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on ▁and ▁Disney ▁Channel ▁to ▁promote ▁the ▁album ▁which ▁features ▁a ▁male ▁announ cer . ▁She ▁also ▁performed ▁songs ▁from ▁the ▁album ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁B amb oo z le ▁in ▁New ▁Jersey . ▁ ▁Singles ▁The ▁first ▁single ▁off ▁the ▁album ▁was ▁" H ur ry ▁Up ▁and ▁Save ▁Me " ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁was ▁" No ▁Average ▁Angel ". ▁Both ▁music ▁videos ▁was ▁shot ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁The ▁videos ▁have ▁T iff any ▁running ▁around ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁She ' s ▁cl um sy ▁and ▁she ▁runs ▁into ▁people . ▁She ▁finds ▁herself ▁in ▁these ▁weird ▁scenarios . ▁She ▁ends ▁up ▁in ▁Times ▁Square ▁singing ▁to ▁her ▁friends . ▁Both ▁videos ▁were ▁directed ▁by ▁Andrew ▁Bennett . ▁Both ▁singles ▁were ▁also ▁on ▁a ▁mini ature ▁EP , ▁also ▁called ▁" No ▁Average ▁Angel ". ▁It ▁was ▁only ▁available ▁for ▁a ▁limited ▁edition . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁November ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁only ▁at ▁F Y E . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁Notes ▁Song ▁lengths , ▁writing ▁credits ▁and ▁producing ▁credits ▁taken ▁from ▁the ▁No ▁Average ▁Angel ▁l iner ▁notes . ▁The ▁first ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁copies ▁of ▁the ▁album ▁includes ▁a ▁DVD ▁with ▁the ▁music ▁videos ▁for ▁" No ▁Average ▁Angel " ▁and ▁" H ur ry ▁Up ▁and ▁Save ▁Me ". ▁ ▁Person nel ▁C red its ▁for ▁No ▁Average ▁Angel ▁adapted ▁from ▁Artist ▁Direct . ▁ ▁T iff any ▁Gi ard ina ▁- ▁Lead |
▁V oc als ▁Brian ▁Mal ou f ▁- ▁Mix ing ▁Sean ▁Hur ley ▁- ▁Bass ▁Dennis ▁Le ef lang ▁- ▁Dr ums ▁on ▁tracks ▁ 3 , ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 1 3 ▁Mark ▁E ich ner ▁- ▁Executive ▁Produ cer , ▁A & R ▁Jeff ▁Franz el ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Jason ▁Le h ning ▁- ▁P iano , ▁F ender ▁Rh odes , ▁Engine er , ▁Com poser ▁Mike ▁Beck ▁- ▁Organ , ▁Engine er , ▁Produ cer ▁Bever ly ▁" R ub y " ▁Ross ▁- ▁Com poser ▁C yn th ia ▁Co chr ane ▁- ▁Production ▁Coord ination ▁Ralph ▁Church well ▁- ▁Com poser , ▁Produ cer ▁Anton ina ▁Arm ato ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Den ise ▁Rich ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Jul ius ▁Edward ▁D ixon ▁- ▁Com poser ▁John ▁Dead er ick ▁- ▁P iano , ▁Organ ▁( H amm ond ), ▁W url itzer ▁David ▁M ead ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Tal ▁Herz berg ▁- ▁Mix ing ▁Kath ry n ▁Ra io ▁- ▁V oc als ▁( Background ) ▁Tim ▁Mark s ▁- ▁Bass ▁Jimmy ▁F ark as ▁- ▁Gu itar ▁J ill ▁Wal sh ▁- ▁Com poser , ▁V oc als ▁( Background ), ▁Produ cer ▁Kyle ▁Ford ▁- ▁Engine er ▁T iff any ▁Gi ard ina ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Chris ▁Dec oc co ▁- ▁Engine er ▁James ▁Fra ze e ▁- ▁Assistant ▁Engine er ▁Anthony ▁Batt aglia ▁- ▁Com poser ▁David ▁K atz ▁- ▁Com poser ▁Ted ▁J ensen ▁- ▁Master ing ▁ ▁Ch |
arts ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Mis so and friend s . com ▁ ▁Blog . sch ol astic . com ▁ ▁Te en mus ic . com ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 9 ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Ro op am ▁Shar ma , ▁▁ ▁( born ▁ 2 4 ▁May ▁ 1 9 9 5 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Indian ▁scientist . ▁He ▁is ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁his ▁work ▁on ▁Man ov ue , ▁a ▁technology ▁which ▁enables ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp aired ▁to ▁read ▁printed ▁text . ▁His ▁research ▁interests ▁include ▁W ear able ▁Comput ing , ▁Mobile ▁Application ▁Development , ▁Human ▁Cent ered ▁Design , ▁Computer ▁Vision , ▁AI ▁and ▁C ogn itive ▁Science . ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁recently ▁awarded ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁ ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁listed ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁top ▁ 8 ▁Innov ators ▁Under ▁ 3 5 ▁by ▁the ▁MIT ▁Technology ▁Review ▁for ▁the ▁year ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁in ▁India . ▁Ro op am ▁believes ▁that ▁people ▁with ▁passion ▁can ▁change ▁the ▁world ▁for ▁the ▁better . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁he ▁was ▁hon oured ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁Asia ' s ▁ 2 1 ▁Young ▁Lead ers ▁Init iative ▁in ▁Man ila . ▁ ▁Early ▁life , ▁education ▁and ▁research ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁in ▁Far id abad , ▁H ary ana , ▁India ▁to ▁N irm |
al ▁and ▁Kr ish na ▁D utt ▁Shar ma . ▁He ▁has ▁a ▁brother ▁Rah ul ▁and ▁a ▁sister ▁Pri y anka . ▁Ro op am ▁comes ▁from ▁a ▁very ▁hum ble , ▁middle - class ▁family . ▁He ▁is ▁an ▁al umn us ▁of ▁Ryan ▁International ▁School , ▁Far id abad ▁and ▁Modern ▁V id ya ▁Nik et an , ▁Far id abad ▁and ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁study ▁B achel ors ▁of ▁Technology ▁in ▁Computer ▁Science ▁and ▁Engineering ▁at ▁Man av ▁R ach na ▁University ▁in ▁Far id abad , ▁H ary ana . ▁It ▁wasn ’ t ▁out ▁of ▁any ▁of ▁his ▁creative ▁desires ▁that ▁he ▁chose ▁Engineering . ▁He ▁and ▁his ▁parents ▁thought ▁that ▁engineering ▁was ▁one ▁career ▁where ▁he ▁would ▁not ▁star ve . ▁Ro op am ▁began ▁his ▁research ▁and ▁innovation ▁journey ▁during ▁his ▁soph om ore ▁year ▁of ▁under graduate ▁school ▁at ▁Man av ▁R ach na ▁University ▁with ▁a ▁belief ▁that ▁students ▁who ▁worked ▁in ▁research ▁and ▁development ▁in ▁college ▁got ▁better ▁job ▁opportunities ▁but ▁dest iny ▁had ▁other ▁plans ▁for ▁him . ▁Ro op am ' s ▁contributions ▁to ▁the ▁society ▁proves ▁that ▁he ▁innov ates ▁for ▁the ▁better ment ▁of ▁the ▁society . ▁ ▁In ventions ▁Ro op am ' s ▁project ▁Man ov ue , ▁developed ▁by ▁E y el umin ati , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁world ' s ▁first ▁intelligent ▁personal ▁assist ing ▁system ▁for ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp aired . ▁It ' s ▁an ▁in exp ensive ▁technology ▁that ▁does ▁ |
3 ▁main ▁things : ▁ ▁It ▁enables ▁the ▁user ▁to ▁read ▁printed ▁text ▁by ▁simply ▁pointing ▁over ▁the ▁text . ▁▁ ▁It ▁helps ▁them ▁to ▁navigate ▁freely ▁outside ▁well ▁known ▁environment ▁through ▁h apt ic ▁feedback . ▁ ▁It ▁comes ▁with ▁a ▁completely ▁voice ▁controlled ▁mobile ▁phone ▁application ▁and ▁enables ▁the ▁user ▁to ▁use ▁his ▁phone ▁only ▁through ▁his ▁voice . ▁ ▁Man ov ue ▁brings ▁employ ▁ability , ▁Independ ence ▁and ▁Emp ower ment ▁to ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp aired ▁and ▁is ▁meant ▁to ▁replace ▁the ▁bra ille ▁language , ▁the ▁can e ▁and ▁will ▁open ▁up ▁the ▁smart phone ▁market ▁to ▁the ▁vis ually ▁imp aired . ▁Man ov ue ▁was ▁awarded ▁as ▁the ▁winner ▁of ▁ ▁the ▁Microsoft ▁Imagine ▁Cup ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁and ▁Y ahoo ▁Acc ent ure ▁Innov ation ▁J oc keys ▁season ▁ 4 . ▁He ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁MIT ▁Tech ▁Review ▁ 3 5 ▁under ▁ 3 5 ▁list ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁ ▁Awards ▁and ▁achievements ▁ ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁recently ▁awarded ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁ 2 0 1 6 . ▁Each ▁year ▁the ▁G ift ed ▁Cit izen ▁Prize ▁is ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁best ▁social ▁entrepreneur ship ▁project ▁that ▁has ▁the ▁ability ▁to ▁benefit ▁ 1 0 ▁million ▁people ▁over ▁the ▁next ▁six ▁years . ▁This ▁international ▁prize ▁hon ors ▁the ▁pass ions ▁of ▁those ▁that ▁seek ▁to ▁develop ▁real ▁solutions ▁to ▁humanity ' s ▁most ▁pressing ▁issues . ▁He ▁has ▁also ▁been |
▁listed ▁as ▁an ▁innov ator ▁under ▁ 3 5 ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁by ▁the ▁Technology ▁Review . ▁Each ▁year ▁Technology ▁Review ▁disco vers ▁and ▁presents ▁new ▁generations ▁of ▁Innov ators ▁Under ▁ 3 5 , ▁the ▁young ▁leaders ▁developing ▁hard ▁technologies ▁to ▁solve ▁the ▁major ▁global ▁challenges ▁of ▁today ▁in ▁remark ably ▁different ▁ways ▁and ▁impact ing ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁millions ▁of ▁people ▁around ▁the ▁globe . ▁Ro op am ▁was ▁also ▁named ▁as ▁a ▁judge ▁for ▁the ▁Living ▁Tal ent ▁Master piece ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁and ▁ ▁Acc ent ure ▁Innov ation ▁J oc keys ▁Season ▁ 6 . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁is ▁the ▁list ▁of ▁notable ▁awards ▁and ▁achievements ▁received : ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁and ▁notes ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : Ind ian ▁phil anth rop ists ▁Category : In vent ors ▁Category : Ind ian ▁human it arians ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Ind ian ▁computer ▁scientists <0x0A> </s> ▁Robert ▁Patrick ▁Arm strong ▁ ▁( born ▁March ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Canadian ▁lawyer ▁and ▁retired ▁judge . ▁He ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁from ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁until ▁his ▁retirement ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁Before ▁serving ▁on ▁the ▁bench , ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁a ▁partner ▁at ▁T ory s ▁and ▁was ▁lead ▁counsel ▁in ▁the ▁Dub in ▁In quiry ▁on ▁ster oid ▁use ▁in ▁Canadian ▁sports . |
▁After ▁leaving ▁the ▁bench , ▁Arm strong ▁joined ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place , ▁a ▁Canadian ▁group ▁special izing ▁in ▁alternative ▁dispute ▁resolution . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁career ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁born ▁on ▁March ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁student ▁at ▁Car leton ▁University , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto , ▁and ▁the ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁Econom ics . ▁He ▁earned ▁his ▁LL B ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 ▁and ▁was ▁called ▁to ▁the ▁bar ▁two ▁years ▁later ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 7 . ▁Arm strong ▁began ▁practicing ▁law ▁with ▁Kim ber , ▁Dub in ▁in ▁Toronto . ▁▁ ▁Arm strong ▁joined ▁T ory s ▁in ▁Toronto ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁where ▁he ▁would ▁stay ▁until ▁his ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁appointment ▁to ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al . ▁Arm strong ▁became ▁a ▁partner ▁at ▁T ory s ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁and ▁was ▁appointed ▁a ▁Queen ' s ▁Coun sel ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁commission ▁counsel ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁Gr ange ▁Commission ▁on ▁Railway ▁Safety , ▁which ▁was ▁formed ▁to ▁study ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁Mississ au ga ▁train ▁der ail ment . ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Los ▁Angeles ▁Times , ▁Arm strong ' s ▁" ten acious ▁gr illing " ▁of ▁witnesses ▁in ▁the ▁Gr ange ▁Commission ▁bol st ered ▁his ▁reputation . |
▁ ▁Arm strong ▁served ▁as ▁lead ▁counsel ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 9 ▁Dub in ▁In quiry , ▁a ▁federal ▁in quiry ▁launched ▁after ▁Ben ▁Johnson ' s ▁dop ing ▁scandal ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Se oul . ▁Arm strong ▁worked ▁with ▁his ▁ment or ▁Justice ▁Charles ▁Dub in , ▁the ▁chair ▁of ▁the ▁in quiry , ▁to ▁guide ▁the ▁testimony ▁of ▁witnesses ▁such ▁as ▁Ben ▁Johnson , ▁Ang ella ▁Taylor - Iss aj en ko , ▁Charlie ▁Francis ▁about ▁the ▁extent ▁of ▁their ▁an ab olic ▁ster oid ▁use ▁and ▁how ▁they ▁avoided ▁discovery . ▁The ▁in quiry ▁recommended ▁random , ▁un ann ounced ▁drug - testing ▁of ▁athletes ▁to ▁deter ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁an ab olic ▁ster oids . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁has ▁appeared ▁in ▁important ▁cases ▁including ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁case ▁of ▁Hill ▁v . ▁Church ▁of ▁Scient ology ▁of ▁Toronto ▁in ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁of ▁Canada . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁a ▁ben cher ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁and ▁the ▁ 5 6 th ▁Tre as urer ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁He ▁is ▁also ▁a ▁former ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Board ▁of ▁Reg ents ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁College ▁of ▁T rial ▁Law yers , ▁and ▁the ▁former ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁Canadian ▁Institute ▁for ▁Advanced ▁Legal ▁Studies . ▁ ▁Ontario |
▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁appointed ▁to ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁on ▁January ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁He ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁last ▁judges ▁on ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁to ▁not ▁have ▁previously ▁held ▁a ▁jud icial ▁position , ▁which ▁was ▁previously ▁a ▁widespread ▁practice ▁for ▁federal ▁appoint ments . ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁awarded ▁a ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Law ▁( LL D ) ▁honor ary ▁degree ▁by ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁for ▁his ▁contributions ▁to ▁Canadian ▁law . ▁ ▁In ▁December ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁the ▁majority ▁decision ▁up hold ing ▁a ▁lower ▁court ' s ▁decision ▁that ▁un ions ▁cannot ▁force ▁courts ▁to ▁enforce ▁fin es ▁it ▁im poses ▁on ▁its ▁members ▁who ▁cross ▁pick et ▁lines . ▁Arm strong , ▁with ▁Justice ▁Paul ▁Rou le au ▁con cur ring , ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁union ' s ▁constitution ▁created ▁a ▁power ▁im balance ▁with ▁its ▁members , ▁making ▁it ▁un con sc ion able ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁to ▁enforce ▁the ▁fin es . ▁Arm strong ' s ▁colle ague , ▁Justice ▁Russell ▁G . ▁Jur ians z , ▁diss ented ▁saying ▁that ▁the ▁im balance ▁of ▁power ▁had ▁not ▁been ▁ab used ▁and ▁the ▁workers ▁were ▁always ▁free ▁to ▁leave ▁the ▁union . ▁The ▁union ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁applied ▁for ▁leave ▁to ▁appeal ▁the ▁case ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁of ▁Canada , ▁but ▁the ▁application ▁was |
▁dismissed ▁with ▁costs . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁a ▁decision ▁holding ▁that ▁a ▁def endant ▁had ▁correctly ▁been ▁found ▁guilty ▁of ▁criminal ▁harass ment ▁even ▁though ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁previous ▁contact ▁and ▁there ▁was ▁only ▁a ▁single ▁incident , ▁unlike ▁the ▁repet itive ▁nature ▁of ▁traditional ▁stalk ing ▁cases . ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁that ▁this ▁was ▁because ▁the ▁def endant ' s ▁actions ▁– ▁jumping ▁out ▁of ▁a ▁bush ▁at ▁the ▁complain ant ▁and ▁ch asing ▁her ▁down ▁a ▁street ▁– ▁were ▁" high ly ▁threatening ▁and ▁persistent " ▁and ▁had ▁caused ▁the ▁complain ant ▁to ▁reasonably ▁fear ▁for ▁her ▁safety . ▁The ▁def endant ' s ▁application ▁for ▁leave ▁to ▁appeal ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court ▁was ▁dismissed . ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Arm strong , ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁judges ▁hearing ▁the ▁case , ▁dismissed ▁the ▁appeal ▁in ▁R ▁v ▁F ear on . ▁Arm strong ▁wrote ▁that ▁F ear on ' s ▁right ▁to ▁privacy ▁was ▁not ▁viol ated ▁because ▁a ▁cell phone ▁without ▁password ▁protection ▁can ▁be ▁searched ▁by ▁police ▁during ▁an ▁arrest ▁without ▁a ▁warrant . ▁Arm strong ' s ▁decision ▁was ▁appe aled ▁to ▁the ▁Supreme ▁Court , ▁which ▁dismissed ▁the ▁appeal ▁in ▁a ▁ 4 – 3 ▁decision ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁Arm strong ▁became ▁a ▁super numer ary ▁judge ▁for ▁the ▁court ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁and ▁was ▁replaced ▁as |
▁a ▁full - time ▁judge ▁by ▁Peter ▁Lau w ers ▁from ▁the ▁Ontario ▁Super ior ▁Court ▁of ▁Justice . ▁Arm strong ▁retired ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁upon ▁reaching ▁the ▁mandatory ▁retirement ▁age ▁of ▁ 7 5 . ▁ ▁Post - jud icial ▁career ▁ ▁A ▁year ▁after ▁ret iring ▁from ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁Arm strong ▁joined ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place , ▁a ▁Canadian ▁arbitr ation ▁firm , ▁as ▁a ▁resident ▁arbitr ator ▁and ▁medi ator . ▁Arm strong ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁Dist ingu ished ▁Vis iting ▁Jur ist ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁– ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁school ▁year ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁bi ography ▁ ▁Ar bitr ation ▁Place ▁profile ▁ ▁Category : T re as urers ▁of ▁the ▁Law ▁Society ▁of ▁Upper ▁Canada ▁Category : Just ices ▁of ▁the ▁Court ▁of ▁Appe al ▁for ▁Ontario ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 1 9 3 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁Queen ' s ▁Coun sel ▁Category : Car leton ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Toronto ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : Al umn i ▁of ▁the ▁London ▁School ▁of ▁Econom ics <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁occurred ▁de ▁fact o ▁on ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 |
, ▁when ▁the ▁final ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁Francis ▁II ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Hab sburg - L orr aine , ▁ab d icated ▁his ▁title ▁and ▁released ▁all ▁imperial ▁states ▁and ▁officials ▁from ▁their ▁o ath s ▁and ▁obligations ▁to ▁the ▁empire . ▁Since ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁been ▁recognized ▁by ▁Western ▁Europe ans ▁as ▁the ▁legitimate ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁em per ors ▁having ▁been ▁pro claimed ▁as ▁Roman ▁em per ors ▁by ▁the ▁Pap acy . ▁Through ▁this ▁Roman ▁legacy , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁claimed ▁to ▁be ▁universal ▁mon arch s ▁whose ▁juris diction ▁extended ▁beyond ▁their ▁empire ' s ▁formal ▁borders ▁to ▁all ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe ▁and ▁beyond . ▁The ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁modern ▁sovere ign ▁territor ial ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁and ▁ 1 7 th ▁centuries , ▁which ▁brought ▁with ▁it ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁juris diction ▁correspon ded ▁to ▁actual ▁territory ▁governed , ▁threatened ▁the ▁universal ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁by ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁was ▁widely ▁regarded ▁by ▁contempor aries , ▁both ▁inside ▁and ▁outside ▁the ▁empire , ▁as ▁a ▁highly ▁" ir regular " ▁mon archy ▁and ▁" s ick ", ▁having ▁a ▁" un us ual " ▁form ▁of ▁government . ▁The ▁empire ▁lack ed ▁both ▁a ▁central ▁standing ▁army ▁and ▁a ▁central ▁tre asury ▁and ▁its ▁mon arch s , ▁formally |
