Split (1)

train · 16.1M rows

text stringlengths 505 4.3k
▁were ▁considerably ▁less ▁expensive ▁than ▁color ▁ones , ▁with ▁color ▁sometimes ▁cost ing ▁three ▁times ▁as ▁much ▁for ▁an ▁equivalent ▁size ▁display . ▁Like wise , ▁Sk etch er ▁sold ▁for ▁a ▁lower ▁price ▁than ▁Pain ter ▁($ 9 9 ▁vs . ▁$ 2 9 9 ) ▁ ▁Following ▁Sk etch er , ▁F ract al ▁Design ▁added ▁color ▁support , ▁new ▁features , ▁modified ▁the ▁interface ▁somewhat ▁and ▁released ▁D ab bler . ▁Sk etch er ▁was ▁dis contin ued ▁shortly ▁afterwards . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁r aster ▁graphics ▁ed itors ▁Compar ison ▁of ▁r aster ▁graphics ▁ed itors ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Bloom berg ▁overview ▁of ▁F ract al ▁Design ▁Corporation ▁ ▁Category : R aster ▁graphics ▁ed itors <0x0A> </s> ▁Carn oust ie ▁High ▁School ▁is ▁a ▁comprehensive ▁secondary ▁school ▁in ▁Carn oust ie , ▁Ang us , ▁Scotland . ▁Situ ated ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁town , ▁the ▁school ▁serves ▁Carn oust ie ▁and ▁surrounding ▁villages , ▁including ▁Barry , ▁Mon ik ie , ▁New big ging , ▁Craig ton , ▁Mu ird rum , ▁Pan br ide ▁and ▁E as th aven . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁Education ▁in ▁Carn oust ie ▁prior ▁to ▁ 1 8 7 8 ▁ ▁Carn oust ie ▁was ▁founded ▁as ▁a ▁town ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 7 . ▁Prior ▁to ▁the ▁passing ▁of ▁the ▁Education ▁( Sc ot land ) ▁Act ▁ 1 8 7 2 , ▁the ▁provision ▁of ▁schools ▁in ▁Scotland ▁was ▁the ▁responsibility ▁of ▁the
▁parish . ▁The ▁Education ▁Act ▁of ▁ 1 6 9 6 ▁allowed ▁churches ▁to ▁set ▁up ▁schools , ▁funded ▁mainly ▁by ▁the ▁land owner . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁mid ▁to ▁late ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁each ▁church ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁had ▁its ▁own ▁school . ▁The ▁buildings ▁of ▁these ▁are ▁still ▁in ▁existence ▁today , ▁in ▁the ▁former ▁primary ▁schools ▁of ▁Barry ▁and ▁Pan br ide , ▁which ▁were ▁at ▁that ▁point ▁the ▁schools ▁of ▁Pan br ide ▁Par ish ▁Church ▁and ▁Barry ▁Free ▁Church , ▁and ▁the ▁Phill ip ▁Hall ▁on ▁D und ee ▁Street , ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁school ▁connected ▁with ▁The ▁Er sk ine ▁Free ▁Church . ▁ ▁These ▁were ▁supplement ed ▁with ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁private ▁subscription ▁schools , ▁including ▁a ▁school ▁in ▁Link s ▁Avenue , ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 1 , ▁that ▁now ▁houses ▁the ▁local ▁Sc out ▁Group ▁and ▁a ▁school ▁off ▁Mau le ▁Street ▁that ▁is ▁now ▁used ▁as ▁Holy ro od ▁Church ' s ▁Hall . ▁These ▁were ▁both ▁victims ▁of ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁Carn oust ie ▁Free ▁Church ▁school ▁and ▁were ▁abandoned . ▁More ▁successful ▁were ▁the ▁school ▁linked ▁to ▁Pan m ure ▁Works ▁and ▁a ▁private ▁Girls ▁School ▁in ▁Kin lo ch ▁Street , ▁but ▁these ▁too ▁were ▁made ▁redu nd ant ▁by ▁the ▁ 1 8 7 2 ▁act . ▁ ▁Carn oust ie ▁Public ▁School ▁( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 7 2 ) ▁Carn oust ie ▁Public ▁School ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁ 1
8 7 8 ▁near ▁the ▁Free ▁Church ▁school ▁on ▁D und ee ▁Street . ▁It ▁was ▁extended ▁several ▁times ▁as ▁the ▁town ▁grew ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 6 0 s ▁the ▁school ▁cater ed ▁for ▁primary ▁and ▁secondary ▁students ▁up ▁to ▁O - grade ▁level ▁( age ▁ 1 6 ), ▁with ▁those ▁wanting ▁to ▁continue ▁education ▁beyond ▁S 4 ▁would ▁travel ▁to ▁Ar bro ath ▁for ▁school . ▁ ▁The ▁school ' s ▁secondary ▁students ▁were ▁dec anted ▁to ▁the ▁new ▁Carn oust ie ▁High ▁School ▁building ▁in ▁Shan well ▁Road ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 1 . ▁The ▁old ▁school ▁was ▁renamed ▁Kin lo ch ▁Primary ▁School , ▁and ▁continued ▁as ▁a ▁primary ▁school ▁until ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁when ▁it , ▁along ▁with ▁Barry ▁and ▁Pan br ide ▁Primary ▁Schools , ▁was ▁closed ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁re organ isation ▁of ▁schools ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁The ▁building ▁hous ed ▁Car log ie ▁Primary ▁School ▁during ▁renov ations ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 - 2 0 0 9 , ▁and ▁was ▁finally ▁demol ished ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁to ▁make ▁way ▁for ▁housing . ▁ ▁Carn oust ie ▁High ▁School ▁( 1 9 7 2 - present ) ▁A ▁dedicated ▁secondary ▁school ▁was ▁built ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 2 ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁town . ▁This ▁was ▁to ▁cope ▁with ▁the ▁increasing ▁population ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁and ▁surrounding ▁area , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁offer
▁classes ▁beyond ▁O - grade ▁level . ▁The ▁buildings ▁were ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁by ▁Princess ▁Alex andra . ▁These ▁buildings ▁served ▁until ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁when ▁they ▁were ▁replaced ▁with ▁new ▁teaching ▁blocks ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁former ▁playing ▁fields . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁build ▁retained ▁the ▁PE ▁block ▁and ▁the ▁theatre ▁of ▁the ▁previous ▁school . ▁Cap acity ▁of ▁the ▁present ▁school ▁is ▁ 1 0 5 0 , ▁allowing ▁for ▁considerable ▁expansion ▁of ▁its ▁present ▁roll . ▁ ▁Fe eder ▁primary ▁schools ▁Carn oust ie ▁High ▁School ▁offers ▁places ▁to ▁pup ils ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁primary ▁schools ▁in ▁Carn oust ie ▁( Car log ie , ▁Wood lands ▁and ▁Burn side ) ▁and ▁pup ils ▁from ▁Mon ik ie ▁and ▁New big ging ▁Primary ▁Schools . ▁ ▁Not able ▁al umn i ▁L ance ▁Corpor al ▁Charles ▁Jar vis , ▁( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 4 8 ) ▁ 5 7 th ▁Field ▁Company , ▁Royal ▁Engine ers . ▁Rec ip ient ▁of ▁Victoria ▁Cross ▁Chief ▁Pet ty ▁Officer ▁George ▁Sam son , ▁( 1 8 8 9 - 1 9 2 3 ) ▁Royal ▁Navy . ▁Rec ip ient ▁of ▁Victoria ▁Cross ▁Stewart ▁H os ie ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 3 ), ▁Member ▁of ▁Parliament ▁K irst en ▁O sw ald , ▁Member ▁of ▁Parliament ▁Alan ▁C um ming ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 5 ), ▁actor . ▁Gra eme ▁Black ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 7 ),
▁fashion ▁designer ▁( G all iano , ▁Ar man i , ▁Ferr ag amo ) ▁Rod dy ▁W oom ble ▁( born ▁ 1 9 7 6 ), ▁singer ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Second ary ▁schools ▁in ▁Ang us ▁Category : 1 8 7 8 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Scotland ▁Category : E duc ational ▁institutions ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 8 ▁Category : C arn oust ie <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁A chel ata ▁is ▁an ▁inf ra - order ▁of ▁the ▁dec ap od ▁cr ust ace ans , ▁holding ▁the ▁sp iny ▁lob sters , ▁slip per ▁lob sters ▁and ▁their ▁foss il ▁relatives . ▁ ▁Description ▁The ▁name ▁" A chel ata " ▁der ives ▁from ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁all ▁the ▁members ▁of ▁this ▁group ▁lack ▁the ▁che la e ▁( cl aws ) ▁that ▁are ▁found ▁on ▁almost ▁all ▁other ▁dec ap od s ▁( from ▁the ▁Greek ▁, ▁ ▁= ▁" not ", ▁, ▁che la ▁= ▁" cl aw "). ▁They ▁are ▁further ▁united ▁by ▁the ▁great ▁en larg ement ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁anten na e , ▁by ▁the ▁special ▁" phy ll os oma " ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁l ar va , ▁and ▁by ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁other ▁characters . ▁ ▁Class ification ▁and ▁foss il ▁record ▁A chel ata ▁contains ▁the ▁sp iny ▁lob sters ▁( Pal in ur idae ), ▁the ▁slip per ▁lob sters ▁( S cy ll ar idae ) ▁and ▁the ▁fur ry ▁lob sters ▁(
S yn ax idae , ▁now ▁usually ▁included ▁in ▁Pal in ur idae ), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁two ▁ext inct ▁families , ▁C anc rin idae ▁and ▁Tr ic arin idae . ▁ ▁Both ▁Pal in ur idae ▁and ▁Sc yll ar idae ▁have ▁a ▁foss il ▁record ▁extending ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁C ret ace ous . ▁The ▁two ▁foss il ▁families ▁contain ▁a ▁single ▁genus ▁each ; ▁Tr ic ar ina ▁is ▁known ▁from ▁a ▁single ▁C ret ace ous ▁foss il , ▁while ▁C anc r inos ▁is ▁known ▁from ▁the ▁Jur ass ic ▁and ▁C ret ace ous . ▁One ▁estimate ▁of ▁the ▁diver gence ▁between ▁A chel ata ▁and ▁its ▁closest ▁relatives ▁places ▁it ▁at ▁about ▁. ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : Ar th rop od ▁inf ra orders ▁Category : Ext ant ▁Late ▁Jur ass ic ▁first ▁appearances <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁City ▁of ▁Philadelphia ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁is ▁an ▁anti - gra ff iti ▁m ural ▁program ▁in ▁Philadelphia ▁and ▁Pennsylvania , ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁The ▁program ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁under ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁the ▁local ▁artist ▁Jane ▁Golden , ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁Anti - G ra ff iti ▁Network , ▁with ▁the ▁goal ▁of ▁facil itating ▁collaboration ▁between ▁professional ▁artists ▁and ▁prosecut ed ▁gra ff iti ▁writers ▁to ▁create ▁new ▁mur als ▁in ▁the ▁city . ▁ ▁It ▁also ▁works ▁with ▁community ▁groups ▁to ▁educ ate ▁and ▁children ▁in ▁the ▁arts ▁and
▁involve ▁them ▁in ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁mur als . ▁The ▁program ▁is ▁currently ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁employers ▁of ▁artists ▁in ▁Philadelphia , ▁employ ing ▁more ▁than ▁ 3 0 0 ▁artists ▁each ▁year . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁the ▁organization ▁was ▁re br anded ▁as ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Philadelphia . ▁ ▁History ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁artist ▁Jane ▁Golden ▁approached ▁Tim ▁Spencer , ▁then ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁Anti - G ra ff iti ▁Network , ▁in ▁the ▁hopes ▁of ▁creating ▁a ▁new ▁program ▁under ▁the ▁group ▁name ▁" U mbre lla ". ▁Spencer ▁had ▁initially ▁env ision ed ▁a ▁program ▁that ▁would ▁re habil itate ▁gra ff iti ▁artists ▁and ▁lead ▁them ▁towards ▁other ▁art ▁forms . ▁In ▁the ▁end , ▁Golden ' s ▁proposal ▁won , ▁and ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁was ▁created . ▁The ▁program ▁works ▁with ▁community ▁groups ▁to ▁educ ate ▁and ▁involve ▁children ▁in ▁the ▁arts ▁and ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁mur als ▁throughout ▁the ▁city . ▁ ▁Two ▁years ▁later ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Project , ▁led ▁by ▁Jane ▁Golden , ▁was ▁founded ▁as ▁a ▁division ▁of ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁Anti - G ra ff iti ▁Network . ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 1 , ▁Philadelphia ▁was ▁awarded ▁the ▁Innov ation ▁in ▁American ▁Government ▁Award ▁for ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Project ▁in ▁and ▁around ▁Philadelphia . ▁▁ ▁The ▁Philadelphia ▁Anti - G ra ff iti ▁Network ▁was ▁absorbed ▁by ▁the
