the ▁show ▁live . ▁Korean ▁media ▁showed ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁exhibition , ▁character izing ▁it ▁as ▁" the ▁most ▁creative ▁PR ▁st unt ▁they ' ve ▁heard ▁of ▁in ▁a ▁long ▁time ". ▁ ▁International ▁adapt ations ▁ ▁Australia : ▁Special ▁Broad cast ing ▁Service ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁evening ▁of ▁ 7 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁the ▁Special ▁Broad cast ing ▁Service ▁( S BS ) ▁broadcast ▁on ▁its ▁main
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▁TV ▁channel ▁the ▁first ▁Australian - made ▁slow ▁TV ▁style ▁program , ▁a ▁three - hour - long ▁documentary ▁of ▁a ▁journey ▁aboard ▁The ▁G han , ▁the ▁passenger ▁train ▁from ▁Ad ela ide ▁to ▁Darwin . ▁ ▁The ▁three ▁hour ▁program ▁also ▁used ▁both ▁arch ival ▁imag ery ▁and ▁contemporary ▁graphics ▁to ▁tell ▁the ▁story ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁ ▁Ad ela ide – D ar win ▁railway ▁and ▁that ▁of ▁its ▁predecess or , ▁the ▁Central ▁Australia ▁Railway . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁Oz T AM ’ s ▁overnight ▁pre liminary ▁ratings , ▁the ▁S BS ▁tele cast ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁hour ▁program ▁aver aged ▁more ▁than ▁ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁viewers , ▁with ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁audience ▁being ▁in ▁Melbourne . ▁ ▁S BS ▁later ▁issued ▁a ▁media ▁release ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁three ▁hour ▁program ▁had ▁" ... ▁recorded ▁an ▁average ▁of ▁ 5 8 3 , 0 0 0 ▁viewers ▁in ▁met ro ▁and ▁regional ▁markets ▁... ▁making ▁this ▁the ▁highest ▁performing ▁S BS ▁program ▁in ▁the ▁past ▁ 1 2 ▁months ▁ ..." . ▁ ▁S BS ▁also ▁scheduled ▁a ▁broadcast ▁of ▁a ▁longer , ▁ 1 7 - hour , ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁program ▁on ▁S BS ▁Vic eland ▁on ▁Sunday , ▁ 1 4 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁from ▁ 2 . 4 0 am ▁to ▁ 8 . 3 0 pm . ▁ ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁S BS ▁announced ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁four
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▁Slow ▁TV ▁programs , ▁covering ▁rail , ▁road , ▁canal ▁and ▁river , ▁to ▁be ▁broadcast ▁in ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 9 . ▁ ▁Belgium : ▁V oor ▁De ▁Ron de ▁The ▁Belg ian ▁public - service ▁broad c aster ▁V RT ▁a ired ▁a ▁live ▁broadcast ▁of ▁Rub en ▁Van ▁G ucht , ▁a ▁sports ▁reporter , ▁riding ▁the ▁route ▁of ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁F land ers ▁road ▁cycl ing ▁race , ▁accompanied ▁by ▁anyone ▁who ▁wanted ▁to ▁join ▁him . ▁The ▁event ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 7 , ▁two ▁days ▁before ▁the ▁race . ▁The ▁journey ▁was ▁fil med ▁by ▁several ▁motor cycle ▁cam er amen ▁and ▁a ▁helic opter ▁and ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁live ▁studio ▁comment ary ▁about ▁the ▁journey ▁and ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁Tour ▁of ▁F land ers . ▁ ▁China ▁The ▁British ▁channel ▁BBC ▁Four ▁broadcast ▁on ▁ 3 ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁a ▁journey ▁along ▁the ▁Great ▁Wall ▁of ▁China . ▁ ▁Hong ▁Kong : ▁R TH K ▁TV ▁ 3 2 ▁Slow ▁TV ▁( Ch inese : ▁ <0xE6> <0xBC> <0xAB> 電 視 ) ▁ ▁Radio ▁Television ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁( R TH K ) ▁started ▁its ▁TV ▁channel ▁broadcast ing ▁services ▁since ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁to ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁citizens . ▁As ▁one ▁of ▁its ▁channel ▁ 3 2 ▁stated ▁as ▁serving ▁live ▁broadcast s , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁live ▁records ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁make - up ▁of ▁a ▁Cant ones e ▁Opera ▁actor
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, ▁a ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁Tr am ways ▁riding , ▁the ▁sc ener y ▁of ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁Victoria ▁Harbor , ▁the ▁daily ▁of ▁animals , ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁ ▁United ▁Kingdom : ▁BBC ▁Four ▁Go es ▁Slow ▁ ▁As ▁an ▁adaptation ▁of ▁the ▁style , ▁the ▁British ▁channel ▁BBC ▁Four ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁and ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁broadcast ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁slow ▁jour neys ▁such ▁as ▁a ▁canal ▁boat ▁journey ▁and ▁bus ▁ride . ▁ ▁Spain : ▁Ar ag ón ▁TV ▁El ▁via je ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁" El ▁via je " ▁brings ▁this ▁genre ▁to ▁Spain ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁with ▁the ▁full ▁and ▁un inter rupted ▁broadcast ▁on ▁Ar ag ón ▁TV ▁of ▁the ▁popular ▁" can fr an ero ", ▁the ▁railway ▁that ▁links ▁Z ar ago za ▁with ▁Can fr anc ▁on ▁the ▁occasion ▁of ▁the ▁ 9 0 th ▁anniversary ▁of ▁the ▁inaug uration ▁of ▁the ▁Py re ne an ▁international ▁station . ▁View ers ▁will ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁enjoy ▁the ▁ 2 1 8 . 3 9 ▁kilometres ▁of ▁the ▁train ' s ▁complete ▁route ▁from ▁its ▁departure ▁from ▁Z ar ago za ▁to ▁its ▁arrival ▁in ▁the ▁Py re ne es , ▁enjoying ▁the ▁landsc apes ▁of ▁the ▁capital ' s ▁urban ▁environment , ▁the ▁extensive ▁fields ▁of ▁the ▁H ues ca ▁bas in ▁and ▁the ▁val le ys ▁of ▁the ▁G ál le go ▁and ▁Ar ag ón ▁rivers . ▁ ▁France
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: ▁France ▁ 4 ▁in ▁association ▁with ▁E den ▁TV ▁ ▁France ▁ 4 , ▁on ▁March ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁a ired ▁a ▁nine - hour ▁program ▁of ▁a ▁man ▁walking ▁backwards ▁through ▁Tokyo , ▁Tokyo ▁Re verse ▁directed ▁by ▁Simon ▁Bu isson ▁and ▁Lud ov ic ▁Zu ili , ▁and ▁on ▁October ▁ 3 , ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁the ▁same ▁channel ▁a ired ▁a ▁six - hour ▁program , ▁Slow ▁Moscow , ▁directed ▁by ▁Rom ain ▁Q ui rot , ▁following ▁in ▁real ▁time ▁the ▁st roll s ▁of ▁a ▁couple ▁of ▁d ancers ▁in ▁the ▁streets ▁of ▁Moscow . ▁ ▁New ▁Zealand ▁ ▁Go ▁South ▁P RI ME , ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 9 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁a ired ▁" Go ▁South ", ▁a ▁ 3 ▁and / or ▁ 1 2 ▁hour ▁production ▁cut ▁from ▁over ▁ 4 0 ▁hours ▁of ▁footage ▁of ▁travel ▁from ▁A uck land ▁to ▁Mil ford ▁Sound , ▁by ▁train , ▁fer ry , ▁and ▁car . ▁The ▁broadcast ▁incorporated ▁not ▁only ▁static ▁cameras ▁of ▁the ▁vehicle , ▁but ▁also ▁dr one ▁and ▁helic opter ▁shots ▁of ▁notable ▁locations ▁and ▁br idges . ▁ ▁The ▁production ▁first ▁a ired ▁in ▁its ▁ 3 - hour ▁form ▁at ▁ 9 : 3 0 pm , ▁ 1 9 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 2 - hour ▁variant ▁following ▁at ▁ 1 : 3 0 am ,
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▁ 2 0 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 9 . ▁ ▁Go ▁Further ▁South ▁ ▁On ▁April ▁ 1 0 th , ▁P RI ME ▁TV ▁a ired ▁another ▁production , ▁an ▁edit ▁of ▁a ▁month - long ▁sea ▁voyage ▁from ▁Stewart ▁Island ▁to ▁Ant ar ct ica . ▁The ▁show ▁was ▁broadcast ▁un inter rupted ▁from ▁ 7 : 3 0 am ▁to ▁ 7 : 3 0 pm . ▁ ▁Sweden : ▁Den ▁st ora ▁ äl g v and ring en ▁▁ ▁Sver iges ▁Television ▁presented ▁Den ▁st ora ▁ äl g v and ring en ▁(" The ▁Great ▁Mo ose ▁M igration ") ▁from ▁April ▁ 1 5 ▁to ▁May ▁ 5 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁with ▁continuous ▁coverage ▁of ▁outdoor ▁scenes ▁and ▁migr ating ▁mo ose . ▁ ▁The ▁production ▁used ▁ 2 2 ▁cameras ▁installed ▁at ▁several ▁sites , ▁including ▁at ▁river ▁cross ings ▁frequently ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁animals ▁in ▁their ▁annual ▁journey ▁to ▁summer ▁grounds . ▁The ▁programme ▁was ▁stream ed ▁on ▁the ▁internet ▁continuously ▁and ▁portions ▁were ▁broadcast . ▁ ▁Web - based ▁slow ▁TV ▁transm issions ▁▁ 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 1 2 : ▁n oc in ema . org ▁by ▁J ér ô me ▁Joy ▁ ▁French ▁artist ▁and ▁composer ▁J ér ô me ▁Joy ▁developed ▁an ▁ever - ev olving ▁streaming ▁online ▁application , ▁No C in ema , ▁with ▁multiple ▁cameras ▁in ▁different ▁sites ▁around ▁the ▁world ▁offering ▁a ▁project ▁between ▁documentary ▁and ▁fiction ▁and
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▁generating ▁infinite ▁audio - vis ual ▁sequences . ▁▁ 2 0 0 7 : ▁c hed dar vision . tv ▁by ▁West ▁Country ▁Farm house ▁Che es em akers ▁ ▁On ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁West ▁Country ▁Farm house ▁Che es em akers ▁in ▁Dor set , ▁England , ▁began ▁the ▁one - year ▁live ▁streaming ▁of ▁a ▁round ▁of ▁West com be ▁D airy ▁c hed dar ▁mat uring ▁on ▁their ▁shelf . ▁▁ 2 0 1 6 : ▁Terms ▁and ▁conditions ▁word ▁by ▁word ▁ ▁To ▁illustr ate ▁the ▁word iness ▁of ▁the ▁terms ▁and ▁conditions ▁on ▁an ▁average ▁phone , ▁the ▁Norweg ian ▁Cons umer ▁Council ▁st aged ▁a ▁reading ▁of ▁ 3 0 ▁such ▁legal ▁documents ▁in ▁a ▁session ▁that ▁started ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁and ▁was ▁stream ed ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 4 ▁hours . ▁ ▁Sig ur ▁R ós : ▁Route ▁One ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁day ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁summer ▁sol st ice , ▁Sig ur ▁R ós ▁un ve iled ▁a ▁ 2 4 - hour ▁' sl ow ▁TV ' ▁event ▁live ▁on ▁I cel and ' s ▁national ▁television , ▁and ▁stream ed ▁live ▁glob ally ▁via ▁YouTube . ▁It ▁featured ▁the ▁journey ▁along ▁the ▁entire ty ▁of ▁I cel and ' s ▁Route ▁ 1 , ▁which ▁loops ▁around ▁the ▁per imeter ▁of ▁the ▁country , ▁while ▁playing ▁a ▁live - generated ▁rem ix ▁of ▁the
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▁band ' s ▁new ▁song , ▁" Ó ve ð ur ". ▁ ▁Play tv ak ▁Slow ▁TV ▁ ▁The ▁Czech ▁media ▁group ▁MA FRA ▁has ▁run ▁a ▁slow ▁TV ▁portal ▁since ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁Currently , ▁it ▁shows ▁videos ▁from : ▁ ▁a ▁tram ▁lub ric ating ▁r ails ▁in ▁Pr ague ▁ ▁a ▁bird ▁fe eder ▁in ▁Č í ž ová ▁ ▁a ▁railway ▁station ▁in ▁Ú st í ▁nad ▁Or lic í ▁ ▁the ▁station ▁throat ▁of ▁the ▁Pr ague ▁main ▁railway ▁station ▁ ▁the ▁run way ▁of ▁the ▁Pr ague ▁airport ▁( the ▁most ▁popular ▁video ) ▁ ▁a ▁ship ▁on ▁the ▁El be ▁river ▁ ▁This ▁set ▁of ▁transm issions ▁is ▁updated ▁every ▁now ▁and ▁then . ▁In ▁the ▁past , ▁for ▁example , ▁me erk ats ▁of ▁the ▁Pr ague ▁Z oo ▁or ▁in fr ared ▁picture ▁of ▁Pr ague ' s ▁Old ▁Town ▁Square ▁were ▁shown . ▁▁ 2 0 0 5 – present : ▁Watch ing ▁Gr ass ▁Grow ▁by ▁Ale k ▁Kom arn its ky ▁( alias ▁M ister ▁Gr ass ) ▁ ▁Watch ing ▁Gr ass ▁Grow ▁has ▁shown ▁a ▁continuous ▁live ▁feed ▁of ▁a ▁front ▁lawn ▁since ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁Media ▁coverage ▁British ▁film maker ▁Tim ▁Pre v ett ' s ▁documentary ▁film ▁That ▁Dam ned ▁Cow : ▁Just ▁what ▁is ▁Norweg ian ▁Slow ▁TV ? ▁described ▁early ▁slow ▁TV ▁produ ctions ▁from ▁N R K . ▁He ▁has ▁compared ▁the ▁appeal ▁of ▁slow
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▁television ▁to ▁the ▁rev ival ▁of ▁vin yl ▁LP ▁records ▁as ▁a ▁format ▁for ▁audio ▁record ings . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Des ert ▁Bus ▁Slow ▁cinema ▁Slow ▁movement ▁( c ulture ) ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁" That ▁Dam ned ▁Cow : ▁just ▁what ▁is ▁Norweg ian ▁Slow ▁TV ?" ▁( document ary ▁film ) ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁N R K ▁page ▁on ▁" Sl ow ▁TV " ▁T ED ▁video ▁on ▁" Sl ow ▁TV " ▁Sub reddit ▁dedicated ▁to ▁" Sl ow TV " ▁ ▁* ▁Category : Tele vision ▁in ▁Norway ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁culture <0x0A> </s> ▁Bruce ▁Kenn eth ▁Wa ib el ▁( J uly ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁– ▁September ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁musician ▁who ▁played ▁for ▁several ▁artists ▁and ▁bands . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁last ▁remembered ▁for ▁playing ▁bass ▁guitar ▁and ▁tour ing ▁with ▁rock ▁band ▁Fire H ouse . ▁ ▁He ▁died ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁and ▁his ▁death ▁was ▁ruled ▁a ▁suicide . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Bruce ▁Wa ib el ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁July ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 5 8 , ▁in ▁Living ston , ▁New ▁Jersey . ▁ ▁When ▁he ▁was ▁still ▁a ▁child , ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁Florida . ▁ ▁He ▁started ▁playing ▁guitar ▁when ▁he ▁was ▁ 9 ▁years ▁old . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 2 , ▁Wa ib el ▁joined ▁the ▁Greg g ▁All man
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▁band ▁as ▁a ▁road ie . ▁ ▁Eventually ▁he ▁started ▁playing ▁guitar ▁but ▁switched ▁to ▁bass ▁guitar ▁during ▁his ▁last ▁seven ▁years ▁with ▁the ▁band . ▁ ▁He ▁recorded ▁three ▁albums ▁with ▁them , ▁earning ▁two ▁gold ▁records . ▁ ▁Wa ib el ▁also ▁performed ▁with ▁Marshall ▁T ucker , ▁Captain ▁Beyond , ▁Ste v ie ▁Ray ▁V augh an , ▁Rick ▁D err inger ▁and ▁others . ▁ ▁He ▁met ▁guitar ist ▁Bill ▁Le ver ty ▁( gu itar ist ▁of ▁Fire H ouse ) ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁and ▁was ▁invited ▁to ▁aud ition ▁for ▁the ▁band ▁that ▁year . ▁ ▁He ▁played ▁with ▁them ▁for ▁three ▁years , ▁recording ▁one ▁album ▁( O 2 ). ▁ ▁He ▁left ▁the ▁band ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁because ▁he ▁wanted ▁to ▁spend ▁more ▁time ▁with ▁his ▁family . ▁ ▁He ▁also ▁played ▁bass ▁on ▁Le ver ty ' s ▁first ▁solo ▁album , ▁W ander l ust . ▁ ▁On ▁September ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁Wa ib el ▁was ▁found ▁dead ▁at ▁a ▁friend ' s ▁home ▁in ▁Florida . ▁ ▁He ▁had ▁two ▁children : ▁Max ▁Wa ib el ▁( born ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 ) ▁and ▁Kim mer ly ▁Wa ib el . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 5 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 3 ▁deaths ▁Category : People ▁from ▁D over , ▁New ▁Jersey ▁Category : American ▁rock ▁bass ▁guitar ists ▁Category :