▁elect ive ▁rather ▁than ▁her edit ary , ▁could ▁not ▁exercise ▁effective ▁central ▁control . ▁Even ▁then , ▁most ▁contempor aries ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁could ▁be ▁rev ived ▁and ▁restored ▁to ▁glory . ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁did ▁not ▁experience ▁its ▁true ▁terminal ▁decline ▁before ▁its ▁involvement ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁and ▁the ▁Napole onic ▁Wars . ▁▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁empire ▁def ended ▁itself ▁quite ▁well ▁initially , ▁war ▁with ▁France ▁and ▁Napoleon ▁proved ▁cat astro ph ic . ▁In ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁Napoleon ▁pro claimed ▁himself ▁as ▁the ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁French , ▁which ▁Francis ▁II ▁responded ▁to ▁by ▁pro claim ing ▁himself ▁the ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁already ▁being ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁an ▁attempt ▁at ▁maintaining ▁par ity ▁between ▁France ▁and ▁Austria ▁while ▁also ▁illustr ating ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁title ▁out rank ed ▁them ▁both . ▁Austria ' s ▁defeat ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 8 0 5 ▁and ▁the ▁se cess ion ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁German ▁v ass als ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine , ▁a ▁French ▁satellite ▁state , ▁effectively ▁meant ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁The ▁ab d ication ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁combined ▁with ▁a ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁imperial ▁hierarchy ▁and ▁its ▁institutions , ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁necessary ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁possibility |
▁of ▁Napoleon ▁pro claim ing ▁himself ▁as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁something ▁which ▁would ▁have ▁reduced ▁Francis ▁II ▁to ▁Napoleon ' s ▁v ass al . ▁▁ ▁Re actions ▁to ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁diss olution ▁r anged ▁from ▁ind ifference ▁to ▁despair . ▁The ▁popul ace ▁of ▁Vienna , ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy , ▁were ▁hor r ified ▁at ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁the ▁empire . ▁Many ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁former ▁subjects ▁questioned ▁the ▁leg ality ▁of ▁his ▁actions ; ▁though ▁his ▁ab d ication ▁was ▁agreed ▁to ▁be ▁perfectly ▁legal , ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁and ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁all ▁its ▁v ass als ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁beyond ▁the ▁emperor ' s ▁authority . ▁As ▁such , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁prin ces ▁and ▁subjects ▁refused ▁to ▁accept ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁gone , ▁with ▁some ▁common ers ▁going ▁so ▁far ▁as ▁to ▁believe ▁that ▁news ▁of ▁its ▁diss olution ▁was ▁a ▁plot ▁by ▁their ▁local ▁authorities . ▁In ▁Germany , ▁the ▁diss olution ▁was ▁widely ▁compared ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁and ▁semi - leg end ary ▁Fall ▁of ▁T roy ▁and ▁some ▁associated ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁what ▁they ▁perceived ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁end ▁times ▁and ▁the ▁ap ocal yp se . ▁ ▁Background ▁ ▁Ide ology ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁▁ ▁The ▁defining ▁characteristic ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁represented ▁the ▁leading ▁mon arch ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁that ▁their ▁empire |
▁was ▁the ▁one ▁true ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁of ▁Ant iqu ity , ▁through ▁pro clam ation ▁by ▁the ▁Pop es ▁in ▁Rome . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁firm ▁belief ▁of ▁its ▁em per ors ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁the ▁sole ▁genuine ▁em per ors ▁in ▁Europe ▁and ▁although ▁they ▁had ▁formally ▁recognized ▁the ▁rul ers ▁of ▁Russia ▁as ▁em per ors ▁in ▁ 1 6 0 6 ▁and ▁the ▁s ult ans ▁of ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire ▁as ▁em per ors ▁in ▁ 1 7 2 1 , ▁these ▁recogn itions ▁were ▁cond itional ▁on ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁was ▁always ▁pre - em inent . ▁The ▁pre - em in ence ▁of ▁the ▁emperor ▁was ▁an ▁expression ▁of ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁theoret ically , ▁extended ▁over ▁all ▁Christians ▁in ▁a ▁universal ▁manner . ▁Because ▁the ▁empire ▁at ▁no ▁point ▁ruled ▁over ▁all ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe , ▁this ▁idea ▁was ▁always ▁an ▁ideal ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁reality . ▁Imperial ▁authority ▁rested ▁not ▁on ▁the ▁emperor ' s ▁own ▁crown ▁lands ▁( though ▁there ▁were ▁large ▁crown ▁lands ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁and ▁ 1 9 th ▁centuries ) ▁but ▁on ▁the ▁emperor ' s ▁role ▁as ▁the ▁highest ▁sec ular ▁rul er ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁and ▁a ▁champion ▁and ▁advocate ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁The ▁lack ▁of ▁a ▁defined ▁capital ▁and ▁consistent ▁crown ▁lands ▁rein forced ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁universal ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁necessarily ▁associated ▁with |
▁any ▁one ▁area . ▁▁ ▁Throughout ▁its ▁long ▁existence , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁a ▁central ▁element ▁in ▁international ▁relations ▁in ▁Europe , ▁not ▁only ▁because ▁the ▁empire ▁itself ▁was ▁often ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁powerful ▁on ▁the ▁continent ▁but ▁also ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁emperor ▁himself . ▁Because ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁were ▁the ▁internation ally ▁recognized ▁he irs ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁Roman ▁em per ors ▁and ▁the ▁fore most ▁Christian ▁rul ers , ▁they ▁claimed ▁( and ▁were ▁often ▁granted ) ▁preced ence ▁over ▁other ▁rul ers . ▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁em per ors ▁had ▁been ▁formally ▁titled ▁as ▁" E lected ▁Roman ▁Emperor " ▁since ▁ 1 5 0 8 , ▁when ▁Emperor ▁Max imil ian ▁I ▁took ▁the ▁title ▁without ▁the ▁need ▁for ▁a ▁Pap al ▁coron ation , ▁the ▁universal ist ▁character ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁sustained ▁through ▁the ▁emperor ' s ▁fe ud al ▁authority ▁extending ▁beyond ▁just ▁the ▁institutions ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁developed ▁within ▁the ▁formal ▁imperial ▁borders . ▁Imperial ▁territor ies ▁held ▁by ▁rul ers ▁of ▁other ▁real ms ▁remained ▁imperial ▁v ass als . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁kings ▁of ▁both ▁Sweden ▁and ▁Denmark ▁accepted ▁v ass al age ▁in ▁regards ▁to ▁their ▁German ▁lands ▁until ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁when ▁these ▁lands ▁were ▁formally ▁incorporated ▁into ▁their ▁kingdom s . ▁The ▁Re formation ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century ▁had ▁made ▁managing ▁the ▁empire ▁more ▁difficult ▁and ▁made ▁its ▁role ▁as ▁" hol y " ▁question able . |
▁Despite ▁Luther an ism ▁and ▁Cal vin ism ▁being ▁toler ated ▁from ▁ 1 5 5 5 ▁and ▁ 1 6 4 8 ▁on wards ▁respectively , ▁Catholic ism ▁remained ▁the ▁only ▁recognized ▁faith . ▁Even ▁then , ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Church ▁dimin ished ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century ▁on wards , ▁only ▁Main z ▁surviving ▁as ▁a ▁ec cles i ast ical ▁territory ▁by ▁ 1 8 0 3 . ▁The ▁" hol y " ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁became ▁even ▁more ▁question able ▁when ▁the ▁possibility ▁of ▁permanent ▁peace ▁with ▁the ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁widely ▁seen ▁as ▁the ▁mort al ▁enemies ▁of ▁Christian ▁Europe , ▁was ▁accepted ▁through ▁the ▁ 1 6 9 9 ▁Peace ▁of ▁Karl ow itz . ▁ ▁Both ▁the ▁Pap acy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁continued ▁to ▁claim ▁their ▁traditional ▁rights ▁of ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁into ▁the ▁early ▁modern ▁period , ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁their ▁re ight ▁to ▁exercise ▁juris diction ▁throughout ▁the ▁entire ▁world , ▁even ▁if ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁de ▁fact o ▁control ▁over ▁particular ▁territor ies . ▁Con joint ly ▁with ▁the ▁Pap acy , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁represented ▁the ▁recognized ▁centre ▁of ▁the ▁Christian ▁world , ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁pill ars ▁upon ▁which ▁it ▁rested . ▁It ▁was ▁always ▁its ▁influence ▁and ▁its ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁recognized ▁world ▁order ▁that ▁gave ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁its ▁true ▁power , ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁actual ▁extent ▁of ▁its ▁territor ial ▁domains . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁threats ▁to |
▁the ▁traditional ▁( and ▁theoretical ) ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁accord ed ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁and ▁the ▁Pope ▁throughout ▁the ▁Christian ▁world ▁was ▁the ▁emer gence ▁of ▁modern ▁sovere ign ▁territor ial ▁states ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁and ▁ 1 7 th ▁centuries , ▁which ▁meant ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁juris diction ▁was ▁the ▁same ▁thing ▁as ▁direct ▁control ▁of ▁territory . ▁To ▁the ▁rul ers ▁of ▁territor ial ▁states , ▁both ▁the ▁Pap acy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁represented ▁" univers al ▁ant agon ists ", ▁claiming ▁that ▁juris diction ▁over ▁all ▁the ▁world ▁was ▁their s ▁by ▁right ▁through ▁their ▁connection ▁to ▁Anc ient ▁Rome ▁and ▁their ▁role ▁as ▁earth ly ▁representatives ▁of ▁Jesus ▁Christ . ▁Amb it ious ▁em per ors , ▁such ▁as ▁Charles ▁V ▁( 1 5 1 9 – 1 5 5 6 ) ▁and ▁Ferd inand ▁II ▁( 1 6 1 9 – 1 6 3 7 ), ▁who ▁sought ▁to ▁combine ▁universal ▁juris diction ▁with ▁actual ▁universal ▁temporal ▁rule ▁and ▁universal ▁imperial ▁authority , ▁represented ▁threats ▁to ▁the ▁continued ▁existence ▁of ▁the ▁countries ▁of ▁Europe . ▁ ▁The ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁▁ ▁By ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁the ▁contemporary ▁views ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁were ▁far ▁from ▁univers ally ▁positive . ▁There ▁was ▁a ▁widespread ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁" s ick " ▁in ▁some ▁capacity , ▁for ▁instance ▁the ▁books eller ▁and ▁publisher ▁Johann ▁Heinrich ▁Z |
ed ler ▁ment ions ▁the ▁" state ▁illness es ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire " ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 7 4 5 ▁G ross es ▁Universal - L ex icon . ▁This ▁view ▁dates ▁back ▁to ▁at ▁least ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁West ph alia ▁at ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁the ▁Th irty ▁Years ' ▁War ▁in ▁ 1 6 4 8 , ▁where ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁explicitly ▁defined ▁as ▁not ▁being ▁a ▁nation ▁state . ▁The ▁ 1 7 th ▁century ▁historian ▁Samuel ▁von ▁P uf end orf ▁fam ously ▁described ▁the ▁empire ▁as ▁having ▁a ▁" un us ual ▁form ▁of ▁government " ▁and ▁der ided ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁" mon st ros ity ", ▁lacking ▁what ▁was ▁required ▁for ▁an ▁effective ▁and ▁functional ▁state . ▁The ▁lack ▁of ▁a ▁standing ▁army , ▁a ▁central ▁tre asury , ▁weak ▁central ▁control ▁exerc ised ▁by ▁a ▁mon arch ▁who ▁was ▁elect ive ▁and ▁not ▁her edit ary ▁all ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁idea ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁un ified ▁German ▁state . ▁In ▁the ▁view ▁of ▁its ▁contempor aries , ▁the ▁empire ▁had ▁reg ressed ▁from ▁a ▁" regular " ▁mon archy ▁into ▁a ▁highly ▁ir regular ▁one . ▁ ▁Although ▁some ▁German ▁rom ant ics ▁and ▁national ists ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁had ▁to ▁die ▁for ▁Germany ▁to ▁be ▁re born , ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁imperial ▁subjects ▁had ▁not ▁given ▁up ▁hope ▁that ▁the ▁" s ick " ▁empire ▁might ▁be ▁c ured ▁and ▁rev ived . ▁The ▁first ▁few ▁years ▁of ▁the |
▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁saw ▁extensive ▁re organ izations ▁and ▁changes ▁in ▁power ▁within ▁the ▁empire , ▁with ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 1 ▁Peace ▁of ▁L un é ville ▁with ▁France ▁meaning ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁imperial ▁juris diction ▁in ▁the ▁Netherlands ▁and ▁Italy , ▁and ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁powerful ▁German ▁rul ers ▁in ▁the ▁north , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Kings ▁of ▁Pr ussia , ▁causing ▁the ▁consolid ation ▁of ▁many ▁previously ▁separate ▁imperial ▁v ass als ▁and ▁f iefs ▁into ▁the ▁hands ▁of ▁a ▁few ▁rul ers . ▁The ▁traditional ▁political ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁dis rupted , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁obvious ▁to ▁contempor aries ▁that ▁this ▁was ▁to ▁lead ▁to ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁down fall , ▁the ▁general ▁view ▁was ▁that ▁it ▁represented ▁a ▁new ▁beginning ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁last ▁few ▁steps ▁towards ▁an ▁ending . ▁Furthermore , ▁many ▁public ists ▁within ▁the ▁empire ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁its ▁nature ▁as ▁a ▁" ir regular " ▁mon archy ▁as ▁something ▁negative ▁and ▁were ▁un conc ern ed ▁with ▁forming ▁a ▁new ▁political ▁or ▁social ▁order , ▁but ▁rather ▁sought ▁to ▁augment ▁the ▁already ▁present ▁structures ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁better ▁future . ▁The ▁Peace ▁of ▁West ph alia ▁had ▁explicitly ▁designated ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁to ▁remain ▁non - aligned ▁and ▁passive ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁to ▁work ▁to ▁maintain ▁peace ▁in ▁Europe , ▁an ▁arrangement ▁approved ▁of ▁by ▁most ▁of ▁its ▁inhabitants . ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁widespread ▁idea ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁" s ick ", |
▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁not ▁in ▁terminal ▁decline ▁before ▁its ▁involvement ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 7 9 0 s ▁on wards . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁imperial ▁institutions ▁were ▁experiencing ▁something ▁a kin ▁to ▁a ▁re naissance . ▁The ▁empire ▁represented ▁to ▁saf est ▁and ▁best ▁guarantee ▁for ▁the ▁rights ▁of ▁smaller ▁states ▁and ▁territor ies ▁in ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁Europe ▁was ▁beginning ▁to ▁be ▁dominated ▁by ▁powerful ▁imperial ▁nation ▁states . ▁Because ▁of ▁the ▁weak ▁central ▁government , ▁the ▁constitu ent ▁territor ies ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁could ▁influence ▁their ▁own ▁f ates , ▁the ▁central ▁Reich st ag ▁decided ▁policy ▁and ▁legislation ▁and ▁allowed ▁the ▁empire ▁to ▁coordinate ▁its ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁threat ▁represented ▁by ▁France ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁separate ▁imperial ▁sup reme ▁courts ▁and ▁the ▁imperial ▁circles ▁represented ▁successful ▁ven ues ▁for ▁res olving ▁inter - imper ial ▁conflicts . ▁The ▁Reich st ag ▁also ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁place ▁where ▁we aker ▁imperial ▁prin ces ▁could ▁work ▁to ▁convince ▁their ▁more ▁powerful ▁counter parts ▁to ▁remain ▁at ▁peace ▁and ▁resolve ▁their ▁differences . ▁ ▁Wars ▁with ▁France ▁and ▁Napoleon ▁ ▁Aust rian ▁war ▁effort ▁and ▁responses ▁▁ ▁Although ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁First ▁Republic ▁over ran ▁and ▁occupied ▁the ▁Netherlands ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 2 , ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁defending ▁itself ▁quite ▁well ▁until ▁Pr ussia ▁abandoned ▁the ▁war ▁effort ▁to ▁focus ▁its ▁attention ▁on ▁its ▁Polish ▁territor ies ▁( over see ing ▁the ▁Second ▁and ▁Third ▁Part |
itions ▁of ▁Poland ), ▁taking ▁the ▁resources ▁and ▁military ▁strength ▁of ▁northern ▁Germany ▁with ▁it . ▁Despite ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁mount ing ▁difficulties ▁in ▁the ▁face ▁of ▁the ▁wars ▁with ▁France , ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁large - scale ▁popular ▁un rest ▁within ▁its ▁borders . ▁Instead , ▁the ▁explanation ▁for ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁lies ▁in ▁the ▁realm ▁of ▁high ▁politics . ▁The ▁empire ' s ▁defeat ▁in ▁the ▁Revolution ary ▁Wars ▁was ▁the ▁most ▁decis ive ▁step ▁in ▁the ▁grad ual ▁und erm ining ▁of ▁the ▁empire . ▁The ▁conflict ▁between ▁France ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁begun ▁with ▁the ▁French ▁decl aring ▁war ▁on ▁the ▁newly ▁c rowned ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁dyn asty ▁only ▁in ▁his ▁capacity ▁as ▁the ▁King ▁of ▁Hung ary , ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁wider ▁empire ▁( including ▁influential ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁King ▁of ▁Pr ussia ▁and ▁the ▁Arch b ishop - E lector ▁of ▁Main z ), ▁however ▁unw illing , ▁joined ▁the ▁conflict ▁on ▁the ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sbur gs ▁proves ▁that ▁imperial ▁ide als ▁were ▁still ▁alive ▁by ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 8 th ▁century . ▁ ▁The ▁key ▁point ▁in ▁which ▁fort unes ▁shifted ▁was ▁Pr ussia ' s ▁abandon ment ▁of ▁the ▁war ▁effort . ▁Pr ussia ▁had ▁been ▁the ▁only ▁true ▁counter weight ▁to ▁Austria ' s ▁influence ▁in ▁the ▁institutions ▁of ▁the ▁empire . ▁Though ▁the ▁western ▁parts ▁of ▁Pr ussia , ▁such ▁as ▁Brand enburg , |
▁remained ▁formal ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁Pr uss ians ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁represented ▁in ▁the ▁Reich st ag , ▁Pr ussia ▁ce ased ▁to ▁compete ▁for ▁influence ▁in ▁imperial ▁affairs . ▁Austria ▁stood ▁alone ▁as ▁the ▁prote ctor ▁of ▁the ▁states ▁in ▁southern ▁Germany , ▁many ▁of ▁which ▁began ▁considering ▁making ▁their ▁own ▁separate ▁pe aces ▁with ▁France . ▁When ▁the ▁Aust ri ans ▁lear nt ▁that ▁W ür tt ember g ▁and ▁B aden ▁had ▁opened ▁formal ▁negotiations ▁with ▁France , ▁the ▁arm ies ▁sent ▁by ▁these ▁two ▁states ▁were ▁dis band ed ▁and ▁dis armed ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 6 , ▁causing ▁resent ment ▁against ▁the ▁emperor ▁and , ▁combined ▁with ▁losses ▁to ▁France , ▁suggesting ▁that ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁emperor ▁was ▁no ▁longer ▁capable ▁of ▁protecting ▁his ▁traditional ▁v ass als ▁in ▁Germany . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁wake ▁of ▁the ▁wars ▁with ▁France , ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁substantial ▁re organ ization ▁of ▁Imperial ▁territory ▁( the ▁so - called ▁Reich s de put ations h aupt sch luss , ▁supported ▁by ▁Pr ussia ), ▁with ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy ▁meaning ▁to ▁compens ate ▁those ▁prin ces ▁who ▁had ▁lost ▁territory ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁wars ▁and ▁effect iv ize ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁current ▁semi - fe ud al ▁structure . ▁Although ▁there ▁were ▁huge ▁territor ial ▁changes , ▁notably ▁the ▁almost ▁complete ▁abol ition ▁of ▁any ▁church ▁territory ▁and ▁significant ▁territor ial ▁gains ▁for ▁B av aria , ▁B aden , ▁W ür tt |