▁Philadelphia ▁Rec reation ▁Department ▁and ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program , ▁and ▁was ▁elev ated ▁to ▁an ▁independent ▁entity ▁under ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁Rec reation ▁Department . ▁The ▁Philadelphia ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Adv oc ates ▁was ▁founded ▁as ▁a ▁non profit ▁corporation ▁to ▁raise ▁funds ▁for ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program . ▁▁ ▁Since ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁has ▁been ▁head qu arter ed ▁in ▁the ▁former ▁home ▁and ▁studio ▁of ▁the ▁painter ▁Thomas ▁E ak ins ▁at ▁ 1 7 2 7 - 2 9 ▁Mount ▁Vern on ▁Street ▁in ▁the ▁Spring ▁Garden ▁section ▁of ▁Philadelphia . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁celebrated ▁its ▁ 3 0 th ▁anniversary ▁with ▁the ▁book ▁" Phil adelphia ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁@ 3 0 " ▁and ▁an ▁exhibition ▁at ▁the ▁Pennsylvania ▁Academy ▁of ▁the ▁Fine ▁Arts . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁the ▁organization ▁was ▁renamed ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Philadelphia . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁the ▁program ▁partner ed ▁with ▁Mon ument ▁Lab ▁to ▁produce ▁several ▁works ▁of ▁public ▁art ▁in ▁Philadelphia . ▁ ▁Mur als ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁m ural ▁artist ▁Meg ▁Sal ig man ▁created ▁Common ▁Thread s ▁at ▁Broad ▁and ▁Spring ▁Garden ▁streets . ▁The ▁work ▁comments ▁on ▁the ▁shared ▁history ▁of ▁humanity ▁through ▁the ▁ju xt apos ition ▁of ▁classical ▁sculpt ural ▁forms ▁with ▁those ▁of ▁local ▁high ▁school ▁students . ▁▁ ▁On ▁a ▁royal ▁visit ▁in ▁ 2
0 0 7 , ▁the ▁Prince ▁of ▁Wales , ▁Charles , ▁and ▁his ▁wife , ▁Cam illa , ▁Du che ss ▁of ▁Corn wall , ▁visited ▁the ▁Donald ▁G ens ler ▁m ural ▁Reading : ▁A ▁Jour ney , ▁at ▁ 4 0 th ▁and ▁Penn s ▁Gro ve ▁Stre ets . ▁The ▁visit ▁was ▁intended ▁to ▁demonstrate ▁how ▁the ▁mur als ▁have ▁inspired ▁regener ation ▁in ▁the ▁West ▁Philadelphia ▁Ne ighbor hood . ▁Prince ▁Charles ▁was ▁interested ▁in ▁the ▁potential ▁of ▁creating ▁a ▁similar ▁project ▁in ▁London . ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 4 , ▁several ▁gra ff iti ▁tag gers ▁were ▁given ▁the ▁option ▁to ▁either ▁go ▁to ▁jail ▁or ▁take ▁part ▁in ▁a ▁new ▁city ▁beaut ification ▁initiative . ▁Since ▁then , ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁has ▁over seen ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁ 3 , 8 0 0 ▁pieces ▁of ▁art ▁painted ▁on ▁sides ▁of ▁buildings . ▁Of ▁these ▁art ▁pieces ▁painted ▁on ▁buildings , ▁ 2 , 0 0 0 ▁are ▁still ▁view able ▁by ▁the ▁public , ▁making ▁this ▁collection ▁the ▁" World ’ s ▁L arg est ▁Out door ▁Art ▁Gallery ." ▁▁ ▁The ▁Atl as ▁of ▁Tom orrow : ▁A ▁Device ▁for ▁Philosoph ical ▁Ref lection ▁( 5 3 3 ▁South ▁Jun iper ▁Street , ▁Philadelphia ) ▁is ▁a ▁piece ▁by ▁C andy ▁Ch ang , ▁an ▁artist ▁who ' s ▁pieces ▁often ▁have ▁a ▁particip atory ▁element ▁to ▁them . ▁In ▁this ▁k inet ic ▁m ural , ▁viewers ▁are
▁invited ▁to ▁spin ▁a ▁numer ic ▁dial . ▁Where ▁the ▁dial ▁lands ▁direct s ▁the ▁view er ▁to ▁read ▁and ▁reflect ▁on ▁one ▁of ▁ 6 4 ▁unique ▁stories . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁artist ▁Joshua ▁M ays ▁and ▁DJ ▁King ▁Br itt ▁worked ▁with ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Philadelphia ▁to ▁create ▁Dream s , ▁D ias por a ▁and ▁Dest iny , ▁an ▁" aug ment ed ▁reality " ▁m ural ▁that ▁included ▁music ▁and ▁a ▁mobile ▁app . ▁The ▁piece ▁is ▁at ▁ 5 3 0 0 ▁L ands d ow ne ▁Ave . ▁ ▁Leg acy ▁The ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁is ▁responsible ▁for ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁m ural ▁in ▁Philadelphia , ▁at ▁ ▁in ▁length . ▁Tit led ▁History ▁of ▁Imm igration , ▁it ▁displays ▁sett lers ▁of ▁different ▁ethnic ities ▁who ▁settled ▁in ▁Philadelphia ▁over ▁time . ▁▁ ▁The ▁mur als ▁painted ▁by ▁the ▁program ▁are ▁on ▁average ▁the ▁height ▁of ▁a ▁three - story ▁row ▁house ▁and ▁ ▁wide . ▁The ▁average ▁cost ▁of ▁each ▁m ural ▁was ▁$ 1 0 , 0 0 0 – $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 , ▁including ▁artists ' ▁comm issions ▁and ▁supplies . ▁ ▁The ▁program ▁is ▁currently ▁one ▁of ▁Philadelphia ' s ▁largest ▁employers ▁of ▁artists , ▁employ ing ▁more ▁than ▁ 3 0 0 ▁artists ▁annually . ▁The ▁program ▁also ▁h ires ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 ▁prosecut ed ▁gra ff iti ▁writers ▁every ▁year ▁and ▁involves ▁them ▁in ▁the
▁creation ▁of ▁mur als ▁around ▁Philadelphia . ▁Currently , ▁the ▁program ▁em plo ys ▁ 3 6 ▁former ▁gra ff iti ▁artists ▁as ▁staff ▁members ▁on ▁permanent ▁pay roll , ▁and ▁involves ▁more ▁than ▁ 3 0 0 ▁children ▁a ▁year ▁in ▁art ▁programs . ▁During ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 1 – 2 0 0 4 ▁Ne ighbor hood ▁Trans formation ▁Init iative , ▁the ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁painted ▁more ▁than ▁ 6 0 0 ▁mur als ▁around ▁Philadelphia . ▁▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Water town , ▁New ▁York ▁asked ▁Jane ▁Golden ▁to ▁speak ▁in ▁hopes ▁of ▁creating ▁a ▁similar ▁program ▁in ▁their ▁community . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁The ▁Spr out ▁Fund ▁— ▁Pittsburgh ▁m ural ▁program ▁ ▁City ▁of ▁Philadelphia ▁M ural ▁Arts ▁Program ▁at ▁Google ▁Cultural ▁Institute ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁M ural ▁Art ▁ ▁Category : Culture ▁of ▁Philadelphia ▁Category : 1 9 8 6 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Pennsylvania ▁Category : Art ▁in ▁Pennsylvania <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁E tt amp ada i ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁temple ▁of ▁Lord ▁Mur ug an ▁( Sub ra hm anya ) ▁in ▁India , ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁neighbour hood ▁of ▁Tri plic ane ▁( Th ir uv all ik ken i ) ▁in ▁Chen na i . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁id ol ▁of ▁Lord ▁Mur uga ▁of ▁this ▁temple ▁is ▁placed ▁in ▁the ▁K and has w amy ▁temple ▁and ▁Th ir up oro or ▁Mur ug an ▁Temple
. ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁days ▁pil gr ims ▁carrying ▁the ▁K av adi . ▁ ▁The ▁land ▁for ▁the ▁temple ▁construction ▁was ▁don ated ▁by ▁a ▁woman ▁named ▁P ach ay amm al . ▁To ▁re structure ▁this ▁temple , ▁Th ir uv all ik ken i ▁Th ir um ur ug an ad iy arg al , ▁the ▁local ▁dev ote es ▁of ▁Lord ▁Mur uga , ▁started ▁a ▁dev ot ional ▁musical ▁organization ▁called ▁" B h aj anes hw ara " ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁From ▁the ▁rem un er ation ▁they ▁received , ▁the ▁initial ▁structure ▁of ▁this ▁temple ▁was ▁re struct ured . ▁ ▁The ▁Temple ▁The ▁E tt amp ada i ▁temple ▁is ▁the ▁e ighth ▁P ada ive edu ▁of ▁Lord ▁Mur uga . ▁In ▁the ▁first ▁inner ▁pr ak ā ram ▁are ▁the ▁shr ines ▁of ▁de ities , ▁namely , ▁P ill ay ar , ▁K umb es hw ara , ▁Amb ig ai , ▁and ▁Sri ▁Kan aga ▁Dur ga . ▁The ▁Nav agra ha ▁S ann id hi ▁is ▁beside ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁P ill ar ▁of ▁Lord ▁Mur uga . ▁ ▁Fest ivals ▁Besides ▁regular ▁services , ▁days ▁sacred ▁to ▁the ▁Lord ▁Mur uga ▁are ▁celebrated ▁in ▁a ▁grand ▁way ▁every ▁year ▁and ▁are ▁attended ▁by ▁thousands ▁of ▁dev ote es ▁from ▁all ▁over ▁South ▁India . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁fest ivals ▁are ▁the ▁Th ai - Po os am , ▁the ▁Va ik hash i - V
ish ak ham ▁and ▁the ▁So ora - Sam h aram . ▁ ▁P ang uni ▁Ut th ir am ▁festival ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁famous ▁festival ▁at ▁temple . ▁The ▁six - day ▁celebration ▁includes ▁hom ams , ▁dev ot ional ▁music , ▁nad has w ara ▁concert , ▁k av adi att am , ▁special ▁ab his he k am ▁and ▁ann ad han am ▁on ▁the ▁festival . ▁ ▁Pil gr ims ▁after ▁first ▁having ▁taken ▁a ▁strict ▁v ow ▁of ▁ab st in ence , ▁come ▁bare foot , ▁by ▁walk , ▁from ▁distant ▁towns ▁and ▁villages . ▁Many ▁pil gr ims ▁also ▁bring ▁a ▁litter ▁of ▁wood , ▁called ▁a ▁K ā v adi , ▁b orne ▁on ▁their ▁shoulders , ▁in ▁comm em oration ▁of ▁the ▁act ▁of ▁the ▁demon ▁H id umb a ▁who ▁is ▁cred ited ▁by ▁legend ▁with ▁bringing ▁the ▁two ▁hills ▁of ▁Pal ani ▁to ▁their ▁present ▁location , ▁sl ung ▁upon ▁his ▁shoulders ▁in ▁a ▁similar ▁fashion . ▁Others ▁bring ▁p ots ▁of ▁sanct ified ▁water , ▁known ▁as ▁the er tha - k ā v adi , ▁for ▁the ▁priests ▁to ▁conduct ▁the ▁ab his he k am ▁on ▁the ▁holy ▁day . ▁ ▁P oo jas ▁Dar sh an ▁hours ▁are ▁from ▁ 6 : 0 0 a . m . ▁to ▁ 1 2 . 0 0 ▁p . m . ▁and ▁ 4 . 3 0 ▁p . m . ▁to ▁ 8 . 0 0 ▁p .
m . ▁On ▁festival ▁days ▁the ▁temple ▁opens ▁at ▁ 4 . 3 0 ▁a . m . ▁and ▁remains ▁open ▁till ▁ 1 0 . 3 0 ▁p . m . ▁ ▁Annual ▁fest ivals ▁ ▁K and ha ▁Sh as ht i ▁ ▁Va iga asi ▁Vis ag am ▁ ▁S esh ad ri ▁Sw a am ig al ▁Jay anth i ▁ ▁P ang uni ▁Ut th ira ▁Peru ▁V iz ha a ▁- ▁ 2 5 th ▁Year ▁Cele br ation ▁( 2 8 – 3 1 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Mur ug an ▁P ang uni ▁U th ir am ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁http :// m ur ug an . org . ht m ▁ ▁http :// m ur ug an . org / bh akt as / bh og ar - life . ht m ▁ ▁http :// www . hind u . com / the hind u / fr / 2 0 0 4 / 0 4 / 0 2 / index . ht m ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : H ind u ▁tem ples ▁in ▁Chen na i ▁Category : M ur ug an ▁tem ples ▁in ▁T amil ▁Nad u <0x0A> </s> ▁Kar in ▁Bor ner ▁( born ▁ 2 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 3 5 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Swiss ▁former ▁competitive ▁figure ▁sk ater . ▁She ▁represented ▁Switzerland ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁Winter ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Cort ina
▁d ' Am pez zo . ▁She ▁won ▁the ▁bronze ▁medal ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁Richmond ▁Tro phy . ▁ ▁Compet itive ▁highlights ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : Figure ▁sk aters ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 6 ▁Winter ▁Olympics ▁Category : Sw iss ▁female ▁single ▁sk aters ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁figure ▁sk aters ▁of ▁Switzerland ▁Category : Place ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Vas an tra o ▁Mad hav ra o ▁G hat ge ▁( 9 ▁May ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁– ▁ 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 6 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁entrepreneur , ▁business ▁magn ate , ▁industrial ist ▁and ▁a ▁professor . ▁He ▁was ▁the ▁co - found er ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Trans ports ▁along ▁with ▁Jay k um ar ▁Pat il ▁in ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁based ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁widely ▁recognized ▁as ▁the ▁pione er ▁in ▁the ▁road ▁transport ▁sector ▁for ▁revolution izing ▁transportation ▁of ▁cargo ▁or ▁goods . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur ▁to ▁Rad hab ai ▁and ▁Mad hav ra o ▁G hat ge . ▁He ▁was ▁raised ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁and ▁completed ▁Master ▁of ▁Science ▁in ▁Bot any ▁in ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁from ▁F erg us son ▁College
▁of ▁P une . ▁ ▁During ▁his ▁lect ures hip ▁at ▁the ▁Raj aram ▁College ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur , ▁he ▁fell ▁prey ▁to ▁T uber cul osis ▁and ▁had ▁to ▁leave ▁his ▁position ▁due ▁to ▁his ▁prolong ed ▁treatment . ▁After ▁fighting ▁T B , ▁he ▁along ▁with ▁his ▁friend ▁Mr . ▁Jay k um ar ▁Pat il ▁started ▁goods ▁transportation ▁in ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁as ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Trans ports ▁Ltd . ▁Ext ensive ▁reach ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁trucks ▁in ▁every ▁corner ▁of ▁Mah ar as ht ra ▁had ▁made ▁it ▁a ▁household ▁name . ▁Soon , ▁the ▁organization ▁divers ified ▁to ▁multiple ▁industries ▁like ▁spare ▁parts ▁manufacturing ▁unit ▁named ▁as ▁K GP ▁Auto ▁Ltd . ▁( K irl os kar ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Auto ▁Ltd .), ▁the ▁top ▁engine ▁and ▁autom obile ▁deal ership s ▁like ▁Morris ▁Mot ors , ▁Lamb rett a ▁under ▁its ▁wing ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 0 s . ▁The ▁customer ▁service ▁and ▁sales ▁service ▁of ▁G hat ge - Pat il ▁was ▁popular ▁in ▁the ▁industry ▁which ▁eventually ▁gained ▁the ▁group ▁more ▁international ▁deal ership ▁offers . ▁ ▁G hat ge ▁tried ▁his ▁luck ▁in ▁manufacturing ▁and ▁produced ▁an ▁Auto ▁S co oter ▁named ▁' L ax mi ▁S co oter ette ' ▁with ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁K irl os kar ▁Group ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 2 . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁noted ▁participant ▁in ▁the ▁De cc an