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American ▁male ▁bass ▁guitar ists ▁Category : American ▁rock ▁guitar ists ▁Category : American ▁male ▁guitar ists ▁Category : Fire H ouse ▁( band ) ▁members ▁Category : American ▁musicians ▁who ▁committed ▁suicide ▁Category : Su ic ides ▁in ▁Florida ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁bass ▁guitar ists ▁Category : M ale ▁su ic ides ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁American ▁guitar ists <0x0A> </s> ▁Sam y ▁Sh oker ▁( born ▁ 1 9 8 7 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Egyptian ▁che ss ▁grand master . ▁ ▁Che ss ▁career ▁Born ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 , ▁Sh oker ▁earned ▁his ▁international ▁master ▁( IM ) ▁title ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁and ▁was ▁awarded ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁grand master ▁( GM ) ▁by ▁F IDE ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁He ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁Che ss ▁World ▁Cup ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁round ▁by ▁Sh akh ri yar ▁M amed yar ov . ▁He ▁represented ▁his ▁country ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Che ss ▁Olymp i ad , ▁scoring ▁ 4 ½ / 9 ▁(+ 4 – 4 = 1 ). ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Sam y ▁Sh oker ▁che ss ▁games ▁at ▁ 3 6 5 Che ss . com ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Che ss ▁grand mas ters ▁Category : E gy pt ian ▁che
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ss ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Reading ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁Sch uy ler ▁County , ▁New ▁York , ▁ ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁The ▁Town ▁of ▁Reading ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁northern ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁county ▁and ▁is ▁east ▁of ▁Bath , ▁NY . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁pione ers ▁arrived ▁around ▁ 1 7 9 8 . ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁t aver n ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁town ▁was ▁formed ▁from ▁the ▁Town ▁of ▁Wayne ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁while ▁still ▁part ▁of ▁Ste ub en ▁County . ▁ ▁Part ▁of ▁Reading ▁was ▁used ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁Town ▁of ▁Star key ▁( now ▁in ▁Y ates ▁County ) ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 4 . ▁ ▁Reading ▁became ▁part ▁of ▁Ste ub en ▁County ' s ▁contribution ▁to ▁the ▁newly ▁formed ▁Sch uy ler ▁County ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 4 . ▁ ▁Ge ography ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Census ▁Bureau , ▁the ▁town ▁has ▁a ▁total ▁area ▁of ▁, ▁all ▁of ▁it ▁land . ▁ ▁The ▁north ▁town ▁line ▁is ▁the ▁border ▁of ▁Y ates ▁County , ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁The ▁town ▁is ▁north west ▁of ▁Wat kins ▁Glen . ▁ ▁New ▁York ▁State ▁Route ▁ 1 4 ▁is ▁a ▁major ▁north - s outh ▁highway ▁that ▁par alle ls ▁nearby ▁Sen eca ▁Lake , ▁which ▁marks ▁the ▁eastern ▁town ▁line . ▁ ▁New ▁York ▁State ▁Route ▁ 1 4 A ▁inter sect s ▁New ▁York ▁State ▁Route ▁ 2 2 6
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▁in ▁the ▁north west ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁town ▁at ▁Col es ▁Corn ers . ▁ ▁Dem ograph ics ▁ ▁As ▁of ▁the ▁census ▁of ▁ 2 0 0 0 , ▁there ▁were ▁ 1 , 7 8 6 ▁people , ▁ 7 0 0 ▁households , ▁and ▁ 5 2 0 ▁families ▁res iding ▁in ▁the ▁town . ▁ ▁The ▁population ▁density ▁was ▁ 6 5 . 6 ▁people ▁per ▁square ▁mile ▁( 2 5 . 3 / km ² ). ▁ ▁There ▁were ▁ 8 6 8 ▁housing ▁units ▁at ▁an ▁average ▁density ▁of ▁ 3 1 . 9 ▁per ▁square ▁mile ▁( 1 2 . 3 / km ² ). ▁ ▁The ▁racial ▁makeup ▁of ▁the ▁town ▁was ▁ 9 7 . 2 6 % ▁White , ▁ 0 . 9 0 % ▁African ▁American , ▁ 0 . 3 9 % ▁Native ▁American , ▁ 0 . 3 9 % ▁Asian , ▁ 0 . 0 6 % ▁Pacific ▁Island er , ▁ 0 . 0 6 % ▁from ▁other ▁races , ▁and ▁ 0 . 9 5 % ▁from ▁two ▁or ▁more ▁races . ▁His panic ▁or ▁Lat ino ▁of ▁any ▁race ▁were ▁ 0 . 5 0 % ▁of ▁the ▁population . ▁ ▁There ▁were ▁ 7 0 0 ▁households ▁out ▁of ▁which ▁ 2 9 . 3 % ▁had ▁children ▁under ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 1 8 ▁living ▁with ▁them , ▁ 6 2 . 1 % ▁were ▁married ▁couples ▁living ▁together , ▁ 8 . 7
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% ▁had ▁a ▁female ▁house holder ▁with ▁no ▁husband ▁present , ▁and ▁ 2 5 . 7 % ▁were ▁non - f amil ies . ▁ 2 0 . 9 % ▁of ▁all ▁households ▁were ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁individuals ▁and ▁ 9 . 9 % ▁had ▁someone ▁living ▁alone ▁who ▁was ▁ 6 5 ▁years ▁of ▁age ▁or ▁older . ▁ ▁The ▁average ▁household ▁size ▁was ▁ 2 . 5 5 ▁and ▁the ▁average ▁family ▁size ▁was ▁ 2 . 9 4 . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁town , ▁the ▁population ▁was ▁spread ▁out ▁with ▁ 2 3 . 7 % ▁under ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 6 . 8 % ▁from ▁ 1 8 ▁to ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 2 5 . 1 % ▁from ▁ 2 5 ▁to ▁ 4 4 , ▁ 2 7 . 9 % ▁from ▁ 4 5 ▁to ▁ 6 4 , ▁and ▁ 1 6 . 5 % ▁who ▁were ▁ 6 5 ▁years ▁of ▁age ▁or ▁older . ▁ ▁The ▁median ▁age ▁was ▁ 4 1 ▁years . ▁For ▁every ▁ 1 0 0 ▁females , ▁there ▁were ▁ 9 9 . 3 ▁males . ▁ ▁For ▁every ▁ 1 0 0 ▁females ▁age ▁ 1 8 ▁and ▁over , ▁there ▁were ▁ 9 6 . 1 ▁males . ▁ ▁The ▁median ▁income ▁for ▁a ▁household ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁was ▁$ 3 8 , 6 1 8 , ▁and ▁the ▁median ▁income ▁for ▁a ▁family ▁was ▁$ 4 3 , 6
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8 1 . ▁M ales ▁had ▁a ▁median ▁income ▁of ▁$ 3 2 , 9 6 3 ▁versus ▁$ 2 2 , 4 0 4 ▁for ▁females . ▁The ▁per ▁cap ita ▁income ▁for ▁the ▁town ▁was ▁$ 1 7 , 8 1 4 . ▁ ▁About ▁ 4 . 2 % ▁of ▁families ▁and ▁ 7 . 7 % ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁were ▁below ▁the ▁poverty ▁line , ▁including ▁ 1 2 . 3 % ▁of ▁those ▁under ▁age ▁ 1 8 ▁and ▁ 1 . 4 % ▁of ▁those ▁age ▁ 6 5 ▁or ▁over . ▁ ▁Not able ▁people ▁John ▁T . ▁Andrew s , ▁former ▁US ▁Congress man ▁Ralph ▁Henry ▁Gabriel , ▁historian ▁and ▁writer ▁E lij ah ▁Matt ison ▁Sh arp , ▁former ▁Wisconsin ▁State ▁Assembly man ▁ ▁Commun ities ▁and ▁locations ▁in ▁Reading ▁ ▁Chap mans ▁Corn ers ▁– ▁A ▁location ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁town ▁at ▁the ▁jun ction ▁of ▁County ▁Road s ▁ 2 3 ▁and ▁ 2 7 . ▁Col es ▁Corn ers ▁– ▁A ▁location ▁in ▁the ▁north west ▁corner ▁of ▁the ▁town , ▁north ▁of ▁North ▁Reading . ▁Gab ri els ▁Jun ction ▁– ▁A ▁ham let ▁at ▁the ▁intersection ▁of ▁NY - 1 4 ▁and ▁NY = 1 4 A . ▁H alls ▁Corn ers ▁– ▁A ▁location ▁at ▁the ▁west ▁town ▁line . ▁Ireland ville ▁– ▁A ▁ham let ▁in ▁the ▁sout heast ▁part ▁of ▁Reading . ▁North ▁Reading ▁– ▁A ▁ham let ▁in ▁the ▁north west ▁corner
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▁of ▁the ▁town . ▁Reading ▁Center ▁– ▁A ▁ham let ▁near ▁the ▁town ▁center ▁on ▁NY - 1 4 A . ▁Reading ▁Center ▁Station ▁– ▁A ▁location ▁sout heast ▁of ▁Reading ▁Center . ▁Salt ▁Point ▁– ▁A ▁projection ▁into ▁Sen eca ▁Lake ▁north ▁of ▁Wat kins ▁Glen . ▁Sc out ▁Point ▁– ▁A ▁projection ▁into ▁Sen eca ▁Lake ▁north ▁of ▁Gab ri els ▁Jun ction . ▁Wat kins ▁Glen ▁– ▁A ▁small ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Village ▁of ▁Wat kins ▁Glen ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁sout heast ▁corner ▁of ▁Reading . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁B rief ▁early ▁history ▁of ▁Reading , ▁NY ▁ ▁Category : T own s ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁( state ) ▁Category : T own s ▁in ▁Sch uy ler ▁County , ▁New ▁York ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁Category : 1 8 0 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁( state ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Mill ic ent ▁Care y ▁Mc Int osh ▁( N ovember ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 1 8 9 8 ▁– ▁January ▁ 3 , ▁ 2 0 0 1 ) ▁was ▁an ▁educational ▁administr ator ▁and ▁American ▁femin ist ▁who ▁led ▁the ▁Bre ar ley ▁School ▁( 1 9 3 0 – 1 9 4 7 ), ▁and ▁most ▁prom in ently ▁Barn ard ▁College ▁( 1 9 4 7 – 1 9 6 2 ). ▁▁ ▁The ▁first ▁married ▁woman ▁to ▁head ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Seven ▁Sister s , ▁she ▁was ▁" cons
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ider ed ▁a ▁national ▁role ▁model ▁for ▁generations ▁of ▁young ▁women ▁who ▁wanted ▁to ▁combine ▁career ▁and ▁family ," ▁advoc ating ▁for ▁working ▁mothers ▁and ▁for ▁child ▁care ▁as ▁a ▁dign ified ▁profession . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁Mc Int osh ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Baltimore , ▁Maryland ▁on ▁November ▁ 3 0 , ▁ 1 8 9 8 ▁to ▁Anthony ▁Morris ▁Care y ▁and ▁Margaret ▁Che ston ▁Thomas , ▁both ▁active ▁Qu akers . ▁Her ▁mother ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁Bry n ▁M aw r ▁College ' s ▁first ▁gradu ating ▁class ▁( 1 8 8 9 ). ▁Her ▁aunt , ▁M . ▁Care y ▁Thomas , ▁also ▁a ▁leader ▁in ▁women ' s ▁education , ▁founded ▁the ▁Bry n ▁M aw r ▁School ▁in ▁Baltimore . ▁ ▁Mc Int osh ▁attended ▁Bry n ▁M aw r ▁College ▁for ▁her ▁under graduate , ▁major ing ▁in ▁Greek ▁and ▁English ▁and ▁gradu ating ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁mag na ▁cum ▁la ude ▁. ▁Mc Int osh ▁studied ▁economics ▁at ▁Cambridge ▁University , ▁and ▁earned ▁an ▁English ▁Ph . D . ▁from ▁John s ▁Hop kins ▁University ▁with ▁a ▁dis sert ation ▁on ▁ 1 4 th ▁century ▁mystery ▁plays . ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁with ▁her ▁Ph . D . ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁Mc Int osh ▁became ▁an ▁assistant ▁professor ▁of ▁English ▁at ▁Bry n ▁M aw r ▁College . ▁Short ly ▁afterward , ▁we ▁was ▁appointed ▁de an ▁of ▁fresh man ▁and ▁then ▁acting ▁de an ▁of ▁the ▁college
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. ▁ ▁Later , ▁she ▁headed ▁the ▁Bre ar ley ▁School ▁for ▁sevent een ▁years , ▁where ▁she ▁pione ered ▁a ▁sex ▁education ▁class ▁for ▁sixth ▁grade ▁students . ▁ ▁Her ▁husband ▁was ▁the ▁ped iat ric ian ▁R ust in ▁Mc Int osh , ▁with ▁whom ▁she ▁had ▁five ▁children . ▁ ▁Barn ard ▁career ▁Mc Int osh ▁became ▁Dean ▁of ▁Barn ard ▁College ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁institution ' s ▁first ▁President ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 2 . ▁She ▁was ▁elected ▁a ▁Fellow ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Academy ▁of ▁Arts ▁and ▁Sciences ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁ ▁After ▁Barn ard , ▁she ▁helped ▁to ▁found ▁Kirk land ▁College ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 6 0 s . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 9 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 1 ▁deaths ▁Category : American ▁cent en arians ▁Category : American ▁femin ists ▁Category : Pres idents ▁of ▁Barn ard ▁College ▁Category : B arn ard ▁College ▁faculty ▁Category : B ry n ▁M aw r ▁College ▁faculty ▁Category : B ry n ▁M aw r ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : F ell ows ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁Academy ▁of ▁Arts ▁and ▁Sciences ▁Category : John s ▁Hop kins ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Baltimore ▁Category : B ry n ▁M aw r ▁School ▁people ▁Category : W omen ▁cent en arians <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Ball ▁State ▁Daily ▁News ▁is ▁the ▁student ▁newspaper ▁of ▁Ball
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▁State ▁University , ▁located ▁in ▁Mun cie , ▁Indiana . ▁The ▁print ▁edition ▁of ▁the ▁newspaper ▁is ▁published ▁every ▁Thursday ▁during ▁the ▁academic ▁year ▁except ▁during ▁exam s ▁or ▁vac ations . ▁During ▁summer ▁sessions ▁the ▁paper ▁is ▁published ▁Monday , ▁Wednesday ▁and ▁Thursday . ▁The ▁newspaper ▁is ▁available ▁free ▁to ▁students ▁at ▁various ▁locations ▁on ▁the ▁university ▁campus . ▁The ▁paper ▁has ▁a ▁circulation ▁of ▁ 8 , 0 0 0 . The ▁Daily ▁News ▁also ▁produces ▁podcast s ▁which ▁have ▁earned ▁recognition ▁from ▁U . S . ▁News ▁and ▁World ▁Report ' s ▁The ▁Paper ▁Trail , ▁a ▁blog ▁that ▁tracks ▁national ▁campus ▁news . ▁The ▁Paper ▁Trail ▁listed ▁the ▁Daily ▁News ' ▁podcast s ▁among ▁the ▁best ▁alternative ▁media ▁out lets ▁in ▁its ▁Best ▁of ▁College ▁New sp apers ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁poll . ▁Students ▁are ▁also ▁responsible ▁for ▁maintaining ▁the ▁up - to - the - minute ▁Web ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁paper . ▁ ▁The ▁Ball ▁State ▁Daily ▁News ▁traces ▁its ▁roots ▁to ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁when ▁the ▁paper ▁first ▁published ▁under ▁the ▁name ▁The ▁Eastern er . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Ball ▁State ▁Daily ▁News ▁archive , ▁currently ▁including ▁digit ized ▁ed itions ▁from ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁to ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁ ▁Daily ▁News ▁Category : Student ▁newspapers ▁published ▁in ▁Indiana ▁Category : Public ations ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 <0x0A> </s> ▁J óz ef ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁( born ▁ 2 6