ember g , ▁H esse - D arm stadt ▁and ▁N ass au , ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁changes ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁elect oral ▁college . ▁Sal z burg ▁was ▁added ▁as ▁a ▁fourth ▁Catholic ▁elect or , ▁while ▁W ür tt ember g , ▁B aden ▁and ▁H esse - K ass el ▁became ▁the ▁fourth , ▁fifth ▁and ▁sixth ▁Protest ant ▁elect ors , ▁given ▁the ▁Protest ants ▁a ▁majority ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁history ▁and ▁raising ▁doubts ▁whether ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁would ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁work ▁together ▁with ▁his ▁Reich st ag . ▁Although ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁regime ▁spent ▁much ▁time ▁and ▁resources ▁attempting ▁to ▁make ▁the ▁new ▁arrangement ▁work , ▁the ▁general ▁ver dict ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁re organ ization ▁had ▁essentially ▁killed ▁the ▁empire . ▁ ▁Re action ▁to ▁Napoleon ' s ▁imperial ▁coron ation ▁▁ ▁The ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁republic , ▁Napoleon , ▁assumed ▁the ▁title ▁" Emp ire ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 . ▁This ▁act ▁received ▁a ▁mixed ▁reaction ▁in ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁Although ▁a ▁return ▁to ▁mon archy ▁in ▁France ▁was ▁welcomed ▁( though ▁unfortunate ▁in ▁so ▁far ▁that ▁the ▁mon arch ▁was ▁Napoleon ), ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁( inst ead ▁of ▁a ▁royal ▁one ) ▁was ▁not . ▁In ▁the ▁empire , ▁Napoleon ' s ▁title ▁raised ▁fears ▁that ▁it ▁might ▁inspire ▁the ▁Russian ▁Emperor ▁to ▁insist ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁equal ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁and ▁might ▁encourage |
▁other ▁mon arch s , ▁such ▁as ▁George ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom , ▁to ▁also ▁pro claim ▁themselves ▁em per ors . ▁The ▁Hab sburg ▁diplom at ▁Ludwig ▁von ▁Cob enz l , ▁fear ing ▁the ▁consequences ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁coron ation , ▁is ▁quoted ▁as ▁having ▁advised ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁II ▁that ▁" ‘ as ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁Your ▁Maj esty ▁has ▁enjoyed ▁till ▁now ▁preced ence ▁ahead ▁of ▁all ▁European ▁pot ent ates , ▁including ▁the ▁Russian ▁emperor ". ▁ ▁Though ▁Napoleon ' s ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁viewed ▁with ▁dist aste , ▁Aust rian ▁officials ▁immediately ▁realized ▁that ▁if ▁they ▁were ▁to ▁refuse ▁to ▁accept ▁him ▁as ▁an ▁emperor , ▁war ▁with ▁France ▁would ▁be ▁renew ed . ▁Instead , ▁the ▁focus ▁became ▁on ▁how ▁to ▁accept ▁Napoleon ▁as ▁an ▁emperor ▁while ▁still ▁maintaining ▁the ▁pre - em in ence ▁of ▁their ▁own ▁emperor ▁and ▁empire . ▁France ▁had ▁officially ▁accepted ▁par ity ▁with ▁Austria ▁as ▁a ▁distinct ▁state ▁in ▁ 1 7 5 7 , ▁ 1 7 9 7 ▁and ▁ 1 8 0 1 ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁settlement s ▁accepted ▁that ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁out rank ed ▁both ▁Austria ▁and ▁France . ▁Thus , ▁it ▁was ▁decided ▁that ▁Austria ▁would ▁be ▁raised ▁to ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁an ▁empire ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁maintain ▁the ▁par ity ▁between ▁Austria ▁and ▁France ▁while ▁still ▁preserv ing ▁the ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁title ▁as ▁pre - em inent , ▁out rank ing ▁both . ▁ ▁Empire ▁of ▁Austria ▁▁ |
▁Francis ▁II ▁pro claimed ▁himself ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ▁( without ▁the ▁need ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁coron ation , ▁as ▁he ▁had ▁already ▁had ▁an ▁imperial ▁coron ation ) ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁in ▁addition ▁to ▁already ▁being ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁Cob enz l ▁advised ▁that ▁a ▁separate ▁her edit ary ▁Aust rian ▁title ▁would ▁also ▁allow ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁to ▁maintain ▁par ity ▁with ▁other ▁rul ers ▁( since ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁title ▁was ▁viewed ▁by ▁Cob enz l ▁as ▁merely ▁honor ific ) ▁and ▁ensure ▁elections ▁to ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁the ▁future . ▁A ▁my ri ad ▁of ▁reasons ▁were ▁used ▁to ▁justify ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ' s ▁creation , ▁including ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁subjects ▁under ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy , ▁the ▁vast ▁extent ▁of ▁his ▁crown ▁lands ▁and ▁the ▁long ▁association ▁between ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁family ▁and ▁the ▁elect ive ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁title . ▁Another ▁important ▁point ▁used ▁to ▁justify ▁its ▁creation ▁was ▁that ▁Francis ▁was , ▁in ▁the ▁traditional ▁sense , ▁the ▁sup reme ▁Christian ▁mon arch ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁thus ▁entitled ▁to ▁award ▁himself ▁with ▁any ▁dign ities ▁he ▁wished . ▁The ▁title ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Austria " ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁associate ▁with ▁all ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁personal ▁domains ▁( not ▁just ▁Austria , ▁but ▁also ▁lands ▁such ▁as ▁Bo hem ia ▁and ▁Hung ary ), ▁regardless ▁of ▁their ▁current ▁position ▁within ▁or ▁outside ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . |
▁" A ust ria " ▁in ▁this ▁sense ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁dyn asty ▁( o ften ▁officially ▁called ▁the ▁" H ouse ▁of ▁Austria " ▁instead ▁of ▁the ▁" H ouse ▁of ▁Hab sburg "), ▁not ▁the ▁ge ographical ▁location . ▁▁ ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁remained ▁pre - em inent ▁to ▁both ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁and ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Austria " ▁as ▁it ▁embod ied ▁the ▁traditional ▁ideal ▁of ▁the ▁universal ▁Christian ▁empire . ▁Neither ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁nor ▁the ▁French ▁title ▁made ▁claims ▁to ▁govern ▁this ▁universal ▁empire ▁and ▁thus ▁did ▁not ▁disturb ▁the ▁traditional ▁and ▁established ▁world ▁order . ▁The ▁imperial ▁titles ▁of ▁Austria ▁and ▁France ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁more ▁or ▁less ▁royal ▁titles ▁( as ▁they ▁were ▁her edit ary ) ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁minds ▁of ▁the ▁Aust ri ans , ▁there ▁still ▁remained ▁only ▁one ▁true ▁empire ▁and ▁one ▁true ▁emperor ▁in ▁Europe . ▁To ▁illustr ate ▁this , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁official ▁imperial ▁title ▁read ▁" e lected ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁ever ▁August us , ▁her edit ary ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ", ▁placing ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁title ▁behind ▁the ▁Roman ▁title . ▁ ▁Though ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁reluct ant ▁to ▁tie ▁his ▁own ▁imperial ▁title ▁to ▁any ▁con cess ions , ▁he ▁needed ▁recognition ▁from ▁Austria ▁to ▁secure ▁wider ▁recognition ▁and ▁thus ▁agreed ▁to ▁recognize ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁new ▁title . ▁Prior ▁to ▁his ▁own ▁coron ation , ▁he ▁sent ▁a ▁personal ▁letter ▁of ▁congr at ulations ▁to ▁Francis |
. ▁George ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁recognized ▁the ▁new ▁title ▁in ▁October ▁and ▁although ▁Russian ▁Emperor ▁Alexander ▁I ▁object ed ▁to ▁Francis ▁" lower ing ▁himself ▁to ▁the ▁level ▁of ▁the ▁us ur per ▁Napoleon ", ▁he ▁recognized ▁the ▁title ▁in ▁November . ▁The ▁only ▁significant ▁ob jections ▁to ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁title ▁were ▁raised ▁by ▁Sweden , ▁who ▁through ▁holding ▁Swedish ▁P omer ania , ▁an ▁Imperial ▁Estate , ▁had ▁a ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁Reich st ag . ▁The ▁Sw edes ▁saw ▁the ▁title ▁as ▁a ▁" clear ▁bre ach " ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution ▁and , ▁inv oking ▁their ▁pr er og ative ▁as ▁a ▁gu ar ant or ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution , ▁demanded ▁a ▁formal ▁debate ▁in ▁the ▁Reich st ag , ▁a ▁threat ▁that ▁was ▁neutral ized ▁by ▁the ▁other ▁parties ▁of ▁the ▁Reich st ag ▁agree ing ▁to ▁an ▁extended ▁summer ▁rec ess es ▁until ▁November . ▁To ▁defend ▁the ▁title , ▁imperial ▁representatives ▁argued ▁that ▁it ▁did ▁not ▁inf ringe ▁on ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution ▁as ▁there ▁were ▁already ▁other ▁examples ▁of ▁dual ▁mon arch ies ▁within ▁the ▁empire , ▁states ▁such ▁as ▁Pr ussia ▁and ▁Sweden ▁were ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁empire , ▁but ▁their ▁poss essions ▁within ▁the ▁empire ▁were . ▁ ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁▁ ▁The ▁War ▁of ▁the ▁Third ▁Coal ition ▁came ▁too ▁soon ▁for ▁Austria , ▁which ▁moved ▁against ▁France ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 8 0 5 . ▁Def e ated ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz |
▁on ▁ 2 ▁December ▁ 1 8 0 5 , ▁Austria ▁had ▁to ▁accept ▁terms ▁dict ated ▁by ▁Napoleon ▁in ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁( 2 6 ▁December ). ▁These ▁created ▁deliber ate ▁ambig u ities ▁in ▁the ▁imperial ▁constitution . ▁B av aria , ▁B aden ▁and ▁W ür tt ember g ▁were ▁granted ▁pl én itude ▁de ▁la ▁sou ver ain et é ▁( full ▁sovere ig nt y ) ▁while ▁remaining ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Conf é der ation ▁German ique ▁( G erman ic ▁Confeder ation ), ▁a ▁novel ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁Like wise , ▁it ▁was ▁left ▁deliberately ▁un clear ▁whether ▁the ▁D uch y ▁of ▁Cle ves , ▁the ▁D uch y ▁of ▁Berg ▁and ▁the ▁County ▁of ▁Mark — imper ial ▁territor ies ▁transferred ▁to ▁Jo ach im ▁Mur at — were ▁to ▁remain ▁imperial ▁f iefs ▁or ▁become ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁Empire . ▁As ▁late ▁as ▁March ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁uncertain ▁whether ▁they ▁should ▁remain ▁nomin ally ▁within ▁the ▁Empire . ▁ ▁The ▁Free ▁Imperial ▁Kn ights , ▁who ▁had ▁survived ▁the ▁attack ▁on ▁their ▁rights ▁in ▁R itter st urm ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 3 – 0 4 , ▁were ▁subject ▁to ▁a ▁second ▁attack ▁and ▁a ▁sp ate ▁of ▁an nex ations ▁by ▁those ▁states ▁all ied ▁to ▁Napoleon ▁in ▁November – De cember ▁ 1 8 0 5 . ▁In ▁response , ▁the ▁kn ights ' ▁corporation ▁( cor pus |
▁equ est re ) ▁diss olved ▁itself ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁January ▁ 1 8 0 6 . ▁With ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Empire , ▁the ▁kn ights ▁ce ased ▁to ▁be ▁either ▁free ▁or ▁imperial ▁and ▁were ▁at ▁the ▁mercy ▁of ▁the ▁newly ▁sovere ign ▁states . ▁ ▁Cont empor aries ▁saw ▁the ▁defeat ▁at ▁Aust er l itz ▁as ▁a ▁turning ▁point ▁of ▁world - hist or ical ▁significance . ▁The ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg , ▁too , ▁was ▁perceived ▁as ▁radical ▁shift . ▁It ▁did ▁not ▁affirm ▁previous ▁treat ies ▁in ▁the ▁usual ▁way ▁and ▁its ▁word ing ▁seemed ▁to ▁raise ▁B av aria , ▁B aden ▁and ▁W ür tt ember g ▁into ▁equals ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁while ▁down grad ing ▁the ▁latter ▁to ▁a ▁merely ▁German ▁conf eder ation . ▁Nevertheless , ▁B av aria ▁and ▁W ür tt ember g ▁re aff irmed ▁to ▁the ▁Reich st ag ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁subject ▁to ▁imperial ▁law . ▁Some ▁comment ators ▁argued ▁that ▁pl én itude ▁de ▁la ▁sou ver ain et é ▁was ▁just ▁a ▁French ▁translation ▁of ▁Landes ho heit ▁( the ▁quasi - so vere ig nt y ▁possessed ▁by ▁imperial ▁est ates ) ▁and ▁the ▁treat y ▁had ▁not ▁altered ▁the ▁relationship ▁between ▁the ▁members ▁and ▁the ▁empire . ▁ ▁Form ation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁ ▁Throughout ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁B av aria , ▁B aden ▁and ▁W ür tt ember g |
▁attempted ▁to ▁ste er ▁an ▁independent ▁course ▁between ▁the ▁demands ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁and ▁Napoleon . ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁sought ▁a ▁treat y ▁where by ▁the ▁three ▁states ▁would ▁al ly ▁themselves ▁to ▁France ▁in ▁perpet uity ▁while ▁for sw earing ▁participation ▁in ▁future ▁Reich sk rie ge ▁( imper ial ▁war ▁efforts ) ▁and ▁subm itting ▁to ▁a ▁commission ▁de ▁méd itation ▁under ▁his ▁presid ency ▁to ▁resolve ▁their ▁disput es . ▁Despite ▁all ▁of ▁this , ▁they ▁were ▁to ▁remain ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁empire . ▁W ür tt ember g ▁ultimately ▁refused ▁to ▁sign . ▁ ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁Napoleon ▁began ▁press uring ▁B av aria , ▁B aden ▁and ▁W ür tt ember g ▁for ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁conf éd ération ▁de ▁la ▁h aute ▁Al lemagne ▁( Upper ▁German ▁conf eder ation ) ▁outside ▁the ▁empire . ▁On ▁ 1 2 ▁July ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁these ▁three ▁states ▁and ▁thirteen ▁other ▁minor ▁German ▁prin ces ▁formed ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine , ▁effectively ▁a ▁French ▁satellite ▁state . ▁On ▁ 1 ▁August , ▁the ▁Reich st ag ▁was ▁informed ▁by ▁a ▁French ▁env oy ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁no ▁longer ▁recognized ▁the ▁existence ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁day , ▁nine ▁of ▁the ▁prin ces ▁who ▁had ▁formed ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁issued ▁a ▁pro clam ation ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁justified ▁their ▁actions ▁by ▁claiming ▁that ▁the ▁Holy |
▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁already ▁collapsed ▁and ▁ce ased ▁to ▁function ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁defeat ▁in ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz . ▁ ▁Abd ication ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁face ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁assumption ▁of ▁the ▁title ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁the ▁French " ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁and ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁defeat ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Aust er l itz ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 5 , ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy ▁began ▁contempl ating ▁whether ▁the ▁imperial ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁empire ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁were ▁worth ▁defending . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁states ▁nomin ally ▁serving ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁such ▁as ▁B aden , ▁W ür tt ember g ▁and ▁B av aria , ▁had ▁openly ▁def ied ▁imperial ▁authority ▁and ▁s ided ▁with ▁Napoleon . ▁Even ▁then , ▁the ▁significance ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁not ▁based ▁on ▁actual ▁control ▁of ▁resources , ▁but ▁on ▁prest ige . ▁ ▁The ▁main ▁idea ▁behind ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁actions ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁was ▁to ▁lay ▁the ▁ground work ▁needed ▁to ▁avoid ▁additional ▁future ▁wars ▁with ▁Napoleon ▁and ▁France . ▁One ▁concern ▁held ▁by ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy ▁was ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁might ▁asp ire ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁Napoleon ▁was ▁attracted ▁to ▁Char lemagne ' s ▁legacy ; ▁re plic as ▁of ▁Char lemagne ' s ▁crown ▁and ▁sword ▁had ▁been ▁made ▁for ▁( but ▁not ▁used ▁during ) ▁Napoleon ' s ▁coron ation ▁as ▁Emperor ▁of |
▁the ▁French ▁and ▁he ▁conc iously ▁rev ived ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁symbols ▁and ▁asp ired ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁new ▁order ▁in ▁Europe , ▁something ▁a kin ▁to ▁the ▁universal ▁domin ion ▁implicit ▁in ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁Emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Romans . ▁Napoleon ' s ▁vision ▁of ▁Char lemagne ▁was ▁completely ▁different ▁from ▁the ▁German ▁vision ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁emperor , ▁however . ▁Instead ▁of ▁seeing ▁Char lemagne ▁as ▁a ▁German ▁king , ▁Napoleon ▁viewed ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁Frank ish ▁con quer or ▁who ▁had ▁extended ▁French ▁rule ▁across ▁Central ▁Europe ▁and ▁Italy , ▁something ▁Napoleon ▁asp ired ▁to ▁accomplish ▁as ▁well . ▁Despite ▁his ▁fix ation ▁on ▁Char lemagne , ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁evidence ▁that ▁Napoleon ▁asp ired ▁to ▁become ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor . ▁ ▁Austria ▁was ▁slow ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁the ▁fast ▁pace ▁of ▁events . ▁Al ready ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 7 ▁June , ▁Francis ▁had ▁taken ▁the ▁decision ▁to ▁ab d icate ▁at ▁the ▁moment ▁that ▁seemed ▁best ▁for ▁Austria . ▁K lem ens ▁von ▁Met tern ich ▁was ▁sent ▁on ▁a ▁mission ▁to ▁Paris ▁to ▁disc ern ▁Napoleon ' s ▁intentions . ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁July , ▁Napoleon ▁made ▁them ▁clear ▁in ▁an ▁ult imat um ▁demanding ▁that ▁Francis ▁ab d icated ▁by ▁ 1 0 ▁August . ▁Still , ▁as ▁late ▁as ▁ 2 ▁August , ▁Joseph ▁Ha as , ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁principal ▁commission ' s ▁secret ari at , ▁hoped ▁that ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁might ▁yet ▁be ▁a verted . ▁The |