▁Association ▁along ▁with ▁influ enc ers ▁like ▁V asant d ad ▁Pat il , ▁Y ash wan tra o ▁Ch avan . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 6 , ▁G hat ge ▁succ umb ed ▁to ▁multiple ▁health ▁disorders ▁and ▁exp ired ▁on ▁ 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 6 . ▁ ▁After ▁his ▁dem ise , ▁the ▁G hat ge ▁Group ▁divers ified ▁in ▁various ▁vertical s . ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Trans ports ▁P vt . ▁Ltd . ▁formed ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁is ▁ ▁the ▁flag ship ▁company . ▁It ▁completed ▁ 6 0 ▁years ▁in ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 7 ▁and ▁is ▁currently ▁under ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁youngest ▁grand son ▁of ▁the ▁G hat ge ▁family , ▁Mr . ▁T ush ar ▁Sat ish ▁G hat ge . ▁ ▁Background ▁ ▁Family ▁ ▁G hat ge ▁belonged ▁to ▁a ▁Des has tha ▁Bra h min ▁family ▁of ▁scholars . ▁Mad hav ra o ▁had ▁studied ▁U pan ish ads ▁while ▁his ▁elder ▁brother ▁Am r ut ra o ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁S ansk rit ▁scholar . ▁G hat ge ▁had ▁three ▁brothers ▁and ▁one ▁sister , ▁G hat ge ▁being ▁the ▁youngest . ▁V ish n up ant ▁had ▁studied ▁A eron aut ics ▁while ▁S akh aram ▁was ▁a ▁builder ▁by ▁profession . ▁Born ▁in ▁a ▁small ▁village ▁Has urch amp u ▁in ▁G ad hing l aj ▁T alu ka , ▁the ▁G hat ges ▁are ▁traditional ▁Bra hm ins
▁with ▁strong ▁roots ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁Going ▁back , ▁six ▁to ▁seven ▁generations , ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁that ▁the ▁G hat ges ▁actually ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁K ul k arn i ▁community ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁Mad hav ra o ▁Ven k ates h , ▁father ▁to ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁born ▁into ▁the ▁Va ish av ▁community ▁of ▁K arn at aka ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 6 . ▁Mad hav ra o ▁and ▁Rad hab ai ▁had ▁five ▁children , ▁the ▁youngest ▁being ▁Vas an tra o . ▁ ▁Education ▁and ▁business ▁ ▁After ▁finishing ▁Master ▁of ▁Science ▁in ▁Bot any ▁from ▁F erg us son ▁College ▁of ▁P une , ▁G hat ge ▁started ▁his ▁career ▁as ▁a ▁professor ▁in ▁Raj aram ▁College . ▁After ▁teaching ▁for ▁a ▁few ▁months , ▁he ▁had ▁to ▁resign ▁his ▁post ▁when ▁he ▁was ▁diagnosed ▁with ▁T uber cul osis . ▁G hat ge , ▁being ▁calm ▁and ▁understanding ▁by ▁nature ▁made ▁friends ▁very ▁easily ; ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁closest ▁friends ▁was ▁Jay k um ar ▁Pat il . ▁ ▁Jay k um ar ▁Pat il ▁belonged ▁to ▁a ▁J ain ▁family ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁The ▁Pat il ▁family ▁ran ▁a ▁small ▁goods ▁transportation ▁business ▁which ▁was ▁dependent ▁on ▁a ▁single ▁truck ▁and ▁the ▁route ▁for ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁fixed ▁Kol h ap ur - M umb ai ▁trip . ▁Many ▁a ▁times , ▁Jay k um ar ▁Pat il ▁himself ▁drove ▁the ▁truck ▁all ▁the
▁way ▁to ▁M umb ai . ▁S akh aram p ant , ▁the ▁elder ▁brother ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁a ▁civil ▁engineer ▁by ▁profession ▁had ▁started ▁with ▁the ▁construction ▁business ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁During ▁ 1 9 4 1 – 4 2 , ▁S akh aram ▁had ▁bag ged ▁an ▁Airport ▁building ▁contract ▁which ▁required ▁regular ▁goods ▁transportation ▁from ▁Kol h ap ur ▁to ▁Bel ga um . ▁S akh aram ▁had ▁one ▁truck ▁to ▁handle ▁the ▁transportation ▁but ▁had ▁a ▁short age ▁of ▁one ▁truck . ▁G hat ge ▁suggested ▁Jay k um ar ▁what ▁for ▁the ▁assignment ▁to ▁which ▁Jay k um ar ▁agreed ▁at ▁once ▁to ▁help . ▁After ▁the ▁completion ▁of ▁the ▁assignment ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁G hat ge ▁suggested ▁to ▁start ▁a ▁sole ▁goods ▁transport ▁business ▁using ▁the ▁two ▁trucks ▁and ▁that ▁is ▁how ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Trans ports ▁took ▁birth ▁and ▁the ▁partnership ▁began . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁E . W ▁Perry , ▁the ▁business ▁bag ged ▁its ▁first ▁major ▁contract ▁of ▁Raj aram ▁R if les ▁to ▁transport ▁wood ▁under ▁the ▁command ment ▁of ▁Gen . ▁Thor at . ▁With ▁this ▁contract , ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il ▁had ▁struck ▁a ▁gold ▁mine ▁and ▁gained ▁respect ▁in ▁town ▁for ▁handling ▁the ▁Indian ▁Army ▁cons ign ments . ▁ ▁D ivers ification ▁and ▁deal ership s ▁ ▁Sp are ▁parts ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁World - War ▁II ,
▁the ▁infrastructure ▁and ▁specifically ▁roads ▁were ▁in ▁ru ins ▁which ▁directly ▁affected ▁vehicle ▁transport ▁and ▁the ▁motor ▁components . ▁G hat ge ▁noticed ▁a ▁growing ▁need ▁of ▁such ▁replace able ▁components ▁i . e . ▁spare ▁parts . ▁He ▁identified ▁that ▁if ▁he ▁made ▁Sp are ▁parts ▁available ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur , ▁he ▁can ▁provide ▁to ▁numerous ▁trucks ▁in ▁the ▁town . ▁He ▁would ▁take ▁trips ▁to ▁the ▁ ▁Royal ▁Opera ▁House ▁( M umb ai ) ▁in ▁Gir ga on ▁to ▁would ▁spare ▁parts ▁not ▁just ▁for ▁his ▁business ▁but ▁for ▁creating ▁a ▁market ▁place ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁The ▁M umb ai ▁trips ▁not ▁only ▁helped ▁G hat ge ▁to ▁gain ▁entry ▁in ▁the ▁spare ▁components ▁market ▁but ▁he ▁made ▁acqu aint ances ▁with ▁the ▁vendor ▁and ▁fellow ▁trans por ters . ▁Later , ▁G hat ge ▁explored ▁the ▁Tru ck ▁& ▁Body ▁building ▁business ▁started ▁by ▁building ▁variety ▁of ▁closed ▁v ans ▁and ▁amb ul ances ▁but ▁were ▁remembered ▁for ▁building ▁Kol h ap ur ▁Police ▁V ans ▁and ▁were ▁appl aud ed ▁by ▁the ▁then ▁In spector ▁G . P ▁Khan ▁Bah ad ur ▁Sad ari . ▁ ▁Motor ▁and ▁autom otive ▁components ▁ ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁soon ▁eye ing ▁the ▁Motor ▁or ▁Autom obile ▁industry ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁not ▁possible ▁to ▁buy ▁or ▁manufact ure ▁in ▁India ▁since ▁every ▁make ▁was ▁outs our ced ▁due ▁to ▁better ▁available ▁quality ▁overseas . ▁But ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 9 , ▁when ▁Morris ▁Mot ors
▁company ▁shut ▁down ▁its ▁production , ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁hope ful ▁again . ▁He ▁visited ▁the ▁F RE N CH ▁M OT OR ▁C AR ▁CO . ▁who ▁had ▁the ▁spare ▁parts ▁for ▁one ▁of ▁G hat ge ' s ▁trucks . ▁Along ▁with ▁the ▁spare ▁parts , ▁they ▁also ▁had ▁the ▁agency ▁of ▁Morris ▁Mot ors . ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il , ▁then ▁held ▁the ▁agency ▁of ▁Morris ▁Mot ors ▁because ▁of ▁the ▁sheer ▁ded ication ▁and ▁strong ▁corporate ▁relations ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁in ▁the ▁Industry . ▁Along side , ▁G hat ge ▁also ▁bag ged ▁the ▁Morris ▁Commercial ▁trucks ▁which ▁gave ▁India ▁its ▁first ▁Dies el ▁truck . ▁With ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁G . P ▁Khan ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur ▁Police , ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il ▁held ▁the ▁General ▁Mot ors ▁agency ▁too . ▁ ▁Post ▁World ▁War , ▁the ▁small ▁towns ▁generated ▁demands ▁of ▁motor ▁vehicles ▁and ▁components , ▁too . ▁Init ially ▁the ▁major ▁distribut ors ▁isolated ▁the ▁met ropolitan ▁cities ▁for ▁supp lying ▁their ▁motor ▁components ▁but ▁with ▁the ▁changing ▁era ▁they ▁wished ▁to ▁distribute ▁by ▁giving ▁agencies ▁in ▁the ▁small ▁towns ▁like ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁G hat ge ▁opened ▁its ▁first ▁show room ▁at ▁Raj aram ▁Road , ▁Kol h ap ur ▁with ▁a ▁sp acious ▁display ▁of ▁motor ▁equip ments ▁and ▁multiple ▁b ays ▁and ▁workshops ▁for ▁repair ▁work . ▁Soon , ▁all ▁the ▁vertical s ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il ▁exc elled ▁and ▁word
▁spread ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁the ▁top ▁deal ership ▁house ▁for ▁autom otive ▁components , ▁trucks ▁etc . ▁which ▁brought ▁numerous ▁deal ership s ▁under ▁their ▁house . ▁ ▁B icy cle ▁company ▁ ▁The ▁B icy cle ▁demand ▁in ▁the ▁country ▁was ▁bo oming ▁and ▁G hat ge ▁did ▁not ▁miss ▁the ▁opportunity . ▁R ale igh ▁B icy cle ▁Company , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁oldest ▁bicy cle ▁manufacturing ▁company ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁from ▁England ▁that ▁goes ▁by ▁the ▁brand ▁name ▁R ale igh ▁had ▁given ▁its ▁agency ▁to ▁the ▁Sen ▁& ▁Pand it ▁of ▁Kol k atta . ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il ▁took ▁the ▁Open ▁general ▁lic ence ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁Mr . ▁M . ▁F . ▁Vas v ani ▁who ▁was ▁the ▁Manager ▁of ▁R ale igh ▁and ▁ordered ▁the ▁bicy cles ▁directly ▁to ▁Kol h ap ur ▁that ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁sale ▁of ▁ 3 0 0 ▁lot ▁of ▁bicy cles ▁in ▁a ▁very ▁short ▁span . ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 2 , ▁when ▁T I ▁Cy cles ▁of ▁India ▁started ▁its ▁production ▁of ▁Her cules ▁Cy cles , ▁Phillips ▁Cy cles ▁and ▁B SA ▁motor cy cles ▁in ▁Mad ras , ▁G hat ge ▁had ▁it ▁under ▁his ▁belt ▁too . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁small ▁town ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur , ▁the ▁only ▁ice ▁factory ▁shut ▁followed ▁by ▁which ▁G hat ge ▁founded ▁the ▁Pearl ▁Ice ▁Factory ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁demands ▁of ▁the ▁people ▁of ▁his ▁town . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5
2 , ▁G hat ge - ▁Pat il ▁shocked ▁people ▁with ▁their ▁decision ▁to ▁shut ▁its ▁flag ship ▁transport ▁business . ▁They ▁eventually ▁did ▁not ▁stand ▁by ▁it ▁and ▁changed ▁the ▁decision ▁o wing ▁to ▁the ▁growing ▁market ▁needs ▁of ▁surface ▁transportation ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Trans ports ▁res umed ▁its ▁book ings . ▁ ▁S co ot ers ▁and ▁auto - rick sh aw ▁deal ers ▁ ▁The ▁growing ▁popularity ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁as ▁the ▁dynamic ▁and ▁social ▁business man ▁brought ▁multiple ▁deal ership s ▁to ▁the ▁door step ▁of ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il . ▁The ▁Italian ▁company , ▁Autom obile ▁Products ▁of ▁India , ▁the ▁manufacturer ▁at ▁Bomb ay ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁produced ▁Lamb rett a ▁sc oot ers ▁and ▁autor ick sh aws ▁& ▁offered ▁G hat ge ▁& ▁Pat il ▁to ▁become ▁the ▁distribut ors ▁of ▁their ▁products ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 6 . ▁They ▁also ▁bag ged ▁the ▁deal ership ▁of ▁Mah ind ra ▁& ▁Mah ind ra ▁which ▁started ▁its ▁production ▁in ▁India ▁around ▁ 1 9 5 4 ; ▁G hat ge ▁founded ▁the ▁deal ership ▁show rooms ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur , ▁Rat n ag iri , ▁Sat ara ▁and ▁Sol ap ur . ▁ ▁T ract ors ▁and ▁Agricult ural ▁Equip ments ▁ ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁held ▁the ▁M asse y ▁F erg us on ▁agency ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 7 , ▁a