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▁January ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁in ▁W ól ka ▁near ▁M ł awa , ▁died ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁January ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁in ▁Ł ód ź ) ▁was ▁a ▁Polish ▁film ▁director ▁and ▁painter . ▁ ▁Biography ▁▁ ▁J óz ef ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁January ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁in ▁W ól ka ▁near ▁M ł awa ▁( now ▁M ł awa ) ▁in ▁Poland . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 0 – 1 9 3 4 ▁he ▁studied ▁mathemat ics ▁at ▁the ▁Wars aw ▁University ▁and ▁painting ▁in ▁professor ▁W . ▁W it wick i ' s ▁class . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁he ▁started ▁his ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁An imated ▁Film ▁Studio ▁and ▁then ▁in ▁Education ▁Film ▁Studio . ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁was ▁a ▁specialist ▁in ▁animated ▁films . ▁Starting ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 1 , ▁he ▁made ▁his ▁own ▁films ▁as ▁a ▁director . ▁The ▁subjects ▁of ▁his ▁films ▁were ▁astr onomy , ▁mathemat ics , ▁and ▁physics . ▁He ▁also ▁made ▁some ▁films ▁at ▁Studio ▁of ▁An imated ▁Films ▁in ▁Ł ód ź . ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁directed ▁or ▁produced ▁over ▁ 4 0 ▁animated ▁and ▁popular ▁science ▁films ▁or ▁films ▁for ▁schools . ▁ ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁as ▁a ▁painter ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁‘ real ism ▁school ' ▁in ▁paintings . ▁ ▁His ▁paintings ▁were ▁presented ▁at ▁national ▁and ▁regional ▁painting ▁exhib itions ▁in ▁Poland ▁and ▁abroad ▁in ▁the ▁period
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▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁- ▁ 1 9 7 9 . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Association ▁of ▁Polish ▁Art ists . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Ł ód ź ▁recognized ▁him ▁with ▁a ▁lifetime ▁achievement ▁award ▁in ▁painting . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁J óz ef ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁at ▁the ▁Art net . com ▁ ▁J óz ef ▁Sk ro bi ński ▁- ▁bi ography ▁at ▁the ▁website ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁M ł awa ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 1 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 7 9 ▁deaths ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Polish ▁pain ters ▁Category : Pol ish ▁film ▁directors <0x0A> </s> ▁Gen ç os man , ▁A ks ar ay ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁District ▁of ▁A ks ar ay , ▁A ks ar ay ▁Province , ▁Turkey . The ▁village ▁is ▁at ▁ ▁A ks ar ay ▁cent rum ▁is ▁only ▁ ▁to ▁the ▁south . ▁Alt itude ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁is ▁. ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁A ks ar ay ▁Province ▁Category : A ks ar ay ▁District ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Turkey <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Fall ▁of ▁K ism ay o ▁occurred ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁when ▁the ▁troops ▁of ▁Som alia ' s ▁Trans itional ▁Federal ▁Government ▁( TF G ) ▁and ▁Eth iop ian ▁forces ▁entered ▁the ▁Som ali ▁city ▁of ▁K
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ism ay o ▁un op posed . ▁It ▁came ▁after ▁the ▁Islamic ▁Cour ts ▁Union ' s ▁forces ▁fal tered ▁and ▁fled ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁J ilib , ▁abandon ing ▁their ▁final ▁strong hold . ▁ ▁Background ▁ ▁The ▁city ▁of ▁K ism ay o ▁had ▁been ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁autonom ous ▁state ▁of ▁J ub aland ▁under ▁the ▁administration ▁of ▁the ▁J uba ▁Valley ▁Alliance ▁( J VA ) ▁since ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 9 0 s . ▁The ▁J VA ▁suffered ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁K ism ay o ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁to ▁an ▁array ▁of ▁IC U ▁forces ▁with ▁ 1 3 0 ▁technical s . ▁ ▁Course ▁of ▁events ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁after ▁the ▁Fall ▁of ▁M og ad ish u , ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁IC U ▁forces ▁began ▁a ▁retreat ▁towards ▁K ism ay o . ▁But ▁when ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁J ilib ▁began ▁on ▁December ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁clan ▁el ders ▁within ▁K ism ay o ▁demanded ▁the ▁IC U ▁leave ▁the ▁city . ▁Moh ammed ▁Arab , ▁a ▁clan ▁leader ▁said ▁" We ▁told ▁them ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁going ▁to ▁lose , ▁and ▁that ▁our ▁city ▁would ▁get ▁destroyed ." ▁After ▁the ▁IC U ▁refused , ▁sp or ad ic ▁gun ▁battles ▁broke ▁out ▁between ▁the ▁local ▁cl ans ▁and ▁the ▁IC U . ▁ ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁J ilib ▁saw ▁the ▁IC U ▁front lines ▁collapse ▁during
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▁the ▁night ▁to ▁artillery ▁fire , ▁causing ▁the ▁IC U ▁hard lin ers , ▁known ▁as ▁Al - Sh aba ab ▁( liter ally ▁" The ▁Youth s " ▁or ▁" You ng ▁Men "), ▁to ▁once ▁again ▁go ▁into ▁retreat , ▁this ▁time ▁towards ▁the ▁Ken yan ▁border . ▁TF G ▁and ▁Eth iop ian ▁forces ▁entered ▁the ▁town ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁Ken yan ▁border ▁blocked , ▁the ▁IC U ▁rem n ants ▁were ▁described ▁as ▁holding ▁up ▁in ▁Bad had he ▁district , ▁either ▁in ▁the ▁hills ▁of ▁the ▁Bu ur ▁Ga ab o ▁area , ▁or ▁in ▁the ▁village ▁of ▁R as ▁K amb oni ▁along ▁the ▁coast ▁near ▁the ▁border . ▁ ▁After math ▁ ▁In ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Al - Sh ab ab ▁re to ok ▁the ▁city ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁K ism ay o ▁( 2 0 0 8 ). ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁the ▁Som ali ▁National ▁Army ▁assist ed ▁by ▁AM IS OM ▁troops ▁and ▁R ask amb oni ▁milit ia ▁re - c apt ured ▁K ism ay o ▁from ▁the ▁ins urg ents ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁K ism ay o ▁( 2 0 1 2 ). ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁St ig ▁Jar le ▁Hans en , ▁Al - Sh aba ab ▁in ▁Som alia : ▁The ▁History ▁and ▁Ide ology ▁of ▁a ▁Mil it ant ▁Islamic ▁Group
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▁ 2 0 0 5 - 1 2 , ▁Hur st ▁& ▁Co ., ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁ 3 9 - 4 0 . ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 7 ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁Category : 2 0 0 7 ▁in ▁Som alia ▁K ism ay o ▁K ism ay o ▁Category : K ism ay o ▁K ism ay o ▁Category : Jan uary ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁events ▁in ▁Africa <0x0A> </s> ▁E ct op at ria ▁p au ro gram ma ▁is ▁a ▁m oth ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁No ct u idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁all ▁of ▁main land ▁Australia . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Australian ▁Fa unal ▁Direct ory ▁ ▁Category : M oth s ▁of ▁Australia ▁Category : No ct u ina e ▁Category : M oth s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 2 <0x0A> </s> ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁( ), ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Class ical ▁F asc ism ▁or ▁simply ▁F asc ism , ▁is ▁the ▁original ▁fasc ist ▁ide ology ▁as ▁developed ▁in ▁Italy ▁by ▁Giovanni ▁Gent ile ▁and ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini . ▁The ▁ide ology ▁is ▁associated ▁with ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁three ▁political ▁parties ▁led ▁by ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini , ▁namely ▁the ▁Revolution ary ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁( P FR ) ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 5 , ▁the ▁succeed ing ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁( PN F ) ▁which ▁was ▁renamed ▁at ▁the ▁Third ▁F asc
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ist ▁Congress ▁on ▁ 7 – 1 0 ▁November ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁and ▁ruled ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁from ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁until ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁and ▁the ▁Republican ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁that ▁ruled ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ▁Republic ▁from ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁to ▁ 1 9 4 5 . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁is ▁also ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁post - war ▁Italian ▁Social ▁Movement ▁and ▁subsequent ▁Italian ▁ne o - f asc ist ▁movements . ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁was ▁ro oted ▁in ▁Italian ▁national ism , ▁national ▁synd ical ism , ▁revolutionary ▁national ism ▁and ▁the ▁desire ▁to ▁restore ▁and ▁expand ▁Italian ▁territor ies , ▁which ▁Italian ▁F asc ists ▁deemed ▁necessary ▁for ▁a ▁nation ▁to ▁assert ▁its ▁superior ity ▁and ▁strength ▁and ▁to ▁avoid ▁succ umbing ▁to ▁decay . ▁Italian ▁F asc ists ▁also ▁claimed ▁that ▁modern ▁Italy ▁is ▁the ▁he ir ▁to ▁ancient ▁Rome ▁and ▁its ▁legacy ▁and ▁histor ically ▁supported ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁an ▁Italian ▁Empire ▁to ▁provide ▁sp az io ▁vit ale ▁(" l iving ▁space ") ▁for ▁colon ization ▁by ▁Italian ▁sett lers ▁and ▁to ▁establish ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁Sea . ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁promoted ▁a ▁corpor at ist ▁economic ▁system ▁where by ▁employer ▁and ▁employee ▁synd icates ▁are ▁linked ▁together ▁in ▁associations ▁to ▁collect ively ▁represent ▁the ▁nation ' s ▁economic ▁producers ▁and ▁work ▁alongside ▁the ▁state ▁to ▁set ▁national ▁economic ▁policy . ▁This ▁economic ▁system ▁intended ▁to ▁resolve ▁class ▁conflict ▁through ▁collaboration
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▁between ▁the ▁classes . ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁opposed ▁liberal ism , ▁especially ▁classical ▁liberal ism ▁that ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁F asc ist ▁leaders ▁den ounced ▁as ▁" the ▁deb acle ▁of ▁individual ism ", ▁but ▁rather ▁than ▁seeking ▁a ▁reaction ary ▁restoration ▁of ▁the ▁pre - F rench ▁Revolution ary ▁world ▁which ▁it ▁considered ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁flaw ed , ▁it ▁had ▁a ▁forward - looking ▁direction . ▁F asc ism ▁was ▁opposed ▁to ▁Marx ist ▁social ism ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁latter ' s ▁typical ▁opposition ▁to ▁national ism , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁also ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁reaction ary ▁conserv at ism ▁developed ▁by ▁Joseph ▁de ▁Ma ist re . ▁It ▁believed ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁required ▁respect ▁for ▁tradition ▁and ▁a ▁clear ▁sense ▁of ▁a ▁shared ▁past ▁among ▁the ▁Italian ▁people , ▁alongside ▁a ▁commitment ▁to ▁a ▁modern ised ▁Italy . ▁ ▁Origin ally , ▁Italian ▁F asc ists ▁were ▁very ▁opposed ▁to ▁National ▁Social ism ▁as ▁fasc ism ▁in ▁Italy ▁did ▁not ▁esp ouse ▁Nord icism ▁and ▁did ▁not ▁initially ▁esp ouse ▁some ▁ant is emit ism ▁inher ent ▁to ▁Nazi ▁ide ology , ▁although ▁some ▁fasc ists ▁held ▁racist ▁ideas ▁in ▁their ▁thoughts ▁and ▁created ▁few ▁racial ▁policies ▁in ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁rule ▁of ▁Italy . ▁As ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁and ▁Nazi ▁Germany ▁grew ▁polit ically ▁closer ▁in ▁the ▁latter ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁Italian ▁laws ▁and ▁policies ▁became ▁explicitly ▁ant is emit ic
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▁due ▁to ▁extreme ▁pressure ▁from ▁Nazi ▁Germany ▁( even ▁though ▁ant is emit ic ▁laws ▁were ▁not ▁commonly ▁en forced ▁in ▁Italy ), ▁including ▁the ▁passage ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁R ac ial ▁Law s . ▁When ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁were ▁in ▁power , ▁they ▁also ▁per secut ed ▁some ▁lingu istic ▁minor ities ▁in ▁Italy ▁( a ▁phenomenon ▁histor ically ▁registered ▁also ▁in ▁democratic ▁states ). ▁ ▁Pr incipal ▁beliefs ▁ ▁National ism ▁▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁is ▁based ▁upon ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁and ▁in ▁particular ▁seeks ▁to ▁complete ▁what ▁it ▁considers ▁as ▁the ▁in complete ▁project ▁of ▁Ris org imento ▁by ▁incorpor ating ▁Italia ▁Ir red enta ▁( un re de emed ▁Italy ) ▁into ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Italy . ▁The ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁( PN F ) ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁declared ▁that ▁the ▁party ▁was ▁to ▁serve ▁as ▁" a ▁revolutionary ▁milit ia ▁placed ▁at ▁the ▁service ▁of ▁the ▁nation . ▁It ▁follows ▁a ▁policy ▁based ▁on ▁three ▁principles : ▁order , ▁discipline , ▁hierarchy ". ▁ ▁It ▁ident ifies ▁modern ▁Italy ▁as ▁the ▁he ir ▁to ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁Italy ▁during ▁the ▁Rena issance ▁and ▁prom otes ▁the ▁cultural ▁identity ▁of ▁Roman itas ▁( R oman - ness ). ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁histor ically ▁sought ▁to ▁for ge ▁a ▁strong ▁Italian ▁Empire ▁as ▁a ▁Third ▁Rome , ▁identifying ▁ancient ▁Rome ▁as ▁the ▁First ▁Rome ▁and ▁Rena issance - era ▁Italy ▁as ▁the ▁Second ▁Rome . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁has