▁general ▁opinion ▁among ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁high ▁command ▁was ▁however ▁that ▁ab d ication ▁was ▁inevitable ▁and ▁that ▁it ▁should ▁be ▁combined ▁with ▁a ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁through ▁relie ving ▁the ▁v ass als ▁of ▁the ▁emperor ▁of ▁their ▁duties ▁and ▁obligations . ▁A ▁formal ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁perceived ▁as ▁necessary , ▁as ▁it ▁would ▁prevent ▁Napoleon ▁from ▁acqu iring ▁the ▁imperial ▁title . ▁During ▁an ▁inter reg num , ▁the ▁two ▁imperial ▁vic ars ▁Sax ony ▁and ▁B av aria ▁would ▁be ▁entitled ▁to ▁exercise ▁imperial ▁authority ▁and ▁since ▁both ▁were ▁aligned ▁with ▁Napoleon , ▁such ▁an ▁arrangement ▁could ▁cause ▁an ▁ab d icated ▁Francis ▁( as ▁only ▁Emperor ▁of ▁Austria ) ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁v ass al ▁of ▁Napoleon ▁( as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ). ▁More ▁cru c ially , ▁the ▁ab d ication ▁was ▁also ▁intended ▁to ▁buy ▁time ▁for ▁Austria ▁to ▁recover ▁from ▁its ▁losses ▁as ▁it ▁was ▁assumed ▁that ▁France ▁would ▁meet ▁it ▁with ▁some ▁con cess ions . ▁Although ▁the ▁Roman ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁tradition ▁of ▁a ▁universal ▁Christian ▁mon archy ▁were ▁still ▁considered ▁prest igious ▁and ▁a ▁worthy ▁heritage , ▁they ▁were ▁now ▁also ▁considered ▁things ▁of ▁the ▁past . ▁With ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁diss olved , ▁Francis ▁II ▁could ▁focus ▁his ▁attention ▁on ▁the ▁continued ▁rise ▁and ▁prosper ity ▁of ▁his ▁new ▁her edit ary ▁empire , ▁as ▁Emperor ▁Francis ▁I ▁of ▁Austria . ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁morning ▁of ▁ 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 |
, ▁the ▁imperial ▁her ald ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁rode ▁from ▁the ▁Hof burg ▁to ▁the ▁Jes uit ▁Church ▁of ▁the ▁N ine ▁Ch oirs ▁of ▁Ang els ▁( both ▁being ▁located ▁in ▁Vienna , ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁Mon archy ), ▁where ▁he ▁delivered ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁official ▁pro clam ation ▁from ▁a ▁balcon y ▁over looking ▁a ▁large ▁square . ▁Wr itten ▁copies ▁of ▁the ▁pro clam ation ▁were ▁dis pat ched ▁to ▁the ▁diplom ats ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁mon archy ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁August ▁alongside ▁a ▁note ▁which ▁informed ▁former ▁prin ces ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁that ▁Austria ▁would ▁compens ate ▁those ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁paid ▁from ▁the ▁imperial ▁tre asury . ▁The ▁ab d ication ▁did ▁not ▁acknowledge ▁the ▁French ▁ult imat um , ▁but ▁stressed ▁the ▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁Peace ▁of ▁Press burg ▁by ▁the ▁imperial ▁est ates ▁made ▁it ▁impossible ▁for ▁Francis ▁to ▁fulfill ▁the ▁obligations ▁he ▁had ▁undert aken ▁in ▁his ▁elect oral ▁capit ulation . ▁ ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Em per ors ▁had ▁ab d icated ▁before — the ▁most ▁notable ▁example ▁being ▁the ▁ab d ication ▁of ▁Charles ▁V ▁in ▁ 1 5 5 8 — but ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab d ication ▁was ▁unique . ▁While ▁previous ▁ab d ications ▁had ▁returned ▁the ▁imperial ▁crown ▁to ▁the ▁elect ors ▁so ▁that ▁they ▁may ▁pro claim ▁a ▁new ▁emperor , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab d ication ▁simultaneously ▁diss olved ▁the ▁empire ▁itself ▁so ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁no ▁more |
▁elect ors . ▁ ▁After math ▁ ▁Re actions ▁ ▁The ▁passing ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁an ▁institution ▁which ▁had ▁lasted ▁for ▁just ▁over ▁a ▁thousand ▁years , ▁did ▁not ▁pass ▁un not iced ▁or ▁un l ament ed . ▁The ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁sent ▁shock w aves ▁through ▁Germany , ▁with ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁reactions ▁within ▁the ▁former ▁imperial ▁boundaries ▁were ▁reactions ▁of ▁rage , ▁grief ▁or ▁shame . ▁Even ▁the ▁sign ator ies ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine ▁were ▁out r aged ; ▁the ▁B av arian ▁em iss ary ▁to ▁the ▁imperial ▁diet , ▁Re ch berg , ▁stated ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁" f urious " ▁due ▁to ▁having ▁" put ▁his ▁signature ▁to ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁name ", ▁referring ▁to ▁his ▁state ' s ▁involvement ▁in ▁the ▁conf eder ation , ▁which ▁had ▁effectively ▁do omed ▁the ▁empire . ▁From ▁a ▁legal ▁stand point , ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab d ication ▁was ▁controversial . ▁Cont emporary ▁legal ▁comment ators ▁agreed ▁that ▁the ▁ab d ication ▁itself ▁was ▁perfectly ▁legal ▁but ▁that ▁the ▁emperor ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁the ▁authority ▁to ▁diss olve ▁the ▁empire . ▁As ▁such , ▁several ▁of ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁v ass als ▁refused ▁to ▁recognize ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁had ▁ended . ▁As ▁late ▁as ▁October ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁farmers ▁in ▁Th uring ia ▁refused ▁to ▁accept ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁empire , ▁believing ▁its ▁diss olution ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁plot ▁by ▁the |
▁local ▁authorities . ▁For ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁within ▁the ▁former ▁empire , ▁its ▁collapse ▁made ▁them ▁uncertain ▁and ▁fear ful ▁of ▁their ▁future , ▁and ▁the ▁future ▁of ▁Germany ▁itself . ▁Cont emporary ▁reports ▁from ▁Vienna ▁describe ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁empire ▁as ▁" in com pre hens ible " ▁and ▁the ▁general ▁public ' s ▁reaction ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁horror . ▁ ▁In ▁contrast ▁to ▁the ▁fears ▁of ▁the ▁general ▁public , ▁many ▁contemporary ▁intellect uals ▁and ▁artists ▁saw ▁Napoleon ▁as ▁a ▁her ald ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁age , ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁destroy er ▁of ▁an ▁old ▁order . ▁The ▁popular ▁idea ▁forward ed ▁by ▁German ▁national ists ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁final ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁freed ▁Germany ▁from ▁the ▁somewhat ▁an ach ron istic ▁ideas ▁ro oted ▁in ▁a ▁f ading ▁ideal ▁of ▁universal ▁Christianity ▁and ▁p aved ▁the ▁way ▁for ▁the ▁country ' s ▁un ification ▁as ▁the ▁German ▁Empire , ▁a ▁nation ▁state , ▁ 6 5 ▁years ▁later . ▁German ▁historian ▁Hel mut ▁R ö ss ler ▁has ▁argued ▁that ▁Francis ▁II ▁and ▁the ▁Aust ri ans ▁fought ▁to ▁save ▁the ▁largely ▁un gr ateful ▁Germany ▁from ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁Napoleon , ▁only ▁withdraw ing ▁and ▁abandon ing ▁the ▁empire ▁when ▁most ▁of ▁Germany ▁bet rayed ▁them ▁and ▁joined ▁Napoleon . ▁Indeed , ▁the ▁assumption ▁of ▁a ▁separate ▁Aust rian ▁imperial ▁title ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁did ▁not ▁mean ▁that ▁Francis ▁II ▁had ▁any ▁intentions ▁to ▁ab d icate ▁his ▁prest igious |
▁position ▁as ▁the ▁Roman ▁emperor , ▁the ▁idea ▁only ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁considered ▁as ▁circumstances ▁beyond ▁Hab sburg ▁control ▁forced ▁decis ive ▁actions ▁to ▁be ▁taken . ▁ ▁Comp ound ed ▁with ▁fears ▁of ▁what ▁now ▁guaranteed ▁the ▁safety ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁smaller ▁German ▁states , ▁the ▁poet ▁Christ oph ▁Martin ▁W iel and ▁l ament ed ▁that ▁Germany ▁had ▁now ▁fallen ▁into ▁an ▁" ap oc aly ptic ▁time " ▁and ▁stating ▁" Who ▁can ▁bear ▁this ▁dis gr ace , ▁which ▁weigh s ▁down ▁upon ▁a ▁nation ▁which ▁was ▁once ▁so ▁gl orious ? — may ▁God ▁improve ▁things , ▁if ▁it ▁is ▁still ▁possible ▁to ▁improve ▁them ! ". ▁To ▁some , ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁seen ▁as ▁the ▁final ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁Christian ▁Gott l ob ▁von ▁Vo igt , ▁a ▁minister ▁in ▁We im ar , ▁" if ▁poetry ▁can ▁go ▁hand ▁in ▁hand ▁with ▁politics , ▁then ▁the ▁ab d ication ▁of ▁the ▁imperial ▁dignity ▁offers ▁a ▁wealth ▁of ▁material . ▁The ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁now ▁takes ▁its ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁sequence ▁of ▁van qu ished ▁em pires ". ▁In ▁the ▁words ▁of ▁the ▁English ▁historian ▁James ▁Bry ce , ▁ 1 st ▁Vis count ▁Bry ce ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 8 6 4 ▁work ▁on ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁the ▁" old est ▁political ▁institution ▁in ▁the ▁world " ▁and ▁the ▁same ▁institution ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁founded ▁by ▁August |
us ▁in ▁ 2 7 ▁BC . ▁Writing ▁of ▁the ▁empire , ▁Bry ce ▁stated ▁that ▁" n othing ▁else ▁so ▁directly ▁linked ▁the ▁old ▁world ▁to ▁the ▁new — n othing ▁else ▁displayed ▁so ▁many ▁strange ▁contrast s ▁of ▁the ▁present ▁and ▁the ▁past , ▁and ▁sum med ▁up ▁in ▁those ▁contrast s ▁so ▁much ▁of ▁European ▁history ". ▁When ▁confront ed ▁by ▁the ▁fall ▁and ▁collapse ▁of ▁their ▁empire , ▁many ▁contempor aries ▁employed ▁the ▁cat astro ph ic ▁fall ▁of ▁ancient ▁T roy ▁as ▁a ▁met aphor , ▁due ▁to ▁its ▁association ▁with ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁total ▁destruction ▁and ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁a ▁culture . ▁The ▁image ▁of ▁the ▁ap ocal yp se ▁was ▁also ▁frequently ▁used , ▁associ ating ▁the ▁collapse ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁with ▁an ▁im pending ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁world ▁( echo ing ▁medieval ▁leg ends ▁of ▁a ▁Last ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁a ▁figure ▁prop hes ized ▁to ▁be ▁active ▁during ▁the ▁end ▁times ). ▁ ▁Pro tests ▁and ▁criticism ▁against ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁diss olution ▁was ▁typically ▁cens ored , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁French - administr ated ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh ine . ▁Among ▁the ▁aspects ▁most ▁critic ized ▁by ▁the ▁general ▁popul ace ▁was ▁the ▁removal ▁or ▁replacement ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁inter cess ions ▁for ▁the ▁empire ▁and ▁emperor ▁in ▁the ▁daily ▁church ▁prayers ▁throughout ▁former ▁imperial ▁territory . ▁Supp ression ▁from ▁France , ▁combined ▁with ▁individual ▁examples ▁of ▁sens ational ▁ret ribut ion ▁against ▁pro - emp ire ▁advoc ates |
▁ens ured ▁that ▁these ▁protests ▁soon ▁died ▁down . ▁ ▁In ▁an ▁official ▁capacity , ▁Pr ussia ' s ▁response ▁was ▁only ▁formula ic ▁expressions ▁of ▁regret ▁o wing ▁to ▁the ▁" termin ation ▁of ▁an ▁honour able ▁bond ▁h allowed ▁by ▁time ". ▁Pr ussia ' s ▁representative ▁to ▁the ▁Reich st ag , ▁Baron ▁G ör tz , ▁react ed ▁with ▁sad ness , ▁mixed ▁with ▁gratitude ▁and ▁affection ▁for ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Hab sburg ▁and ▁their ▁former ▁role ▁as ▁em per ors . ▁G ör tz ▁had ▁taken ▁part ▁as ▁an ▁elect oral ▁em iss ary ▁of ▁the ▁E lector ate ▁of ▁Brand enburg ▁( Pr ussia ' s ▁territory ▁within ▁the ▁formal ▁imperial ▁borders ) ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 2 , ▁at ▁the ▁election ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ▁as ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor , ▁and ▁excl aimed ▁that ▁" So ▁the ▁emperor ▁whom ▁I ▁helped ▁elect ▁was ▁the ▁last ▁emperor ! — This ▁step ▁was ▁no ▁doubt ▁to ▁be ▁expected , ▁but ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁make ▁its ▁reality ▁any ▁less ▁moving ▁and ▁crushing . ▁It ▁cuts ▁off ▁the ▁last ▁thread ▁of ▁hope ▁to ▁which ▁one ▁tried ▁to ▁cl ing ". ▁Baron ▁von ▁Wi essen berg , ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁env oy ▁to ▁the ▁E lector ate ▁of ▁H esse - K ass el , ▁reported ▁that ▁the ▁local ▁elect or , ▁William ▁I , ▁had ▁te ared ▁up ▁and ▁expressed ▁l ament ▁at ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁" a ▁constitution ▁to ▁which ▁Germany ▁had ▁for ▁so ▁long ▁o wed ▁its ▁happiness |
▁and ▁freedom ". ▁ ▁Intern ation ally , ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁dem ise ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁mixed ▁or ▁ind ifferent ▁reactions . ▁Alexander ▁I ▁of ▁Russia ▁offered ▁no ▁response ▁and ▁Christian ▁VII ▁of ▁Denmark ▁formally ▁incorporated ▁his ▁German ▁lands ▁into ▁his ▁kingdom s ▁a ▁few ▁months ▁after ▁the ▁empire ' s ▁diss olution . ▁Gust av ▁IV ▁of ▁Sweden ▁( who ▁notably ▁hadn ' t ▁recognized ▁the ▁separate ▁imperial ▁title ▁of ▁Austria ▁yet ) ▁issued ▁a ▁somewhat ▁provoc ative ▁pro clam ation ▁to ▁the ▁den iz ens ▁of ▁his ▁German ▁lands ▁( Sw edish ▁P omer ania ▁and ▁B rem en - Ver den ) ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁August ▁ 1 8 0 6 , ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁" w ould ▁not ▁destroy ▁the ▁German ▁nation " ▁and ▁expressed ▁hopes ▁that ▁the ▁empire ▁might ▁be ▁rev ived . ▁ ▁The ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁const ituted ▁by ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁own ▁personal ▁ab d ication ▁of ▁the ▁title ▁and ▁the ▁release ▁of ▁all ▁v ass als ▁and ▁imperial ▁states ▁from ▁their ▁obligations ▁and ▁duties ▁to ▁the ▁emperor . ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁( the oret ically ▁the ▁same ▁title ▁as ▁Roman ▁emperor ) ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁itself ▁as ▁an ▁idea ▁and ▁institution ▁( the ▁theoret ically ▁univers ally ▁sovere ign ▁imper ium ) ▁were ▁never ▁technically ▁abol ished . ▁The ▁continued ▁existence ▁of ▁an ▁universal ▁empire , ▁though ▁without ▁defined ▁territory ▁and ▁lacking ▁an ▁emperor |
, ▁was ▁sometimes ▁refer enced ▁in ▁the ▁titles ▁of ▁other ▁later ▁mon arch s . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁Sav oy ard ▁Kings ▁of ▁Italy ▁continued ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁title ▁" Pr ince ▁and ▁Per pet ual ▁Vic ar ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( in ▁Italy )" ▁( a ▁title ▁origin ating ▁from ▁an ▁ 1 4 th - century ▁imperial ▁grant ▁from ▁Emperor ▁Charles ▁IV ▁to ▁their ▁ancest or ▁Am ade us ▁VI , ▁Count ▁of ▁Sav oy ) ▁until ▁the ▁abol ition ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁mon archy ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 . ▁ ▁Success or ▁em pires ▁▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire , ▁the ▁Hab sburg ▁dyn asty ▁continued ▁to ▁act ▁as ▁a ▁substitute ▁for ▁national ity , ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁imperial ▁title ▁was ▁not ▁( un like ▁for ▁instance ▁the ▁French ▁or ▁Russian ▁imperial ▁titles ) ▁associated ▁with ▁any ▁national ity ▁in ▁particular . ▁Though ▁the ▁German ▁v ass als ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁had ▁been ▁released ▁from ▁their ▁obligations , ▁Francis ▁II ▁and ▁his ▁success ors ▁continued ▁to ▁rule ▁a ▁large ▁German - spe aking ▁population ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁reg alia ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁kept ▁within ▁their ▁domains ▁( and ▁are ▁to ▁this ▁day ▁stored ▁and ▁displayed ▁at ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Tre asury ▁at ▁the ▁Hof burg ▁in ▁Vienna ). ▁The ▁dyn asty ▁retained ▁its ▁prominent ▁status ▁among ▁the ▁royal ▁families ▁of ▁Europe ▁and ▁were ▁in ▁the ▁eyes ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁their ▁subjects ▁still ▁the ▁only ▁true ▁imperial ▁family . ▁Although ▁the ▁new |
▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁lack ed ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁key ▁elements ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁it ▁remained ▁close ▁in ▁practice ▁and ▁ide als ▁to ▁the ▁pre - 1 8 0 6 ▁empire . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁Francis ▁II ' s ▁ab d ication , ▁the ▁new ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁took ▁steps ▁to ▁distance ▁itself ▁from ▁the ▁older ▁empire . ▁The ▁symbols ▁and ▁formal ▁titles ▁of ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁mon archy ▁were ▁altered ▁to ▁stress ▁Austria ▁as ▁a ▁distinct ▁entity . ▁Because ▁the ▁term ▁Kaiser th um ▁O sterreich ▁( A ust rian ▁Empire ) ▁had ▁entered ▁everyday ▁speech , ▁the ▁mon archy ▁soon ▁dropped ▁the ▁original ▁prefix ▁" her edit ary ", ▁which ▁had ▁been ▁used ▁from ▁ 1 8 0 4 ▁to ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁to ▁stress ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁Austria ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁Empire ▁( and ▁France ▁under ▁Napoleon ), ▁the ▁most ▁prominent ▁potential ▁claim ant ▁to ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ' s ▁legacy ▁( in ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁ruling ▁Germany ) ▁in ▁the ▁wake ▁of ▁its ▁collapse ▁and ▁diss olution ▁was ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Pr ussia , ▁ruled ▁by ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Ho hen z oll ern . ▁Along side , ▁the ▁growing ▁crown ▁lands ▁of ▁the ▁Hab sbur gs , ▁Pr ussia ▁represented ▁the ▁sole ▁major ▁power ▁in ▁Central ▁Europe ▁during ▁the ▁last ▁century ▁or ▁so ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁imperial ▁rule . ▁It ▁was ▁frequently ▁rum ored ▁that ▁the ▁Pr uss ians ▁had |
▁imperial ▁amb itions ▁and ▁Frederick ▁II ▁of ▁Pr ussia ▁was ▁a ▁rum ored ▁candidate ▁to ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁in ▁ 1 7 4 0 . ▁Frederick ▁II , ▁and ▁other ▁Pr ussian ▁kings , ▁dismissed ▁these ▁ideas ▁while ▁they ▁remained ▁under ▁imperial ▁rule , ▁arguing ▁that ▁additional ▁territory ▁and ▁power ▁would ▁be ▁more ▁beneficial ▁than ▁the ▁imperial ▁title . ▁In ▁ 1 7 9 5 ▁and ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 3 ▁and ▁ 1 8 0 4 , ▁French ▁representatives ▁suggested ▁that ▁Pr ussia ▁might ▁convert ▁its ▁northern ▁German ▁territor ies ▁into ▁an ▁empire , ▁but ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern s ▁were ▁not ▁interested ▁in ▁going ▁through ▁with ▁such ▁a ▁plan . ▁Though ▁the ▁Pr ussian ▁rul ers ▁and ▁their ▁officials ▁expressed ▁sor row ▁at ▁the ▁coll aps ing ▁state ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁from ▁ 1 7 9 2 ▁on wards , ▁they ▁were ▁also ▁critical ▁to ▁nost alg ia ▁for ▁Germany ' s ▁history ▁under ▁imperial ▁rule . ▁The ▁Pr uss ians ▁viewed ▁the ▁survival ▁chances ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁as ▁very ▁low ▁and ▁saw ▁the ▁French ▁as ▁the ▁true ▁success ors ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Carol ing ians , ▁an ▁enemy ▁which ▁they ▁believed ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁normal ▁military ▁means . ▁▁ ▁The ▁reluct ance ▁of ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern s ▁to ▁assume ▁an ▁imperial ▁title ▁shifted ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁as ▁they ▁feared ▁that ▁with ▁the ▁formation ▁of ▁the ▁Confeder ation ▁of ▁the ▁Rh |