▁major ▁American ▁manufacturer ▁of ▁Agricult ural ▁Equip ments ▁along ▁with ▁T ract ors ▁and ▁Farm ▁Equipment ▁Limited ▁T A FE ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 . ▁ ▁L ax mi ▁S co oter ette ▁ ▁API , ▁under ▁the ▁wing ▁of ▁ ▁M . ▁A ▁Ch id amb aram ▁was ▁granted ▁the ▁permission ▁to ▁manufact ure ▁two ▁out ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁models ▁of ▁Lamb rett a ▁by ▁the ▁Indian ▁Government . ▁After ▁having ▁all ▁the ▁major ▁deal ership s ▁under ▁his ▁wing , ▁G hat ge ▁decided ▁to ▁manufact ure ▁the ▁third ▁model ▁which ▁was ▁better ▁known ▁as ▁an ▁Auto ▁S co oter . ▁It ▁was ▁a ▁big ▁leap ▁for ▁the ▁G hat ge - Pat il ▁and ▁under ▁the ▁guidance ▁of ▁K irl os k ars , ▁the ▁production ▁of ▁the ▁model ▁started ▁in ▁U ch ga on ▁under ▁K GP ▁Auto ▁Ltd . ▁( K irl os kar ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Auto ▁Ltd .) ▁which ▁was ▁set ▁up ▁near ▁G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Indust ries ▁Found ry . which ▁was ▁named . ▁The ▁Auto ▁S co oter ▁was ▁named ▁as ▁" L ax mi ▁S co oter ette " ▁touching ▁upon ▁the ▁emotions ▁and ▁connect ▁better ▁with ▁the ▁people . ▁K irl os kar ▁K isa an , ▁an ▁oil ▁company ▁supplied ▁Eng ines ▁and ▁O agle ▁Brother ' s ▁Del star ▁supplied ▁the ▁body , ▁fuel ▁tank ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁front ▁and ▁rear ▁fork ▁assembly ▁for ▁L ax mi . ▁L ax mi ▁was ▁released ▁in
▁the ▁market ▁during ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁with ▁a ▁target ▁to ▁produce ▁ 2 4 0 0 0 ▁models ▁by ▁the ▁year ▁ 1 9 7 5 . ▁Unfortunately , ▁L ax mi ▁could ▁not ▁make ▁a ▁mark ▁in ▁the ▁industry ▁due ▁to ▁technical ▁and ▁market ▁in eff ici encies . ▁Around ▁four ▁years ▁after ▁Vas an tra o ▁G hat ge ' s ▁dem ise , ▁the ▁group ▁saw ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁L ax mi ▁S co oter ette ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁ ▁Phil anth ropy ▁and ▁social ▁activities ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁G hat ge ▁along ▁with ▁Ab asa he b ▁K ul k arn i ▁K he bud kar ▁from ▁S ang li ▁was ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁De cc an ▁Co - oper ative ▁Sp in ning ▁Mill ▁Ltd . ▁Although ▁having ▁little ▁or ▁no ▁interest ▁in ▁politics , ▁he ▁soon ▁made ▁friends ▁with ▁noted ▁politicians ▁and ▁influ enc ers ▁namely ▁V asant d ada ▁Pat il , ▁Y ash wan tra o ▁Ch avan ▁and ▁Vas an tra o ▁Na ik ▁who ▁were ▁active ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁De cc an ▁Association . ▁ ▁He ▁was ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁Education ▁Society ▁of ▁Kol h ap ur ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁after ▁Mad an ▁Moh an ▁L oh i ya . ▁G hat ge ▁started ▁and ▁supported ▁ 2 4 ▁schools ▁and ▁ 3 ▁Junior ▁colleges . ▁ ▁On ▁ 3 0 ▁August ▁ 1 9 4
9 , ▁Rem and ▁Home ▁was ▁established ▁by ▁L al it ade vi ▁Naj appa , ▁wife ▁to ▁Chief ▁Administr ator ▁Captain ▁V . ▁Naj appa . ▁In ▁the ▁next ▁ 2 ▁years , ▁G hat ge ▁was ▁heading ▁the ▁departments ▁from ▁funding ▁allocation . ▁A ▁well - known ▁Social ▁activ ist , ▁Dr . ▁Sun il k um ar ▁Law ate ▁was ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Rem and ▁Home ▁which ▁is ▁now ▁converted ▁to ▁B alk al yan ▁S ank ul ▁and ▁admitted ▁ 4 5 ▁boys ▁and ▁ 4 ▁girls . ▁ ▁With ▁a ▁growing ▁popularity ▁and ▁a ▁huge ▁social ▁circle , ▁G hat ge ▁had ▁notable ▁visitors ▁in ▁Kol h ap ur . ▁The ▁G anes h ▁Festival , ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁most ▁cov eted ▁and ▁celebrated ▁event ▁in ▁the ▁organization ▁had ▁the ▁most ▁talented ▁artists ▁of ▁India . ▁Pand it ▁Bh im sen ▁Jos hi ▁had ▁performed ▁five ▁times ▁at ▁the ▁G anes h ▁Festival ▁in ▁G hat ge - ▁Pat il ▁since ▁ 1 9 5 5 ; ▁the ▁world - f amous ▁sit ar ist ▁ ▁R avi ▁Sh ank ar , ▁the ▁Indian ▁Tab la ▁player ▁All a ▁R ak ha ▁and ▁the ▁classical ▁sing ers ▁K ish ori ▁A mon kar , ▁Pand it ▁Kum ar ▁Gand har va , ▁Bal ▁Gand har va , ▁Pand it ▁Vas an tra o ▁Des hp ande ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁▁ 1 9 . ▁Lamb rett a ▁ 4 8 ▁m oped ▁was ▁sold ▁by ▁API , ▁later ▁was
▁sold ▁by ▁under ▁the ▁brand ▁name ▁' L ax mi ' ▁by ▁K irl os kar - G hat ge ▁Pat il ▁Mot ors ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Indian ▁business people ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Indian ▁educ ators ▁Category : Ind ian ▁phil anth rop ists ▁Category : F erg us son ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Kol h ap ur ▁Category : Ind ian ▁business people ▁Category : 1 9 1 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 8 6 ▁deaths ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁phil anth rop ists <0x0A> </s> ▁W L V G ▁( FM ▁ 1 0 5 . 1 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Christian ▁radio ▁station ▁licensed ▁to ▁Cl erm ont , ▁Georgia , ▁and ▁owned ▁by ▁Educ ational ▁Media ▁Foundation ▁The ▁current ▁format ▁is ▁Christian ▁Cont emporary ▁and ▁ident ifies ▁itself ▁as ▁" Pos itive ▁& ▁Enc our aging ▁K - love ”. ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁station ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁by ▁Charles ▁Smith g all ▁as ▁WHE L ; ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁it ▁was ▁acquired ▁by ▁Jac or , ▁which ▁was ▁sold ▁to ▁Clear ▁Channel ▁Communications ▁a ▁year ▁later . ▁At ▁one ▁point ▁an ▁old ies ▁station , ▁the ▁station ▁soon ▁became ▁a ▁sim ul cast ▁of ▁W G ST ▁AM ▁ 6 4 0 ▁from ▁Atlanta , ▁and ▁later ▁a ▁sim ul cast ▁of ▁W W VA - FM ▁( as
▁W V WA ). ▁The ▁necessity ▁of ▁the ▁W W VA ▁sim ul cast ▁was ▁often ▁deb ated , ▁as ▁the ▁residents ▁of ▁the ▁north ▁Georgia ▁mountains ▁did ▁not ▁understand ▁why ▁a ▁Spanish ▁pop ▁station ▁was ▁needed ▁more ▁than ▁a ▁news ▁station . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁the ▁station ▁was ▁sold ▁to ▁S oren son ▁Sout heast ▁Radio ▁and ▁operated ▁on ▁a ▁local ▁marketing ▁agreement ▁( L MA ) ▁by ▁Douglas ▁M . ▁S utton , ▁Jr ., ▁who ▁is ▁the ▁license e ▁of ▁several ▁broadcast ▁stations ▁in ▁Georgia ▁and ▁the ▁Carol inas , ▁the ▁station ▁remained ▁silent ▁for ▁several ▁months . ▁On ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁O con ee ▁River ▁Broad cast ing , ▁LLC ▁signed ▁a ▁programming ▁agreement ▁with ▁S utton ▁for ▁a ▁three - year ▁period . ▁Upon ▁return ▁to ▁the ▁air , ▁the ▁station ▁held ▁a ▁listener ▁poll ▁to ▁determine ▁the ▁station ' s ▁format ; ▁a ▁rock ▁AC ▁format ▁was ▁chosen ▁and ▁was ▁known ▁as ▁Georgia ▁ 1 0 5 . ▁The ▁station ▁initially ▁re claimed ▁the ▁WHE L ▁call ▁letters ▁for ▁its ▁city ▁of ▁Helen , ▁but ▁on ▁November ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁it ▁became ▁W Z GA . ▁O con ee ▁River ▁Broad cast ing ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁secure ▁a ▁long - term ▁agreement ▁to ▁own ▁or ▁operate ▁the ▁station . ▁Prior ▁to ▁the ▁exp iration ▁of ▁the ▁three - year ▁term , ▁S oren son ▁filed ▁for ▁consent ▁to ▁re
assign ▁the ▁license ▁of ▁W Z GA ▁to ▁S utton ' s ▁company , ▁T ug art ▁Properties , ▁LLC . ▁On ▁April ▁ 2 0 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁assignment ▁was ▁approved ▁by ▁the ▁F CC . ▁On ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁the ▁station ▁re verted ▁to ▁the ▁control ▁of ▁S utton ▁under ▁his ▁company , ▁T ug art ▁Properties , ▁LLC , ▁the ▁call ▁letters ▁were ▁changed ▁to ▁W N GA ▁and ▁after ▁a ▁short ▁st unting ▁period ▁the ▁station ▁changed ▁to ▁country ▁music . ▁The ▁station ▁left ▁the ▁air ▁on ▁August ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁due ▁to ▁ins ufficient ▁advertising ▁revenue . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁now ▁owned ▁by ▁Educ ational ▁Media ▁Foundation , ▁and ▁broadcast s ▁the ▁K - LO VE ▁Cont emporary ▁Christian ▁format . ▁ ▁, ▁W N GA ▁had ▁special ▁temporary ▁authority ▁to ▁be ▁off ▁the ▁air , ▁apparently ▁pending ▁a ▁change ▁in ▁facilities ▁related ▁to ▁its ▁construction ▁perm its . ▁The ▁most ▁recent ▁change , ▁F CC - appro ved ▁on ▁April ▁ 1 6 , ▁moved ▁it ▁from ▁Helen , ▁Georgia ▁to ▁Long ▁Mountain ▁south - s outh west ▁of ▁Cleveland , ▁Georgia , ▁between ▁D ahl one ga ▁Highway ▁( Ge org ia ▁ 1 1 5 ) ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁and ▁Main ▁Street ▁/ ▁Cleveland ▁Highway ▁( both ▁Georgia ▁ 1 1 ▁and ▁U . S . ▁ 1 2 9 ) ▁to ▁the ▁east . ▁ ▁Re
ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁L V G ▁Category : K - Love ▁radio ▁stations ▁Category : Radio ▁stations ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁Category : 1 9 9 5 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Georgia ▁( U . S . ▁state ) ▁Category : E duc ational ▁Media ▁Foundation ▁radio ▁stations ▁Category : Christ ian ▁radio ▁stations ▁in ▁Georgia ▁( U . S . ▁state ) <0x0A> </s> ▁P se ud omon as ▁ant ar ct ica ▁is ▁a ▁psych ro ph il ic , ▁Gram - negative , ▁mot ile ▁with ▁a ▁polar ▁flag ell um , ▁rod - shaped ▁bacter ium ▁isolated ▁from ▁cy an ob acter ial ▁m ats ▁in ▁Ant ar ct ica . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Type ▁strain ▁of ▁P se ud omon as ▁ant ar ct ica ▁at ▁B ac D ive ▁- ▁ ▁the ▁B acter ial ▁D ivers ity ▁Met ad at abase ▁ ▁Category : Pse ud omon ad ales ▁Category : B acter ia ▁described ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁Pick ering ▁Township ▁is ▁a ▁civil ▁town ship ▁in ▁B ott ine au ▁County ▁in ▁the ▁U . S . ▁state ▁of ▁North ▁Dakota . ▁Its ▁population ▁was ▁ 1 9 3 ▁as ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁census , ▁down ▁from ▁ 2 1 3 ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁census . ▁ ▁History ▁Pick ering ▁Township ▁was ▁organized ▁sometime ▁between ▁ 1 9 1 0 ▁and ▁ 1
9 2 0 ▁from ▁V inge ▁School ▁Township ▁and ▁the ▁western ▁portion ▁of ▁B ott ine au ▁School ▁Township . ▁ ▁Report edly , ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 3 , ▁Norweg ian ▁sett lers ▁from ▁Pol k ▁County , ▁Minnesota , ▁established ▁the ▁first ▁Norweg ian ▁settlement ▁in ▁B ott ine au ▁County ▁near ▁Car bury ▁in ▁present - day ▁Pick ering ▁Township . ▁Other ▁Norweg ians ▁followed ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 6 . ▁ ▁Ge ography ▁Pick ering ▁Township ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁Township ▁ 1 6 2 N , ▁Range ▁ 7 6 W . ▁North ▁Dakota ▁Highway ▁ 1 4 ▁is ▁a ▁primary ▁highway ▁in ▁the ▁town ship , ▁and ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁B ott ine au , ▁which ▁is ▁the ▁county ▁seat , ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁sout heast ▁corner ▁of ▁the ▁town ship . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁United ▁States ▁Census , ▁the ▁town ship ▁has ▁a ▁total ▁area ▁of ▁, ▁of ▁which ▁ ▁is ▁land ▁and ▁ ▁is ▁water . ▁ ▁Car bury ▁Dam ▁is ▁a ▁public ▁fishing ▁area ▁located ▁ ▁south ▁and ▁ ▁west ▁of ▁Car bury . ▁It ▁is ▁managed ▁by ▁the ▁North ▁Dakota ▁Game ▁and ▁Fish ▁Department . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : T own ships ▁in ▁B ott ine au ▁County , ▁North ▁Dakota ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 8 8 3 ▁Category : 1 8 8 3 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Dakota ▁Terr itory ▁Category : T own ships ▁in ▁North ▁Dakota