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▁em ulated ▁ancient ▁Rome ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁in ▁particular ▁em ulated ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁leaders , ▁such ▁as ▁Jul ius ▁Ca esar ▁as ▁a ▁model ▁for ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁rise ▁to ▁power ▁and ▁August us ▁as ▁a ▁model ▁for ▁empire - building . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁has ▁directly ▁promoted ▁imperial ism , ▁such ▁as ▁within ▁the ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁( 1 9 3 2 ), ▁ghost written ▁by ▁Giovanni ▁Gent ile ▁on ▁behalf ▁of ▁M uss ol ini : ▁ ▁Ir red ent ism ▁and ▁expansion ism ▁▁ ▁F asc ism ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁the ▁restoration ▁of ▁the ▁M azz inian ▁Ris org imento ▁tradition ▁that ▁purs ued ▁the ▁un ification ▁of ▁Italy , ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁claimed ▁had ▁been ▁left ▁in complete ▁and ▁abandoned ▁in ▁the ▁Gi ol itt ian - era ▁Italy . ▁F asc ism ▁sought ▁the ▁incorpor ation ▁of ▁claimed ▁" un re de emed " ▁territor ies ▁to ▁Italy . ▁ ▁To ▁the ▁east ▁of ▁Italy , ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁claimed ▁that ▁Dal mat ia ▁was ▁a ▁land ▁of ▁Italian ▁culture ▁whose ▁Ital ians , ▁including ▁those ▁of ▁Italian ized ▁South ▁Sl av ic ▁descent , ▁had ▁been ▁driven ▁out ▁of ▁Dal mat ia ▁and ▁into ▁ex ile ▁in ▁Italy , ▁and ▁supported ▁the ▁return ▁of ▁Ital ians ▁of ▁Dal mat ian ▁heritage . ▁M uss ol ini ▁identified ▁Dal mat ia ▁as ▁having ▁strong ▁Italian ▁cultural ▁roots ▁for ▁centuries ▁via ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the
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▁Republic ▁of ▁Ven ice . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁especially ▁focused ▁their ▁claims ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁cultural ▁heritage ▁of ▁Dal mat ia , ▁claiming ▁that ▁Ven et ian ▁rule ▁had ▁been ▁beneficial ▁for ▁all ▁Dal mat ians ▁and ▁had ▁been ▁accepted ▁by ▁the ▁Dal mat ian ▁population . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁were ▁out r aged ▁after ▁World ▁War ▁I , ▁when ▁the ▁agreement ▁between ▁Italy ▁and ▁the ▁Ent ente ▁All ies ▁in ▁the ▁Treat y ▁of ▁London ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 5 ▁to ▁have ▁Dal mat ia ▁join ▁Italy ▁was ▁rev oked ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 9 . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁supported ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Y ug oslav ia ' s ▁region ▁of ▁Sl oven ia ▁into ▁Italy ▁that ▁already ▁held ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁the ▁Slov ene ▁population , ▁where by ▁Sl oven ia ▁would ▁become ▁an ▁Italian ▁province , ▁resulting ▁in ▁a ▁quarter ▁of ▁Slov ene ▁ethnic ▁territory ▁and ▁approximately ▁ 3 2 7 , 0 0 0 ▁out ▁of ▁total ▁population ▁of ▁ 1 . 3 ▁million ▁Sl oven es ▁being ▁subject ed ▁to ▁forced ▁Italian ization . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁imposed ▁mandatory ▁Italian ization ▁upon ▁the ▁German ▁and ▁South ▁Sl av ic ▁populations ▁living ▁within ▁Italy ' s ▁borders . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁abol ished ▁the ▁teaching ▁of ▁minority ▁German ▁and ▁Sl av ic ▁languages ▁in ▁schools , ▁German ▁and ▁Sl av ic ▁language ▁newspapers ▁were ▁shut ▁down ▁and ▁ge ographical ▁and ▁family ▁names ▁in ▁areas ▁of
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▁German ▁or ▁Sl av ic ▁languages ▁were ▁to ▁be ▁Italian ized . ▁This ▁resulted ▁in ▁significant ▁violence ▁against ▁South ▁Sl av s ▁deemed ▁to ▁be ▁res isting ▁Italian ization . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁supported ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Alban ia , ▁claimed ▁that ▁Alban ians ▁were ▁eth n ically ▁linked ▁to ▁Ital ians ▁through ▁links ▁with ▁the ▁pre hist oric ▁Ital i otes , ▁Il ly rian ▁and ▁Roman ▁populations ▁and ▁that ▁the ▁major ▁influence ▁ex ert ed ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ▁and ▁Ven et ian ▁em pires ▁over ▁Alban ia ▁justified ▁Italy ' s ▁right ▁to ▁possess ▁it . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁also ▁justified ▁the ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Alban ia ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁that — because ▁several ▁hundred ▁thousand ▁people ▁of ▁Alban ian ▁descent ▁had ▁been ▁absorbed ▁into ▁society ▁in ▁southern ▁Italy ▁already — the ▁incorpor ation ▁of ▁Alban ia ▁was ▁a ▁reasonable ▁measure ▁that ▁would ▁un ite ▁people ▁of ▁Alban ian ▁descent ▁into ▁one ▁state . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁end ors ed ▁Alban ian ▁ir red ent ism , ▁directed ▁against ▁the ▁predomin antly ▁Alban ian - pop ulated ▁Kos ovo ▁and ▁Ep irus , ▁particularly ▁in ▁Ch amer ia ▁inhab ited ▁by ▁a ▁substantial ▁number ▁of ▁Alban ians .< ref > Ber nd ▁J ür gen ▁F ischer . ▁' Al ban ia ▁at ▁war , ▁ 1 9 3 9 – 1 9 4 5 . ▁West ▁La f ay ette , ▁Indiana , ▁USA : ▁P urd ue ▁University ▁Press , ▁
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1 9 9 9 . ▁P . ▁ 7 0 - 7 3 .</ ref > ▁After ▁Italy ▁an nex ed ▁Alban ia ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁end ors ed ▁ass imil ating ▁Alban ians ▁into ▁Ital ians ▁and ▁colon izing ▁Alban ia ▁with ▁Italian ▁sett lers ▁from ▁the ▁Italian ▁Pen insula ▁to ▁gradually ▁transform ▁it ▁into ▁an ▁Italian ▁land . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁claimed ▁the ▁I on ian ▁Islands ▁as ▁Italian ▁territory ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁that ▁the ▁islands ▁had ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁Ven et ian ▁Republic ▁from ▁the ▁mid - 1 4 th ▁until ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁ ▁To ▁the ▁west ▁of ▁Italy , ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁territor ies ▁of ▁C ors ica , ▁Nice ▁and ▁Sav oy ▁held ▁by ▁France ▁were ▁Italian ▁lands . M uss ol ini ▁Un le ashed , ▁ 1 9 3 9 – 1 9 4 1 : ▁Politics ▁and ▁Str ategy ▁in ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ' s ▁Last ▁War . ▁Cambridge , ▁England , ▁UK : ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁P . ▁ 3 8 . ▁During ▁the ▁period ▁of ▁Italian ▁un ification ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 0 ▁to ▁ 1 8 6 1 , ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁of ▁P ied mont - S ard in ia , ▁Cam illo ▁B enso , ▁Count ▁of ▁Cav our , ▁who ▁was ▁leading ▁the ▁un
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ification ▁effort , ▁faced ▁opposition ▁from ▁French ▁Emperor ▁Napoleon ▁III ▁who ▁indicated ▁that ▁France ▁would ▁opp ose ▁Italian ▁un ification ▁unless ▁France ▁was ▁given ▁Nice ▁and ▁Sav oy ▁that ▁were ▁held ▁by ▁P ied mont - S ard in ia , ▁as ▁France ▁did ▁not ▁want ▁a ▁powerful ▁state ▁having ▁control ▁of ▁all ▁the ▁pass ages ▁of ▁the ▁Al ps . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁P ied mont - S ard in ia ▁was ▁press ured ▁to ▁conced e ▁Nice ▁and ▁Sav oy ▁to ▁France ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁France ▁accepting ▁the ▁un ification ▁of ▁Italy . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁produced ▁literature ▁on ▁C ors ica ▁that ▁presented ▁evidence ▁of ▁the ▁ital ian ità ▁( It al ian ness ) ▁of ▁the ▁island . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁produced ▁literature ▁on ▁Nice ▁that ▁justified ▁that ▁Nice ▁was ▁an ▁Italian ▁land ▁based ▁on ▁historic , ▁ethnic ▁and ▁lingu istic ▁grounds . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁quoted ▁Med ieval ▁Italian ▁scholar ▁Pet r arch ▁who ▁said : ▁" The ▁border ▁of ▁Italy ▁is ▁the ▁Var ; ▁consequ ently ▁Nice ▁is ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁Italy ". ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁quoted ▁Italian ▁national ▁hero ▁Gi useppe ▁Gar ib ald i ▁who ▁said : ▁" C ors ica ▁and ▁Nice ▁must ▁not ▁belong ▁to ▁France ; ▁there ▁will ▁come ▁the ▁day ▁when ▁an ▁Italy ▁mind ful ▁of ▁its ▁true ▁worth ▁will ▁re claim ▁its ▁provin ces ▁now ▁so ▁shame fully ▁l angu ishing ▁under ▁foreign ▁dom ination ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁initially ▁purs ued
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▁promoting ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁C ors ica ▁through ▁political ▁and ▁diplom atic ▁means , ▁believing ▁that ▁C ors ica ▁could ▁be ▁an nex ed ▁to ▁Italy ▁through ▁first ▁encouraging ▁the ▁existing ▁autonom ist ▁tend encies ▁in ▁C ors ica ▁and ▁then ▁independence ▁of ▁C ors ica ▁from ▁France , ▁that ▁would ▁be ▁followed ▁by ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁C ors ica ▁into ▁Italy . ▁ ▁To ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁Italy , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁had ▁designs ▁on ▁the ▁largely ▁Italian - pop ulated ▁region ▁of ▁T ic ino ▁and ▁the ▁Romans ch - pop ulated ▁region ▁of ▁Gra ub ünd en ▁in ▁Switzerland ▁( the ▁Romans ch ▁are ▁a ▁people ▁with ▁a ▁Latin - based ▁language ). ▁In ▁November ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁to ▁the ▁Grand ▁F asc ist ▁Council : ▁" We ▁shall ▁bring ▁our ▁border ▁to ▁the ▁Got th ard ▁Pass ". ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁accused ▁the ▁Swiss ▁government ▁of ▁opp ress ing ▁the ▁Romans ch ▁people ▁in ▁Gra ub ünd en . ▁M uss ol ini ▁argued ▁that ▁Romans ch ▁was ▁an ▁Italian ▁dialect ▁and ▁thus ▁Gra ub ünd en ▁should ▁be ▁incorporated ▁into ▁Italy . ▁T ic ino ▁was ▁also ▁claimed ▁because ▁the ▁region ▁had ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁D uch y ▁of ▁Milan ▁from ▁the ▁mid - four teenth ▁century ▁until ▁ 1 5 1 5 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁being ▁inhab ited ▁by ▁Italian ▁speakers ▁of ▁Italian ▁ethnic
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ity . ▁Cl aim ▁was ▁also ▁raised ▁on ▁the ▁basis ▁that ▁areas ▁now ▁part ▁of ▁Gra ub ünd en ▁in ▁the ▁Mes ol c ina ▁valley ▁and ▁H inter r he in ▁were ▁held ▁by ▁the ▁Milan ese ▁T riv ul z io ▁family , ▁who ▁ruled ▁from ▁the ▁Mes oc co ▁Castle ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 5 th ▁century . ▁Also ▁during ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁G ale azzo ▁C iano ▁met ▁with ▁Hitler ▁and ▁R ib b ent rop ▁and ▁proposed ▁to ▁them ▁the ▁dis section ▁of ▁Switzerland ▁along ▁the ▁central ▁chain ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Al ps , ▁which ▁would ▁have ▁left ▁Italy ▁also ▁with ▁the ▁cant on ▁of ▁Val ais ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁claims ▁raised ▁earlier . ▁ ▁To ▁the ▁south , ▁the ▁regime ▁claimed ▁the ▁arch ip el ago ▁of ▁Mal ta , ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁held ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁since ▁ 1 8 0 0 . ▁M uss ol ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁Mal tes e ▁language ▁was ▁a ▁dialect ▁of ▁Italian ▁and ▁theories ▁about ▁Mal ta ▁being ▁the ▁cr ad le ▁of ▁the ▁Latin ▁civilization ▁were ▁promoted . J eff rey ▁Cole . ▁Eth nic ▁G roups ▁of ▁Europe : ▁An ▁En cycl op edia . ▁ABC - CL IO . ▁ 2 0 1 1 . ▁p . ▁ 2 5 4 ▁Italian ▁had ▁been ▁widely ▁used ▁in ▁Mal ta ▁in ▁the ▁literary , ▁scientific ▁and ▁legal ▁fields ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁Mal ta ' s ▁official ▁languages
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▁until ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁when ▁its ▁status ▁was ▁abol ished ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁as ▁a ▁response ▁to ▁Italy ' s ▁invasion ▁of ▁Eth iop ia . ▁Italian ▁ir red ent ists ▁had ▁claimed ▁that ▁territor ies ▁on ▁the ▁coast ▁of ▁North ▁Africa ▁were ▁Italy ' s ▁Fourth ▁Sh ore ▁and ▁used ▁the ▁historical ▁Roman ▁rule ▁in ▁North ▁Africa ▁as ▁a ▁preced ent ▁to ▁justify ▁the ▁incorpor ation ▁of ▁such ▁territor ies ▁to ▁Italian ▁juris diction ▁as ▁being ▁a ▁" return " ▁of ▁Italy ▁to ▁North ▁Africa . ▁In ▁January ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁Italy ▁an nex ed ▁territor ies ▁in ▁Lib ya ▁that ▁it ▁considered ▁within ▁Italy ' s ▁Fourth ▁Sh ore , ▁with ▁Lib ya ' s ▁four ▁coastal ▁provin ces ▁of ▁Tri pol i , ▁Mis ur ata , ▁Ben gh azi ▁and ▁D erna ▁becoming ▁an ▁integral ▁part ▁of ▁met ropolitan ▁Italy . ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁ind igenous ▁Lib y ans ▁were ▁given ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁apply ▁for ▁" Special ▁Italian ▁Cit iz ens hip " ▁which ▁required ▁such ▁people ▁to ▁be ▁liter ate ▁in ▁the ▁Italian ▁language ▁and ▁conf ined ▁this ▁type ▁of ▁citizens hip ▁to ▁be ▁valid ▁in ▁Lib ya ▁only . ▁Tun is ia ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁taken ▁by ▁France ▁as ▁a ▁prote ctor ate ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 1 ▁had ▁the ▁highest ▁concentration ▁of ▁Ital ians ▁in ▁North ▁Africa ▁and ▁its ▁seiz ure ▁by ▁France ▁had ▁been ▁viewed ▁as ▁an ▁injury ▁to ▁national ▁honour ▁in ▁Italy ▁at ▁what ▁they