ine ▁and ▁the ▁diss olution ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁Napoleon ▁might ▁asp ire ▁to ▁claim ▁the ▁hyp ot het ical ▁position ▁of ▁" Em peror ▁of ▁Germany ". ▁Though ▁prepar ations ▁were ▁made ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁" imper ial ▁union " ▁in ▁northern ▁Germany , ▁with ▁an ▁emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern ▁dyn asty , ▁these ▁plans ▁were ▁dropped ▁in ▁September ▁of ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁after ▁they ▁found ▁little ▁support ▁and ▁Emperor ▁Alexander ▁I ▁of ▁Russia ▁object ed ▁to ▁the ▁plans . ▁Because ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern s ▁lack ed ▁imperial ▁ancest ry ▁they ▁did ▁not ▁see ▁themselves ▁as ▁an ▁imperial ▁dyn asty ▁and ▁even ▁after ▁Napoleon ' s ▁ultimate ▁defe ats ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 3 ▁and ▁ 1 8 1 5 , ▁their ▁position ▁changed ▁little . ▁Although ▁Germany ▁was ▁united ▁into ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 1 , ▁under ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern ▁emperor ▁Wilhelm ▁I , ▁the ▁pro clam ation ▁of ▁the ▁new ▁empire ▁was ▁ide ologically ▁problem atic ▁and ▁the ▁Ho hen z oll ern s ▁found ▁themselves ▁mostly ▁ill - at - e ase ▁with ▁its ▁implications . ▁Att empt s ▁were ▁made ▁to ▁associate ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁with ▁the ▁institutions ▁of ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁but ▁its ▁em per ors ▁continued ▁to ▁en umerate ▁themselves ▁after ▁the ▁Kings ▁of ▁Pr ussia ; ▁Emperor ▁Frederick ▁III ▁( 1 8 8 8 ) ▁was ▁enumer ated ▁after ▁his ▁predecess or ▁as ▁king |
, ▁Frederick ▁II , ▁not ▁after ▁the ▁previous ▁imperial ▁Frederick ▁( Em peror ▁Frederick ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 5 th ▁century , ▁the ▁new ▁Frederick ▁would ▁then ▁have ▁been ▁Frederick ▁IV ). ▁ ▁Despite ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁ultimately ▁failing ▁in ▁preventing ▁war ▁with ▁France , ▁the ▁late ▁empire ' s ▁nom inal ▁role ▁as ▁working ▁for ▁peace ▁and ▁forming ▁a ▁loose ▁sort ▁of ▁he g emony ▁and ▁partnership ▁offered ▁an ▁alternative ▁to ▁both ▁the ▁universal ▁mon archy ▁of ▁Napoleon ' s ▁French ▁Empire ▁and ▁the ▁universal ▁republic ▁advoc ated ▁for ▁by ▁Revolution ary ▁France ▁and ▁it ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁model ▁for ▁future ▁const itut ions ▁for ▁international ▁bodies ▁and ▁organizations . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Abd ication ▁of ▁Francis ▁II , ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Emperor ▁on ▁Wik is ource ▁▁▁ ▁Category : D iss olutions ▁of ▁em pires ▁Category : N ap ole onic ▁Wars ▁Category : Aug ust ▁ 1 8 0 6 ▁events <0x0A> </s> ▁Kn ock ain ey ▁is ▁a ▁G ael ic ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁club ▁located ▁in ▁Kn ock ain ey , ▁County ▁L imer ick , ▁Ireland . ▁The ▁club , ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁fields ▁teams ▁in ▁both ▁hur ling ▁and ▁G ael ic ▁football . ▁ ▁Over view ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁▁ ▁L imer ick ▁Inter mediate ▁Hur ling ▁Championship ▁( 1 ): ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁ ▁Not able ▁players ▁▁ ▁Tommy ▁Co oke ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁sources |
▁ ▁L imer ick ▁Club ▁Information ▁ ▁Category : G ael ic ▁Athlet ic ▁Association ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick ▁Category : H ur ling ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick ▁Category : G ael ic ▁football ▁clubs ▁in ▁County ▁L imer ick <0x0A> </s> ▁C orte ▁de ' ▁Cort esi ▁con ▁C ign one ▁( C rem un és : ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁comune ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁C rem ona , ▁in ▁L omb ard y , ▁northern ▁Italy . ▁ ▁The ▁town ▁has ▁a ▁parish ▁church ▁dedicated ▁to ▁San ▁Gi ac omo ▁e ▁Filip po . ▁ ▁Re ferences <0x0A> </s> ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁a ▁nation wide ▁Un ified ▁Communications ▁as ▁a ▁Service ▁provider ▁for ▁businesses . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁T eles phere ▁began ▁providing ▁highly ▁secure ▁cloud ▁based ▁voice ▁and ▁data ▁services ▁over ▁a ▁private ▁IP ▁M PL S ▁network ▁to ▁mid ▁and ▁large ▁enter prises ▁throughout ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁now ▁also ▁in ▁Europe . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁provides ▁Host ed ▁Vo IP , ▁ ▁Man aged ▁Video ▁Br id ging , ▁M PL S ▁Network ▁Services , ▁ ▁Private ▁S IP ▁Tr unk ing , ▁Mobile ▁Integr ation ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁Cloud ▁Communications ▁services . ▁ ▁Services ▁are ▁available ▁regardless ▁of ▁the ▁ge ographic ▁location ▁throughout ▁out ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁History ▁T eles phere ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁and ▁is ▁backed ▁and ▁operated ▁by ▁investors ▁who ▁were ▁affili ated ▁with ▁Cell ular ▁One / AT |
& T ▁Wire less , ▁Next el , ▁Next link , ▁X O ▁Communications , ▁and ▁Clear wire , ▁drawing ▁talent ▁from ▁tele com ▁industry ▁veterans ▁with ▁successful ▁track ▁records . ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁T eles phere ▁acquired ▁the ▁Vo IP ▁services ▁business ▁of ▁Denver - based ▁IP ▁services ▁provider ▁Un ity ▁Business ▁Network s . ▁ ▁From ▁mid - 2 0 0 8 ▁through ▁mid - 2 0 1 0 , ▁T eles phere ▁raised ▁more ▁capital ▁than ▁any ▁other ▁venture ▁backed ▁priv ately ▁held ▁company ▁in ▁Arizona . ▁Fund ing ▁has ▁featured ▁several ▁premier ▁tele commun ications ▁investors ▁including : ▁R ally ▁Capital , ▁Haw key e ▁Invest ments ▁and ▁the ▁Gre ens p un ▁Corporation . ▁T eles phere ▁agreed ▁to ▁be ▁acquired ▁by ▁Von age ▁for ▁$ 1 1 4 ▁million ▁in ▁November ▁▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁Current ▁customers ▁and ▁spons ors ▁T eles phere ▁currently ▁supports ▁customers ▁across ▁the ▁US , ▁Canada , ▁and ▁Europe . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁active ▁with ▁national ▁char ities , ▁including ▁the ▁American ▁Red ▁Cross , ▁Make - a - W ish ▁Foundation , ▁South west ▁Human ▁Development ’ s ▁Ad apt ▁Shop , ▁and ▁the ▁American ▁L ung ▁Association . ▁Community ▁involvement ▁is ▁multi - fac eted , ▁taking ▁place ▁at ▁all ▁levels ▁of ▁the ▁organization . ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁actively ▁particip ates ▁in ▁a ▁L unch ▁Bud dy ▁M ent oring ▁Program ▁with ▁Big ▁Brothers ▁Big ▁Sister s ; |
▁Making ▁Str ides ; ▁American ▁Society ▁Run / Walk ; ▁Make - a - W ish ▁ 5 k ▁Run ; ▁and , ▁numerous ▁other ▁phil anth ropic ▁events ▁across ▁the ▁nation . ▁ ▁Awards ▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rank ed ▁No . ▁ 1 ▁U C aa S ▁Pro vider ▁by ▁W ain house ▁Research ’ s ▁‘ Broad Soft ▁Pro vider ▁Power ▁Rank ings – 2 0 1 4 ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Hon ored ▁as ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁State ’ s ▁Top ▁ 5 0 ▁L arg est ▁Private ▁Companies ▁at ▁Arizona ▁Corpor ate ▁Excell ence ▁Awards ▁Night ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rec ogn ized ▁as ▁a ▁Chall enger ▁in ▁Un ified ▁Communications ▁as ▁a ▁Service ▁( UC aa S ) ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁G art ner ▁Magic ▁Qu ad rant ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Rec ogn ized ▁as ▁Inc . ▁ 5 0 0 / 5 0 0 0 ▁Fast - G row ing ▁Company ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁selected ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Top ▁Companies ▁to ▁Work ▁for ▁in ▁Arizona ▁▁ ▁T eles phere ▁Re ce ives ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Un ified ▁Communications ▁Product ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁Award ▁▁ ▁T MC ' s ▁Internet ▁Tele phony ▁Magazine ▁- ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁Un ified ▁Communications ▁Award ▁▁ ▁Del o itte ▁- ▁Technology ▁Fast ▁ 5 0 0 ▁Award ▁▁ ▁Inc ▁ 5 0 0 / 5 0 0 0 ▁- ▁Inc ▁ 5 0 0 0 ▁Fast est ▁Grow ing ▁companies ▁in |
▁the ▁US ▁( 3 rd ▁year ▁in ▁a ▁row ) ▁▁ ▁Scot ts dale ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Commerce ▁- ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁Ster ling ▁Award ▁W inner ▁▁ ▁Best Com pan ies A Z . com ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Arizona ' s ▁Most ▁Adm ired ▁Companies ▁W inner ▁ ▁Cloud ▁Communications ▁Alliance ▁T eles phere ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁ 2 3 ▁technology ▁companies ▁that ▁make ▁up ▁the ▁Cloud ▁Communications ▁Alliance . ▁ ▁Clark ▁Pet erson , ▁CEO ▁of ▁T eles phere , ▁is ▁the ▁first ▁and ▁current ▁chairman ▁of ▁the ▁Cloud ▁Communications ▁Alliance . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : Intern et ▁service ▁providers ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Vo IP ▁companies ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : V on age <0x0A> </s> ▁A ▁Un ix - like ▁( s ometimes ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁UN * X ▁or ▁* n ix ) ▁operating ▁system ▁is ▁one ▁that ▁beh aves ▁in ▁a ▁manner ▁similar ▁to ▁a ▁Un ix ▁system , ▁while ▁not ▁necessarily ▁conform ing ▁to ▁or ▁being ▁certified ▁to ▁any ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁ ▁A ▁Un ix - like ▁application ▁is ▁one ▁that ▁beh aves ▁like ▁the ▁corresponding ▁Un ix ▁command ▁or ▁shell . ▁There ▁is ▁no ▁standard ▁for ▁defining ▁the ▁term , ▁and ▁some ▁difference ▁of ▁opinion ▁is ▁possible ▁as ▁to ▁the ▁degree ▁to ▁which ▁a ▁given ▁operating ▁system ▁or ▁application ▁is ▁" Un ix - like ". ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁can ▁include ▁free ▁and ▁open - source ▁operating ▁systems ▁inspired ▁by |
▁Bell ▁L abs ' ▁Un ix ▁or ▁designed ▁to ▁em ulate ▁its ▁features , ▁commercial ▁and ▁propriet ary ▁work - al ikes , ▁and ▁even ▁versions ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁licensed ▁UN IX ▁source ▁code ▁( which ▁may ▁be ▁sufficiently ▁" Un ix - like " ▁to ▁pass ▁certification ▁and ▁bear ▁the ▁" UN IX " ▁trad emark ). ▁ ▁Definition ▁ ▁The ▁Open ▁Group ▁owns ▁the ▁UN IX ▁trad emark ▁and ▁administer s ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification , ▁with ▁the ▁" UN IX " ▁name ▁being ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁certification ▁mark . ▁ ▁They ▁do ▁not ▁appro ve ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁" Un ix - like ", ▁and ▁consider ▁it ▁a ▁mis use ▁of ▁their ▁trad emark . ▁ ▁Their ▁guidelines ▁require ▁" UN IX " ▁to ▁be ▁presented ▁in ▁upper case ▁or ▁otherwise ▁distinguished ▁from ▁the ▁surrounding ▁text , ▁strongly ▁encourage ▁using ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁brand ing ▁ad ject ive ▁for ▁a ▁generic ▁word ▁such ▁as ▁" system ", ▁and ▁discour age ▁its ▁use ▁in ▁hyp hen ated ▁phrases . ▁ ▁Other ▁parties ▁frequently ▁treat ▁" Un ix " ▁as ▁a ▁generic ized ▁trad emark . ▁Some ▁add ▁a ▁wild card ▁character ▁to ▁the ▁name ▁to ▁make ▁an ▁ab bre vi ation ▁like ▁ ▁" Un * x " ▁or ▁"* n ix ", ▁since ▁Un ix - like ▁systems ▁often ▁have ▁Un ix - like ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁A IX , ▁A / UX , ▁HP - UX , ▁IR IX , ▁Linux , ▁Min ix , ▁Ult rix |
, ▁X en ix , ▁X in u , ▁and ▁X NU . ▁These ▁patterns ▁do ▁not ▁literally ▁match ▁many ▁system ▁names , ▁but ▁are ▁still ▁generally ▁recognized ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁any ▁UN IX ▁system , ▁desc endant , ▁or ▁work - al ike , ▁even ▁those ▁with ▁completely ▁dis sim ilar ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁Darwin / mac OS , ▁ill um os / S olar is ▁or ▁Free B SD . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁Wayne ▁R . ▁Gray ▁su ed ▁to ▁dispute ▁the ▁status ▁of ▁UN IX ▁as ▁a ▁trad emark , ▁but ▁lost ▁his ▁case , ▁and ▁lost ▁again ▁on ▁appeal , ▁with ▁the ▁court ▁up hold ing ▁the ▁trad emark ▁and ▁its ▁ownership . ▁ ▁History ▁▁ ▁" Un ix - like " ▁systems ▁started ▁to ▁appear ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Many ▁propriet ary ▁versions , ▁such ▁as ▁I dr is ▁( 1 9 7 8 ), ▁UN OS ▁( 1 9 8 2 ), ▁Co herent ▁( 1 9 8 3 ), ▁and ▁Un i F lex ▁( 1 9 8 5 ), ▁aimed ▁to ▁provide ▁businesses ▁with ▁the ▁functionality ▁available ▁to ▁academic ▁users ▁of ▁UN IX . ▁ ▁When ▁AT & T ▁allowed ▁relatively ▁in exp ensive ▁commercial ▁binary ▁sub - lic ensing ▁of ▁UN IX ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁propriet ary ▁systems ▁were ▁developed ▁based ▁on ▁it , ▁including ▁A IX , |
▁HP - UX , ▁IR IX , ▁Sun OS , ▁Tru 6 4 , ▁Ult rix , ▁and ▁X en ix . ▁These ▁largely ▁displ aced ▁the ▁propriet ary ▁cl ones . ▁ ▁Grow ing ▁in compat ibility ▁among ▁these ▁systems ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁inter oper ability ▁standards , ▁including ▁PO SI X ▁and ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁ ▁Var ious ▁free , ▁low - cost , ▁and ▁unre str icted ▁subst itutes ▁for ▁UN IX ▁emerged ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁including ▁ 4 . 4 B SD , ▁Linux , ▁and ▁Min ix . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁have ▁in ▁turn ▁been ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁commercial ▁" Un ix - like " ▁systems , ▁such ▁as ▁BSD / OS ▁and ▁mac OS . ▁Several ▁versions ▁of ▁( Mac ) ▁OS ▁X / mac OS ▁running ▁on ▁Intel - based ▁Mac ▁computers ▁have ▁been ▁certified ▁under ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification . ▁The ▁BSD ▁vari ants ▁are ▁descend ants ▁of ▁UN IX ▁developed ▁by ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California ▁at ▁Berkeley ▁with ▁UN IX ▁source ▁code ▁from ▁Bell ▁L abs . ▁However , ▁the ▁BSD ▁code ▁base ▁has ▁evolved ▁since ▁then , ▁replacing ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code . ▁Since ▁the ▁BSD ▁vari ants ▁are ▁not ▁certified ▁as ▁compl iant ▁with ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification , ▁they ▁are ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁" UN IX - like " ▁rather ▁than ▁" UN IX ". |
▁ ▁C ategories ▁ ▁Dennis ▁R itch ie , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁original ▁creat ors ▁of ▁Un ix , ▁expressed ▁his ▁opinion ▁that ▁Un ix - like ▁systems ▁such ▁as ▁Linux ▁are ▁de ▁fact o ▁Un ix ▁systems . ▁Eric ▁S . ▁Raymond ▁and ▁Rob ▁Land ley ▁have ▁suggested ▁that ▁there ▁are ▁three ▁kinds ▁of ▁Un ix - like ▁systems : ▁ ▁Gen etic ▁UN IX ▁ ▁Those ▁systems ▁with ▁a ▁historical ▁connection ▁to ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code base . ▁Most ▁commercial ▁UN IX ▁systems ▁fall ▁into ▁this ▁category . ▁So ▁do ▁the ▁BSD ▁systems , ▁which ▁are ▁descend ants ▁of ▁work ▁done ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁California , ▁Berkeley ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁systems ▁have ▁no ▁original ▁AT & T ▁code ▁but ▁can ▁still ▁trace ▁their ▁ancest ry ▁to ▁AT & T ▁designs . ▁ ▁Tr adem ark ▁or ▁brand ed ▁UN IX ▁ ▁These ▁system sl arg ely ▁commercial ▁in ▁nature have ▁been ▁determined ▁by ▁the ▁Open ▁Group ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁Single ▁UN IX ▁Spec ification ▁and ▁are ▁allowed ▁to ▁carry ▁the ▁UN IX ▁name . ▁Most ▁such ▁systems ▁are ▁commercial ▁deriv atives ▁of ▁the ▁System ▁V ▁code ▁base ▁in ▁one ▁form ▁or ▁another , ▁although ▁Apple ▁mac OS ▁ 1 0 . 5 ▁and ▁later ▁is ▁a ▁BSD ▁variant ▁that ▁has ▁been ▁certified , ▁E uler OS ▁and ▁Insp ur ▁K - UX ▁are ▁Linux ▁distributions ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁certified , ▁and |
▁a ▁few ▁other ▁systems ▁( such ▁as ▁IBM ▁z / OS ) ▁earned ▁the ▁trad emark ▁through ▁a ▁PO SI X ▁compatibility ▁layer ▁and ▁are ▁not ▁otherwise ▁inher ently ▁Un ix ▁systems . ▁ ▁Many ▁ancient ▁UN IX ▁systems ▁no ▁longer ▁meet ▁this ▁definition . ▁ ▁Function al ▁UN IX ▁ ▁Broad ly , ▁any ▁Un ix - like ▁system ▁that ▁beh aves ▁in ▁a ▁manner ▁roughly ▁consistent ▁with ▁the ▁UN IX ▁spec ification , ▁including ▁having ▁a ▁" program ▁which ▁man ages ▁your ▁login ▁and ▁command ▁line ▁sessions "; ▁more ▁specifically , ▁this ▁can ▁refer ▁to ▁systems ▁such ▁as ▁Linux ▁or ▁Min ix ▁that ▁behave ▁similarly ▁to ▁a ▁UN IX ▁system ▁but ▁have ▁no ▁genetic ▁or ▁trad emark ▁connection ▁to ▁the ▁AT & T ▁code ▁base . ▁Most ▁free / open - source ▁implement ations ▁of ▁the ▁UN IX ▁design , ▁whether ▁genetic ▁UN IX ▁or ▁not , ▁fall ▁into ▁the ▁restricted ▁definition ▁of ▁this ▁third ▁category ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁expense ▁of ▁obtaining ▁Open ▁Group ▁certification , ▁which ▁costs ▁thousands ▁of ▁dollars ▁for ▁commercial ▁closed ▁source ▁systems . ▁ ▁Around ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁Linux ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁opportunity ▁to ▁get ▁a ▁certification ▁including ▁free ▁help ▁from ▁the ▁PO SI X ▁chair ▁Andrew ▁Jose y ▁for ▁the ▁symbol ic ▁price ▁of ▁one ▁dollar . ▁There ▁have ▁been ▁some ▁activities ▁to ▁make ▁Linux ▁PO SI X - com pl iant , ▁with ▁Jose y ▁having ▁prepared ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁differences ▁between ▁the ▁PO SI X ▁standard ▁and ▁the ▁Linux ▁Standard ▁Base |
▁spec ification , ▁but ▁in ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁this ▁project ▁was ▁shut ▁down ▁because ▁of ▁missing ▁interest ▁at ▁the ▁L SB ▁work ▁group . ▁ ▁Com pat ibility ▁layers ▁Some ▁non - Un ix - like ▁operating ▁systems ▁provide ▁a ▁Un ix - like ▁compatibility ▁layer , ▁with ▁varying ▁degrees ▁of ▁Un ix - like ▁functionality . ▁ ▁IBM ▁z / OS ' s ▁UN IX ▁System ▁Services ▁is ▁sufficiently ▁complete ▁as ▁to ▁be ▁certified ▁as ▁trad emark ▁UN IX . ▁ ▁C yg win ▁and ▁M SYS ▁both ▁provide ▁a ▁GNU ▁environment ▁on ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁Microsoft ▁Windows ▁user ▁API , ▁sufficient ▁for ▁most ▁common ▁open ▁source ▁software ▁to ▁be ▁compiled ▁and ▁run . ▁ ▁The ▁M KS ▁Tool kit ▁and ▁U WIN ▁are ▁comprehensive ▁inter oper ability ▁tools ▁which ▁allow ▁the ▁port ing ▁of ▁Un ix ▁programs ▁to ▁Windows . ▁ ▁Windows ▁NT - type ▁systems ▁have ▁a ▁PO SI X ▁environmental ▁sub system . ▁ ▁Sub system ▁for ▁Un ix - based ▁Ap plications ▁( pre viously ▁Inter ix ) ▁provides ▁Un ix - like ▁functionality ▁as ▁a ▁Windows ▁NT ▁sub system ▁( dis contin ued ). ▁ ▁Windows ▁Sub system ▁for ▁Linux ▁provides ▁a ▁Linux - compatible ▁kernel ▁interface ▁developed ▁by ▁Microsoft ▁and ▁containing ▁no ▁Linux ▁code , ▁with ▁U b unt u ▁user - mode ▁bin aries ▁running ▁on ▁top ▁of ▁it . ▁ ▁Other ▁means ▁of ▁Windows - Un ix ▁inter oper ability ▁include : ▁ ▁The ▁above ▁Windows ▁packages ▁can ▁be ▁used |