<0x0A> </s> ▁Paul ▁K lee ▁( 1 8 7 9 – 1 9 4 0 ), ▁was ▁a ▁German - Sw iss ▁painter . ▁ ▁K lee ▁or ▁K LE E ▁may ▁also ▁refer ▁to : ▁▁ ▁K lee ▁( s urn ame ), ▁a ▁surn ame ▁ ▁K lee ▁( band ), ▁a ▁German ▁pop ▁band ▁ ▁K lee ▁Pass age , ▁a ▁channel ▁of ▁water ▁in ▁the ▁Marshall ▁Islands ▁▁ 1 0 5 4 3 ▁K lee ▁( 1 9 9 2 ▁DL 4 ), ▁a ▁main - b elt ▁aster oid ▁ ▁K LE E , ▁an ▁American ▁radio ▁station ▁ ▁K LE E - TV , ▁a ▁Houston ▁TV ▁channel ▁now ▁renamed ▁K PR C - TV ▁ ▁The ▁I CA O ▁code ▁for ▁Le es burg ▁International ▁Airport ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁K lee ▁K ai , ▁a ▁breed ▁of ▁dog ▁ ▁Cle e ▁( dis ambigu ation ) <0x0A> </s> ▁Order ▁of ▁L oyal ty ▁and ▁Val our ▁( Tr ad itional ▁Chinese : ▁ 忠勇 <0xE5> <0x8B> <0xB3> 章 ) is ▁a ▁military ▁award ▁from ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁China . ▁It ▁was ▁created ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁for ▁outstanding ▁command ▁in ▁battle . ▁ ▁It ▁has ▁one ▁rank . ▁ ▁Reference ▁list ▁ ▁Category : Or ders , ▁decor ations , ▁and ▁med als ▁of ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁China ▁Category : A wards ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁was ▁the ▁lead ▁vessel ▁of ▁the ▁five
▁ ▁light ▁cru is ers ▁in ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Japanese ▁Navy . ▁She ▁was ▁named ▁after ▁the ▁K uma ▁River ▁in ▁Kum am oto ▁pre fect ure , ▁Japan . ▁ ▁Background ▁After ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁s , ▁the ▁de mer its ▁of ▁the ▁small ▁cru iser ▁concept ▁became ▁apparent . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 7 , ▁plans ▁for ▁an ▁additional ▁six ▁Ten ry ū - class ▁vessels , ▁plus ▁three ▁new - design ▁ 7 , 2 0 0 ▁ton - class ▁sc out ▁cru is ers ▁were ▁shel ved , ▁in ▁place ▁of ▁an ▁intermediate ▁ 5 , 5 0 0 ▁ton - class ▁vessel ▁which ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁both ▁a ▁long - range , ▁high ▁speed ▁recon naissance ▁ship , ▁and ▁also ▁as ▁a ▁command ▁vessel ▁for ▁destroy er ▁or ▁submar ine ▁fl ot illas . ▁K uma ▁was ▁laid ▁down ▁at ▁S ase bo ▁Naval ▁Ar senal ▁on ▁ 2 9 ▁August ▁ 1 9 1 8 , ▁launched ▁on ▁ 1 4 ▁July ▁ 1 9 1 9 ▁and ▁commissioned ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁August ▁ 1 9 2 0 . ▁ ▁Design ▁ ▁The ▁K uma - class ▁vessels ▁were ▁essentially ▁en larg ed ▁versions ▁of ▁the ▁Ten ry ū - class ▁cru is ers , ▁with ▁greater ▁speed , ▁range , ▁and ▁weapon ry . ▁With ▁improvements ▁in ▁ge ared - t urb ine ▁engine ▁technology , ▁the ▁K uma - class ▁vessels ▁were ▁capable ▁of ▁the ▁high ▁speed ▁of ▁,
▁and ▁a ▁range ▁of ▁ ▁at ▁. ▁ ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁ 1 4 ▁cm / 5 0 ▁ 3 rd ▁Year ▁Type ▁naval ▁guns ▁was ▁increased ▁from ▁four ▁on ▁the ▁Ten ry ū ▁class ▁to ▁seven ▁on ▁K uma : ▁two ▁forward , ▁two ▁on ▁each ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁super structure ▁and ▁three ▁a ft , ▁which ▁meant ▁that ▁only ▁six ▁guns ▁could ▁be ▁brought ▁to ▁bear ▁on ▁a ▁broad side . ▁The ▁tor ped o ▁launch ers ▁were ▁also ▁increased ▁to ▁four ▁double ▁launch ers : ▁however , ▁the ▁K uma ▁class ▁remained ▁highly ▁def icient ▁in ▁anti - air craft ▁protection , ▁with ▁only ▁two ▁ 8 ▁cm / 4 0 ▁ 3 rd ▁Year ▁Type ▁naval ▁guns ▁and ▁two ▁ 6 . 5 ▁mm ▁machine ▁guns . ▁K uma ▁could ▁be ▁distinguished ▁from ▁her ▁sister ▁ships ▁by ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁fun nel ▁caps ▁from ▁ 1 9 2 9 . ▁ ▁Service ▁career ▁ ▁Early ▁career ▁Im medi ately ▁after ▁commission ing , ▁K uma ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁cover ▁the ▁land ings ▁of ▁Japanese ▁troops ▁during ▁the ▁Japanese ▁intervention ▁in ▁S iber ia ▁against ▁the ▁Bol she vik ▁Red ▁Army . ▁She ▁was ▁subsequently ▁based ▁at ▁Port ▁Arthur , ▁and ▁pat rolled ▁the ▁northern ▁China ▁coast ▁between ▁the ▁K want ung ▁Le ased ▁Terr itory ▁and ▁T sing ta o . ▁ ▁K uma ▁was ▁ref it ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁with ▁a ▁trip od ▁mast , ▁two ▁rot atable ▁quad ru ple ▁tor ped o
▁launch ers , ▁and ▁an ▁aircraft ▁cat ap ult ▁for ▁launch ing ▁a ▁recon naissance ▁float plane , ▁typically ▁a ▁K aw an ishi ▁E 7 K 1 ▁" Al f ". ▁As ▁the ▁Second ▁S ino - J apan ese ▁War ▁began ▁to ▁escal ate , ▁K uma ▁pat rolled ▁the ▁China ▁coast , ▁and ▁covered ▁the ▁land ings ▁of ▁Japanese ▁forces ▁in ▁central ▁China . ▁She ▁was ▁capt ained ▁by ▁Captain ▁T ad ash ige ▁Da igo ▁from ▁November ▁ 1 9 3 5 ▁to ▁December ▁ 1 9 3 6 . ▁In ▁December ▁ 1 9 3 7 , ▁K uma ▁served ▁as ▁flag ship ▁for ▁a ▁squad ron ▁of ▁min el ay ing ▁submar ines ▁ ▁through ▁ ▁based ▁out ▁of ▁T sing ta o ▁until ▁fall ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁ ▁Inv asion ▁of ▁the ▁Philippines ▁On ▁ 1 0 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁K uma ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁Vice ▁Admiral ▁I bo ▁Tak ah ashi ' s ▁Cru Div ▁ 1 6 ▁in ▁the ▁Japanese ▁ 3 rd ▁Fleet . ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁attack ▁on ▁Pearl ▁Harbor ▁on ▁ 8 ▁December ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁K uma ▁was ▁participating ▁in ▁the ▁invasion ▁of ▁the ▁northern ▁Philippines , ▁having ▁depart ed ▁from ▁its ▁base ▁in ▁M ako , ▁P esc adores ▁Islands ▁with ▁the ▁, ▁ ▁and ▁destroy ers ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁From ▁ 1 0 – 1 1 ▁December , ▁K uma ▁covered ▁land ings ▁at ▁A
par ri ▁and ▁V igan ; ▁off ▁V igan , ▁K uma ▁was ▁attacked ▁un success fully ▁by ▁five ▁US AA F ▁Bo eing ▁B - 1 7 ▁F lying ▁Fort ress ▁bom bers ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 4 th ▁Squadron . ▁On ▁ 2 2 ▁December , ▁K uma ▁covered ▁further ▁land ings ▁at ▁L ing ay en ▁Gulf , ▁Philippines . ▁ ▁On ▁ 3 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁K uma ▁was ▁reass igned ▁to ▁Vice ▁Admiral ▁R ok uz ō ▁S ug iy ama ' s ▁Third ▁Southern ▁Ex ped ition ary ▁Fleet . ▁She ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁patrol s ▁around ▁the ▁Philipp ine ▁islands ▁from ▁ 1 0 ▁January ▁to ▁ 2 7 ▁February ▁ 1 9 4 2 . ▁ ▁In ▁March , ▁K uma ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁cover ▁the ▁invasion ▁of ▁the ▁southern ▁Philippines , ▁shell ing ▁C eb u ▁har bor ▁on ▁ 1 ▁March , ▁s inking ▁two ▁coastal ▁trans ports , ▁and ▁covering ▁the ▁land ings ▁at ▁Z amb o anga , ▁Mind ana o ▁on ▁ 3 ▁March . ▁Special ▁Naval ▁Land ing ▁Forces ▁( SN L F ) ▁from ▁K uma ▁resc ued ▁about ▁ 8 0 ▁Japanese ▁nation als ▁who ▁had ▁been ▁intern ed . ▁K uma ▁is ▁also ▁cred ited ▁with ▁s inking ▁twelve ▁transport ▁vessels ▁in ▁the ▁Sul u ▁Sea ▁off ▁of ▁C eb u ▁the ▁same ▁night . ▁ ▁On ▁ 9 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁off ▁C eb u , ▁K
uma ▁and ▁the ▁tor ped o ▁boat ▁K iji ▁were ▁attacked ▁by ▁U . S . ▁tor ped o ▁boats ▁PT - 3 4 ▁and ▁PT - 4 1 . ▁K uma ▁was ▁hit ▁in ▁the ▁bow ▁by ▁one ▁of ▁eight ▁Mark ▁ 8 ▁Tor ped oes ▁fired , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁d ud . ▁PT - 3 4 ▁was ▁destroyed ▁by ▁M its ub ishi ▁F 1 M ▁" P etes " ▁launched ▁from ▁the ▁se ap lane ▁tender ▁San uki ▁Mar u . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 0 ▁April , ▁K uma ▁covered ▁land ings ▁on ▁C eb u ▁by ▁the ▁K aw ag uch i ▁Det achment ' s ▁ 3 5 th ▁Infan try ▁Brigade ▁H Q ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 2 4 th ▁Infan try ▁Regiment , ▁and ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁April ▁land ings ▁on ▁Pan ay ▁by ▁the ▁K aw am ura ▁Det achment ' s ▁ 9 th ▁Infan try ▁Brigade ▁H Q ▁and ▁the ▁ 4 1 st ▁Infan try ▁Regiment . ▁On ▁ 6 ▁May , ▁K uma ▁covered ▁the ▁final ▁assault ▁on ▁the ▁American ▁bast ion ▁on ▁Cor reg id or ▁Island ▁in ▁Man ila ▁Bay . ▁After wards , ▁K uma ▁remained ▁on ▁patrol ▁at ▁Man ila ▁until ▁ 1 2 ▁August ▁ 1 9 4 2 . ▁ ▁Dutch ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁and ▁New ▁Gu inea ▁campaigns ▁After ▁a ▁ref it ▁at ▁K ure ▁Naval ▁Ar senal ▁in ▁September , ▁K uma ▁returned ▁to ▁Man ila ▁on ▁ 2
0 ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁and ▁was ▁reass igned ▁to ▁Vice ▁Admiral ▁Shir ō ▁Tak as u ' s ▁Second ▁Southern ▁Ex ped ition ary ▁Fleet ▁( D utch ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁Force ). ▁She ▁was ▁sent ▁to ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁to ▁emb ark ▁troops ▁of ▁the ▁ 3 8 th ▁Infan try ▁Division , ▁which ▁she ▁dis emb ark ed ▁at ▁Rab aul , ▁New ▁Britain ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁October . ▁K uma ▁then ▁proceed ed ▁to ▁Mak ass ar , ▁Cele bes ▁where ▁she ▁began ▁patrol s ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Captain ▁I chi ro ▁Y ok oy ama , ▁with ▁occasional ▁emb ark ation ▁of ▁reinforce ments ▁for ▁Rab aul , ▁K aim ana , ▁New ▁Gu inea ▁and ▁Kab ui , ▁New ▁Gu inea ▁until ▁ 1 3 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 3 . ▁ ▁From ▁late ▁April ▁through ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁K uma ▁was ▁ref itted ▁at ▁the ▁Se let ar ▁Naval ▁Base ▁Singapore , ▁and ▁afterwards ▁res umed ▁patrol s ▁around ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁to ▁ 2 3 ▁June . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 3 ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁while ▁at ▁Mak ass ar ▁with ▁Cru Div ▁ 1 6 ' s ▁, ▁, ▁and ▁, ▁K uma ▁was ▁attacked ▁by ▁sevent een ▁Cons olid ated ▁Air craft ▁B - 2 4 ▁Liber ator ▁bom bers ▁of ▁the ▁ 3 1 9 th ▁Squadron / 9 0 th ▁Bomb ▁Group ▁( H
) ▁of ▁the ▁ 5 th ▁Air ▁Force . ▁All ▁four ▁light ▁cru is ers ▁were ▁str add led ▁by ▁near - miss es , ▁but ▁suffered ▁only ▁slight ▁damage . ▁ ▁On ▁ 2 4 ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁Cru Div ▁ 1 6 ' s ▁flag ▁was ▁transferred ▁from ▁Kin u ▁to ▁K uma . ▁Both ▁cru is ers ▁then ▁depart ed ▁Mak ass ar ▁for ▁patrol s ▁around ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁until ▁ 2 3 ▁October . ▁From ▁ 1 ▁November , ▁K uma ▁was ▁ref it ▁in ▁Singapore . ▁Her ▁No . ▁ 5 ▁ 1 4 0 - mm ▁gun ▁was ▁removed ▁as ▁were ▁her ▁aircraft ▁cat ap ult ▁and ▁d err ick . ▁Two ▁triple ▁mount ▁Type ▁ 9 6 ▁ 2 5 - mm ▁AA ▁guns ▁were ▁fitted . ▁This ▁brought ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁Kum as ▁ 2 5 - mm ▁AA ▁guns ▁to ▁ten ▁barrel s ▁( 2 x 3 , ▁ 2 x 2 ). ▁Ref it ▁was ▁completed ▁by ▁ 1 2 ▁November , ▁and ▁patrol s / transport ▁runs ▁around ▁the ▁Dutch ▁East ▁Ind ies ▁res umed , ▁extending ▁occasionally ▁to ▁Port ▁Bl air , ▁And aman ▁Islands , ▁Pen ang , ▁Mer gui , ▁Bur ma ▁through ▁ 9 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 1 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁after ▁depart ing ▁from ▁Pen ang ▁with ▁the ▁destroy er ▁ ▁on ▁anti - sub mar ine
▁war fare ▁exercises , ▁K uma ▁was ▁sight ed ▁by ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁submar ine ▁ ▁based ▁out ▁of ▁ ▁Tr in com ale e , ▁C ey lon . ▁Appro xim ately ▁ ▁north west ▁of ▁Pen ang , ▁T ally - H o ▁fired ▁a ▁seven - tor ped o ▁sal vo ▁from ▁. ▁Kum as ▁look outs ▁spotted ▁the ▁tor ped oes ' ▁w akes , ▁and ▁although ▁the ▁r udder ▁was ▁sent ▁hard ▁over , ▁K uma ▁was ▁hit ▁star board ▁a ft ▁by ▁two ▁tor ped oes , ▁setting ▁the ▁ship ▁on ▁fire . ▁K uma ▁sank ▁by ▁the ▁stern ▁in ▁the ▁vic inity ▁of ▁ ▁det on ating ▁her ▁own ▁depth ▁charges . ▁U ran ami ▁took ▁on ▁survivors , ▁including ▁Captain ▁S ug ino , ▁but ▁ 1 3 8 ▁crew men ▁per ished ▁with ▁the ▁ship . ▁ ▁K uma ▁was ▁removed ▁from ▁the ▁navy ▁list ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁March ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁ ▁The ▁wreck ▁Kum as ▁wreck ▁was ▁discovered ▁in ▁March ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁by ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁divers ▁including ▁Australian ▁expl orer ▁Kevin ▁Den lay ▁ ▁operating ▁off ▁the ▁research ▁vessel ▁M V ▁Em press , ▁based ▁out ▁of ▁Singapore . ▁The ▁wreck ▁was ▁found ▁to ▁be ▁on ▁its ▁star board ▁side ▁in ▁ ▁of ▁water , ▁covered ▁in ▁fishing ▁n ets ▁and ▁sn ag ged ▁fishing ▁lines . ▁The ▁bridge ▁structure ▁was ▁fairly ▁intact , ▁although ▁half - bur ied ▁in ▁bottom ▁s ilt , ▁and