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▁perceived ▁as ▁a ▁" loss " ▁of ▁Tun is ia ▁from ▁Italian ▁plans ▁to ▁incorporate ▁it . ▁Upon ▁entering ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁Italy ▁declared ▁its ▁intention ▁to ▁se ize ▁Tun is ia ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁Constant ine ▁of ▁Al ger ia ▁from ▁France . ▁ ▁To ▁the ▁south , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁held ▁an ▁interest ▁in ▁expanding ▁Italy ' s ▁African ▁colonial ▁poss essions . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁Italy ▁regarded ▁Portugal ▁as ▁a ▁weak ▁country ▁that ▁was ▁un be coming ▁of ▁a ▁colonial ▁power ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁weak ▁hold ▁on ▁its ▁colon ies ▁and ▁mis management ▁of ▁them ▁and ▁as ▁such ▁Italy ▁desired ▁to ▁an ne xe ▁Portugal ' s ▁colon ies . ▁Italy ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁Portugal ▁were ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁rise ▁to ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁author itarian ▁conservative ▁national ist ▁regime ▁of ▁Sal azar , ▁which ▁borrow ed ▁fasc ist ▁methods , ▁though ▁Sal azar ▁up held ▁Portugal ' s ▁traditional ▁alliance ▁with ▁Britain . ▁▁ ▁Race ▁▁ ▁In ▁a ▁ 1 9 2 1 ▁speech ▁in ▁B olog na , ▁M uss ol ini ▁stated ▁that ▁" F asc ism ▁was ▁born ... ▁out ▁of ▁a ▁profound , ▁per ennial ▁need ▁of ▁this ▁our ▁A ry an ▁and ▁Mediterranean ▁race ". Ne oc le ous , ▁Mark . ▁F asc ism . ▁Min ne apolis , ▁Minnesota , ▁USA : ▁University ▁of ▁Minnesota ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁p . 3 5 ▁In
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▁this ▁speech , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁referring ▁to ▁Ital ians ▁as ▁being ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁A ry an ▁Race , ▁A ry an ▁in ▁the ▁meaning ▁of ▁people ▁of ▁an ▁Ind o - Europe an ▁language ▁and ▁culture . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁emphas ized ▁that ▁race ▁was ▁bound ▁by ▁spiritual ▁and ▁cultural ▁found ations ▁and ▁identified ▁a ▁racial ▁hierarchy ▁based ▁on ▁spiritual ▁and ▁cultural ▁factors . ▁While ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁based ▁its ▁con ception ▁of ▁race ▁on ▁spiritual ▁and ▁cultural ▁factors , ▁M uss ol ini ▁explicitly ▁rejected ▁not ions ▁that ▁bi ologically ▁" p ure " ▁races ▁were ▁still ▁considered ▁a ▁relevant ▁factor ▁in ▁racial ▁classification . ▁He ▁claimed ▁that ▁ital ian ità ▁had ▁ass imil atory ▁capacity . ▁It ▁used ▁spiritual ▁and ▁cultural ▁concept ions ▁of ▁race ▁to ▁make ▁land ▁claims ▁on ▁Dal mat ia ▁and ▁to ▁justify ▁an ▁Italian ▁sphere ▁of ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁based ▁on ▁then - present ▁and ▁historical ▁Italian ▁cultural ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁B alk ans . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁justified ▁colonial ism ▁in ▁Africa ▁by ▁claiming ▁that ▁the ▁spiritual ▁and ▁cultural ▁superior ity ▁of ▁Ital ians ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁white ▁race , ▁justified ▁the ▁right ▁for ▁Italy ▁and ▁other ▁powers ▁of ▁the ▁white ▁race ▁to ▁rule ▁over ▁the ▁black ▁race , ▁while ▁assert ing ▁the ▁racial ▁seg regation ▁of ▁whites ▁and ▁blacks ▁in ▁its ▁colon ies . ▁It ▁claimed ▁that ▁F asc ism ' s ▁colonial ▁goals ▁were ▁to ▁civil ize ▁the ▁inferior ▁races
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▁and ▁defend ▁the ▁pur ity ▁of ▁Western ▁civilization ▁from ▁racial ▁mis ce gen ation ▁that ▁it ▁claimed ▁would ▁harm ▁the ▁intellectual ▁qualities ▁of ▁the ▁white ▁race . ▁It ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁white ▁race ▁needed ▁to ▁increase ▁its ▁nat ality ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁avoid ▁being ▁over t aken ▁by ▁the ▁black ▁and ▁yellow ▁races ▁that ▁were ▁multip lying ▁at ▁a ▁faster ▁rate ▁than ▁whites . ▁ ▁Within ▁Italy , ▁the ▁Italian ▁Empire ▁and ▁territory ▁identified ▁as ▁sp az io ▁vit ale ▁for ▁Italy ▁a ▁cultural - rac ial ▁hierarchy ▁that ▁ranked ▁the ▁peoples ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁value ▁who ▁lived ▁there ▁was ▁clearly ▁defined ▁by ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁during ▁which ▁plans ▁for ▁Italy ' s ▁sp az io ▁vit ale ▁were ▁being ▁formal ized ▁by ▁the ▁regime . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁considered ▁Ital ians ▁to ▁be ▁superior ▁to ▁other ▁peoples ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁region — including ▁Latin , ▁Sl av ic ▁and ▁H ellen ic ▁peoples — because ▁only ▁Ital ians ▁had ▁achieved ▁racial ▁unity ▁and ▁full ▁political ▁consciousness ▁via ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime . ▁Latin , ▁Sl av ic ▁and ▁H ellen ic ▁peoples ▁were ▁regarded ▁as ▁superior ▁to ▁Turk ic , ▁Sem it ic ▁and ▁Ham it ic ▁peoples . ▁Among st ▁ind igenous ▁peoples ▁of ▁Africa , ▁the ▁racial ▁hierarchy ▁regarded ▁ind igenous ▁North ▁Afr icans ▁as ▁superior ▁to ▁ind igenous ▁people ▁in ▁Italian ▁East ▁Africa . ▁ ▁Though ▁believing ▁in ▁the ▁racial ▁superior ity ▁of ▁Europe ans ▁over ▁non - Europe ans , ▁the ▁F
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asc ist ▁regime ▁displayed ▁diplom atic ▁courtesy ▁to ▁non - Europe ans . ▁The ▁regime ▁held ▁an ▁alliance ▁with ▁Japan ▁within ▁the ▁Tri part ite ▁P act ▁between ▁Germany , ▁Italy ▁and ▁Japan . ▁Indian ▁independence ▁movement ▁leader ▁Mah at ma ▁Gand hi ▁visited ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 1 ▁and ▁was ▁invited ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁for ▁a ▁personal ▁visit , ▁providing ▁Gand hi ▁full ▁diplom atic ▁courtesy . ▁F asc ist ▁official ▁Ital o ▁Bal bo ▁during ▁his ▁trans at l antic ▁flight ▁from ▁Italy ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 ▁visited ▁with ▁leaders ▁of ▁the ▁Si oux ▁tribe ▁and ▁accepted ▁the ▁Si oux ' s ▁honor ary ▁best owing ▁of ▁his ▁incorpor ation ▁into ▁the ▁Si oux ▁with ▁the ▁Si oux ▁position ▁and ▁name ▁" Ch ief ▁F lying ▁E agle ". ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁strongly ▁rejected ▁the ▁common ▁Nord ic ist ▁con ception ▁of ▁the ▁A ry an ▁Race ▁that ▁ideal ized ▁" p ure " ▁A ry ans ▁as ▁having ▁certain ▁physical ▁traits ▁that ▁were ▁defined ▁as ▁Nord ic ▁such ▁as ▁blond ▁hair ▁and ▁blue ▁eyes . ▁Nord icism ▁was ▁divis ive ▁because ▁Ital ians ▁– ▁and ▁especially ▁southern ▁Ital ians ▁- ▁had ▁faced ▁discrimination ▁from ▁Nord ic ist ▁pro ponents ▁in ▁countries ▁like ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁view ▁that ▁non - N ord ic ▁southern ▁Europe ans ▁were ▁inferior ▁to ▁Nord ics . ▁In ▁Italy , ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Nord icism ▁had ▁a ▁divis ive ▁effect ▁in
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▁which ▁the ▁influence ▁resulted ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ital ians ▁who ▁regarded ▁themselves ▁to ▁have ▁Nord ic ▁racial ▁heritage ▁considered ▁themselves ▁a ▁civil ized ▁people ▁while ▁neg atively ▁regarding ▁Southern ▁Ital ians ▁as ▁bi ologically ▁inferior . ▁At ▁least ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁stere ot ypes ▁about ▁Southern ▁Ital ians ▁were ▁created ▁by ▁Ces are ▁L omb ro so , ▁an ▁Italian ▁Jewish ▁crim in ologist ▁and ▁anth rop ologist ▁of ▁Sep hard ic ▁descent . Fr ances ca ▁Ch ir ico , ▁Link i esta ▁ 1 1 ▁novembre ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁rif Du cc io ▁Can estr ini , ▁dicembre ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁ ▁For ▁his ▁controversial ▁theories , ▁L omb ro so ▁was ▁exp elled ▁from ▁the ▁Italian ▁Society ▁of ▁Anth rop ology ▁and ▁Eth n ology ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁and ▁the ▁L omb ros ian ▁doctrine ▁is ▁currently ▁considered ▁pseud osc ient ific . ▁ ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁other ▁F asc ists ▁held ▁ant ip ath y ▁to ▁Nord icism ▁because ▁of ▁what ▁they ▁viewed ▁as ▁an ▁inferior ity ▁complex ▁of ▁people ▁of ▁Mediterranean ▁racial ▁heritage ▁that ▁they ▁claimed ▁had ▁been ▁inst illed ▁into ▁Mediterranean ▁people ▁by ▁the ▁propag ation ▁of ▁such ▁theories ▁by ▁German ▁and ▁Ang lo - S ax on ▁Nord ic ists ▁who ▁viewed ▁Mediterranean ▁peoples ▁as ▁rac ially ▁degener ate ▁and ▁thus ▁in ▁their ▁view ▁inferior . ▁However , ▁traditional ▁Nord ic ist ▁claims ▁of ▁Mediterr ane ans ▁being ▁degener ate ▁due ▁to ▁having ▁a ▁dark er
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▁colour ▁of ▁skin ▁than ▁Nord ics ▁had ▁long ▁been ▁reb uk ed ▁in ▁anth rop ology ▁through ▁the ▁dep ig ment ation ▁theory ▁that ▁claimed ▁that ▁lighter ▁sk inned ▁peoples ▁had ▁been ▁dep ig ment ed ▁from ▁a ▁dark er ▁skin , ▁this ▁theory ▁has ▁since ▁become ▁a ▁widely ▁accepted ▁view ▁in ▁anth rop ology . ▁Anth rop ologist ▁Car leton ▁S . ▁Co on ▁in ▁his ▁work ▁The ▁races ▁of ▁Europe ▁( 1 9 3 9 ) ▁sub scribed ▁to ▁dep ig ment ation ▁theory ▁that ▁claimed ▁that ▁Nord ic ▁race ' s ▁light - col oured ▁skin ▁was ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁dep ig ment ation ▁from ▁their ▁ancestors ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁race . ▁M uss ol ini ▁refused ▁to ▁allow ▁Italy ▁to ▁return ▁again ▁to ▁this ▁inferior ity ▁complex , ▁initially ▁reject ing ▁Nord icism . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁with ▁the ▁rise ▁to ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁Nazi ▁Party ▁in ▁Germany ▁with ▁F ühr er ▁Ad olf ▁Hitler ' s ▁sta unch ▁emphasis ▁on ▁a ▁Nord ic ist ▁con ception ▁of ▁the ▁A ry an ▁Race , ▁strong ▁t ensions ▁a rose ▁between ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁and ▁the ▁Naz is ▁over ▁racial ▁issues , ▁as ▁Hitler ▁regarded ▁Northern ▁Ital ians ▁to ▁be ▁strongly ▁A ry an , ▁but ▁not ▁Southern ▁Ital ians . ▁The ▁Naz is ▁regarded ▁the ▁ancient ▁Romans ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁largely ▁a ▁people ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁race , ▁though ▁they ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁Roman ▁ruling ▁classes ▁were ▁Nord ic ,
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▁desc ended ▁from ▁A ry an ▁con quer ors ▁from ▁the ▁North ▁and ▁that ▁this ▁Nord ic ▁A ry an ▁minority ▁was ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁Roman ▁civilization . ▁The ▁Naz is ▁viewed ▁the ▁down fall ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁as ▁being ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁the ▁deter ior ation ▁of ▁the ▁pur ity ▁of ▁the ▁Nord ic ▁A ry an ▁ruling ▁class ▁through ▁its ▁inter mix ing ▁with ▁the ▁inferior ▁Mediterranean ▁types ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁decay . ▁In ▁addition , ▁racial ▁inter mix ing ▁in ▁the ▁population ▁in ▁general ▁was ▁also ▁bl amed ▁for ▁Rome ' s ▁down fall , ▁claiming ▁that ▁Ital ians ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁were ▁a ▁hybrid ▁of ▁races , ▁including ▁black ▁African ▁races . ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁dark er ▁complex ion ▁of ▁Mediterranean ▁peoples , ▁Hitler ▁regarded ▁them ▁as ▁having ▁traces ▁of ▁Neg roid ▁blood ▁and ▁therefore ▁were ▁not ▁pure ▁A ry ans ▁and ▁inferior ▁to ▁those ▁without ▁such ▁heritage . ▁Hitler ▁praised ▁post - R oman ▁era ▁achievements ▁of ▁northern ▁Ital ians ▁such ▁as ▁Sand ro ▁B ott ic elli , ▁Michel angel o , ▁D ante ▁Al igh ieri ▁and ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini . ▁The ▁Naz is ▁asc ribed ▁the ▁great ▁achievements ▁of ▁post - R oman ▁era ▁northern ▁Ital ians ▁to ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁Nord ic ▁racial ▁heritage ▁in ▁such ▁people ▁who ▁via ▁their ▁Nord ic ▁heritage ▁had ▁German ic ▁ancestors , ▁such ▁as ▁Nazi ▁ide ologist ▁Alfred ▁Rosen berg ▁recogn izing ▁Michel angel o ▁and ▁Leon ardo
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▁da ▁Vin ci ▁as ▁exempl ary ▁Nord ic ▁men ▁of ▁history . ▁However , ▁the ▁Naz is ▁did ▁claim ▁that ▁aside ▁from ▁bi ologically ▁Nord ic ▁people ▁that ▁a ▁Nord ic ▁soul ▁could ▁inhabit ▁a ▁non - N ord ic ▁body . ▁Hitler ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁German ic ▁influence ▁in ▁Northern ▁Italy , ▁such ▁as ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁Northern ▁Italy ▁was ▁" n othing ▁but ▁pure ▁German ". ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁Aust rian ▁Naz is ▁killing ▁Aust rian ▁Ch ancell or ▁Eng el bert ▁D oll f uss ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁an ▁al ly ▁of ▁Italy , ▁M uss ol ini ▁became ▁en r aged ▁and ▁responded ▁by ▁an gr ily ▁den oun cing ▁Naz ism . ▁M uss ol ini ▁reb uk ed ▁Naz ism ' s ▁Nord icism , ▁claiming ▁that ▁the ▁Naz is ' ▁emphas izing ▁of ▁a ▁common ▁Nord ic ▁" G erman ic ▁race " ▁was ▁absurd ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁" a ▁German ic ▁race ▁does ▁not ▁exist . ▁[...] ▁We ▁repeat . ▁Does ▁not ▁exist . ▁Scient ists ▁say ▁so . ▁Hitler ▁says ▁so ". ▁The ▁fact ▁that ▁Germans ▁were ▁not ▁purely ▁Nord ic ▁was ▁indeed ▁acknowledged ▁by ▁prominent ▁Nazi ▁racial ▁the or ist ▁Hans ▁F . ▁K . ▁G ün ther ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁book ▁R assen k unde ▁des ▁deutschen ▁Vol kes ▁( R ac ial ▁Science ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁People ), ▁where ▁G ün ther ▁recognized ▁Germans ▁as ▁being