▁with ▁various ▁X ▁servers ▁for ▁Windows ▁ ▁Hum ming bird ▁Connect ivity ▁provides ▁several ▁ways ▁for ▁Windows ▁machines ▁to ▁connect ▁to ▁Un ix ▁and ▁Linux ▁machines , ▁from ▁terminal ▁em ul ators ▁to ▁X ▁clients ▁and ▁servers , ▁and ▁others ▁ ▁The ▁Windows ▁Resource ▁K its ▁for ▁versions ▁of ▁Windows ▁NT ▁include ▁a ▁Bour ne ▁Shell , ▁some ▁command - line ▁tools , ▁and ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁Per l ▁ ▁Hamilton ▁C ▁shell ▁is ▁a ▁version ▁of ▁c sh ▁written ▁specifically ▁for ▁Windows . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁▁ ▁Berkeley ▁Software ▁Distribution ▁ ▁Linux ▁distribution ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Linux ▁distributions ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Un ix ▁commands ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁operating ▁systems ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Un ix - like ▁Definition , ▁by ▁The ▁Linux ▁Information ▁Project ▁( L INFO ) ▁ ▁UN IX ▁history ▁a ▁history ▁time ▁line ▁graph ▁of ▁most ▁UN IX ▁and ▁Un ix - like ▁systems ▁by ▁É ric ▁L év é nez ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Un ix ▁▁ ▁Category : Oper ating ▁system ▁families <0x0A> </s> ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁is ▁a ▁surn ame . ▁Not able ▁people ▁with ▁the ▁surn ame ▁include : ▁ ▁Jos ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁( 1 9 4 3 – 2 0 1 1 ), ▁Dutch ▁cycl ist ▁Ma arten ▁van ▁der ▁V le uten ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 7 ), ▁Dutch ▁record ▁producer ▁ ▁Category : S urn ames ▁of ▁Dutch ▁origin <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁Minnesota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers |
▁football ▁team ▁represented ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Minnesota ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 2 ▁college ▁football ▁season . ▁In ▁their ▁ 1 3 th ▁year ▁under ▁head ▁coach ▁Henry ▁L . ▁Williams , ▁the ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁compiled ▁a ▁ 4 – 3 ▁record ▁( 2 – 2 ▁against ▁Western ▁Conference ▁opponents ) ▁and ▁out sc ored ▁their ▁opponents ▁by ▁a ▁combined ▁total ▁of ▁ 8 7 ▁to ▁ 3 8 . ▁ ▁Schedule ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Minnesota ▁Category : M inn esota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁football ▁seasons ▁Minnesota ▁Golden ▁G oph ers ▁football <0x0A> </s> ▁Hannah ▁Mons on ▁( born ▁ 2 1 ▁April ▁ 1 9 9 2 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Australian ▁actress ▁best ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁role ▁as ▁K irst ie ▁D arrow ▁in ▁the ▁ABC ▁drama , ▁Gl itch . ▁ ▁Film ography ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 1 9 9 2 ▁birth s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁film ▁actress es ▁Category : Austral ian ▁television ▁actress es ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Australian ▁actress es <0x0A> </s> ▁This ▁is ▁a ▁list ▁of ▁words , ▁terms , ▁concepts , ▁and ▁sl og ans ▁that ▁have ▁been ▁or ▁are ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁military . ▁R anks ▁and ▁transl ations ▁of ▁nick names ▁for ▁vehicles ▁are ▁included . ▁Also ▁included ▁are ▁some ▁general ▁terms ▁from ▁the ▁German ▁language ▁found ▁frequently ▁in ▁military ▁j arg on . ▁Some ▁terms ▁are ▁from ▁the ▁general ▁German ▁cultural ▁background |
, ▁others ▁are ▁given ▁to ▁show ▁a ▁change ▁that ▁was ▁made ▁before ▁or ▁after ▁the ▁Nazi ▁era . ▁Some ▁fact ories ▁that ▁were ▁the ▁primary ▁producers ▁of ▁military ▁equipment , ▁especially ▁tanks , ▁are ▁also ▁given . ▁ ▁Gl oss ary ▁ ▁A ▁ ▁A - Stand ▁– ▁forward ▁defensive ▁gun ner ' s ▁position ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁ab gesch oss en ▁– ▁shot ▁down ; ▁destroyed ▁by ▁means ▁of ▁firing . ▁ ▁Abs chnitt ▁– ▁sector , ▁district . ▁ ▁A bl ös ungs div ision ▁– ▁relief ▁division ▁( 1 9 1 7 ), ▁later ▁renamed ▁E ing re if ▁division ▁( inter vention ▁division ). ▁ ▁Ab teil ung ▁( A bt .) ▁– ▁a ▁batt alion - sized ▁unit ▁of ▁armor , ▁artillery ▁or ▁caval ry ; ▁in ▁other ▁context s ▁a ▁det achment ▁or ▁section . ▁ ▁Ab teil ungs ar zt ▁– ▁batt alion ▁physician ▁ ▁Ab teil ungs che f ▁– ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁in ▁artillery ▁and ▁caval ry ▁form ations ▁ ▁Ab teil ung sf ühr er ▁– ▁substitute ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁in ▁artillery ▁and ▁caval ry ▁form ations ▁ ▁Ab teil ung sv eter in är ▁– ▁batt alion ▁veter in arian ▁ ▁Ab we hr ▁– ▁" def ense "; ▁as ▁a ▁short ening ▁of ▁Sp ion age ▁Ab we hr ▁( sp y ▁defense ) ▁the ▁term ▁referred ▁to ▁the ▁counter - esp ion age ▁service ▁( G erman ▁Secret ▁Service ) ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁High ▁Command , ▁headed ▁by ▁Admiral |
▁Can aris . ▁Also ▁an ▁element ▁in ▁such ▁comp ounds ▁as ▁Fl ie ger ab we hr - K an one ▁" anti - air craft ▁gun ." ▁ ▁Ab ze ichen ▁– ▁ins ign ia ; ▁bad ge ▁of ▁rank , ▁appointment ▁or ▁distinction . ▁ ▁Ad ler ang r iff ▁– ▁" E agle ▁Att ack "; ▁term ▁for ▁projected ▁" dec is ive ▁attack " ▁by ▁the ▁Luft w affe ▁on ▁R AF ▁F ighter ▁Command ▁under ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁Herm ann ▁G ö ring , ▁institut ed ▁to ▁gain ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁sk ies ▁from ▁the ▁Royal ▁Air ▁Force ▁and ▁soft en ▁Britain ▁for ▁the ▁im pending ▁invasion ▁forces ▁planned ▁in ▁Operation ▁Se el ö we ▁( Se a ▁Lion ). ▁These ▁attacks ▁ultimately ▁failed ▁and ▁the ▁air ▁campaign ▁is ▁now ▁known ▁in ▁the ▁angl oph one ▁world ▁as ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Britain . ▁ ▁Af rika ▁Kor ps ▁– ▁the ▁elite ▁German ▁mechan ized ▁force ▁commanded ▁by ▁Er win ▁Rom mel , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" W ü sten f uch s " ▁( en : ▁Des ert ▁Fox ), ▁which ▁performed ▁exempl ary ▁in ▁Hitler ' s ▁North ▁African ▁campaigns ▁between ▁ 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 3 . ▁All ied ▁efforts ▁to ▁defeat ▁Rom mel ▁were ▁high ▁and ▁many ▁histor ians ▁believe ▁that ▁had ▁Rom mel ▁convinced ▁Hitler ▁to ▁provide ▁him ▁with ▁three ▁additional ▁divisions ▁of ▁tanks , ▁he ▁very ▁well ▁could ▁have ▁gained ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁Sue z ▁Canal ▁in ▁early ▁ |
1 9 4 2 ▁and ▁cut ▁off ▁the ▁vast ▁supplies ▁being ▁sent ▁from ▁America ▁to ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁via ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁Gulf . ▁In ▁the ▁end , ▁the ▁Af rika ▁Kor ps ▁was ▁defeated ▁by ▁combined ▁off ens ives ▁from ▁the ▁British ▁and ▁Americans . ▁ ▁A ggreg at ▁ 4 ▁( A 4 ) ▁– ▁original ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁V 2 ▁rock et . ▁ ▁A GR U - Front ▁– ▁Techn ische ▁Aus bild ung sg ruppe ▁für ▁Front ▁U - Boot e ▁– ▁technical ▁training ▁group ▁for ▁front - line ▁U - bo ats . ▁ ▁A K ▁– ▁Al le ▁K raft ▁( vor aus ), ▁naval ▁command ▁for ▁fl ank ▁speed . ▁Also ▁" Ä us ser ste ▁K raft !" ▁ ▁A al ▁– ▁" e el "; ▁sl ang ▁for ▁tor ped o . ▁ ▁" Al arm !" ▁– ▁U - boat ▁order ▁to ▁activate ▁the ▁alarm ▁and ▁begin ▁a ▁crash ▁dive . ▁Also ▁" Fire ! ", ▁" Air ▁raid !" ▁for ▁Luft w affe ▁fighter ▁pilots , ▁etc . ▁ ▁Al arm tau chen ▁– ▁crash ▁dive . ▁ ▁" Al le ▁Mas ch inen ▁stop !" ▁– ▁naval ▁command : ▁" Stop ▁all ▁engines ". ▁ ▁" Al le ▁Mann ▁von ▁B ord !" ▁– ▁naval ▁command ; ▁" All ▁hands , ▁abandon ▁ship !" ▁ ▁All geme ine ▁SS ▁– ▁" General ▁SS ", ▁general ▁main ▁body ▁of ▁the ▁Sch utz staff el ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁the ▁full - |
time ▁administrative , ▁security , ▁intelligence ▁and ▁police ▁branches ▁of ▁the ▁SS ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁broader ▁part - time ▁membership ▁that ▁turned ▁out ▁for ▁par ades , ▁r all ies ▁and ▁" stre et ▁actions " ▁such ▁as ▁Krist all n acht ; ▁also ▁compr ised ▁reserve ▁and ▁honor ary ▁members . ▁ ▁Al te ▁Has en ▁– ▁" Old ▁ha res "; ▁sl ang ▁for ▁military ▁veterans ▁who ▁survived ▁front - line ▁hard ships . ▁ ▁Amer ika ▁B om ber ▁– ▁A ▁spring ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁av iation ▁contract ▁competition ▁for ▁a ▁Luft w affe ▁trans - o cean ic ▁range ▁strategic ▁bom ber , ▁only ▁resulting ▁in ▁a ▁few ▁completed ▁prototype ▁aircraft ▁from ▁two ▁firms , ▁and ▁many ▁advanced ▁designs ▁that ▁mostly ▁remained ▁on ▁paper . ▁ ▁Am i ▁– ▁German ▁sl ang ▁for ▁an ▁American ▁soldier . ▁ ▁Anton ▁– ▁German ▁sp elling ▁al phabet ▁for ▁A ▁equivalent ▁to ▁Alpha ▁( e . g . ▁Case ▁Anton ) ▁ ▁Ä rm el band ▁– ▁c uff ▁title . ▁W orn ▁on ▁the ▁left ▁sleeve , ▁the ▁title ▁contains ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁wear er ' s ▁unit ▁or ▁a ▁campaign ▁they ▁are ▁part ▁of . ▁C uff ▁titles ▁are ▁still ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁German ▁Army ▁and ▁Luft w affe . ▁ ▁A mt ▁– ▁office , ▁main ▁office ▁branch . ▁ ▁A mt ▁Mil ▁– ▁German ▁Army ▁intelligence ▁organization ▁that ▁succeeded ▁the ▁Ab we hr . ▁ ▁Am ts g ruppe ▁All geme ine ▁We h |
rm acht s ange leg en he iten ▁( Off ice ▁of ▁General ▁Military ▁Affairs ) ▁– ▁Department ▁of ▁the ▁OK W ▁responsible ▁for ▁general ▁military ▁affairs . ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 - 3 9 , ▁this ▁office ▁was ▁called ▁the ▁We hr w irtschaft s st ab ▁( Mil itary ▁Econom ics ▁Staff ). ▁ ▁Ang r iff ▁– ▁attack . ▁ ▁Ang rif fs m uster ▁– ▁attack ▁pattern . ▁ ▁Ang rif fs z iel ▁– ▁attack ▁objective . ▁ ▁An s atz ▁( att ack ) ▁– ▁First ▁World ▁War ▁military ▁term , ▁used ▁in ▁National ▁Social ist ▁voc abulary ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁ways ▁as ▁the ▁word ▁Eins atz , ▁though ▁less ▁frequently ; ▁one ▁referred ▁to ▁bringing ▁a ▁piece ▁of ▁equipment , ▁troops ▁or ▁a ▁weapon ▁" z um ▁An s atz " ▁( into ▁attack , ▁or ▁play ). ▁ ▁An sch luss ▁– ▁un ification ▁of ▁Austria ▁and ▁Germany ▁ ▁Ar mee ▁– ▁army , ▁typically ▁a ▁number ed ▁army . ▁ ▁Ar mee ab teil ung ▁– ▁command ▁between ▁a ▁corps ▁and ▁an ▁army , ▁an ▁en larg ed ▁corps ▁headquarters . ▁ ▁Ar me ek or ps ▁– ▁inf antry ▁corps . ▁ ▁Ar mee - N ach richt en - F ühr er ▁– ▁army ▁signals ▁officer , ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁staff ▁H Q ▁of ▁an ▁army . ▁ ▁Ar mee ober kom m ando ▁– ▁field ▁army ▁command . ▁ ▁Ar mee - P ion ier - F ühr er |
▁– ▁army ▁engineer ▁officer , ▁served ▁on ▁the ▁staff ▁H Q ▁of ▁an ▁army . ▁ ▁Ar mee - San itä ts - Ab teil ung ▁– ▁army ▁medical ▁unit . ▁ ▁Art iller ie ▁( Art .) ▁– ▁artillery . ▁ ▁At om w affe ▁– ▁nuclear ▁weapon . ▁ ▁At om krieg ▁– ▁nuclear ▁war . ▁ ▁Auf bau ▁Ost ▁( Build up ▁East ) ▁– ▁code ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁prepar atory ▁measures ▁taken ▁amid ▁great ▁secre cy ▁for ▁the ▁attack ▁on ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union , ▁now ▁known ▁as ▁Operation ▁Bar bar oss a . ▁ ▁auf gel öst ▁– ▁" d iss olved "; ▁dis band ed , ▁written ▁off ▁the ▁order ▁of ▁battle . ▁ ▁Auf kl är ung ▁– ▁recon naissance . ▁ ▁Auf kl är ungs - Ab teil ung ▁– ▁recon naissance ▁unit ▁or ▁batt alion , ▁also ▁used ▁to ▁design ate ▁certain ▁batt alion - sized ▁units . ▁ ▁Auf kl är ung sg ruppe ▁( A uf kl . Gr ., ▁later ▁A Gr ) ▁– ▁" Re con naissance ▁group ", ▁an ▁a erial ▁recon ▁group ▁of ▁the ▁Luft w affe , ▁e . g . ▁Auf kl är ung sg ruppe ▁ 1 1 . ▁ ▁" A u ft au chen !" ▁– ▁" surface ▁the ▁boat ". ▁ ▁Auf trag st akt ik ▁– ▁mission - type ▁tactics , ▁the ▁central ▁component ▁of ▁German ▁war fare ▁since ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁ ▁Aus ▁der ▁Tra um ▁– ▁" |
It ' s ▁over ! ", ▁" It ' s ▁finished ! ", ▁literally , ▁" The ▁dream ▁is ▁over "; ▁a ▁common ▁German ▁phrase ▁for ▁dashed ▁hopes ▁and ▁a ▁sl ogan ▁painted ▁by ▁German ▁soldiers ▁near ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁war ▁express ing ▁the ▁inev it ability ▁of ▁their ▁situation . ▁ ▁Aus führ ung ▁( A us f .) ▁– ▁version , ▁model , ▁variant , ▁batch , ▁for ▁non - av iation ▁related ▁vehicles ▁and ▁ord n ance . ▁ ▁Aus führ ung ! / A us f üh ren ! ▁– ▁command ▁to ▁execute ▁a ▁given ▁order ▁ ▁ausge fall en ▁– ▁statement ▁that ▁equipment ▁is ▁down , ▁has ▁failed , ▁is ▁out ▁of ▁action . ▁ ▁Aus r ü st ung ▁– ▁equipment ▁ ▁Auss ch re it ungen ▁– ▁bloody ▁at roc ities ▁( see ▁Gre uel er z äh l ungen ). ▁ ▁Aus zeichnung ▁– ▁medal , ▁acc ol ade , ▁distinction . ▁ ▁au ßer ▁D ienst ▁( a . D .) ▁– ▁retired ▁( liter ally : ▁out ▁of ▁service ) ▁ ▁B ▁ ▁B - Stand ▁– ▁D ors al ▁( top ▁of ▁fus el age ) ▁defensive ▁gun ner ' s ▁position ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁Back b ord ▁( B b ) ▁– ▁Port ▁side ▁of ▁a ▁ship . ▁ ▁B alk en kre uz ▁– ▁equal - armed ▁black ▁cross ▁fl anked ▁in ▁white , ▁the ▁em blem ▁used ▁on ▁German ▁Empire ▁and ▁Third ▁Reich ▁military ▁aircraft ▁and ▁vehicles |
▁from ▁March / Apr il ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁until ▁V - E ▁Day ▁ ▁Band iten ▁– ▁band its , ▁part is ans ▁in ▁occupied ▁territor ies ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁II ; ▁bew aff net e ▁Band en ▁– ▁armed ▁gang s ; ▁Sold aten ▁in ▁Z ivil kle id ung ▁– ▁soldiers ▁in ▁civilian ▁dress ; ▁( see ▁Frank t ire ure ). ▁ ▁Band en gebiet ▁– ▁territory ▁controlled ▁by ▁part isan ▁squad s ▁in ▁occupied ▁territor ies ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁ ▁Bar bar oss a ▁( Red ▁Be ard ) ▁– ▁code ▁name ▁for ▁the ▁massive ▁Nazi ▁attack ▁against ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union ▁( Operation ▁Bar bar oss a ) ▁which ▁began ▁during ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁and ▁failed ▁miser ably ▁in ▁the ▁end ▁despite ▁early ▁success . ▁Operation ▁Bar bar oss a ▁is ▁the ▁English ▁rendering ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁" Un ter nehmen ▁Bar bar oss a ." ▁Bar bar oss a ▁or ▁` Red be ard ' ▁( F re der ick ▁I ) ▁lived ▁from ▁ 1 1 2 3 ▁AD ▁to ▁ 1 1 9 0 ▁and ▁was ▁both ▁King ▁of ▁Germany ▁and ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁emperor ▁from ▁ 1 1 5 2 – 9 0 . ▁He ▁made ▁a ▁sustained ▁attempt ▁to ▁sub due ▁Italy ▁and ▁the ▁pap acy , ▁but ▁was ▁eventually ▁defeated ▁at ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁Leg n ano ▁in ▁ 1 1 7 6 . ▁He ▁was ▁d rowned ▁in ▁Asia ▁Minor ▁while ▁on ▁his ▁way ▁to ▁the |
▁Third ▁Cr us ade . ▁Non etheless , ▁German ▁super st ition ▁holds ▁to ▁this ▁day ▁and ▁certainly ▁was ▁ev oked ▁by ▁Hitler ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁that ▁Bar bar oss a ▁rest s ▁in ▁a ▁mountain ▁in ▁Germany ▁await ing ▁the ▁moment ▁to ▁emerge ▁and ▁save ▁Germany ▁from ▁certain ▁defeat ▁and ▁to ▁establish ▁German ▁asc end ancy . ▁ ▁B ata illon ▁( B tl .) ▁– ▁batt alion ▁ ▁B ata ill ons adj ut ant ▁– ▁batt alion ▁adj ut ant ▁ ▁B ata ill ons ar zt ▁– ▁batt alion ▁physician ▁ ▁B ata ill ons führ er ▁– ▁substitute ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁ ▁B ata ill ons kom m ande ur ▁– ▁batt alion ▁commander ▁ ▁B ata ill ons v eter in är ▁– ▁batt alion ▁veter in arian ▁ ▁B atter ie ▁( B t tr .) ▁– ▁battery , ▁artillery ▁piece ; ▁also ▁used ▁for ▁an ▁electrical ▁battery . ▁sometimes ▁also ▁called ▁Ak k um ulator , ▁ab bre vi ated ▁as ▁Ak ku . ▁ ▁B atter ie che f ▁– ▁battery ▁commander ▁ ▁B atter ief ühr er ▁– ▁substitute ▁battery ▁commander ▁ ▁B atter ie off iz ier ▁– ▁gun ▁position ▁officer ▁ ▁Ba ub ele hr ung ▁– ▁vessel ▁familiar ization ; ▁when ▁a ▁boat ▁or ▁ship ▁crew ▁studied ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁a ▁new ▁vessel ; ▁see ▁" K LA ." ▁ ▁Ba ub esch reib ung ▁– ▁general ▁arrangement ▁drawing ▁sheet , ▁giving ▁basic ▁dimensions ▁and ▁other ▁measurement ▁& ▁physical |
▁parameters ▁( material s , ▁di hedral ▁angles , ▁etc .), ▁of ▁either ▁German ▁front ▁line ; ▁or ▁Be ute /" c apt ured " ▁All ied ▁aircraft , ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁The ▁same ▁term ▁was ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁Third ▁Reich ▁era ▁for ▁more ▁comprehensive , ▁multi - page ▁technical ▁document ▁works ▁for ▁factory ▁proposals ▁concerning ▁combat ▁aircraft ▁designs ▁to ▁the ▁R LM ▁and ▁Luft w affe . ▁ ▁Bau p ion ier ▁– ▁army ▁construction ▁engineer . ▁ ▁B - D ienst ▁– ▁Be ob acht ung sd ienst , ▁literally , ▁" observ ation ▁service "; ▁German ▁Navy ▁crypt anal yt ical ▁department . ▁ ▁B DM ▁Bund ▁Deutsch er ▁M ä del ▁– ▁League ▁of ▁German ▁Girls , ▁the ▁girls ' ▁segment ▁of ▁the ▁Hitler ▁Youth . ▁ ▁B . ▁d . ▁U . ▁– ▁B efe hl sh ab er ▁der ▁U - Boot e ▁– ▁Commander - in - Ch ief ▁of ▁the ▁U - bo ats ▁( Ad m iral ▁Karl ▁D ön itz ); ▁see ▁F d U . ▁ ▁B efe hl ▁( pl . ▁B ef eh le ) ▁– ▁order , ▁command . ▁" Z u ▁B efe hl !" ▁was ▁an ▁affirm ative ▁phrase ▁on ▁par ▁with ▁" J a wo hl ". ▁ ▁B efe hl sh ab er ▁– ▁commander - in - ch ief ; ▁lit . ▁" one ▁who ▁has ▁( the ▁power ▁to ▁issue ) ▁commands ." ▁Sometimes ▁also ▁used ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁headquarters |
▁of ▁a ▁C - in - C ▁as ▁an ▁alternative ▁to ▁Haupt qu art ier . ▁ ▁Ben zin ▁– ▁gas oline , ▁pet rol . ▁ ▁Ben z int ank ▁– ▁fuel ▁tank . ▁ ▁Be ob ach ter ▁– ▁artillery ▁or ▁air ▁observer ▁ ▁Be ob acht ung so ff iz ier ▁– ▁Art illery ▁observer ▁ ▁Be ob acht ung sw agen ▁– ▁observation ▁or ▁recon naissance ▁vehicle . ▁ ▁Bere its chaft ▁– ▁read iness . ▁ ▁Ber ge pan zer ▁– ▁arm oured ▁recovery ▁vehicle . ▁ ▁Berlin ▁radar ▁– ▁most ▁advanced ▁air borne ▁inter cept ▁radar ▁of ▁the ▁W W ▁II ▁Luft w affe ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 - 4 5 , ▁based ▁on ▁captured ▁c avity ▁magnet ron ▁technology , ▁operated ▁on ▁SH F - band ▁ 3 . 3 G Hz ▁frequency ▁ ▁Besch l ags ch m ied ▁– ▁black smith ; ▁see ▁H uf b esch l ags ch m ied . ▁ ▁Bet rieb st off ▁– ▁fuel . ▁ ▁Be ut ep an zer ▁– ▁captured ▁tank ▁or ▁arm oured ▁vehicle . ▁ ▁Bew ähr ung se in heit ▁– ▁prob ation ary ▁unit . ▁ ▁B K ▁– ▁B ord kan one . ▁heavy - cal ib re ▁( us ually ▁over ▁ 3 0 mm ) ▁can non ▁for ▁offensive ▁use ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁Bl as en ▁– ▁U - boat ▁order ; ▁" Bl ow ▁the ▁tanks !" ▁ ▁B le chk oll |
er ▁– ▁" t in ▁fright "; ▁in ▁U - bo ats , ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁nervous ▁tension ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁caused ▁by ▁depth ▁charge ▁attacks ▁and ▁resulted ▁in ▁violence ▁or ▁h yst eria . ▁ ▁B le chk raw atte ▁– ▁" t in ▁neck t ie ," ▁sl ang ▁for ▁the ▁Knight ' s ▁Cross ▁ ▁Bl itz krieg ▁– ▁" light ning ▁war "; ▁not ▁a ▁widely ▁used ▁German ▁military ▁term , ▁this ▁word ▁became ▁popular ▁in ▁the ▁All ied ▁press ▁and ▁initially ▁referred ▁to ▁fast - m oving ▁battle ▁tactics ▁developed ▁princip ally ▁by ▁German ▁military ▁the or ists , ▁most ▁notably ▁Er win ▁Rom mel , ▁He inz ▁G ud er ian , ▁and ▁Er ich ▁von ▁Man stein , ▁using ▁mass ed ▁tanks ▁and ▁ground - att ack ▁bom bers ▁to ▁speed ily ▁pen et rate ▁enemy ▁lines ▁at ▁points ▁and ▁move ▁to ▁their ▁rear , ▁causing ▁confusion ▁and ▁panic ▁among ▁enemy ▁forces . ▁ ▁Bl au kre uz ▁– ▁chemical ▁war fare ▁agent ▁consisting ▁of ▁ar sen ic ▁comp ounds , ▁resp ir atory ▁poison ▁ ▁B ola ▁– ▁contr action ▁of ▁Bod en l af ette , ▁a ▁lightly ▁arm oured ▁cas em ate - style ▁of ▁bul ged ▁vent ral ▁defensive ▁gun ner ' s ▁position , ▁using ▁only ▁flexible ▁( unt ur ret ed ) ▁weapon ▁mount s , ▁a ▁common ▁fit ment ▁on ▁German ▁bom ber ▁aircraft ▁designs , ▁usually ▁under ▁the ▁nose . ▁ ▁B om ber ▁B ▁– ▁the ▁abort |