▁her ▁fun nels ▁had ▁fallen ▁off . ▁The ▁port ▁side ▁waist ▁ 5 . 5 - inch ▁gun ▁was ▁basically ▁intact , ▁as ▁were ▁the ▁two ▁on ▁the ▁fore - deck , ▁although ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁waist ▁mount ▁en closure ▁had ▁partially ▁dis integr ated . ▁The ▁circular ▁rot ating ▁base ▁of ▁the ▁forward ▁port ▁tor ped o ▁rack ▁was ▁intact , ▁but ▁there ▁were ▁no ▁tor ped o ▁tub es ▁mounted ▁on ▁it . ▁However , ▁the ▁a ft ▁port ▁rot ating ▁tor ped o ▁tube ▁mount ▁had ▁completely ▁fallen ▁off ▁the ▁ship . ▁The ▁glass ▁in ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁por th oles , ▁especially ▁amid ships , ▁has ▁been ▁melt ed ▁and ▁f used ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁intensity ▁of ▁the ▁fire ▁that ▁r aged ▁while ▁the ▁vessel ▁was ▁s inking . ▁The ▁ship ' s ▁stern ▁was ▁missing ▁completely ▁a ft ▁of ▁where ▁the ▁tor ped oes ▁hit ; ▁all ▁that ▁remained ▁was ▁a ▁jag ged ▁edge , ▁although ▁the ▁out board ▁port ▁prop eller ▁and ▁shaft ▁were ▁still ▁visible ▁pro tr uding ▁from ▁the ▁wreck . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁it ▁was ▁reported ▁that ▁illegal ▁salv agers ▁recovered ▁scrap ▁metal ▁from ▁several ▁ship w re cks , ▁including ▁K uma . ▁Sub sequ ent ▁reports ▁state ▁that ▁the ▁wreck ▁is ▁almost ▁completely ▁gone ▁now . ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : K uma - class ▁cru is ers ▁Category : Ship s ▁built ▁in ▁Japan ▁Category : 1 9 1
9 ▁ships ▁Category : World ▁War ▁II ▁cru is ers ▁of ▁Japan ▁Category : World ▁War ▁II ▁ship w re cks ▁in ▁the ▁Str ait ▁of ▁Mal ac ca ▁Category : Mar itime ▁incidents ▁in ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁Category : Ship s ▁s unk ▁by ▁British ▁submar ines <0x0A> </s> ▁I bs en ▁is ▁a ▁Norweg ian ▁family ▁of ▁Dan ish ▁extr action . ▁Its ▁most ▁famous ▁members ▁are ▁play wright ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en , ▁his ▁son , ▁states man ▁Sig urd ▁I bs en , ▁and ▁grand son , ▁pione er ▁film ▁director ▁T anc red ▁I bs en . ▁Several ▁other ▁family ▁members ▁have ▁been ▁noted ▁artists . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁The ▁name ▁I bs en ▁is ▁a ▁" f ro zen " ▁patron ym ic , ▁meaning ▁" son ▁of ▁I b ." ▁I b ▁is ▁a ▁Dan ish ▁variant ▁of ▁Jacob . ▁The ▁name ▁became ▁frozen ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁century , ▁while ▁this ▁practice ▁was ▁only ▁widely ▁adopted ▁in ▁Denmark ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century ▁and ▁in ▁Norway ▁from ▁around ▁ 1 9 0 0 . ▁The ▁phenomenon ▁of ▁patron ym ics ▁becoming ▁frozen ▁started ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 7 th ▁century ▁in ▁bour ge ois ▁families ▁in ▁Denmark . ▁ ▁The ▁family ' s ▁earliest ▁known ▁ancest or ▁is ▁R asm us ▁I bs en ▁( 1 6 3 2 – 1 7 0 3 ), ▁a ▁merchant ▁in ▁Ste ge , ▁Denmark . ▁R asm us ▁I
bs en ' s ▁son , ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁and ▁merchant ▁Peter ▁I bs en ▁( d ied ▁ 1 7 6 5 ), ▁settled ▁in ▁Norway ▁as ▁a ▁bur gh er ▁of ▁Ber gen . ▁Peter ' s ▁son ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁( 1 7 2 6 – 1 7 6 5 ) ▁became ▁a ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁in ▁Ber gen . ▁After ▁his ▁father ▁died ▁early ▁and ▁his ▁mother ▁W en che ▁D ishing ton ▁rem ar ried , ▁Hen rik ' s ▁son ▁Hen rik ▁Joh an ▁I bs en ▁( 1 7 6 5 – 1 7 9 7 ) ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁the ▁household ▁of ▁parish ▁priest ▁Jacob ▁von ▁der ▁Lip pe , ▁his ▁step father . ▁After ▁Hen rik ▁Joh an ▁I bs en , ▁a ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁and ▁merchant ▁in ▁Sk ien , ▁died ▁at ▁sea ▁outside ▁H es nes , ▁his ▁wid ow ▁Joh anne ▁P les ner ▁rem ar ried ▁to ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁O le ▁P aus , ▁and ▁their ▁son ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁the ▁P aus ▁household ▁at ▁R ising ▁in ▁G jer pen . ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en ▁had ▁several ▁half ▁siblings , ▁among ▁them ▁judge ▁and ▁Member ▁of ▁Parliament ▁Christian ▁Corn el ius ▁P aus ▁and ▁bank er ▁and ▁ship owner ▁Christopher ▁Bl om ▁P aus . ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en ▁married ▁the ▁nie ce ▁of ▁his ▁step father , ▁Mar ichen ▁Al ten burg ▁(
a ▁daughter ▁of ▁ship owner ▁Joh an ▁Andre as ▁Al ten burg ▁and ▁H ed ev ig ▁Christ ine ▁P aus ), ▁and ▁became ▁a ▁prominent ▁merchant ▁in ▁Sk ien . ▁Kn ud ▁and ▁Mar ichen ▁I bs en ▁were ▁the ▁parents ▁of ▁play wright ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁( mar ried ▁to ▁Suz ann ah ▁Th ores en ), ▁who ▁in ▁turn ▁was ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Sig urd ▁I bs en ▁( mar ried ▁to ▁Berg li ot ▁B j ør n son , ▁the ▁only ▁daughter ▁of ▁B j ør n st jer ne ▁B j ør n son ) ▁and ▁grandfather ▁of ▁film ▁director ▁T anc red ▁I bs en ▁( mar ried ▁to ▁L ille bil ▁K ro hn ), ▁novel ist ▁Ire ne ▁I bs en ▁B ille ▁( mar ried ▁to ▁Jos ias ▁B ille ) ▁and ▁Ele on ora ▁I bs en . ▁T anc red ' s ▁only ▁child ▁was ▁diplom at ▁T anc red ▁I bs en , ▁Jr . ▁ ▁The ▁I bs en ▁family ▁is ▁becoming ▁ext inct ▁( in ▁the ▁male ▁line ); ▁the ▁last ▁living ▁members ▁( by ▁birth ) ▁are ▁T anc red ▁I bs en , ▁Jr .' s ▁two ▁daughters ▁N ora ▁and ▁H ed da ▁I bs en . ▁There ▁are ▁however ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁through ▁female ▁lines , ▁namely ▁descend ants ▁of ▁H ed v ig ▁I bs en ▁( mar ried ▁St ous land ), ▁Ire
ne ▁I bs en ▁( mar ried ▁B ille ), ▁N ora ▁I bs en ▁and ▁H ed da ▁I bs en . ▁ ▁The ▁I bs en ▁family ▁in ▁theatre ▁ ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ' s ▁ancest ry ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁much ▁studied ▁subject , ▁due ▁to ▁his ▁perceived ▁foreign ness ▁( leading ▁his ▁bi ographer ▁Hen rik ▁J æ ger ▁to ▁fam ously ▁state ▁that ▁" the ▁ancest ral ▁I bs en ▁was ▁a ▁D ane ") ▁and ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁his ▁bi ography ▁and ▁family ▁on ▁his ▁plays . ▁I bs en ▁often ▁made ▁references ▁to ▁his ▁family ▁in ▁his ▁plays , ▁sometimes ▁by ▁name , ▁or ▁by ▁mod elling ▁characters ▁after ▁them . ▁Hence , ▁both ▁of ▁I bs en ' s ▁parents , ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en ▁and ▁Mar ichen ▁I bs en , ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁models ▁for ▁various ▁characters , ▁a ▁fact ▁admitted ▁by ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en . ▁" J on ▁Gy nt " ▁in ▁Pe er ▁Gy nt , ▁" Old ▁Ek d ahl " ▁in ▁The ▁Wild ▁D uck ▁and ▁Daniel ▁He j re ▁in ▁The ▁League ▁of ▁Youth ▁are ▁widely ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁based ▁on ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en . ▁Mar ichen ▁I bs en ▁is ▁considered ▁the ▁model ▁for ▁" Å se " ▁in ▁Pe er ▁Gy nt ▁and ▁" In ga ▁of ▁Var te ig " ▁in ▁The ▁P ret enders , ▁and ▁she ▁would ▁" echo ▁through ▁her ▁son ' s ▁work
▁in ▁un rem itting ▁port ray als ▁of ▁suffering ▁women ." ▁More ▁broad ly , ▁I bs en ▁used ▁his ▁own ▁bi ography , ▁relatives ▁and ▁ancestors ▁as ▁a ▁background ▁for ▁his ▁plays ▁and ▁characters . ▁The ▁Gy nt ▁family ' s ▁prosper ous ▁ancest or , ▁R asm us ▁Gy nt , ▁is ▁probably ▁named ▁for ▁R asm us ▁I bs en , ▁the ▁oldest ▁known ▁I bs en , ▁and ▁mod elled ▁after ▁I bs en ' s ▁wealthy ▁mater nal ▁grandfather , ▁Joh an ▁Andre as ▁Al ten burg . ▁I bs en ' s ▁great - a unt ▁Krist ine ▁Cath r ine ▁Pl ou g ▁( née ▁Al ten burg ), ▁who ▁lived ▁with ▁the ▁I bs en ▁family , ▁served ▁as ▁the ▁model ▁for ▁characters ▁such ▁as ▁" The ▁Rat - W ife " ▁in ▁Little ▁E y olf . ▁The ▁character ▁" H ed v ig " ▁in ▁The ▁Wild ▁D uck ▁is ▁named ▁for ▁I bs en ' s ▁sister ▁H ed v ig ▁I bs en ▁and / or ▁his ▁grandmother ▁H ed ev ig ▁P aus . ▁I bs en ' s ▁plays ▁often ▁take ▁place ▁in ▁bour ge ois ▁circles ▁in ▁small ▁towns ▁rem inis cent ▁of ▁Sk ien , ▁re sem bling ▁the ▁social ▁environment ▁of ▁his ▁childhood . ▁ ▁Members ▁ ▁R asm us ▁I bs en ▁( 1 6 3 2 – 1 7 0 3 ), ▁a ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁from ▁Ste ge , ▁Denmark . ▁P
eder ▁R asm ussen ▁I bs en ▁( d ied ▁ 1 7 6 5 ), ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁and ▁merchant , ▁settled ▁in ▁Ber gen ▁where ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁bur gh er . ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁( 1 7 2 6 – 1 7 6 5 ), ▁merchant ▁in ▁Sk ien , ▁who ▁married ▁W en che ▁D ishing ton ▁( 1 7 3 8 – 1 7 8 0 ). ▁After ▁I bs en ' s ▁death , ▁W en che ▁married ▁parish ▁priest ▁Jacob ▁von ▁der ▁Lip pe ▁( 1 7 3 2 – 1 8 0 4 ) ▁Hen rich ▁I bs en ▁( 1 7 6 5 – 1 7 9 7 ), ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁and ▁merchant ▁in ▁Sk ien , ▁who ▁married ▁Joh anne ▁P les ner ▁( 1 7 7 0 – 1 8 4 7 ). ▁Hen rich ▁I bs en ▁died ▁at ▁sea ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 7 , ▁and ▁Joh anne ▁married ▁ship owner ▁O le ▁P aus ▁( 1 7 7 6 – 1 8 5 5 ). ▁Kn ud ▁I bs en ▁( 1 7 9 7 – 1 8 7 7 ), ▁merchant ▁in ▁Sk ien ▁until ▁his ▁bankrupt cy ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 5 , ▁who ▁married ▁Mar ichen ▁Al ten burg ▁( 1 7 9 9 – 1 8 6 9 ). ▁Joh an ▁Al ten burg ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 2 6 – 1 8 2 8 )
▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 2 8 – 1 9 0 6 ), ▁play wright , ▁who ▁married ▁Suz ann ah ▁Th ores en ▁( 1 8 3 6 – 1 9 1 4 ) ▁Sig urd ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 5 9 – 1 9 3 0 ), ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁of ▁Norway , ▁who ▁married ▁Berg li ot ▁B j ør n son ▁( 1 8 6 9 – 1 9 5 3 ) ▁T anc red ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 9 3 – 1 9 7 8 ), ▁film ▁director , ▁who ▁married ▁L ille bil ▁K ro hn ▁( 1 8 9 9 – 1 9 8 9 ) ▁T anc red ▁I bs en , ▁Jr . ▁( born ▁ 1 9 2 1 ), ▁Amb assador , ▁married ▁Ell in or ▁( b . ▁ 1 9 2 2 ) ▁N ora ▁Berg li ot ▁I bs en ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 1 ), ▁theatre ▁director , ▁has ▁issue ▁H ed da ▁Sophie ▁Y v onne ▁I bs en ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 6 ), ▁has ▁issue ▁Ire ne ▁I bs en ▁( 1 9 0 1 – 1 9 8 5 ), ▁author , ▁who ▁married ▁Jos ias ▁B ille , ▁had ▁issue ▁( including ▁sons ▁Anders ▁B ille ▁( 1 9 4 0 - 2 0 1 1 ) ▁( gr ands ons : ▁Ste en ▁Ol uf ▁B ille ▁and ▁Ber nt ▁I var
▁B ille ) ▁and ▁Jo en ▁B ille ▁( b . ▁ 1 9 4 4 ) ▁( grand d aughter ▁Be ate ▁B ille ▁and ▁grand son ▁Joh an ▁P eder ▁B ille ) ▁Ele on ora ▁I bs en ▁( 1 9 0 6 – 1 9 7 8 ) ▁Joh an ▁Andre as ▁I bs en ▁( born ▁ 1 8 3 0 ), ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁US ▁in ▁ 1 8 4 9 . ▁According ▁to ▁a ▁letter ▁he ▁sent ▁home ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 0 , ▁he ▁settled ▁in ▁O conom ow oc , ▁Wisconsin . ▁Where ab outs ▁since ▁unknown , ▁no ▁known ▁issue . ▁H ed v ig ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 3 1 – 1 9 2 0 ), ▁married ▁ship ' s ▁captain ▁Jacob ▁St ous land , ▁had ▁issue ▁( including ▁son ▁Carl ▁St ous land ) ▁Nicol ai ▁Alexander ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 3 4 – 1 8 8 8 ), ▁un mar ried , ▁physically ▁disabled ▁after ▁his ▁n anny ▁dropped ▁him ▁to ▁the ▁floor , ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁US ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 8 6 0 s , ▁lived ▁in ▁Est her ville , ▁Iowa . ▁O le ▁P aus ▁I bs en ▁( 1 8 3 5 – 1 9 1 7 ), ▁married ▁Anne ▁Mart he ▁Boy esen ▁and ▁Jenny ▁My hre , ▁no ▁issue . ▁ ▁Il leg it imate ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Hen rik ▁I bs