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▁composed ▁of ▁five ▁racial ▁types , ▁namely ▁Nord ic , ▁Mediterranean , ▁D inar ic , ▁Al p ine ▁and ▁East ▁Balt ic ▁while ▁assert ing ▁that ▁the ▁Nord ics ▁were ▁the ▁highest ▁in ▁a ▁racial ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁the ▁five ▁types . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁the ▁t ensions ▁between ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁and ▁Nazi ▁Germany ▁reduced ▁and ▁relations ▁became ▁more ▁am ic able . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁decided ▁to ▁launch ▁a ▁racial ▁programme ▁in ▁Italy ▁and ▁was ▁interested ▁in ▁the ▁racial ▁studies ▁being ▁conducted ▁by ▁Gi ul io ▁C og ni . ▁C og ni ▁was ▁a ▁Nord ic ist , ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁equ ate ▁Nord ic ▁identity ▁with ▁German ic ▁identity ▁as ▁was ▁commonly ▁done ▁by ▁German ▁Nord ic ists . ▁C og ni ▁had ▁trav elled ▁to ▁Germany ▁where ▁he ▁had ▁become ▁impressed ▁by ▁Nazi ▁racial ▁theory ▁and ▁sought ▁to ▁create ▁his ▁own ▁version ▁of ▁racial ▁theory . ▁On ▁ 1 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁C og ni ▁sent ▁M uss ol ini ▁a ▁copy ▁of ▁his ▁newly ▁published ▁book ▁Il ▁R azz ismo ▁( 1 9 3 6 ). ▁C og ni ▁declared ▁the ▁racial ▁aff inity ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁and ▁Nord ic ▁racial ▁sub types ▁of ▁the ▁A ry an ▁race ▁and ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁inter mix ing ▁of ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁and ▁Mediterranean ▁A ry ans ▁in ▁Italy ▁produced ▁a ▁superior ▁synt hesis ▁of ▁A ry an
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▁Ital ians . ▁C og ni ▁addressed ▁the ▁issue ▁of ▁racial ▁differences ▁between ▁northern ▁and ▁southern ▁Ital ians , ▁decl aring ▁Southern ▁Ital ians ▁were ▁mixed ▁between ▁A ry an ▁and ▁non - A ry an ▁races , ▁which ▁he ▁claimed ▁was ▁most ▁likely ▁due ▁to ▁in fil tr ation ▁by ▁As i atic ▁peoples ▁in ▁Roman ▁times ▁and ▁later ▁Arab ▁invas ions . ▁As ▁such , ▁C og ni ▁viewed ▁Southern ▁Italian ▁Mediterr ane ans ▁as ▁being ▁poll ut ed ▁with ▁orient al izing ▁tend encies . ▁He ▁would ▁later ▁change ▁his ▁idea ▁and ▁claim ▁that ▁Nord ics ▁and ▁Southern ▁Ital ians ▁were ▁closely ▁related ▁groups ▁both ▁rac ially ▁and ▁spirit ually , ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁generally ▁responsible ▁for ▁what ▁is ▁the ▁best ▁in ▁European ▁civilization . ▁Init ially , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁not ▁impressed ▁with ▁C og ni ' s ▁work , ▁but ▁C og ni ' s ▁ideas ▁entered ▁into ▁the ▁official ▁F asc ist ▁racial ▁policy ▁several ▁years ▁later . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁concerned ▁that ▁if ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁did ▁not ▁recognize ▁Nord ic ▁heritage ▁within ▁Ital ians , ▁then ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁inferior ity ▁complex ▁would ▁return ▁to ▁Italian ▁society . ▁Therefore , ▁in ▁summer ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁officially ▁recognized ▁Ital ians ▁as ▁having ▁Nord ic ▁heritage ▁and ▁being ▁of ▁Nord ic - M edit err anean ▁descent ▁and ▁in ▁a ▁meeting ▁with ▁P NF ▁members . ▁In ▁June
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▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁in ▁a ▁meeting ▁with ▁P NF ▁members , ▁M uss ol ini ▁identified ▁himself ▁as ▁Nord ic ▁and ▁declared ▁that ▁previous ▁policy ▁of ▁focus ▁on ▁Mediterranean ism ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁replaced ▁by ▁a ▁focus ▁on ▁A ry an ism . ▁ ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁began ▁publication ▁of ▁the ▁racial ist ▁magazine ▁La ▁D if esa ▁della ▁R az za ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁The ▁Nord ic ist ▁racial ▁the or ist ▁Gu ido ▁Land ra ▁took ▁a ▁major ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁work ▁of ▁La ▁D if esa ▁and ▁published ▁the ▁Man ifest o ▁of ▁R ac ial ▁Scient ists ▁in ▁the ▁magazine ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁ ▁The ▁Man ifest o ▁directly ▁addressed ▁its ▁con ception ▁of ▁racism ▁and ▁emphas ized ▁its ▁aut onomy ▁from ▁German ▁racial ▁theories ▁by ▁stating : ▁▁ ▁The ▁emphasis ▁in ▁the ▁Man ifest o ▁on ▁a ▁psychological ▁model ▁of ▁a ▁superior ▁human ▁being ▁was ▁in ▁reference ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁ant is emit ic ▁racial ▁the or ists ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini ▁and ▁Pa olo ▁Or ano ▁that ▁stated ▁that ▁those ▁Jews ▁who ▁had ▁associated ▁themselves ▁as ▁being ▁Italian ▁were ▁examples ▁of ▁inferior ▁psychological ▁types ▁that ▁were ▁characterized ▁by ▁moral ▁ab jection , ▁fals eness ▁and ▁cow ard ice ▁that ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Italian ▁community . ▁After ▁Article ▁ 7 ▁of ▁the ▁Man ifest o , ▁the ▁remainder ▁claimed ▁that ▁peoples ▁of ▁the ▁Ori ental ▁race , ▁African ▁races ▁and ▁Jews , ▁as
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▁not ▁belonging ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁race ; ▁and ▁in ▁Article ▁ 1 0 ▁declared ▁that ▁the ▁physical ▁and ▁psychological ▁characteristics ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁must ▁not ▁be ▁altered ▁by ▁cross bre eding ▁with ▁non - Europe an ▁races . ▁ ▁The ▁Man ifest o ▁received ▁substantial ▁criticism , ▁including ▁its ▁assert ion ▁of ▁Ital ians ▁being ▁a ▁" p ure ▁race ", ▁as ▁critics ▁viewed ▁the ▁notion ▁as ▁absurd . ▁La ▁D if esa ▁published ▁other ▁theories ▁that ▁described ▁long - term ▁Nord ic ▁A ry an ▁amongst ▁Ital ians , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁theory ▁that ▁in ▁the ▁E ne ol ith ic ▁age ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁arrived ▁in ▁Italy . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁writers ▁of ▁La ▁D if esa ▁della ▁R az za ▁took ▁up ▁the ▁traditional ▁Nord ic ist ▁claim ▁that ▁the ▁decline ▁and ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁Sem it ic ▁immigrants . ▁La ▁D if esa ' s ▁writers ▁were ▁divided ▁on ▁their ▁claims ▁that ▁described ▁how ▁Ital ians ▁extr icated ▁themselves ▁from ▁Sem it ic ▁influence . ▁ ▁The ▁Nord ic ist ▁direction ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁racial ▁policy ▁was ▁challenged ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁by ▁a ▁res urg ence ▁of ▁the ▁Mediterranean ▁f action ▁in ▁the ▁P NF . ▁By ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁the ▁Mediterranean ists ▁advoc ated ▁a ▁nat iv ist ▁racial ▁theory ▁which ▁rejected ▁asc rib ing ▁the ▁achievements ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁to ▁Nord ic ▁peoples . ▁This ▁nat iv ist
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▁racial ▁policy ▁was ▁prom in ently ▁promoted ▁by ▁U go ▁R ell ini . ▁R ell ini ▁rejected ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁large ▁scale ▁invas ions ▁of ▁Italy ▁by ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁in ▁the ▁E ne ol ith ic ▁age ▁and ▁claimed ▁that ▁Ital ians ▁were ▁an ▁ind igenous ▁people ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁Cro - M agn ons . ▁R ell ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁Mediterranean ▁and ▁later ▁Nord ic ▁peoples ▁arrived ▁and ▁peace fully ▁inter m ixed ▁in ▁small ▁numbers ▁with ▁the ▁ind igenous ▁Italian ▁population . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁the ▁P NF ' s ▁Mediterranean ists ▁through ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Gi ac omo ▁A cer bo ▁put ▁forward ▁a ▁comprehensive ▁definition ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁race . ▁However , ▁these ▁efforts ▁were ▁challenged ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁endorse ment ▁of ▁Nord ic ist ▁figures ▁with ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁sta unch ▁spiritual ▁Nord ic ist ▁Alberto ▁L uch ini ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁R ac ial ▁Office ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁with ▁M uss ol ini ▁becoming ▁interested ▁with ▁Jul ius ▁E vol a ' s ▁spiritual ▁Nord icism ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 4 1 . ▁A cer bo ▁and ▁the ▁Mediterranean ists ▁in ▁his ▁High ▁Council ▁on ▁Dem ography ▁and ▁Race ▁sought ▁to ▁bring ▁the ▁regime ▁back ▁to ▁supporting ▁Mediterranean ism ▁by ▁thoroughly ▁den oun cing ▁the ▁pro - N ord ic ist ▁Man ifest o ▁of ▁the ▁R ac ial ▁Scient ists
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. ▁The ▁Council ▁recognized ▁A ry ans ▁as ▁being ▁a ▁lingu istic - based ▁group ▁and ▁condem ned ▁the ▁Man ifest o ▁for ▁den ying ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁pre - A ry an ▁civilization ▁on ▁modern ▁Italy , ▁saying ▁that ▁the ▁Man ifest o ▁" const itutes ▁an ▁un just ifiable ▁and ▁und emon str able ▁neg ation ▁of ▁the ▁anth rop ological , ▁eth n ological , ▁and ▁archae ological ▁discover ies ▁that ▁have ▁occurred ▁and ▁are ▁occurring ▁in ▁our ▁country ". ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁Council ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Man ifest o ▁for ▁" im plicit ly " ▁cred iting ▁German ic ▁inv aders ▁of ▁Italy ▁in ▁the ▁gu ise ▁of ▁the ▁L omb ards ▁for ▁having ▁" a ▁form ative ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁Italian ▁race ▁in ▁a ▁dis pro port ional ▁degree ▁to ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁inv aders ▁and ▁to ▁their ▁biological ▁predomin ance ". ▁The ▁Council ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁obvious ▁superior ity ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Gree ks ▁and ▁Romans ▁in ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁ancient ▁German ic ▁tribes ▁made ▁it ▁incon ce iv able ▁that ▁Italian ▁culture ▁o wed ▁a ▁debt ▁to ▁ancient ▁A ry an ▁Germans . ▁The ▁Council ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Man ifest o ' s ▁Nord ic ist ▁sup rem ac ist ▁attitude ▁towards ▁Mediterr ane ans ▁that ▁it ▁claimed ▁was ▁" cons ider ing ▁them ▁as ▁slaves " ▁and ▁was ▁" a ▁rep ud iation ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁Italian ▁civilization ". ▁▁ ▁Att itude ▁and ▁policies ▁regarding ▁Jews ▁▁ ▁In ▁his ▁early ▁years ▁as ▁F asc ist
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▁leader , ▁while ▁M uss ol ini ▁har b oured ▁negative ▁stere ot ypes ▁of ▁Jews ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁hold ▁a ▁firm ▁stance ▁on ▁Jews ▁and ▁his ▁official ▁st ances ▁oscill ated ▁and ▁shifted ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁political ▁demands ▁of ▁the ▁various ▁fa ctions ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁rather ▁than ▁having ▁anything ▁concrete . ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁held ▁ant is emit ic ▁beliefs ▁prior ▁to ▁becoming ▁a ▁F asc ist , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁essay ▁on ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁N iet z sche ' s ▁Über m ensch , ▁in ▁which ▁M uss ol ini ▁condem ned ▁" p all id ▁J ude ans " ▁for ▁" w reck ing " ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ; ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 3 ▁as ▁editor ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ist ▁Party ' s ▁( P SI ) ▁Av anti ! ▁newspaper ▁again ▁wrote ▁about ▁the ▁Jews ▁having ▁caused ▁hav oc ▁in ▁ancient ▁Rome . ▁Although ▁M uss ol ini ▁held ▁these ▁negative ▁attitudes , ▁he ▁was ▁aware ▁that ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁were ▁a ▁deeply ▁integrated ▁and ▁small ▁community ▁in ▁Italy ▁who ▁were ▁by ▁and ▁large ▁perceived ▁favour ably ▁in ▁Italy ▁for ▁fighting ▁val iant ly ▁for ▁Italy ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁Of ▁the ▁ 1 1 7 ▁original ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁F asci ▁Italian i ▁di ▁Comb att imento ▁founded ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁March ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁five ▁were ▁Jewish . ▁Since ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁early ▁years ,
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▁there ▁were ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁prominent ▁openly ▁ant is emit ic ▁F asc ists ▁such ▁as ▁Roberto ▁Far in acci . ▁There ▁were ▁also ▁prominent ▁F asc ists ▁who ▁completely ▁rejected ▁ant is emit ism , ▁such ▁as ▁Ital o ▁Bal bo ▁who ▁lived ▁in ▁Ferr ara ▁that ▁had ▁a ▁substantial ▁Jewish ▁community ▁that ▁was ▁accepted ▁and ▁ant is emit ic ▁incidents ▁were ▁rare ▁in ▁the ▁city . ▁ ▁In ▁response ▁to ▁his ▁observation ▁of ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Jews ▁amongst ▁the ▁Bol she vik s ▁and ▁claims ▁( that ▁were ▁later ▁confirmed ▁to ▁be ▁true ) ▁that ▁the ▁Bol she vik s ▁and ▁Germany ▁( that ▁Italy ▁was ▁fighting ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I ) ▁were ▁polit ically ▁connected , ▁M uss ol ini ▁said ▁ant is emit ic ▁statements ▁involving ▁the ▁Bol she vik - G erman ▁connection ▁as ▁being ▁an ▁" un hol y ▁alliance ▁between ▁Hind enburg ▁and ▁the ▁syn agog ue ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁came ▁to ▁believe ▁rum ours ▁that ▁Bol she vik ▁leader ▁Vlad imir ▁Len in ▁was ▁of ▁Jewish ▁descent . ▁In ▁an ▁article ▁in ▁Il ▁Pop olo ▁d ' It alia ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁wrote ▁a ▁highly ▁ant is emit ic ▁analysis ▁on ▁the ▁situation ▁in ▁Europe ▁involving ▁Bol she v ism ▁following ▁the ▁October ▁Revolution , ▁the ▁Russian ▁Civil ▁War ▁and ▁war ▁in ▁Hung ary ▁involving ▁the ▁Hung arian ▁Soviet ▁Republic : ▁▁ ▁This ▁statement ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁on ▁a ▁Jewish -