ive ▁World ▁War ▁II - era ▁av iation ▁contract ▁competition ▁meant ▁to ▁replace ▁all ▁previous ▁Luft w affe ▁medium ▁bom bers ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁design , ▁meant ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁all ▁but ▁the ▁longest - range ▁missions , ▁and ▁function ▁as ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁medium ▁and ▁heavy ▁bom ber , ▁and ▁meant ▁to ▁be ▁powered ▁by ▁a ▁pair ▁of ▁high - output ▁av iation ▁pist on ▁engines ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁J unk ers ▁J um o ▁ 2 2 2 . ▁ ▁Bro t be ut el ▁– ▁ha vers ack ▁ ▁Br ü cke ▁– ▁bridge . ▁Can ▁mean ▁either ▁the ▁road ▁structure ▁or ▁a ▁ship ' s ▁command ▁center , ▁also ▁the ▁supporting ▁framework ▁that ▁existed ▁below ▁the ▁bird - like ▁mon opl ane ▁wings ▁of ▁the ▁earlier ▁examples ▁of ▁the ▁E tr ich ▁Ta ube ▁before ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁ ▁Br ück en le ger ▁– ▁br id gel ayer . ▁ ▁Br um mb är ▁– ▁" gr umbling ▁bear "; ▁a ▁children ' s ▁word ▁for ▁" bear " ▁in ▁German . ▁It ▁was ▁the ▁nick name ▁for ▁a ▁heavy ▁mobile ▁artillery ▁piece . ▁ ▁Bundes ▁– ▁federal . ▁ ▁Bundes we hr ▁– ▁" F ederal ▁Defense ▁Force ", ▁name ▁adopted ▁for ▁the ▁West ▁German ▁armed ▁forces ▁after ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Third ▁Reich . ▁( Bet ween ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and ▁ 1 9 5 5 ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁German ▁army .) ▁The ▁Bundes we hr ▁consists ▁of ▁the ▁He er ▁( |
Ar my ), ▁Luft w affe ▁( Air ▁Force ) ▁and ▁Marine ▁( N avy ), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁( since ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 9 0 s ) ▁the ▁Stre it kr ä fte bas is ▁( J oint ▁Service ▁Support ▁Command ) ▁and ▁Zent ral er ▁San itä ts d ienst ▁( Cent ral ▁Medical ▁Service ). ▁ ▁Bür ger ▁– ▁citizen . ▁ ▁Bür ger krieg ▁– ▁civil ▁war . ▁ ▁C ▁ ▁C - Stand ▁– ▁vent ral ▁( und ers ide ▁of ▁fus el age ) ▁defensive ▁gun ner ' s ▁position ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁Che f ▁– ▁commander ▁of ▁a ▁unit ▁or ▁sub - unit , ▁e . g . ▁Reg iments che f . ▁A ▁substitute ▁in ▁case ▁of ▁absence ▁would ▁be ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Reg iments führ er ▁etc . ▁ ▁Che f ▁des ▁General st ab es ▁– ▁Chief ▁of ▁the ▁General ▁Staff . ▁ ▁Cond or ▁Leg ion ▁– ▁volunteer ▁forces ▁of ▁the ▁We h rm acht ▁and ▁Luft w affe ▁( 6 0 0 0 ▁or ▁more ▁strong ) ▁sent ▁by ▁Hitler ▁to ▁assist ▁Franco ▁during ▁the ▁Spanish ▁Civil ▁War ▁( 1 9 3 6 ) ▁on ▁the ▁st ip ulations ▁that ▁it ▁remained ▁exclusively ▁under ▁German ▁command . ▁The ▁a erial ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁Cond or ▁Leg ion ▁gained ▁not or iety ▁for ▁their ▁comprehensive ▁bomb ing ▁of ▁the ▁Spanish ▁rebel ▁lines ▁and ▁the ▁surrounding ▁civilian ▁centers , ▁most ▁notably ▁the ▁Spanish ▁city ▁of ▁Gu ern ica ▁on ▁April |
▁ 2 7 , ▁ 1 9 3 7 . ▁After ▁the ▁successful ▁util ization ▁of ▁the ▁Cond or ▁Leg ion , ▁a ▁home coming ▁par ade ▁was ▁held ▁in ▁Berlin ▁on ▁ 6 ▁June ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁to ▁honor ▁the ▁ 3 0 0 ▁Germans ▁who ▁died ▁fighting ▁in ▁the ▁campaign . ▁ ▁D ▁ ▁D ach sch aden ▁– ▁" ro of ▁damage "; ▁a ▁head ▁wound , ▁more ▁commonly ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁" g one ▁bon kers ", ▁" Section ▁ 8 " ▁ ▁D aim ler - B enz ▁( DB ) ▁– ▁a ▁producer ▁of ▁military ▁vehicles , ▁and ▁engines ▁to ▁power ▁both ▁German ▁aircraft ▁and ▁surface ▁vehicles . ▁ ▁De ck ung ▁— ▁Cover . ▁" In ▁De ck ung !" ▁means ▁" Take ▁cover ! ", ▁and ▁" In ▁De ck ung ▁ble ib en !" ▁means ▁" St ay ▁under ▁cover !" ▁Comp are ▁T arn ung , ▁meaning ▁" con ce al ment " ▁or ▁" cam ou fl age ". ▁▁ ▁De uts ches ▁Af rik ak or ps ▁( DA K ) ▁– ▁German ▁troops ▁sent ▁to ▁North ▁Africa ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Er win ▁Rom mel ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁Lib ya ▁to ▁the ▁British ▁by ▁the ▁Ital ians . ▁The ▁term ▁is ▁properly ▁used ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁Rom mel ' s ▁original ▁force ▁of ▁two ▁divisions ▁that ▁landed ▁in ▁Lib ya ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁( which ▁stayed |
▁as ▁a ▁distinct ▁formation ▁for ▁the ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁North ▁African ▁Campaign ), ▁but ▁often ▁refers ▁to ▁all ▁German ▁forces ▁that ▁operated ▁in ▁North ▁Africa , ▁eventually ▁consisting ▁of ▁several ▁divisions ▁and ▁corps ▁and ▁formed ▁into ▁an ▁entire ▁Pan zer ▁Army . ▁ ▁De utsche ▁Aus r ü st ung swer ke ▁( DA W ; ▁German ▁Arm ament ▁Works ) ▁– ▁an ▁arm aments ▁organization ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁under ▁SS ▁control . ▁ ▁De utsche ▁Min en rä um le itung ▁( DM RL ) ▁– ▁German ▁mine - s we eping ▁group ▁ ▁D ienst ▁– ▁service . ▁ ▁Division ▁– ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁and ▁air ▁force ▁a ▁military ▁formation , ▁in ▁the ▁navy ▁either ▁a ▁sub - unit ▁of ▁a ▁squad ron ▁or ▁train ings ▁units ▁of ▁batt alion ▁size . ▁ ▁Div isions ar zt ▁– ▁medical ▁officer ▁of ▁a ▁division . ▁ ▁Div isions kom m ande ur ▁– ▁command ing ▁officer ▁of ▁a ▁division , ▁typically ▁a ▁General ▁officer . ▁In ▁the ▁imperial ▁army ▁this ▁was ▁the ▁post ▁of ▁a ▁General le ut nant . ▁ ▁D ien std ol ch ▁– ▁service ▁d agger ▁( uniform ▁d agger ). ▁ ▁Don ner b alk en ▁– ▁" th under ▁beam "; ▁lat r ine . ▁ ▁D ra ht ver h au ▁– ▁bar bed - wire ▁ent ang lement . ▁S lang ▁term ▁used ▁by ▁German ▁soldiers ▁during ▁World ▁Wars ▁I ▁and ▁II ▁for ▁a ▁military - issue ▁mixture ▁of ▁dried |
▁vegetables . ▁ ▁Dr ang ▁nach ▁O sten ▁– ▁" Push ▁to ▁the ▁East ", ▁Germany ' s ▁amb itions ▁for ▁territor ial ▁expansion ▁into ▁Eastern ▁Europe . ▁ ▁D ü pp el ▁– ▁German ▁code ▁name ▁for ▁radar ▁ch aff , ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Royal ▁Air ▁Force ▁as ▁Window , ▁possibly ▁from ▁d ü p ieren ▁( to ▁du pe ). ▁or ▁from ▁a ▁sub urb ▁of ▁Berlin ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁name , ▁where ▁it ▁was ▁alleg edly ▁first ▁found ▁near . ▁ ▁E ▁ ▁E agle ' s ▁N est ▁– ▁English ▁name ▁given ▁to ▁Hitler ' s ▁mountain - top ▁summer house ▁at ▁Ber ch tes g aden ▁in ▁the ▁B av arian ▁Al ps , ▁not ▁far ▁from ▁the ▁Ber gh of . ▁In ▁German , ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Ke hl stein haus . ▁Hitler , ▁however , ▁visited ▁the ▁property ▁only ▁ten ▁times ▁and ▁each ▁visit ▁was ▁under ▁ 3 0 ▁minutes . ▁ ▁E G ▁z . b . ▁V . ▁– ▁Eins atz g ruppe ▁zur ▁bes onder en ▁Ver wend ung ▁– ▁SS ▁Special ▁Pur pose ▁Oper ational ▁Group . ▁ ▁E h rend ol ch ▁– ▁literally , ▁" hon or ▁d agger ", ▁a ▁presentation ▁d agger ▁awarded ▁for ▁individual ▁recognition , ▁especially ▁by ▁the ▁SS . ▁ ▁E ichen la ub tr äger ▁– ▁holder ▁of ▁Oak ▁Le aves ▁to ▁the ▁Knight ' s ▁Cross ▁of ▁the ▁Iron ▁Cross . ▁ ▁E id ▁– ▁o ath . ▁The ▁current ▁o |
ath ▁when ▁joining ▁the ▁Bundes we hr ▁is ▁" I ch ▁gel obe , ▁der ▁Bundes re pub lik ▁Deutschland ▁tre u ▁zu ▁di enen , ▁und ▁das ▁Re cht ▁und ▁die ▁Fre i heit ▁des ▁deutschen ▁Vol kes ▁tap fer ▁zu ▁ver te id igen " ▁(" I ▁pl edge ▁to ▁faith fully ▁serve ▁the ▁Federal ▁Republic ▁of ▁Germany ▁and ▁to ▁br av ely ▁defend ▁the ▁right ▁[ law ] ▁and ▁the ▁freedom ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁people "). ▁For ▁soldiers ▁joining ▁for ▁an ▁extended ▁period ▁of ▁time ▁beyond ▁the ▁mandatory ▁con scription ▁of ▁nine ▁months , ▁" so ▁w ahr ▁mir ▁Gott ▁hel fe " ▁(" so ▁help ▁me ▁God ") ▁is ▁option ally ▁added . ▁ ▁Ein fall ▁– ▁invasion . ▁ ▁E ing esch loss en ▁– ▁enc ir c lement , ▁surrounded , ▁cut ▁off . ▁ ▁E ing re if ▁division ▁– ▁inter lock ing ▁( counter - att ack ) ▁division ▁( 1 9 1 7 – 1 9 1 8 ). ▁ ▁Ein heit ▁– ▁det achment ▁or ▁unit . ▁ ▁Ein he its feld m üt ze ▁– ▁standard ▁field ▁cap ▁ ▁Eins atz ▁– ▁duty , ▁mission , ▁deployment , ▁action . ▁ ▁Eins atz bere it ▁– ▁statement ▁meaning , ▁" Ready ▁for ▁action ." ▁ ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁– ▁" mission ▁groups ", ▁or ▁" task ▁forces ". ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁were ▁batt alion - sized , ▁mobile ▁killing ▁units ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁Si Po , ▁SD ▁or ▁SS ▁Special |
▁Action ▁G roups ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁R SHA . ▁They ▁followed ▁the ▁We h rm acht ▁into ▁occupied ▁territor ies ▁of ▁Eastern ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁These ▁units ▁were ▁supported ▁by ▁units ▁of ▁the ▁uniform ed ▁German ▁Order ▁Police ▁( Or po ) ▁and ▁aux ili aries ▁of ▁volunteers ▁( E ston ian , ▁Lat v ian , ▁L ith uan ian , ▁and ▁Ukrain ian ). ▁Their ▁victims , ▁primarily ▁Jews , ▁were ▁executed ▁by ▁shooting ▁and ▁were ▁buried ▁in ▁mass ▁gr aves ▁from ▁which ▁they ▁were ▁later ▁ex hum ed ▁and ▁burned . ▁At ▁least ▁a ▁million ▁Jews ▁were ▁killed ▁in ▁this ▁manner . ▁There ▁were ▁four ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁( A , ▁B , ▁C , ▁D ), ▁which ▁were ▁sub div ided ▁into ▁company - sized ▁Eins atz kom mand os . ▁ ▁Eins atz kom m ando ▁– ▁company - sized ▁sub units ▁of ▁the ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁that ▁took ▁care ▁of ▁the ▁mobil ization ▁and ▁killing ▁of ▁Jews , ▁part is ans , ▁Commun ists ▁and ▁others ▁during ▁the ▁German ▁invasion ▁into ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union . ▁ ▁Eins atz ▁Rein hard ▁( M ission / Action ▁" Re in hard ") ▁– ▁code ▁name ▁given ▁on ▁June ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁for ▁the ▁assignment ▁to ▁ex termin ate ▁all ▁Polish ▁Jews ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁SS ▁Deputy ▁Chief ▁Rein hard ▁Hey dr ich ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁assass inated ▁by ▁Czech ▁national ists ▁during ▁a ▁co vert ▁operation . |
▁ ▁Eins atz tr upp ▁( T ro op ▁Task ▁Force ) ▁– ▁smallest ▁of ▁the ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁units ▁responsible ▁for ▁liquid ations ▁in ▁the ▁German ▁occupied ▁territor ies . ▁ ▁Einwohner ▁– ▁resident , ▁inhabit ant . ▁ ▁Eisen bahn ▁– ▁" iron ▁road "; ▁rail road . ▁ ▁E is ern es ▁Kre uz ▁– ▁" iron ▁cross "; ▁medal ▁awarded ▁for ▁val orous ▁service , ▁and ▁the ▁German ▁national ▁military ▁ins ign ia ▁from ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁to ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁spring ▁ 1 9 1 8 , ▁and ▁once ▁again ▁from ▁ 1 9 5 5 ▁( with ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁Bundes we hr ) ▁to ▁today . ▁ ▁E iser ne ▁K uh ▁– ▁" iron ▁cow "; ▁ev apor ated ▁milk ▁ ▁E iser ne ▁R ation ▁– ▁" iron ▁r ation "; ▁emergency ▁r ations ▁ ▁El ▁Al ame in ▁( Oct ober – N ovember ▁ 1 9 4 2 ) ▁– ▁crucial ▁battle ▁of ▁W W 2 ▁p itting ▁the ▁British ▁under ▁General ▁Mont gomery ' s ▁ 8 th ▁Army ▁( appro xim ately ▁ 1 2 0 0 ▁tanks ) ▁against ▁General ▁Er win ▁Rom mel ' s ▁Af rika ▁Kor ps ▁( 5 0 0 ▁tanks ) ▁and ▁fought ▁primarily ▁in ▁Egypt . ▁Out number ed ▁and ▁out g unned , ▁the ▁Germans ▁never ▁reg ained ▁the ▁operational ▁initiative , ▁forcing ▁Rom mel ▁to ▁withdraw ▁the ▁bulk ▁of ▁his ▁forces ▁into ▁Lib ya , ▁mark ing |
▁the ▁final ▁stages ▁of ▁the ▁Naz is ' ▁North ▁African ▁campaign . ▁ ▁Ele f ant ▁– ▁" E le phant "; ▁a ▁heavy ▁Pan zer j äger ▁( t ank ▁hun ter ▁or ▁tank ▁destroy er ) ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁ch ass is ▁of ▁P ors che ' s ▁un successful ▁pro tot ypes ▁for ▁the ▁T iger ▁tank , ▁and ▁mount ing ▁the ▁ 8 8 mm ▁L / 7 1 ▁Pa K ▁ 4 3 . ▁ ▁Ele k tra ▁– ▁a ▁German ▁radio - nav ig ational ▁system . ▁ ▁End l ös ung ▁or ▁End z iel ▁– ▁the ▁" Final ▁Solution "; ▁refers ▁to ▁the ▁gen oc ide ▁planned ▁against ▁the ▁Jewish ▁people . ▁ ▁End s ieg ▁– ▁final ▁victory . ▁ ▁En igma ▁– ▁German ▁message ▁encryption ▁equipment . ▁ ▁Ent ente ich ▁– ▁duck ▁p ond , ▁mar itime ▁man oe uv re ▁to ▁create ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁calm ▁sea ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁lower ▁boats ▁into ▁the ▁water ▁or ▁land ▁aircraft ▁ ▁Ent m ens cht ▁– ▁best ial , ▁in human , ▁brut ish . ▁ ▁Ent sche id ender ▁Sie g ▁– ▁decis ive ▁victory . ▁ ▁Ent wicklung ▁series , ▁more ▁commonly ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁E - series , ▁was ▁a ▁late - World ▁War ▁II ▁attempt ▁by ▁Germany ▁to ▁produce ▁a ▁standard ised ▁series ▁of ▁tank ▁designs . ▁ ▁E re ign ism eld ung ▁( ER M : ▁Oper ational ▁Report ) ▁– ▁Eins atz gru ppen ▁command ers |
' ▁report ▁delivered ▁daily ▁to ▁the ▁Reich ss icher heit sh aupt amt ▁R SHA ▁in ▁Berlin ▁which ▁comprehens ively ▁listed ▁secret ly ▁c oded ▁murder ▁activities ▁in ▁the ▁occupied ▁territor ies ▁along ▁the ▁Eastern ▁Front . ▁ ▁E ro bert ▁– ▁conqu ered . ▁ ▁Er k enn ung sm ar ke ▁– ▁identity ▁tag ; ▁" dog ▁tag ". ▁ ▁Er prob ungs st elle ▁– ▁test ▁centre . ▁ ▁Er s atz ▁– ▁substitute , ▁replacement , ▁reserves ; ▁could ▁refer ▁to ▁replacement ▁troops ▁or ▁any ▁substance ▁used ▁in ▁place ▁of ▁another ▁( e . g ., ▁ers atz ▁coffee , ▁ers atz ▁rubber , ▁etc .). ▁ ▁Er s atz b ata ill one ▁or ▁Mars ch b ata ill one ▁– ▁co herent ▁military ▁replacement ▁groups . ▁ ▁Er sch ie ß ungs akt ion ▁– ▁Sh oot ing ▁action ▁usually ▁carried ▁out ▁by ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁a ▁firing ▁squad ▁( Er sch ie ß ung sk omm ando ). ▁ ▁Et append ienst ▁– ▁German ▁naval ▁intelligence ▁department . ▁ ▁Et app ensch we in ▁– ▁( sl ang ) ▁" re ar ▁sw ine " ▁( RE MF ), ▁a ▁soldier ▁with ▁a ▁safe ▁job ▁away ▁from ▁danger . ▁Comp are ▁with ▁Front sch we in . ▁ ▁Ex er z ier pan zer ▁– ▁practice ▁or ▁exercise ▁tank . ▁ ▁Ex z ell enz ▁– ▁honor ary ▁address ▁for ▁a ▁General ▁officer ▁from ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁General le ut nant ▁up wards ▁in ▁the ▁Pr |
ussian ▁and ▁Imperial ▁Army ▁ ▁F ▁ ▁F ah nd ung ▁F unk ▁( F . ▁Fu .: ▁Radio ▁Search ) ▁– ▁department ▁of ▁German ▁Military ▁Intelligence ▁task ed ▁to ▁locate ▁for bidden ▁radio ▁transmit ters ▁in ▁France . ▁ ▁F ah ne ▁( pl . ▁F ah nen ) ▁– ▁flag ▁or ▁b anner . ▁ ▁F ah nen j unk er ▁– ▁lowest ▁officer ▁candidate ▁rank ▁equivalent ▁to ▁Unter off iz ier ▁( Cor por al ) ▁ ▁F ah nen fl ucht ▁– ▁desert ion ▁ ▁F ahn ensch m ied ▁– ▁far rier ▁N CO ▁ ▁F äh n le in ▁( S quad ) ▁– ▁unit ▁of ▁the ▁De uts ches ▁Jung vol k ▁within ▁the ▁Hitler ▁Youth . ▁ ▁F äh n rich ▁– ▁officer ▁candidate ▁rank ▁equivalent ▁to ▁F eld web el ▁( Ser ge ant ). ▁A ▁F äh n rich ▁is ▁an ▁N CO , ▁though , ▁and ▁will ▁have ▁comm ens urable ▁tasks . ▁ ▁F äh n rich ▁zur ▁See ▁– ▁naval ▁officer ▁candidate ▁rank ▁equivalent ▁to ▁Boot sm ann ▁( Pet ty ▁Officer ▁ 1 st ▁Class ). ▁A ▁F äh n rich ▁zur ▁See ▁is ▁an ▁N CO , ▁though , ▁and ▁will ▁have ▁comm ens urable ▁tasks . ▁ ▁Fall ▁– ▁" case ." ▁A ▁name ▁for ▁a ▁German ▁operation . ▁The ▁most ▁important ▁German ▁off ens ives ▁were ▁called ▁" cases ," ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁viewed ▁as ▁problems ▁to ▁be ▁solved . ▁ ▁Fall sch irm j äger |
▁– ▁par atro op ers ; ▁German ▁air borne ▁troops . ▁ ▁F d M ▁– ▁F ühr er ▁der ▁Min ens uch boot e ▁ ▁F d U ▁– ▁F ühr er ▁der ▁Unter se eb oot e ; ▁Commander - in - Ch ief ▁of ▁U - bo ats ▁( used ▁from ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁to ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁when ▁the ▁title ▁was ▁reduced ▁to ▁" Reg ional ▁Commander "). ▁ ▁F d V ▁– ▁F ühr er ▁der ▁Vor post en boot e ▁ ▁Fe ig ling ▁– ▁cow ard . ▁ ▁Fe ind ▁– ▁enemy . ▁" Fe ind lich - " ▁is ▁used ▁as ▁an ▁ad ject ive , ▁such ▁as ▁" fe ind liche ▁Tru ppen " ▁( en emy ▁troops ) ▁or ▁" fe ind liche ▁St ell ung " ▁( en emy ▁position ). ▁ ▁Fe ind f ah rt ▁– ▁" en emy ▁trip "; ▁in ▁U - boat ▁termin ology , ▁a ▁war ▁cruise ▁or ▁combat ▁patrol ▁against ▁the ▁enemy . ▁ ▁Fe ind bild ▁– ▁" en emy ▁image "; ▁prejud iced ▁' b oge yman ' ▁image ▁of ▁the ▁enemy . ▁ ▁F eld ▁– ▁field . ▁ ▁F eld ers atz bat all ion ▁– ▁field ▁replacement ▁batt alion , ▁usually ▁one ▁per ▁inf antry ▁division . ▁ ▁F eld fl as che ▁– ▁can teen . ▁ ▁F eld fl ie ger ▁Ab teil ung ▁– ▁" field ▁air men ' s ▁section ", ▁ab bre |
vi ated ▁as ▁" FF A ". ▁The ▁earliest ▁form ▁of ▁Fl ie ger tr up pe ▁German ▁Army ▁( De uts ches ▁He er ) ▁flying ▁unit ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I , ▁first ▁formed ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 4 ▁with ▁six ▁two - se ater ▁observation ▁aircraft ▁per ▁unit . ▁ ▁F eld g endar mer ie ▁– ▁Field ▁G endar mer ie ▁or ▁" Field ▁Police ", ▁the ▁military ▁police ▁units ▁of ▁the ▁We h rm acht . ▁ ▁F eld gra u ▁– ▁" field ▁gray "; ▁the ▁color ▁of ▁the ▁ordinary ▁German ▁soldier ' s ▁t unic ▁– ▁by ▁extension ▁the ▁soldiers ▁themselves . ▁ ▁F eld j äger ▁– ▁military ▁police ▁det ach ments ▁formed ▁late ▁in ▁the ▁war ▁to ▁root ▁out ▁des er ters ; ▁later ▁the ▁name ▁was ▁applied ▁to ▁all ▁military ▁police ▁units ▁of ▁the ▁post war ▁Bundes we hr . ▁ ▁F eld k och ▁– ▁cook . ▁ ▁F eld l az are tt ▁– ▁field ▁hospital . ▁ ▁F eld pol ize ibe am ter ▁– ▁field ▁police ▁officer . ▁ ▁F eld post , ▁F eld post brief ▁– ▁mail ▁to ▁and ▁from ▁troops ▁at ▁the ▁front . ▁ ▁F eld web el ▁– ▁non - comm ission ed ▁rank ▁in ▁the ▁He er ▁and ▁Luft w affe , ▁the ▁most ▁junior ▁of ▁the ▁" Un ter off izi ere ▁mit ▁Port e pe e " ▁( sen ior ▁N CO ) ▁ranks . ▁Appro xim ately ▁equal ▁to ▁ser |
ge ant . ▁ ▁F eld z ug ▁– ▁military ▁campaign ▁ ▁Fer ng las ▁– ▁bin oc ular s ; ▁literally ▁" remote ▁glass ". ▁ ▁Fern mel de - ▁– ▁tele commun ication . ▁ ▁Fern sp re ch - ▁– ▁telephone . ▁ ▁Fest ung ▁– ▁fort ress . ▁ ▁" Fe uer ▁auf ▁me in ▁Kom m ando " ▁– ▁" fire ▁on ▁my ▁command ". ▁ ▁" Fe uer ▁Fre i " ▁– ▁" fire ▁at ▁will ". ▁ ▁Fe u ers ch utz ▁– ▁suppress ive ▁fire , ▁covering ▁fire . ▁ ▁Fe uer wer ker ▁– ▁ord n ance ▁N CO ▁ ▁F la K ▁– ▁Fl ie ger ab we hr kan one , ▁Fl ug ( zeug ) ab we hr kan one ▁– ▁air ▁defense ▁gun ; ▁anti - air craft ▁artillery ▁( AA A ) ▁( e . g ., ▁the ▁" eight y - eight "). ▁ ▁F la K - H elf er ▁– ▁" F la K ▁helper "; ▁often ▁under aged ▁aux ili aries ▁used ▁to ▁load ▁and ▁operate ▁F la K ▁batteries ▁and ▁man ▁search light ▁batteries . ▁ ▁Fl ak pan zer ▁– ▁arm oured ▁self - prop elled ▁ant ia ir craft ▁gun , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁M ö bel w agen . ▁ ▁Fl ak vier ling ▁– ▁anti - air craft , ▁open ▁tur ret - style ▁weapon ▁system ▁employ ing ▁a ▁quart et ▁( vier ling ) ▁of ▁ 2 0 mm |
▁aut oc annon , ▁employed ▁on ▁land , ▁in ▁self - prop elled ▁mount s ▁and ▁on ▁ships . ▁ ▁Fl am mp an zer ▁– ▁flame - throw ing ▁tank . ▁ ▁Fl ammen wer fer ▁– ▁flame - throw er . ▁ ▁Fle ck t arn ▁– ▁spotted ▁cam ou fl age . ▁ ▁Fl ie ger ab we hr - Ab teil ung ▁– ▁anti - air craft ▁batt alion . ▁ ▁Fl ie ger ab we hr kan one ▁– ▁see ▁F la K . ▁ ▁Fl ie ger b om be ▁( F li Bo ) ▁– ▁a erial ▁bomb ▁ ▁Fl ie ger div ision ▁– ▁lit . ▁Flight ▁division . ▁ ▁Fl ie ger kor ps ▁– ▁lit . ▁Flight ▁corps ▁ ▁Fl ie gers ch w ert ▁– ▁air man ' s ▁sword ▁( part ▁of ▁an ▁officer ' s ▁reg alia ). ▁ ▁Fl ie ger tr up pe ▁– ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁official ▁name ▁( Die ▁Fl ie ger tr upp en ▁des ▁De utschen ▁K ais erre iches ) ▁of ▁the ▁Imperial ▁German ▁Army ▁Air ▁Service , ▁existing ▁under ▁that ▁name ▁from ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁to ▁October ▁ 1 9 1 6 , ▁when ▁it ▁was ▁re organ ized ▁as ▁the ▁Luft stre it kr ä fte . ▁ ▁Fl otte ▁– ▁naval ▁fleet ▁ ▁Fl ott ille ▁( Fl .) ▁– ▁fl ot illa . ▁ ▁Fl ucht ▁nach ▁v orn ▁– ▁" fl ight ▁to ▁the ▁front "; |