en ▁As ▁legally ▁established , ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁also ▁had ▁an ▁il leg it imate ▁son ▁by ▁the ▁maid ▁El se ▁Sophie ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 1 8 – 1 8 9 2 ), ▁named ▁Hans ▁Jacob ▁Henri ks en ▁( B irk ed alen ) ▁( 1 8 4 6 – 1 9 1 6 ) ▁( Hen ri ks en ▁is ▁an ▁active ▁patron ym ic , ▁meaning ▁" son ▁of ▁Hen rik ▁[ I bs en ]", ▁as ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁" f ro zen " ▁patron ym ic ▁I bs en ). ▁Hans ▁Jacob ▁Henri ks en ▁was ▁a ▁black smith ▁and ▁married ▁three ▁times , ▁to ▁Math ilde ▁Andre as d atter ▁( 1 8 5 1 – 1 8 8 1 ), ▁Tr ine ▁Marie ▁Gun val ds en ▁( d ied ▁ 1 8 8 2 ) ▁and ▁I da ▁G ur ine ▁O ls d atter ▁( d ied ▁ 1 9 3 8 ). ▁He ▁was ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁eight ▁children , ▁including ▁J ens ▁Hans en ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 7 6 – 1 8 9 5 ), ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁ship ' s ▁cook ▁at ▁the ▁sch oon er ▁" J ose f ▁af ▁L illes and ", ▁and ▁who ▁died ▁at ▁a ▁hospital ▁in ▁L ø g st ør , ▁Denmark ▁O le ▁Hans en ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 8 4 – 1 8 8 4 ), ▁died ▁as ▁an
▁infant ▁Is ak ▁Hans en ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 8 5 – 1 8 8 8 ), ▁died ▁as ▁an ▁infant ▁Inga ▁Hans ine ▁Hans d atter ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 8 8 – 1 9 0 4 ) ▁G unda ▁El ise ▁Hans d atter ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 9 2 – 1 8 9 6 ) ▁Jenny ▁Hans d atter ▁B irk ed alen ▁( 1 8 9 5 – 1 9 2 2 ) ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁had ▁no ▁contact ▁with ▁his ▁il leg it imate ▁son ▁or ▁grand children , ▁who ▁lived ▁in ▁relatively ▁hum ble ▁conditions . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁grand children ▁died ▁as ▁children , ▁and ▁neither ▁of ▁them ▁had ▁descend ants . ▁Even ▁if ▁they ▁were ▁male ▁line ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁I bs en ▁family , ▁they ▁were ▁not ▁entitled ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁family ▁name ▁I bs en ▁under ▁the ▁law ▁of ▁the ▁time , ▁were ▁hence ▁legally ▁not ▁considered ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁I bs en ▁family , ▁and ▁had ▁no ▁inherit ance ▁rights . ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁was ▁however ▁oblig ed ▁to ▁pay ▁for ▁the ▁up b ring ing ▁of ▁his ▁son ▁until ▁he ▁was ▁ 1 4 ▁years ▁old . ▁After ▁receiving ▁a ▁letter ▁from ▁Gr im stad ' s ▁judge ▁Joh an ▁Cas par ▁Pre us ▁on ▁the ▁p atern ity ▁of ▁the ▁child , ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁acknowledged ▁the ▁p atern ity ▁in ▁a ▁reply ▁letter
▁of ▁ 7 ▁December ▁ 1 8 4 6 , ▁as ▁" I ▁unfortunately ▁have ▁had ▁sexual ▁inter course ▁with ▁her ." ▁ ▁Foot notes ▁ ▁Liter ature ▁Joh an ▁Ki ell and ▁Berg w itz , ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en ▁i ▁sin ▁av st am ning : ▁n ors k ▁eller ▁f rem med ?, ▁Gy ld end al ▁N ors k ▁For lag , ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁Hen rik ▁J æ ger , ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en , ▁ 1 8 2 8 - 1 8 8 8 : ▁A ▁Crit ical ▁Biography , ▁A . C . Mc Cl urg , ▁ 1 8 9 0 ▁( 1 8 8 8 ) ▁H ø g v oll , ▁Ar vid ; ▁B ær land , ▁Ruth ▁( 1 9 9 6 ). ▁Hen rik ▁I bs en : ▁her reg år der , ▁kam mer her rer , ▁god se iere ▁og ▁propriet æ rer ▁: ▁bro k ker ▁av ▁en ▁sle kt sh ist orie , ▁N ome ▁Ant ik var iat ▁ ▁Category : I bs en ▁family ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁people ▁of ▁Dan ish ▁descent ▁Category : Sk ien <0x0A> </s> ▁Stre pt omy ces ▁e uro cid icus ▁is ▁a ▁bacter ium ▁species ▁from ▁the ▁genus ▁of ▁Stre pt omy ces . ▁Stre pt omy ces ▁e uro cid icus ▁produces ▁az omy cin , ▁e uro cid in ▁C , ▁e uro cid in ▁D , ▁e uro
cid in ▁E , ▁t ert i omy c ine ▁A , ▁ 2 - nit ro im id az ole ▁and ▁t ert i omy c ine ▁B . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Stre pt omy ces ▁species ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Type ▁strain ▁of ▁Stre pt omy ces ▁e uro cid icus ▁at ▁B ac D ive ▁- ▁ ▁the ▁B acter ial ▁D ivers ity ▁Met ad at abase ▁ ▁e uro cid icus ▁Category : B acter ia ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 <0x0A> </s> ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁in ▁Spain ▁is ▁the ▁architect ural ▁style ▁reflect ive ▁of ▁Roman es que ▁architecture , ▁with ▁peculiar ▁influences ▁both ▁from ▁architect ural ▁styles ▁outside ▁the ▁I ber ian ▁pen insula ▁via ▁Italy ▁and ▁France ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁traditional ▁architect ural ▁patterns ▁from ▁within ▁the ▁pen insula . ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁was ▁developed ▁in ▁and ▁propag ated ▁throughout ▁Europe ▁for ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁centuries , ▁ranging ▁approximately ▁from ▁the ▁late ▁t enth ▁century ▁until ▁well ▁into ▁the ▁th ir teenth ▁century . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁e ighth ▁century , ▁though ▁Carol ing ian ▁Rena issance ▁extended ▁its ▁influence ▁to ▁Christian ▁Western ▁Europe , ▁Christian ▁Spain ▁remained ▁attached ▁to ▁the ▁traditional ▁His p ano - R oman ▁and ▁G oth ic ▁culture , ▁without ▁being ▁influenced ▁by ▁European ▁cultural ▁movements , ▁until ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁the ▁Roman es que . ▁ ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁spread ▁throughout ▁the ▁entire ▁northern ▁half
▁of ▁Spain , ▁reaching ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁the ▁Tag us ▁river , ▁at ▁the ▁height ▁of ▁the ▁Re con qu ista ▁and ▁Rep ob l ación , ▁movements ▁which ▁greatly ▁fav oured ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁development . ▁The ▁First ▁Roman es que ▁style ▁spread ▁from ▁L omb ard y ▁to ▁the ▁Catal an ▁region ▁via ▁the ▁Mar ca ▁His p án ica , ▁where ▁it ▁was ▁developed ▁and ▁from ▁where ▁it ▁spread ▁to ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁pen insula ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁the ▁Cam ino ▁de ▁Santiago ▁and ▁the ▁Bened ict ine ▁monaster ies . ▁Its ▁mark ▁was ▁left ▁especially ▁on ▁religious ▁buildings ▁( e . g . ▁cat hed r als , ▁churches , ▁monaster ies , ▁clo ister s , ▁chap els ) ▁which ▁have ▁survived ▁into ▁the ▁twenty - first ▁century , ▁some ▁better ▁preserved ▁than ▁others . ▁Civil ▁mon uments ▁( brid ges , ▁pal aces , ▁cast les , ▁walls ▁and ▁tow ers ) ▁were ▁also ▁built ▁in ▁this ▁style , ▁although ▁few ▁have ▁survived . ▁ ▁Background ▁and ▁historical ▁context ▁ ▁The ▁Roman es que ▁period ▁corresponds ▁to ▁a ▁time ▁when ▁Christianity ▁was ▁more ▁secure ▁and ▁optim istic . ▁Europe ▁had ▁seen , ▁in ▁the ▁preced ing ▁centuries , ▁the ▁decline ▁of ▁the ▁Carol ing ian ▁spl end our ▁and ▁had ▁under g one ▁Norman ▁and ▁Hung arian ▁invas ions ▁( the ▁Hung arians ▁reached ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁Burg und y ) ▁that ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁pen insula ' s
▁monaster ies . ▁In ▁Spain ▁the ▁Al man z or ▁campaigns ▁were ▁dis astr ous , ▁also ▁raz ing ▁and ▁destroying ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁monaster ies ▁and ▁small ▁churches . ▁ ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁t enth ▁century , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁stabil izing ▁events ▁restored ▁some ▁balance ▁and ▁tr anqu ill ity ▁in ▁Europe , ▁greatly ▁eas ing ▁the ▁political ▁situation ▁and ▁life ▁in ▁Christ end om . ▁The ▁main ▁forces ▁that ▁emerged ▁were ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁Roman ▁Empire , ▁including ▁the ▁po pe , ▁whose ▁power ▁became ▁universal ▁and ▁who ▁had ▁the ▁power ▁in ▁Rome ▁to ▁crown ▁em per ors . ▁In ▁Spain ▁the ▁Christian ▁kings ▁were ▁well ▁under way ▁with ▁the ▁Re con qu ista , ▁signing ▁p acts ▁and ▁co hab itation ▁char ters ▁with ▁the ▁Muslim ▁kings . ▁Within ▁this ▁context ▁an ▁organiz ational ▁spirit ▁emerged ▁throughout ▁Christ end om ▁with ▁the ▁mon ks ▁from ▁Cl un y . ▁Mon aster ies ▁and ▁churches ▁were ▁built ▁during ▁these ▁years ▁and ▁architecture ▁was ▁ge ared ▁towards ▁more ▁durable ▁structures ▁to ▁with stand ▁future ▁attack ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁fire ▁and ▁natural ▁dis asters . ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁a ▁vault ▁instead ▁of ▁a ▁wood ▁covering ▁spread ▁throughout ▁Europe . ▁ ▁Additionally ▁communications ▁were ▁re - est ab lished ▁and ▁there ▁was ▁rap pro che ment ▁between ▁various ▁European ▁mon arch s ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁restored ▁relations ▁with ▁By z ant ium . ▁The ▁Roman ▁legacy ▁of ▁roads ▁and ▁high ways ▁allowed ▁better ▁communication ▁between ▁the
▁numerous ▁monaster ies ▁and ▁facil itated ▁pil gr images ▁to ▁the ▁holy ▁places ▁or ▁small ▁en cl aves ▁of ▁popular ▁dev otion . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁commerce ▁was ▁increased ▁and ▁the ▁movement ▁of ▁people ▁disse min ated ▁new ▁lif est yles , ▁among ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁style . ▁Sh r ines , ▁cat hed r als , ▁and ▁others , ▁were ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁style ▁over ▁nearly ▁two ▁and ▁a ▁half ▁centuries . ▁ ▁Art ists ▁and ▁professionals ▁In ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁" arch itect " ▁– ▁as ▁understood ▁amongst ▁the ▁Romans ▁– ▁fell ▁out ▁of ▁use , ▁giving ▁way ▁to ▁a ▁social ▁change . ▁The ▁duties ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁architect ▁came ▁to ▁rest ▁on ▁the ▁master ▁builder . ▁This ▁was ▁an ▁artist ▁who , ▁in ▁most ▁cases , ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁actual ▁construction ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁team ▁of ▁workers ▁which ▁he ▁had ▁under ▁his ▁command . ▁The ▁master ▁builder ▁was ▁the ▁one ▁who ▁overs aw ▁the ▁ed if ice ▁( as ▁the ▁ancient ▁architect ▁did ), ▁but ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁could ▁also ▁be ▁a ▁craft s man , ▁a ▁sculpt or , ▁a ▁car p enter ▁or ▁stone cut ter . ▁This ▁person ▁was ▁usually ▁educated ▁in ▁monaster ies ▁or ▁groups ▁of ▁union ized ▁m ason ic ▁lod ges . ▁Many ▁of ▁these ▁master ▁build ers ▁were ▁the ▁designers ▁of ▁gorgeous ▁port als ▁or ▁port icos , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁at ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela
▁Cat hedral ▁made ▁by ▁Master ▁M ate o , ▁the ▁port ico ▁of ▁the ▁N og al ▁de ▁las ▁Hu ert as ▁in ▁Pal encia , ▁by ▁Master ▁Jim eno , ▁or ▁the ▁north ▁portal ▁of ▁the ▁San ▁Salvador ▁de ▁E je a ▁de ▁los ▁Cab aller os ▁Church ▁( in ▁Z ar ago za ▁province ) ▁by ▁Master ▁Ag ü ero . ▁ ▁All ▁Roman es que ▁architect ural ▁work ▁was ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁the ▁director ▁( master ▁builder ), ▁a ▁fore man ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁group ▁forming ▁workshops ▁of ▁stone cut ters , ▁m asons , ▁sculpt ors , ▁glass makers , ▁car pent ers , ▁pain ters ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁tr ades ▁or ▁special ties , ▁who ▁moved ▁from ▁one ▁place ▁to ▁another . ▁These ▁cre ws ▁formed ▁workshops ▁from ▁which ▁local ▁masters ▁often ▁emerged , ▁who ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁raise ▁rural ▁churches . ▁In ▁this ▁set ▁we ▁must ▁not ▁forget ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁figure , ▁the ▁patron ▁or ▁developer , ▁without ▁whom ▁the ▁work ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁completed . ▁ ▁From ▁documents ▁that ▁have ▁survived ▁in ▁Spain ▁about ▁works ▁contracts , ▁lit igation ▁and ▁other ▁issues , ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁that ▁a ▁house ▁or ▁living ▁accommodation ▁was ▁allocated ▁in ▁the ▁cat hed r als ▁for ▁the ▁master ▁and ▁his ▁family . ▁There ▁are ▁lit igation ▁documents ▁that ▁speak ▁of ▁the ▁problems ▁of ▁the ▁wid ow ▁of ▁a ▁master , ▁where ▁she ▁claimed ▁for ▁herself ▁and ▁her ▁family ▁a ▁house ▁for ▁life . ▁In ▁some ▁cases , ▁this