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B ol she vik - pl ut ocratic ▁connection ▁and ▁conspiracy ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁opposition ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁resulting ▁in ▁M uss ol ini ▁responding ▁to ▁this ▁opposition ▁amongst ▁his ▁supporters ▁by ▁abandon ing ▁this ▁stance ▁shortly ▁afterwards ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 9 . ▁Upon ▁abandon ing ▁this ▁stance ▁due ▁to ▁opposition ▁to ▁it , ▁M uss ol ini ▁no ▁longer ▁said ▁his ▁previous ▁assert ion ▁that ▁Bol she v ism ▁was ▁Jewish , ▁but ▁warned ▁that ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Jews ▁in ▁the ▁Bol she vik ▁movement ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁Bol she v ism ▁in ▁Russia ▁would ▁result ▁in ▁a ▁fer oc ious ▁wave ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁in ▁Russia . ▁He ▁then ▁claimed ▁that ▁" ant is emit ism ▁is ▁foreign ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ", ▁but ▁warned ▁Z ion ists ▁that ▁they ▁should ▁be ▁careful ▁not ▁to ▁stir ▁up ▁ant is emit ism ▁in ▁" the ▁only ▁country ▁where ▁it ▁has ▁not ▁existed ". ▁ ▁Mar gh er ita ▁Sar f atti ▁was ▁an ▁influential ▁Jewish ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁P NF ▁whom ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁known ▁since ▁he ▁and ▁her ▁had ▁been ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁P SI ▁and ▁she ▁had ▁been ▁his ▁mist ress ▁and ▁helped ▁write ▁D ux ▁( 1 9 2 6 ), ▁a ▁bi ography ▁of ▁M uss ol ini . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁Jewish ▁financial ▁supporters ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement ▁was ▁To e plit z , ▁whom ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁earlier ▁accused
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▁of ▁being ▁a ▁trait or ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁Another ▁prominent ▁Jewish ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁was ▁E tt ore ▁O v az za , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁sta unch ▁Italian ▁national ist ▁and ▁an ▁opponent ▁of ▁Z ion ism ▁in ▁Italy . ▁ 2 3 0 ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁March ▁on ▁Rome ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁caut ious ▁on ▁topics ▁of ▁Italian ▁Jewish ▁financ iers ▁that ▁a rose ▁from ▁time ▁to ▁time ▁from ▁ant is emit ic ▁elements ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁while ▁he ▁regarded ▁them ▁as ▁un tr ust worthy ▁he ▁believed ▁that ▁he ▁could ▁draw ▁them ▁to ▁his ▁side . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 2 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁made ▁his ▁private ▁attitude ▁about ▁Jews ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁amb assador ▁when ▁discussing ▁the ▁issue ▁by ▁saying : ▁" I ▁have ▁no ▁love ▁for ▁the ▁Jews , ▁but ▁they ▁have ▁great ▁influence ▁everywhere . ▁It ▁is ▁better ▁to ▁leave ▁them ▁alone . ▁Hitler ' s ▁ant is emit ism ▁has ▁already ▁brought ▁him ▁more ▁enemies ▁than ▁is ▁necessary ". ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁e ve ▁of ▁the ▁March ▁on ▁Rome , ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁P NF ▁declared ▁that ▁ ▁" a ▁Jewish ▁question ▁does ▁not ▁exist ▁in ▁our ▁country ▁and ▁let ▁us ▁hope ▁that ▁there ▁never ▁shall ▁be ▁one , ▁at ▁least ▁not ▁until ▁Z ion ism ▁pos
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es ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁with ▁the ▁d ile mma ▁of ▁choosing ▁between ▁their ▁Italian ▁hom eland ▁and ▁another ▁hom eland ". ▁The ▁relations ▁between ▁the ▁regime ▁and ▁Jews ▁as ▁in ▁those ▁practicing ▁the ▁religion ▁of ▁Jud a ism ▁was ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁accommodation ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁in ▁which ▁it ▁sought ▁to ▁remove ▁previous ▁provisions ▁of ▁equality ▁of ▁faith s ▁and ▁imp ose ▁state ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁sup rem acy ▁of ▁Catholic ism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁frustration ▁a rose ▁in ▁the ▁regime ▁over ▁Z ion ism ▁in ▁which ▁M uss ol ini ▁responded ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁Z ion ist ▁Congress ▁by ▁publicly ▁decl aring ▁a ▁question ▁to ▁Italy ' s ▁Jews ▁on ▁their ▁self - identity : ▁" Are ▁you ▁a ▁religion ▁or ▁are ▁you ▁a ▁nation ?" . ▁Z ion ist ▁and ▁anti - Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁responded , ▁the ▁anti - Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁profess ed ▁they ▁were ▁religious ▁Jews ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation , ▁while ▁Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁declared ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁dispute ▁between ▁Z ion ism ▁and ▁said ▁that ▁all ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁held ▁patri otic ▁respect ▁for ▁Italy . ▁Upon ▁these ▁responses ▁arriving , ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁that ▁these ▁revealed ▁that ▁a ▁Jewish ▁problem ▁existed ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁Jewish ▁identity ▁in ▁Italy ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁conflic ting ▁national ▁l oy alties ▁amongst ▁Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁by ▁saying : ▁▁ ▁The
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▁F asc ists ▁at ▁this ▁time ▁were ▁not ▁wh olly ▁opposed ▁to ▁Z ion ism , ▁but ▁took ▁an ▁instrumental ▁approach ▁to ▁it ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁hostile ▁to ▁it ▁when ▁it ▁caused ▁conflict ▁in ▁Italy ▁with ▁the ▁country ' s ▁Catholic ▁community ▁and ▁when ▁such ▁Z ion ists ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁associated ▁with ▁British ▁interests , ▁though ▁they ▁were ▁favour able ▁to ▁Z ion ists ▁who ▁opposed ▁the ▁British ▁and ▁sought ▁Italy ' s ▁support ▁as ▁their ▁prote ctor . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁held ▁discussions ▁with ▁Z ion ist ▁leadership ▁figures ▁over ▁proposals ▁to ▁encourage ▁the ▁em igration ▁of ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁to ▁the ▁mand ate ▁of ▁Palest ine , ▁as ▁M uss ol ini ▁hoped ▁that ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁pro - It al ian ▁Jews ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁would ▁we aken ▁pro - B rit ish ▁sentiment ▁and ▁potentially ▁over turn ▁the ▁British ▁mand ate . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Mont re ux ▁F asc ist ▁conference ▁cha ired ▁by ▁the ▁Italian - led ▁Com it ati ▁d ' A zione ▁per ▁l ' Univers al ita ▁di ▁Roma ▁( CA UR ) ▁that ▁sought ▁to ▁found ▁a ▁F asc ist ▁International , ▁the ▁issue ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁was ▁deb ated ▁amongst ▁various ▁fasc ist ▁parties , ▁with ▁some ▁more ▁favour able ▁to ▁it ▁and ▁others ▁less ▁favour able . ▁Two ▁final ▁comprom ises ▁were ▁adopted , ▁creating ▁the ▁official ▁stance ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist
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▁International : ▁▁ ▁In ▁a ▁discussion ▁with ▁President ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Z ion ist ▁Organization ▁Ch aim ▁We iz mann ▁over ▁requests ▁for ▁Italy ▁to ▁provide ▁refuge ▁for ▁Jews ▁fle eing ▁Nazi ▁Germany , ▁M uss ol ini ▁agreed ▁that ▁he ▁would ▁accept ▁Jewish ▁refugees , ▁but ▁warned ▁We iz mann ▁about ▁consequences ▁if ▁such ▁Jews ▁har med ▁Italy ▁by ▁saying : ▁▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ' s ▁attitudes ▁towards ▁Z ion ism ▁and ▁Jews ▁in ▁general ▁under w ent ▁a ▁shift ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁Second ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War . ▁At ▁the ▁out set ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁M uss ol ini ▁sought ▁to ▁gain ▁favour able ▁support ▁for ▁Italy ' s ▁intervention ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁and ▁appe aled ▁to ▁Z ion ists ▁by ▁offering ▁them ▁a ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁Jewish ▁question , ▁in ▁which ▁Italy ▁would ▁set ▁aside ▁a ▁certain ▁amount ▁of ▁territory ▁from ▁conqu ered ▁Eth iop ia ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁hom eland ▁for ▁Jews . ▁M uss ol ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁territory ▁from ▁conqu ered ▁Eth iop ia ▁would ▁make ▁an ▁ideal ▁hom eland ▁for ▁the ▁Jews , ▁noting ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Fal asha ▁already ▁living ▁there ▁who ▁identified ▁as ▁Jews . ▁However , ▁Z ion ist ▁leaders ▁rejected ▁this ▁proposal ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁only ▁live ▁in ▁the ▁Holy ▁Land ▁in ▁the ▁Lev ant . ▁M uss ol ini ▁viewed ▁this ▁as ▁an ▁offensive ▁sn ub ▁and ▁responded ▁in ▁frustration ▁saying : ▁" If ▁Eth iop ia
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▁is ▁good ▁enough ▁for ▁my ▁Ital ians ▁why ▁isn ' t ▁it ▁good ▁enough ▁for ▁you ▁Jews ?" . ▁After wards , ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁Z ion ist ▁movement ▁cool ed ▁and ▁became ▁ag grav ated ▁with ▁his ▁observation ▁that ▁many ▁Jews ▁opposed ▁the ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War , ▁to ▁which ▁he ▁responded : ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁began ▁to ▁promote ▁racial ▁ant is emit ism ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁international ▁Jew ry ▁had ▁s ided ▁with ▁Britain ▁against ▁Italy ▁during ▁Italy ' s ▁war ▁with ▁Eth iop ia . ▁Histor ian ▁Ren zo ▁De ▁Fel ice ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ' s ▁pursuit ▁of ▁alliance ▁with ▁Nazi ▁Germany ▁that ▁began ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁explains ▁the ▁adoption ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁as ▁a ▁pr ag matic ▁component ▁of ▁pursuit ▁of ▁that ▁alliance . ▁De ▁Fel ice ' s ▁interpretation ▁has ▁been ▁challenged ▁by ▁H . ▁Stuart ▁Hughes , ▁who ▁has ▁claimed ▁that ▁direct ▁Nazi ▁pressure ▁to ▁adopt ▁ant is emit ic ▁policy ▁had ▁little ▁or ▁no ▁impact ▁on ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁decision . ▁Hughes ▁notes ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁version ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁spiritual ist ▁consider ations ▁while ▁es che wing ▁anth rop ological ▁or ▁biological ▁arguments , ▁unlike ▁the ▁Nazi ▁version ▁of ▁ant is emit ism . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁adopted ▁ant is
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emit ism ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁personally ▁returned ▁to ▁invoke ▁ant is emit ic ▁statements ▁as ▁he ▁had ▁done ▁earlier . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁used ▁ant is emit ic ▁propaganda ▁for ▁the ▁Spanish ▁Civil ▁War ▁from ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁to ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁that ▁emphas ized ▁that ▁Italy ▁was ▁supporting ▁Spain ' s ▁National ist ▁forces ▁against ▁a ▁" J ew ish ▁International ". ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁passed ▁the ▁Italian ▁R ac ial ▁Law s ▁which ▁for bid ▁Jews ▁from ▁their ▁citizens hip ▁and ▁for bid ▁sexual ▁relations ▁and ▁mar riages ▁between ▁Ital ians ▁and ▁Jews . ▁The ▁adoption ▁of ▁such ▁racial ▁laws ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁opposition ▁from ▁F asc ist ▁members ▁including ▁Bal bo , ▁who ▁regarded ▁ant is emit ism ▁as ▁having ▁nothing ▁to ▁do ▁with ▁F asc ism ▁and ▁sta unch ly ▁opposed ▁the ▁ant is emit ic ▁laws . ▁▁ ▁Total itarian ism ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 5 , ▁the ▁P NF ▁declared ▁that ▁Italy ' s ▁F asc ist ▁state ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁total itarian . ▁The ▁term ▁" total itarian " ▁had ▁initially ▁been ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁pe jor ative ▁accus ation ▁by ▁Italy ' s ▁liberal ▁opposition ▁that ▁den ounced ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement ▁for ▁seeking ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁total ▁dict ators hip . ▁However , ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁responded ▁by ▁accepting ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁total itarian
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, ▁but ▁presented ▁total itarian ism ▁from ▁a ▁positive ▁view point . ▁M uss ol ini ▁described ▁total itarian ism ▁as ▁seeking ▁to ▁for ge ▁an ▁author itarian ▁national ▁state ▁that ▁would ▁be ▁capable ▁of ▁completing ▁Ris org imento ▁of ▁the ▁Italia ▁Ir red enta , ▁for ge ▁a ▁powerful ▁modern ▁Italy ▁and ▁create ▁a ▁new ▁kind ▁of ▁citizen ▁– ▁polit ically ▁active ▁F asc ist ▁Ital ians . ▁ ▁The ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁( 1 9 3 2 ) ▁described ▁the ▁nature ▁of ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ' s ▁total itarian ism , ▁stating ▁the ▁following : ▁▁ ▁American ▁journalist ▁H . ▁R . ▁Kn icker b ocker ▁wrote ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 : ▁" M uss ol ini ' s ▁F asc ist ▁state ▁is ▁the ▁least ▁terror istic ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁total itarian ▁states . ▁The ▁terror ▁is ▁so ▁mild ▁in ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁or ▁Nazi ▁varieties , ▁that ▁it ▁almost ▁fails ▁to ▁qualify ▁as ▁terror istic ▁at ▁all ." ▁As ▁example ▁he ▁described ▁an ▁Italian ▁journalist ▁friend ▁who ▁refused ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁F asc ist . ▁He ▁was ▁fired ▁from ▁his ▁newspaper ▁and ▁put ▁under ▁ 2 4 - hour ▁surveillance , ▁but ▁otherwise ▁not ▁harass ed ; ▁his ▁employment ▁contract ▁was ▁settled ▁for ▁a ▁l ump ▁sum ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁allowed ▁to ▁work ▁for ▁the ▁foreign ▁press . ▁Kn icker b ocker ▁contrast ed ▁his ▁treatment ▁with ▁the ▁inevitable ▁torture ▁and ▁execution ▁under ▁Stalin ▁or ▁Hitler , ▁and ▁stated ▁" you ▁have