▁trying ▁to ▁assault ▁rather ▁than ▁wait ▁or ▁retreat ▁while ▁under ▁threat . ▁ ▁Fl ü cht lings l ager ▁– ▁refuge e ▁camp . ▁ ▁Fl ü gel mann ▁– ▁wing man ▁ ▁Fl ug b om be ▁V - 1 ▁( V - 1 ▁flying ▁bomb ) ▁– ▁pulse - jet ▁engine ▁powered ▁flying ▁bomb ▁carrying ▁high - expl os ive ▁war head ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁All ies ▁as ▁the ▁" b uzz ▁bomb ". ▁ ▁Fl ug zeug ▁– ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁Fl ug ( zeug ) ab we hr kan one ▁– ▁see ▁F la K . ▁ ▁Fl ug zeug tr äger ▁– ▁aircraft ▁carrier . ▁ ▁Fl uten ▁– ▁U - boat ▁order ; ▁" F lo od ▁the ▁tanks !" ▁ ▁F orsch ungs amt ▁– ▁intelligence ▁service ▁of ▁the ▁Luft w affe . ▁ ▁For st sch utz ▁– ▁Forest ▁Police ▁( see ▁Or dn ung sp ol ize i ) ▁ ▁Fr ach ter ▁– ▁fre ighter . ▁ ▁Frank t ire ure ▁– ▁terror ists ; ▁( see ▁Fre isch är ler ). ▁ ▁Frank t ire ur krieg ▁– ▁terrorist ▁war fare . ▁ ▁F reg atten kap it än ▁– ▁naval ▁rank , ▁literally ▁meaning ▁" fr igate ▁captain ", ▁in ▁between ▁Kor vet ten kap it än ▁and ▁Kap it än ▁zur ▁See . ▁Command ed ▁a ▁light ▁cru iser , ▁or ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁executive ▁officer ▁on ▁a ▁capital ▁ship , ▁hence ▁often ▁translated ▁as ▁commander ▁ ▁Fre ik or |
ps ▁– ▁volunteer ▁corps ▁( see ▁Fre iw ill ige ). ▁The ▁Fre ik or ps ▁was ▁an ▁early ▁volunteer ▁param il itary ▁organizations ▁formed ▁in ▁the ▁wake ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁defeat ▁in ▁the ▁First ▁World ▁War ▁making ▁up ▁the ▁German ▁army ▁in ▁lieu ▁of ▁the ▁restrictions ▁mand ated ▁by ▁the ▁Treat y ▁of ▁Vers a illes ; ▁they ▁consisted ▁primarily ▁of ▁dem obil ized ▁soldiers , ▁dis ill usion ed ▁young ▁men , ▁and ▁fan at ical ▁conservative ▁national ists ▁who ▁bl amed ▁Social ▁Democrats , ▁Jews , ▁and ▁commun ists ▁for ▁Germany ' s ▁problems . ▁ ▁Fre isch är ler ▁– ▁ir regular ▁or ▁gu err illa ▁( see ▁W ider stand sk rä fte ). ▁ ▁Fre isch är ler un w esen ▁– ▁" pes ter ing ▁by ▁gu err illas "; ▁gu err illa ▁activities ▁or ▁terrorist ▁incidents . ▁ ▁Fre iw ill ige ▁– ▁volunteer . ▁ ▁F rem de ▁He ere ▁Ost / West ▁( F HO / F HW ) ▁– ▁Foreign ▁Arm ies ▁East / West , ▁staff ▁intelligence ▁specialist ▁on ▁the ▁subject . ▁ ▁Fried en ▁– ▁peace . ▁ ▁F ritz - X ▁– ▁The ▁Luft w affe ' s ▁radio - cont rolled ▁gl ide ▁bomb , ▁pre cursor ▁to ▁today ' s ▁" smart ▁weapons " ▁or ▁PG Ms . ▁ ▁Fr on ter le b nis ▁– ▁front ▁experience . ▁Fr on ter le b nis ▁was ▁a ▁literary ▁genre ▁which ▁romantic ized ▁the ▁war ▁experience ▁and ▁the |
▁cam ar ader ie ▁of ▁being ▁' bro thers - in - arms '. ▁ ▁Front geme ins chaft ▁– ▁front - line ▁com r ades hip ▁or ▁community ; ▁group ▁of ▁front - line ▁combat ▁soldiers . ▁ ▁Front k ä mp fer ▁– ▁front ▁line ▁soldier ▁ ▁Front sch we in ▁– ▁( sl ang ) ▁" front ▁pig " ▁soldier ▁serving ▁long ▁at ▁the ▁front , ▁often ▁used ▁as ▁an ▁iron ic ▁acc ol ade ▁for ▁a ▁soldier ▁with ▁the ▁will ▁to ▁fight . ▁Comp are ▁with ▁Et app ensch we in . ▁ ▁Der ▁F ühr er ▁– ▁" The ▁Leader "; ▁title ▁used ▁by ▁Ad olf ▁Hitler : ▁Me in ▁F ühr er , ▁Der ▁F ühr er . ▁ ▁F ühr er b unk er ▁– ▁( liter ally ▁meaning ▁" s hel ter ▁[ for ▁the ] ▁leader " ▁or ▁"[ the ] ▁F ühr er ' s ▁shelter ") ▁was ▁located ▁about ▁ 8 . 2 ▁metres ▁beneath ▁the ▁garden ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁Reich ▁Ch ancell ery ▁building ▁at ▁Wilhelm straße ▁ 7 7 , ▁and ▁about ▁ 1 2 0 ▁metres ▁north ▁of ▁Hitler ' s ▁New ▁Reich ▁Ch ancell ery ▁building ▁in ▁Berlin . ▁This ▁underground ▁bunk er ▁was ▁Hitler ' s ▁last ▁F H Q ▁and ▁where ▁he ▁and ▁his ▁wife ▁Eva ▁Bra un ▁ended ▁their ▁lives ▁on ▁ 3 0 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 5 . ▁ ▁F ühr er h aupt qu art iere ▁( F H Q ) |
▁– ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁official ▁headquarters ▁especially ▁constructed ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁F ühr er . ▁ ▁F ühr erson der z ug ▁– ▁a ▁special ▁train ▁built ▁for ▁and ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁F ühr er . ▁ ▁F ühr er ▁– ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁a ▁substitute ▁commander ▁of ▁a ▁unit ▁or ▁sub - unit ▁in ▁absence ▁of ▁the ▁regular ▁commander ▁( see ▁' Che f '); ▁in ▁the ▁navy ▁a ▁flag ▁officer ▁( e . g . ▁F ühr er ▁der ▁U boot e ) ▁ ▁SS - F ühr ung sh aupt amt ▁– ▁SS ▁Lead ership ▁Head ▁Office , ▁the ▁administrative ▁headquarters ▁of ▁the ▁W aff en - SS . ▁ ▁Fun ke ▁– ▁ 1 ) ▁radio ▁[ die ▁Fun ke , ▁f ., ▁sl ang ▁ab bre vi ation ▁for ▁F unk ger ät ]; ▁ 2 ) ▁spark ▁[ der ▁Fun ke , ▁m . ]; ▁the ▁literal ▁( pre - radio ) ▁meaning ▁of ▁the ▁word . ▁ ▁F unk er ▁– ▁radio ▁operator ▁( from ▁fun ken ▁[ verb ], ▁to ▁transmit ▁by ▁radio ). ▁ ▁F unk ger ät ▁( prefix : ▁Fu G ) ▁– ▁generic ▁term ▁for ▁radio ▁and ▁air borne ▁I FF , ▁R DF ▁and ▁air borne ▁and ▁some ▁ground - based ▁radar ▁equipment . ▁ ▁F unk m ess be ob acht ungs ger ät ▁( F u MB ) ▁– ▁radar ▁detector . ▁ ▁F ü sil ier ▁– ▁historic ▁term ▁often ▁used ▁to ▁refer |
▁to ▁light ▁inf antry , ▁originally ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁fus il , ▁or ▁mus ket , ▁such ▁troops ▁once ▁carried . ▁During ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁a ▁name ▁given ▁to ▁inf antry ▁form ations ▁with ▁some ▁recon naissance ▁abilities ▁that ▁replaced ▁an ▁inf antry ▁division ' s ▁recon naissance ▁batt alion ▁mid - war ▁when ▁the ▁Germans ▁reduced ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁standard ▁inf antry ▁batt al ions ▁in ▁their ▁divisions ▁from ▁ 9 ▁to ▁ 6 . ▁ ▁F ü sil ier b ata illon ▁– ▁in ▁the ▁Imperial ▁army ▁the ▁ 3 rd ▁batt alion ▁of ▁a ▁Gren ad ier - Reg iment . ▁Its ▁design ation ▁was ▁F , ▁as ▁in ▁F / GR 1 0 ▁for ▁F ü sil ier b ata illon ▁of ▁the ▁Gen ad ier - Reg iment ▁ 1 0 . ▁ ▁F utter me ister ▁– ▁quarter master ▁responsible ▁for ▁f od der ▁ ▁Fre ya ▁radar ▁– ▁first ▁operational ▁radar ▁with ▁the ▁Krieg sm ar ine . ▁ ▁G ▁ ▁G abel sch w anz te uf el ▁– ▁P - 3 8 ▁Light ning ▁" F ork ▁T ailed ▁Dev il ". ▁ ▁G arn ison ▁– ▁g arr ison ▁ ▁Gas mas ke ▁– ▁gas ▁mask ▁ ▁Gas mask en be h äl ter ▁– ▁gas ▁mask ▁container . ▁ ▁G asp ist ole ▁– ▁starting ▁pistol ; ▁a ▁gun ▁that ▁fires ▁bl anks . ▁ ▁G au ▁– ▁An ▁administrative ▁region ▁equivalent ▁to ▁a ▁sh ire ▁or ▁province . ▁ ▁G |
au le iter ▁– ▁sup reme ▁territor ial ▁or ▁regional ▁Nazi ▁party ▁authority (- ies ). ▁G au ▁leader . ▁ ▁Geb ir gs j äger ▁– ▁mountain ▁troops ; ▁a ▁mountain ▁" unit " ▁might ▁be ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁either ▁Geb ir gs ▁or ▁Geb ir gs j äger . ▁ ▁Geb ir g st ruppe ▁– ▁mountain ▁troops . ▁ ▁gef allen ▁( ge f .) ▁– ▁fallen , ▁killed ▁in ▁action ▁ ▁Gef ech t ▁– ▁combat , ▁action . ▁ ▁Gef ech ts ge p äck ▁– ▁inf antry ▁assault ▁pack . ▁ ▁Gef ech ts stand ▁– ▁command ▁post . ▁ ▁Gef ech ts station ▁– ▁naval ▁term , ▁" b attle ▁stations " ▁or ▁( more ▁literally ) ▁" com bat ▁stations ". ▁ ▁Gef ech ts ver band ▁– ▁defensive ▁a erial ▁tact ic ▁employed ▁against ▁US AA F ▁heavy ▁bom bers ▁when ▁Z erst ör er ▁twin - eng ined ▁heavy ▁fighters ▁had ▁proven ▁too ▁vulnerable ▁to ▁All ied ▁single - eng ined ▁fighters ▁– ▁used ▁heavily ▁armed ▁F w ▁ 1 9 0 As ▁as ▁bom ber ▁destroy ers ▁in ▁place ▁of ▁the ▁slower ▁Z erst ör er ▁aircraft , ▁with ▁B f ▁ 1 0 9 G s ▁for ▁escort . ▁ ▁Gef re iter ▁– ▁en listed ▁rank , ▁senior ▁to ▁priv ates ▁but ▁not ▁considered ▁an ▁N CO . ▁ ▁G egen ang r iff ▁– ▁counter att ack . ▁ ▁G egen off ensive ▁– ▁counter - off ensive . |
▁ ▁G egen sto ß ▁– ▁h asty ▁counter - att ack . ▁ ▁G eg ensch lag ▁– ▁counter ▁stroke . ▁ ▁ge heim ▁– ▁secret . ▁ ▁Ge he ime ▁F eld pol ize i ▁( G FP ) ▁– ▁Secret ▁Field ▁Police . ▁It ▁was ▁Germany ' s ▁secret ▁military ▁police ▁that ▁was ▁organ ised ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁high ▁command ▁( OK W ) ▁in ▁July ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁to ▁serve ▁with ▁the ▁We h rm acht . ▁It ▁was ▁mainly ▁designed ▁to ▁carry ▁out ▁security ▁work ▁in ▁the ▁field , ▁as ▁the ▁executive ▁agent ▁of ▁the ▁Ab we hr . ▁ ▁Ge heim fer n sch re iber ▁– ▁( liter ally , ▁" secret ▁distance ▁writer ") ▁c ipher ▁machine . ▁ ▁Gel b kre uz ▁– ▁must ard ▁gas ▁ ▁G ele it ▁– ▁escort . ▁ ▁G ele itsch utz ▁– ▁conv oy . ▁ ▁Gemeinde pol ize i ▁– ▁local ▁police . ▁ ▁Geme ins chaft ▁– ▁community . ▁ ▁Gener alf eld m ars ch all ▁– ▁Field ▁Marshal . ▁ ▁Gener alk omm ando ▁– ▁the ▁headquarters ▁of ▁an ▁army ▁corps . ▁ ▁General st ab ▁des ▁He eres ▁( Gen . ▁St . d . ▁H .) ▁– ▁German ▁Army ▁General ▁Staff . ▁ ▁gep anz ert ▁( ge p .) ▁– ▁arm oured . ▁ ▁Gesch üt z ▁– ▁can non , ▁gun . ▁ ▁Gesch üt z führ er ▁– ▁gun ▁captain ▁/ ▁commander ▁/ ▁layer . ▁ |
▁Gesch w ader ▁– ▁originally ▁and ▁literally ▁a ▁naval ▁" s quad ron " ▁and , ▁therefore , ▁equivalent ▁to ▁the ▁French ▁esc ad re ▁or ▁Italian ▁squad rig lia ; ▁in ▁military ▁av iation , ▁the ▁translation ▁varies : ▁ ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁Luft stre it kr ä fte : ▁a ▁unit ▁compr ising ▁four ▁fighter ▁squad rons ▁( St aff eln ), ▁such ▁as ▁Jag d gesch w ader ▁ 1 ▁( J G ▁ 1 ) ▁– the ▁famous ▁" F lying ▁Circ us ", ▁led ▁by ▁Man fred ▁von ▁Rich th of en ▁(" The ▁Red ▁Baron "); ▁also ▁used ▁for ▁the ▁K ag ohl ▁and ▁Bog ohl ▁heavy ▁bom ber ▁units , ▁the ▁last ▁two ▁mentioned ▁unit ▁types ▁specifically ▁tied ▁to ▁the ▁Ober ste ▁He eres le itung ▁or ▁" O HL "; ▁ ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁Luft w affe : ▁compr ising ▁three ▁or ▁more ▁Gru ppen , ▁each ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁three ▁( or ▁sometimes ▁four ) ▁Staff eln ; ▁a ▁W W 2 ▁Gesch w ader ▁was ▁equivalent ▁to ▁a ▁British ▁Commonwealth ▁air ▁force ▁group , ▁a ▁French ▁esc ad ron , ▁an ▁Italian ▁storm o , ▁an ▁I J A AS ▁h ik ō dan , ▁an ▁I J N AC ▁sent ai , ▁a ▁Soviet ▁av iation ▁division , ▁a ▁US AA F / US MC ▁air ▁wing , ▁and / or ▁a ▁US ▁Navy ▁carrier ▁air ▁group ; ▁ ▁current ▁Luft w affe : ▁a ▁Gesch w ader ▁compris es ▁a ▁" |
techn ical ▁group " ▁( Te chn ische ▁G ruppe ), ▁a ▁" f lying ▁group " ▁( Fl ieg ende ▁G ruppe ), ▁along ▁with ▁two ▁or ▁three ▁other ▁flying ▁squad rons ▁( St aff eln ); ▁ ▁Gesch w ader k enn ung ▁– ▁the ▁two - character ▁al phan umeric ▁identification ▁code ▁used ▁by ▁a ▁non - day - fig h ter ▁Gesch w ader ▁for ▁unit ▁identification , ▁that ▁appeared ▁to ▁the ▁left ▁of ▁the ▁fus el age ▁B alk en kre uz ▁on ▁most ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁Luft w affe ▁aircraft . ▁It ▁also ▁included ▁two ▁letters ▁to ▁the ▁right ▁of ▁the ▁cross , ▁the ▁third ▁letter ▁design ating ▁the ▁aircraft ' s ▁individual ▁identification , ▁with ▁the ▁fourth ▁letter ▁design ating ▁the ▁aircraft ' s ▁assigned ▁squad ron ▁( St aff el ) ▁within ▁the ▁unit . ▁ ▁Gest ap o ▁– ▁Ge he ime ▁St aat sp ol ize i ▁– ▁Secret ▁State ▁Police . ▁Origin ally ▁the ▁Pr ussia ▁secret ▁state ▁police ▁and ▁later ▁( as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Si Po ▁then ▁merged ▁into ▁the ▁R SHA ) ▁the ▁official ▁secret ▁police ▁force ▁of ▁Nazi ▁Germany . ▁Gest ap o ▁was ▁derived ▁as ▁follows : ▁Ge he ime ▁St aat sp ol ize i . ▁ ▁Ge we hr ▁– ▁rifle , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Ge we hr ▁ 4 3 . ▁ ▁G ift ▁– ▁poison ; ▁gift ig : ▁poison ous , ▁toxic . ▁ ▁Gle ich sch alt ung ▁– ▁" coord |
ination ", ▁coord ination ▁of ▁everything ▁into ▁Nazi ▁ide als . ▁ ▁Gl ieder ung ▁– ▁table ▁of ▁organisation ▁ ▁Gold fas an ▁( Gold en ▁p he asant ) ▁– ▁der og atory ▁sl ang ▁term ▁for ▁high - rank ing ▁Nazi ▁Party ▁members . ▁Der ived ▁from ▁the ▁brown - and - red ▁uniform s ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁colors ▁of ▁male ▁p he as ants ▁and ▁the ▁perceived ▁behaviour ▁of ▁high - rank ing ▁party ▁officials ▁living ▁in ▁peace ▁and ▁luxury ▁at ▁home . ▁ ▁Got en stellung ▁– ▁G oth ic ▁Line ▁German ▁defense ▁line ▁in ▁Italy , ▁north ▁of ▁Florence . ▁ ▁Gr aben krieg ▁– ▁t rench ▁war fare . ▁ ▁Gran ate ▁– ▁gren ade , ▁used ▁not ▁only ▁for ▁hand ▁gren ades ▁( Hand gr an ate ) ▁but ▁also ▁for ▁other ▁explos ive ▁ord n ance ▁such ▁as ▁mort ar ▁( W er f gr an ate ) ▁and ▁armor - p ier cing ▁( Pan zer gr an ate ) ▁shell s . ▁ ▁Gran at wer fer ▁( Gr W ) ▁– ▁mort ar . ▁ ▁Gren ad ier ▁– ▁traditional ▁term ▁for ▁heavy ▁inf antry , ▁adopted ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁from ▁mid - war ▁on ward ▁as ▁a ▁mor ale - building ▁honor ific ▁often ▁indic ative ▁of ▁low - grade ▁form ations . ▁ ▁Gren ze ▁– ▁border . ▁ ▁Gren z sch utz ▁– ▁border ▁patrol . ▁ ▁Gre uel er z äh l ungen ▁– ▁at roc ity |
▁stories . ▁ ▁Gr ö f az ▁– ▁German ▁soldiers ' ▁der og atory ▁ac ron ym ▁for ▁Gr öß ter ▁F eld her r ▁aller ▁Ze iten , ▁a ▁title ▁initially ▁public ized ▁by ▁Nazi ▁propaganda ▁to ▁refer ▁to ▁Ad olf ▁Hitler ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁war ▁years ; ▁literally , ▁the ▁" Great est ▁Field ▁Commander ▁of ▁all ▁Time ". ▁ ▁Grund aus bild ung ▁( ab br . ▁Grund i ) ▁– ▁basic ▁training ▁ ▁G ruppe ▁( Lu ft w affe ) ▁– ▁a ▁gru ppe ▁usually ▁consisted ▁of ▁three ▁squad rons ▁of ▁nine ▁to ▁twelve ▁aircraft , ▁and ▁a ▁staff . ▁An ▁equivalent ▁would ▁be ▁a ▁US ▁or ▁French ▁group . ▁In ▁the ▁British ▁Commonwealth ▁the ▁equivalent ▁would ▁be ▁a ▁wing . ▁ ▁G ruppe ▁( He er ) ▁– ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁a ▁gru ppe ▁is ▁the ▁equivalent ▁to ▁a ▁squad ▁ ▁Gru ppen führ er ▁– ▁squad ▁leader , ▁also ▁a ▁Nazi ▁party ▁rank . ▁ ▁Gru ppen hor ch ger ät ▁( G H G ) ▁– ▁hydro phone ▁array . ▁ ▁G ulas ch kan one ▁– ▁" g oul ash ▁can non ", ▁mobile ▁field ▁kitchen ▁ ▁Gru ppen st ab ▁– ▁command ▁staff . ▁ ▁Gust av ▁Line ▁– ▁German ▁defense ▁line ▁in ▁Italy , ▁centered ▁on ▁the ▁monaster y ▁of ▁Monte ▁Cass ino . ▁ ▁G v D ▁– ▁Gef re iter ▁vom ▁D ienst ▁– ▁soldier ▁who ▁is ▁the ▁runner ▁of ▁C Q . ▁ ▁H ▁ ▁H af en ▁– |
▁har bor . ▁" Fl ugh af en " ▁is ▁airport . ▁ ▁H af th oh ll ad ung ▁– ▁German ▁magnet ically - ad her ed , ▁shaped ▁charge ▁anti - t ank ▁gren ade ▁m un ition , ▁iron ically ▁the ▁type ▁of ▁ord n ance ▁that ▁if ▁the ▁All ies ▁also ▁possessed ▁them , ▁Z immer it ▁was ▁meant ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁use ▁of . ▁ ▁H aken kre uz ▁– ▁( liter ally , ▁" hook ed ▁cross ") ▁the ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁sw ast ika ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Nazi ▁Party . ▁ ▁" Hal be ▁F ah rt !" ▁– ▁naval ▁command ▁calling ▁for ▁half - speed . ▁" Hal be ▁F ah rt ▁vor aus " ▁is ▁" half - speed ▁ahead " ▁and ▁" Hal be ▁F ah rt ▁zurück " ▁is ▁" half - speed ▁reverse ". ▁ ▁Hal ss ch mer zen ▁– ▁" s ore ▁throat " ▁or ▁" itch y ▁neck "; ▁used ▁to ▁describe ▁a ▁reck less ▁or ▁glory - seek ing ▁commander , ▁imp lying ▁an ▁ob session ▁with ▁winning ▁the ▁Knight ' s ▁Cross . ▁ ▁H alt ▁– ▁Stop ! ▁Free ze ! ▁ ▁Hand els mar ine ▁– ▁German ▁merchant ▁marine . ▁ ▁H anno vers che ▁Mas ch inen bau ▁AG ▁( H an om ag ) ▁– ▁producer ▁of ▁military ▁vehicles , ▁princip ally ▁the ▁S d . K f z . ▁ 2 5 1 ▁medium - arm oured ▁half track . ▁ |
▁" H art ..." ▁– ▁naval ▁command ▁calling ▁for ▁a ▁sharp ▁turn . ▁" H art ▁Back b ord " ▁is ▁" hard - a - port " ▁and ▁" H art ▁Ste uer b ord " ▁is ▁" hard - a - star board ". ▁ ▁H är te ü b ung ▁– ▁hard iness ▁training . ▁ ▁Ha ub it ze ▁– ▁how itzer . ▁ ▁Haupt amt ▁S icher heit sp ol ize i ▁( HA - Si Po ) ▁– ▁Security ▁Police ▁headquarters . ▁ ▁Haupt bahn hof ▁– ▁main ▁or ▁central ▁station . ▁ ▁Haupt feld web el ▁– ▁company ▁ser ge ant - major ▁or ▁first ▁ser ge ant . ▁ ▁Haupt kamp fl in ie ▁( H K L ) ▁– ▁literally ▁main ▁combat ▁line , ▁official ▁term ▁for ▁" front " ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁ ▁Haupt mann ▁– ▁army ▁captain . ▁ ▁Haupt qu art iere ▁( H Q ) ▁– ▁headquarters . ▁ ▁Haupt stadt ▁– ▁capital ▁city . ▁ ▁Haupt w acht me ister ▁– ▁company ▁first ▁ser ge ant ▁in ▁artillery ▁and ▁caval ry ▁units . ▁ ▁He ck ensch üt ze ▁– ▁" hed ge ▁marks man " ▁hidden , ▁amb ushing ▁sn iper . ▁ ▁He ck sch üt ze ▁– ▁tail ▁gun ner ▁the ▁man ▁to ▁handle ▁the ▁He ck stand . ▁ ▁He ck stand ▁– ▁tail ▁gun ▁defensive ▁position ▁on ▁aircraft . ▁ ▁He er ▁– ▁regular ▁German ▁Army . ▁Can ▁also |
▁be ▁used ▁for ▁any ▁national ▁army . ▁ ▁He eres gru ppen kom m ando ▁( H Gr . K do ) ▁– ▁army ▁group ▁command . ▁ ▁He imat ▁– ▁home , ▁hom eland . ▁ ▁He imat k urs ▁– ▁the ▁way ▁home . ▁Liter ally ▁" hom eland ▁course ". ▁ ▁He im ats ch uß ▁– ▁" hom eland ▁shot "; ▁a ▁wound ▁not ▁severe ▁enough ▁to ▁be ▁permanently ▁dis abling , ▁but ▁of ▁sufficient ▁sever ity ▁to ▁require ▁evac uation ▁from ▁the ▁battle front . ▁The ▁German ▁soldier ' s ▁equivalent ▁of ▁the ▁American ▁G . I .' s ▁" mill ion - d ollar ▁wound " ▁or ▁the ▁British ▁soldier ' s ▁" B light y ▁wound ". ▁ ▁Hel den kl au ▁– ▁" ste aling " ▁or ▁" sn atch ing ▁of ▁heroes "; ▁sl ang ▁term ▁used ▁to ▁denote ▁the ▁practice ▁of ▁command e ering ▁rear - e che lon ▁personnel ▁for ▁front - line ▁service . ▁ ▁H ens chel ▁– ▁rail road ▁loc omot ive ▁and ▁rolling ▁stock ▁manufacturer , ▁and ▁a ▁firm ▁responsible ▁for ▁many ▁German ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁weapons ▁systems ▁for ▁both ▁the ▁We h rm acht ▁He er ▁and ▁the ▁Luft w affe , ▁especially ▁the ▁heavy ▁T iger ▁I ▁and ▁T iger ▁II ▁tanks ▁and ▁the ▁H ens chel ▁H s ▁ 2 9 3 ▁guided ▁anti - ship ▁miss ile . ▁ ▁" H err ..." ▁– ▁In ▁past ▁and ▁modern ▁German ▁military ▁protocol , ▁" H |
err " ▁(" m ister ") ▁is ▁said ▁before ▁ranks ▁when ▁someone ▁is ▁addressing ▁a ▁person ▁of ▁higher ▁rank . ▁For ▁example , ▁a ▁lieutenant ▁(" Le ut nant ") ▁would ▁address ▁his ▁captain ▁as ▁" H err ▁Haupt mann " ▁(" Mr . ▁Captain "). ▁Super ior ▁officer ▁address ▁sub ord inates ▁with ▁" H err " ▁and ▁their ▁last ▁name ▁or ▁simply ▁their ▁rank , ▁but ▁not ▁adding ▁" H err " ▁to ▁the ▁rank . ▁This ▁practice ▁was ▁for bidden ▁in ▁the ▁W aff en - SS , ▁as ▁it ▁off ended ▁H imm ler ' s ▁e gal itarian ▁principles . ▁ ▁Het zer ▁– ▁ag it ators ; ▁also ▁a ▁hunting ▁dog ▁and ▁as ▁such ▁the ▁un off icial ▁name ▁of ▁a ▁certain ▁mid - war ▁model ▁of ▁German ▁tank ▁destroy er . ▁ ▁Hil f sw ill ige ▁( H iw is ) ▁– ▁German ▁Army ▁volunteer ▁forces ▁usually ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁Soviet ▁volunteers ▁serving ▁in ▁non - com bat ▁capac ities . ▁ ▁H imm elf ahr ts kom m ando ▁– ▁literally , ▁" t rip ▁to ▁heaven ▁mission ", ▁a ▁suicide ▁mission . ▁ ▁H inter halt ▁– ▁amb ush . ▁ ▁Hitler - J ug end ▁( H J ) ▁– ▁Hitler ▁Youth . ▁The ▁German ▁youth ▁organization ▁founded ▁by ▁the ▁Nazi ▁Party ▁( N SD AP ). ▁Made ▁up ▁of ▁the ▁Hitler j ug end ▁proper , ▁for ▁male ▁youth ▁ages ▁ 1 4 – 1 8 ; ▁the ▁younger ▁boys ' |
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