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▁a ▁fair ▁idea ▁of ▁the ▁compar ative ▁mild ness ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁kind ▁of ▁total itarian ism ". ▁ ▁However , ▁since ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁histor ians ▁have ▁noted ▁that ▁in ▁Italy ' s ▁colon ies ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁displayed ▁extreme ▁levels ▁of ▁violence . ▁The ▁deaths ▁of ▁one - t enth ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁colony ▁of ▁Lib ya ▁occurred ▁during ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁era , ▁including ▁from ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁g ass ings , ▁concentration ▁camps , ▁star v ation ▁and ▁disease ; ▁and ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁during ▁the ▁Second ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War ▁and ▁afterwards ▁by ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁a ▁quarter ▁of ▁a ▁million ▁Eth iop ians ▁had ▁died . ▁▁ ▁Corpor at ist ▁economics ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁promoted ▁a ▁corpor at ist ▁economic ▁system . ▁The ▁economy ▁involved ▁employer ▁and ▁employee ▁synd icates ▁being ▁linked ▁together ▁in ▁corpor ative ▁associations ▁to ▁collect ively ▁represent ▁the ▁nation ' s ▁economic ▁producers ▁and ▁work ▁alongside ▁the ▁state ▁to ▁set ▁national ▁economic ▁policy . ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁such ▁economics ▁as ▁a ▁" Th ird ▁Altern ative " ▁to ▁capitalism ▁and ▁Marx ism ▁that ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁regarded ▁as ▁" ob solete ▁do ctr ines ". ▁For ▁instance , ▁he ▁said ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 ▁that ▁orth odox ▁capitalism ▁no ▁longer ▁existed ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁Pre liminary ▁plans ▁as ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁intended ▁to ▁divide ▁the ▁country ▁into ▁ 2 2
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▁corporations ▁which ▁would ▁send ▁representatives ▁to ▁Parliament ▁from ▁each ▁industry . ▁ ▁State ▁permission ▁was ▁required ▁for ▁almost ▁any ▁business ▁activity , ▁such ▁as ▁ending ▁employment ▁or ▁expanding ▁a ▁factory . ▁All ▁wages ▁were ▁set ▁by ▁the ▁government . ▁However , ▁restrictions ▁on ▁labor ▁were ▁greater . ▁While ▁corporations ▁still ▁could ▁earn ▁profits , ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁supported ▁criminal ization ▁of ▁strikes ▁by ▁employees ▁and ▁lock outs ▁by ▁employers ▁as ▁illegal ▁acts ▁it ▁deemed ▁as ▁prejud icial ▁to ▁the ▁national ▁community ▁as ▁a ▁whole . ▁Similar ▁to ▁the ▁Bol she vik s ▁in ▁Soviet ▁Russia , ▁M uss ol ini ▁national ized ▁all ▁independent ▁trade ▁un ions ▁into ▁one ▁government - oper ated ▁synd icate , ▁the ▁Conf istr ada , ▁mand ating ▁union ▁membership ▁for ▁every ▁worker . ▁▁ ▁Age ▁and ▁gender ▁roles ▁ ▁The ▁Italian ▁F asc ists ' ▁political ▁an the m ▁was ▁called ▁Giov ine zza ▁( Y outh ). ▁F asc ism ▁ident ifies ▁the ▁physical ▁age ▁period ▁of ▁youth ▁as ▁a ▁critical ▁time ▁for ▁the ▁moral ▁development ▁of ▁people ▁that ▁will ▁affect ▁society . ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁purs ued ▁what ▁it ▁called ▁" m oral ▁hy g iene " ▁of ▁youth , ▁particularly ▁regarding ▁sexual ity . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁promoted ▁what ▁it ▁considered ▁normal ▁sexual ▁behaviour ▁in ▁youth ▁while ▁den oun cing ▁what ▁it ▁considered ▁dev iant ▁sexual ▁behaviour . ▁It ▁condem ned ▁porn ography , ▁most ▁forms ▁of ▁birth ▁control ▁and ▁contr ace pt ive ▁devices ▁( with ▁the ▁exception ▁of
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▁the ▁cond om ), ▁homosexual ity ▁and ▁prost itution ▁as ▁dev iant ▁sexual ▁behaviour . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁regarded ▁the ▁promotion ▁of ▁male ▁sexual ▁exc itation ▁before ▁pub er ty ▁as ▁the ▁cause ▁of ▁criminal ity ▁amongst ▁male ▁youth . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁reflected ▁the ▁belief ▁of ▁most ▁Ital ians ▁that ▁homosexual ity ▁was ▁wrong . ▁Instead ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁Catholic ▁teaching ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁sin , ▁a ▁new ▁approach ▁was ▁taken , ▁based ▁on ▁then - mod ern ▁psy cho analysis , ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁social ▁disease . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁purs ued ▁an ▁aggressive ▁campaign ▁to ▁reduce ▁prost itution ▁of ▁young ▁women . ▁ ▁M uss ol ini ▁perceived ▁women ' s ▁primary ▁role ▁to ▁be ▁child bear ers ▁while ▁men ▁were ▁warriors , ▁once ▁saying ▁that ▁" war ▁is ▁to ▁man ▁what ▁m atern ity ▁is ▁to ▁the ▁woman ". ▁In ▁an ▁effort ▁to ▁increase ▁birth r ates , ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁gave ▁financial ▁incent ives ▁to ▁women ▁who ▁raised ▁large ▁families ▁and ▁initiated ▁policies ▁designed ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁women ▁employed . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁called ▁for ▁women ▁to ▁be ▁hon oured ▁as ▁" re pro duc ers ▁of ▁the ▁nation " ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁held ▁ritual ▁ceremon ies ▁to ▁honour ▁women ' s ▁role ▁within ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁that ▁employment ▁of ▁women ▁was ▁a ▁" major ▁aspect ▁of ▁the ▁th orn
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y ▁problem ▁of ▁unemployment " ▁and ▁that ▁for ▁women ▁working ▁was ▁" in compatible ▁with ▁child b earing ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁say ▁that ▁the ▁solution ▁to ▁unemployment ▁for ▁men ▁was ▁the ▁" ex od us ▁of ▁women ▁from ▁the ▁work ▁force ". ▁Although ▁the ▁initial ▁F asc ist ▁Man ifest o ▁contained ▁a ▁reference ▁to ▁universal ▁suff rage , ▁this ▁broad ▁opposition ▁to ▁femin ism ▁meant ▁that ▁when ▁it ▁granted ▁women ▁the ▁right ▁to ▁vote ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁it ▁was ▁limited ▁purely ▁to ▁voting ▁in ▁local ▁elections . K evin ▁Pass more , ▁Women , ▁G ender ▁and ▁F asc ism ▁in ▁Europe , ▁p . ▁ 1 6 ▁▁ ▁Trad ition ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁required ▁a ▁clear ▁sense ▁of ▁a ▁shared ▁past ▁amongst ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁commitment ▁to ▁a ▁modern ized ▁Italy . ▁In ▁a ▁famous ▁speech ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁called ▁for ▁F asc ist ▁art ▁that ▁was ▁" tr ad itional ist ▁and ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁modern , ▁that ▁looks ▁to ▁the ▁past ▁and ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁to ▁the ▁future ". ▁ ▁Trad itional ▁symbols ▁of ▁Roman ▁civilization ▁were ▁utilized ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists , ▁particularly ▁the ▁f as ces ▁that ▁symbol ized ▁unity , ▁authority ▁and ▁the ▁exercise ▁of ▁power . ▁Other ▁traditional ▁symbols ▁of ▁ancient ▁Rome ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁included ▁the ▁she - w
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olf ▁of ▁Rome . ▁The ▁f as ces ▁and ▁the ▁she - w olf ▁symbol ized ▁the ▁shared ▁Roman ▁heritage ▁of ▁all ▁the ▁regions ▁that ▁const ituted ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁the ▁f as ces ▁was ▁adopted ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁of ▁Italy ▁as ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁the ▁state . ▁In ▁that ▁year , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁attempted ▁to ▁have ▁the ▁Italian ▁national ▁flag ▁re des igned ▁to ▁incorporate ▁the ▁f as ces ▁on ▁it . ▁However , ▁this ▁attempt ▁to ▁incorporate ▁the ▁f as ces ▁on ▁the ▁flag ▁was ▁stopped ▁by ▁strong ▁opposition ▁to ▁the ▁proposal ▁by ▁Italian ▁mon arch ists . ▁After wards , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁in ▁public ▁ceremon ies ▁rose ▁the ▁national ▁tr icol our ▁flag ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁F asc ist ▁black ▁flag . ▁However , ▁years ▁later ▁and ▁after ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁forced ▁from ▁power ▁by ▁the ▁King ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁only ▁to ▁be ▁resc ued ▁by ▁German ▁forces , ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ▁Republic ▁founded ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁did ▁incorporate ▁the ▁f as ces ▁on ▁the ▁state ' s ▁war ▁flag , ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁variant ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁tr icol our ▁national ▁flag . ▁ ▁The ▁issue ▁of ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁mon archy ▁or ▁republic ▁in ▁Italy ▁was ▁an ▁issue ▁that ▁changed ▁several ▁times ▁through ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁Italian ▁F asc ism , ▁as ▁initially ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁was ▁republic
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an ▁and ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Sav oy ▁mon archy . ▁However , ▁M uss ol ini ▁tact ically ▁abandoned ▁republic an ism ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁and ▁recognized ▁that ▁the ▁acceptance ▁of ▁the ▁mon archy ▁was ▁a ▁necessary ▁compromise ▁to ▁gain ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁establishment ▁to ▁challenge ▁the ▁liberal ▁constitutional ▁order ▁that ▁also ▁supported ▁the ▁mon archy . ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁had ▁become ▁a ▁popular ▁rul er ▁in ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁gains ▁after ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁and ▁the ▁army ▁held ▁close ▁loyalty ▁to ▁the ▁King , ▁thus ▁any ▁idea ▁of ▁over throw ing ▁the ▁mon archy ▁was ▁disc arded ▁as ▁fool hard y ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁at ▁this ▁point . ▁Import antly , ▁F asc ism ' s ▁recognition ▁of ▁mon archy ▁provided ▁F asc ism ▁with ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁historical ▁continu ity ▁and ▁legit im acy . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁publicly ▁identified ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁II , ▁the ▁first ▁King ▁of ▁a ▁reun ited ▁Italy ▁who ▁had ▁initiated ▁the ▁Ris org imento , ▁along ▁with ▁other ▁historic ▁Italian ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁G ai us ▁Mar ius , ▁Jul ius ▁Ca esar , ▁Gi useppe ▁M azz ini , ▁Cam illo ▁B enso , ▁Count ▁of ▁Cav our , ▁Gi useppe ▁Gar ib ald i ▁and ▁others , ▁for ▁being ▁within ▁a ▁tradition ▁of ▁dict ators hip ▁in ▁Italy ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁declared ▁that ▁they ▁em ulated . ▁However , ▁this ▁compromise ▁with ▁the ▁mon archy ▁did ▁not
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▁yield ▁a ▁cord ial ▁relationship ▁between ▁the ▁King ▁and ▁M uss ol ini . ▁Although ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁formally ▁accepted ▁the ▁mon archy , ▁he ▁purs ued ▁and ▁largely ▁achieved ▁reducing ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁King ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁figure head . ▁The ▁King ▁initially ▁held ▁complete ▁nom inal ▁legal ▁authority ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁through ▁the ▁Stat uto ▁Albert ino , ▁but ▁this ▁was ▁ended ▁during ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁when ▁M uss ol ini ▁created ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁First ▁Marshal ▁of ▁the ▁Empire ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁a ▁two - person ▁position ▁of ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁held ▁by ▁both ▁the ▁King ▁and ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁government ▁that ▁had ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁elim inating ▁the ▁King ' s ▁previously ▁exclusive ▁legal ▁authority ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁by ▁giving ▁M uss ol ini ▁equal ▁legal ▁authority ▁to ▁the ▁King ▁over ▁the ▁military . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁became ▁ag grav ated ▁by ▁the ▁mon archy ' s ▁continued ▁existence ▁due ▁to ▁env y ▁of ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁his ▁counter part ▁in ▁Germany ▁Ad olf ▁Hitler ▁was ▁both ▁head ▁of ▁state ▁and ▁head ▁of ▁government ▁of ▁a ▁republic ; ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁in ▁private ▁den ounced ▁the ▁mon archy ▁and ▁indicated ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁plans ▁to ▁dis m ant le ▁the ▁mon archy ▁and ▁create ▁a ▁republic ▁with ▁himself ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁state ▁of ▁Italy ▁upon ▁an ▁Italian ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁then - ant icip ated ▁major
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