▁issue ▁presented ▁a ▁real ▁conflict ▁as ▁the ▁subsequent ▁master ▁of ▁the ▁building ▁would ▁also ▁need ▁to ▁occup y ▁the ▁house . ▁ ▁The ▁master ▁build ers ▁frequently ▁had ▁to ▁commit ▁themselves ▁for ▁a ▁lifetime ▁if ▁the ▁work ▁were ▁long - term , ▁as ▁was ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁Master ▁M ate o ▁with ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁Cat hedral ▁or ▁Master ▁Ram on ▁L l amb ard ▁( or ▁R aim undo ▁Lamb ardo ) ▁with ▁the ▁Santa ▁Maria ▁de ▁U rg el ▁Cat hedral . ▁There ▁was ▁a ▁provision ▁in ▁the ▁contracts ▁requiring ▁that ▁masters ▁always ▁provide : ▁their ▁daily ▁presence ▁on ▁site ▁and ▁strict ▁control ▁of ▁workers ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁progress ▁of ▁the ▁building . ▁ ▁A ▁work ▁house ▁was ▁also ▁always ▁built ▁for ▁the ▁preparation ▁of ▁materials ▁and ▁car ving ▁of ▁the ▁stone . ▁Many ▁four teenth - century ▁documents ▁speak ▁of ▁this ▁house : ▁La ▁obra ▁de ▁ig les ia ▁de ▁Burg os ▁que ▁há ▁un as ▁cas as ▁cerca ▁de ▁la ▁dich a ▁ig les ia ▁en ▁que ▁t ienen ▁todas ▁las ▁cos as ▁que ▁son ▁men ester ▁para ▁la ▁dich a ▁obra ; ▁e ▁los ▁lib ros ▁de ▁las ▁cu ent as ▁é ▁todas ▁las ▁otras ▁her ram ient as ▁con ▁que ▁lab ran ▁los ▁ma est ros ▁en ▁la ▁dich a ▁obra . ▁( The ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁Burg os ▁church ▁that ▁has ▁some ▁houses ▁near ▁the ▁said ▁church ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁have ▁all ▁the ▁things ▁that ▁are ▁necessary ▁for ▁said ▁work
; ▁and ▁the ▁books ▁of ▁the ▁accounts ▁and ▁all ▁other ▁tools ▁with ▁which ▁the ▁masters ▁labour ▁in ▁the ▁said ▁work .) ▁ ▁St on em asons ▁ ▁St on em asons ▁formed ▁the ▁bulk ▁of ▁workers ▁in ▁the ▁ere ction ▁of ▁the ▁building . ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁stone cut ters ▁could ▁vary ▁depending ▁on ▁the ▁local ▁economy . ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁numbers ▁are ▁known , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Old ▁Cat hedral ▁of ▁Sal am anca , ▁which ▁employed ▁between ▁ 2 5 ▁and ▁ 3 0 . ▁Ay mer ic ▁P ica ud ▁in ▁his ▁Code x ▁Cal i xt inus ▁provides ▁data ▁that : ▁ ▁[...] ▁with ▁about ▁ 5 0 ▁other ▁st on em asons ▁who ▁worked ▁there ▁regularly , ▁under ▁the ▁caring ▁direction ▁of ▁Don ▁W ic arto ▁( con ▁apro xim ad amente ▁otros ▁ 5 0 ▁can ter os ▁que ▁all í ▁trabaj aban ▁as id u amente , ▁bajo ▁la ▁sol í c ita ▁dire cción ▁de ▁don ▁W ic arto )[ ... ] ▁ ▁These ▁m asons ▁and ▁other ▁workers ▁were ▁ex empt ed ▁from ▁paying ▁taxes . ▁They ▁were ▁separated ▁in ▁two ▁groups ▁depending ▁on ▁their ▁special ization . ▁The ▁first ▁group ▁those ▁who ▁were ▁engaged ▁in ▁a ▁special ▁high - quality ▁work ▁( gen u ine ▁sculpt ing ▁artists ) ▁and ▁who ▁worked ▁at ▁their ▁own ▁pace , ▁leaving ▁their ▁completed ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁site ▁to ▁be ▁later ▁placed ▁on ▁the ▁building . ▁The ▁second ▁group ▁were ▁permanent ▁employees , ▁who ▁raised ▁buildings ▁stone
▁upon ▁stone ▁and ▁put ▁in ▁place ▁those ▁quality ▁pieces ▁or ▁carved ▁relie fs ▁done ▁by ▁the ▁first ▁group ▁at ▁the ▁right ▁time . ▁This ▁way ▁of ▁working ▁could ▁lead ▁to ▁a ▁time ▁lag ▁in ▁the ▁pieces ▁being ▁placed ▁some ▁time ▁after ▁being ▁created , ▁a ▁lag ▁in ▁many ▁cases ▁which ▁has ▁become ▁a ▁big ▁problem ▁for ▁histor ians ▁in ▁dating ▁the ▁building . ▁ ▁There ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁un sk illed ▁labour ers ▁who ▁worked ▁wherever ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁need . ▁In ▁many ▁cases ▁these ▁people ▁offered ▁their ▁work ▁or ▁skill ▁as ▁an ▁act ▁of ▁mercy ▁because ▁as ▁Christians ▁they ▁were ▁willing ▁to ▁collabor ate ▁on ▁a ▁great ▁work ▁dedicated ▁to ▁their ▁God . ▁In ▁any ▁case ▁they ▁received ▁a ▁rem un er ation ▁that ▁was ▁either ▁by ▁the ▁day ▁or ▁per ▁piece . ▁In ▁documents ▁many ▁names ▁appear ▁on ▁lists ▁of ▁daily ▁wages ▁so ▁this ▁act ▁was ▁not ▁arbitrary ▁but ▁rather ▁well ▁reg ulated . ▁ ▁Among ▁the ▁C ister ci ans ▁they ▁became ▁known ▁as ▁cu adr illas ▁de ▁p onte adores ▁( sc oring ▁cre ws ), ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁lay men ▁or ▁mon ks ▁who ▁moved ▁from ▁one ▁county ▁to ▁another , ▁always ▁under ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁a ▁professional ▁mon k , ▁whose ▁job ▁it ▁was ▁to ▁p ave ▁grounds , ▁build ▁roads , ▁or ▁build ▁br idges . ▁ ▁An onym ity ▁and ▁artists ' ▁sign atures ▁ ▁Most ▁Roman es que ▁works ▁are ▁anonymous ▁in ▁the ▁sense ▁of ▁lacking ▁a ▁signature ▁or ▁proof ▁of ▁auth
orship . ▁Even ▁if ▁the ▁work ▁is ▁signed , ▁specialists ▁histor ians ▁sometimes ▁have ▁difficulty ▁distingu ishing ▁whether ▁reference ▁is ▁made ▁to ▁the ▁actual ▁creator ▁or ▁the ▁spons or ▁of ▁the ▁work . ▁Sometimes ▁however , ▁the ▁signature ▁is ▁followed ▁or ▁preced ed ▁by ▁an ▁explanation ▁that ▁clar ifies ▁whether ▁it ▁is ▁one ▁or ▁the ▁other ▁person . ▁Arn au ▁Cad ell ▁made ▁it ▁clear ▁on ▁the ▁Sant ▁C ug at ▁capital : ▁This ▁is ▁the ▁image ▁of ▁Arn au ▁Cad ell ▁sculpt or ▁who ▁built ▁this ▁clo ister ▁for ▁poster ity . ▁ ▁he c ▁est ▁ar n all i ▁sculpt or is ▁forma ▁cat elli ▁qui ▁cl a ustr um ▁tale ▁constru xit ▁perpet ual e ▁▁ ▁Rodr igo ▁Gust io z ▁also ▁wanted ▁to ▁be ▁imm ort al ized ▁for ▁his ▁funding ▁of ▁an ▁arch ▁in ▁the ▁Santa ▁Maria ▁de ▁Leb anza : ▁Rodr igo ▁Gust io z ▁made ▁this ▁arc , ▁a ▁man ▁from ▁Val bu ena , ▁soldier , ▁pray ▁for ▁him . ▁is to ▁ar co ▁fe cit rod ric us ▁g ust i ut ▁vir ▁val de bon us ▁mil ite or ate ▁pro ▁ill o ▁▁ ▁This ▁notice ▁by ▁another ▁spons or ▁appears ▁on ▁a ▁capital : ▁El ▁prior ▁Pedro ▁Car o ▁h izo ▁esta ▁ig les ia , ▁casa , ▁cl a ust ro ▁y ▁todo ▁lo ▁que ▁aqu í ▁está ▁fund ado ▁en ▁el ▁año ▁ 1 1 8 5 . ▁ ▁Prior ▁Pedro ▁Car o ▁made ▁this ▁church , ▁house , ▁clo
ister ▁and ▁everything ▁here ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 1 8 5 . ▁ ▁In ▁other ▁cases ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁systematic ▁study ▁of ▁the ▁sculpt ure ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁architecture ▁that ▁has ▁allowed ▁histor ians ▁to ▁draw ▁conclusions . ▁Thus ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁that ▁in ▁the ▁L le ida ▁Cat hedral , ▁Pere ▁de ▁Com a ▁served ▁as ▁master ▁builder ▁from ▁ 1 1 9 0 - 1 2 2 0 , ▁but ▁during ▁that ▁period ▁there ▁were ▁also ▁several ▁clearly ▁different iated ▁sculpt ure ▁workshops . ▁The ▁same ▁study ▁conducted ▁in ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁Cat hedral ▁suggests ▁Master ▁M ate o ▁as ▁the ▁promot er ▁and ▁director ▁of ▁success ive ▁workshops ▁which ▁has ▁aspects ▁performed ▁by ▁different ▁hands ▁but ▁under ▁one ▁co herent ▁direction . ▁ ▁The ▁fact ▁that ▁most ▁Roman es que ▁works ▁have ▁remained ▁anonymous ▁has ▁developed ▁the ▁theory ▁that ▁the ▁artist ▁considered ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁right ▁person ▁to ▁place ▁his ▁name ▁on ▁works ▁dedicated ▁to ▁God . ▁However , ▁on ▁one ▁hand , ▁the ▁few ▁civil ▁works ▁that ▁remain ▁are ▁not ▁signed ▁either ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁other ▁hand , ▁such ▁a ▁view ▁is ▁counter ed ▁by ▁a ▁long ▁list ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁given ▁of ▁artists ▁who ▁sign ▁their ▁works ▁themselves , ▁among ▁which ▁are : ▁ ▁R aim undo ▁de ▁Mon fort e , ▁which ▁appears ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 9 ▁documents ▁as ▁contract ed ▁to ▁build ▁the ▁L ug o ▁Cat hedral . ▁Pedro ▁De ust amb en , ▁appears ▁on ▁a
▁funeral ▁ep it aph ▁in ▁San ▁Is id oro ▁de ▁Le ón ▁as ▁builder ▁of ▁the ▁dom es . ▁R aim undo ▁Lamb ard ▁or ▁Lamb ardo , ▁who ▁worked ▁from ▁ 1 1 7 5 ▁on ▁the ▁U rg ell ▁Cat hedral . ▁Masters ▁Bern ardo ▁el ▁V ie jo , ▁Roberto ▁and ▁Est eb an ▁who ▁worked ▁on ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁Cat hedral . ▁Master ▁Pere ▁de ▁Com a , ▁who ▁worked ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁tw elf th ▁century ▁on ▁the ▁L le ida ▁Cat hedral . ▁Master ▁M ica el is , ▁who ▁worked ▁on ▁several ▁churches ▁and ▁chap els ▁in ▁northern ▁Pal encia , ▁and ▁left ▁his ▁portrait ▁while ▁working ▁on ▁the ▁portal ▁of ▁ ▁in ▁Pal encia . ▁ ▁The ▁list ▁could ▁be ▁extended ▁with ▁many ▁more ▁names ▁which ▁appeared ▁right ▁on ▁the ▁stone ▁itself ▁by ▁way ▁of ▁signature ▁or ▁on ▁proc ure ment ▁documents , ▁as ▁proof ▁that ▁the ▁intended ▁construction ▁was ▁neither ▁prohib ited ▁nor ▁discour aged . ▁What ▁is ▁difficult ▁to ▁distinguish ▁in ▁many ▁cases ▁is ▁the ▁trade ▁of ▁the ▁person ▁signing ▁as ▁they ▁could ▁either ▁be ▁architect s , ▁specialized ▁st on em asons ▁or ▁sculpt ors ▁of ▁selected ▁pieces . ▁All ▁of ▁them ▁were ▁often ▁called ▁Master ▁and ▁all ▁used ▁his ▁craft ▁during ▁the ▁construction ▁according ▁to ▁the ▁wishes ▁and ▁the ▁mand ate ▁of ▁the ▁promot ers ▁and ▁pat rons . ▁ ▁Develop ers ▁and ▁spons ors ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁world ▁both ▁the ▁promot er ▁of ▁the
▁works ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁patron ▁and ▁financ ier ▁were ▁the ▁true ▁stars ▁of ▁the ▁architect ural ▁work ▁or ▁the ▁work ▁of ▁art ▁to ▁be ▁created . ▁They ▁are ▁in ▁charge ▁and ▁determine ▁how ▁the ▁work ▁should ▁be ▁done , ▁what ▁should ▁be ▁the ▁characters ▁or ▁the ▁s aints ▁in ▁sculpt ure ▁and ▁relie fs , ▁the ▁geometric ▁dimensions ▁( which ▁then ▁will ▁be ▁the ▁responsibility ▁of ▁the ▁true ▁professional ▁to ▁carry ▁them ▁out ▁with ▁mathematical ▁rig or ) ▁and ▁they ▁encourage ▁and ▁ex alt ▁the ▁project . ▁The ▁promot ers ▁were ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁hiring ▁and ▁also ▁calling ▁the ▁best ▁artists ▁and ▁architect s ▁who ▁worked ▁with ▁their ▁momentum ▁and ▁enthusiasm . ▁ ▁Especially ▁in ▁sculpt ure ▁and ▁painting , ▁the ▁artist ▁was ▁fully ▁submitted ▁to ▁the ▁will ▁of ▁the ▁pat rons ▁and ▁spons ors , ▁without ▁whose ▁intervention ▁the ▁work ▁would ▁never ▁be ▁done . ▁The ▁Roman es que ▁artist ▁adapted ▁to ▁the ▁will ▁of ▁these ▁people ▁giving ▁the ▁best ▁work ▁of ▁his ▁trade ▁and ▁comp lying ▁with ▁the ▁satisfaction ▁of ▁a ▁job ▁well ▁done ▁without ▁having ▁any ▁desire ▁nor ▁int ending ▁to ▁acquire ▁worldwide ▁fame ▁as ▁he ▁began ▁to ▁develop ▁from ▁the ▁Rena issance . ▁The ▁pride ▁of ▁a ▁job ▁well ▁done ▁and ▁the ▁recognition ▁of ▁his ▁peers ▁and ▁patron ▁were ▁the ▁greatest ▁of ▁the ▁awards ▁and ▁so ▁sometimes ▁this ▁pride ▁led ▁them ▁to ▁put ▁it ▁very ▁simply ▁in ▁one ▁of ▁his ▁finished ▁works . ▁ ▁In ▁Spain , ▁kings ▁and ▁a ▁minority ▁of ▁the ▁nob ility ▁introduced ▁the ▁new
▁Roman es que ▁trends ▁early ▁on ▁( which ▁carried ▁with ▁it ▁a ▁Bened ict ine ▁renew al ▁and ▁acceptance ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Lit ur gy ), ▁while ▁another ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁nob ility ▁and ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁b ish ops ▁and ▁mon ks ▁still ▁cl ung ▁to ▁the ▁old ▁ways ▁and ▁the ▁His panic ▁lit ur gy . ▁However ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁fully ▁tri ump hed ▁and ▁this ▁was ▁mainly ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁pat rons ▁and ▁promot ers ▁who ▁carried ▁out ▁great ▁works ▁from ▁which ▁the ▁new ▁style ▁was ▁developed ▁throughout ▁the ▁northern ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁I ber ian ▁Pen insula . ▁ ▁Abb ot ▁O lib a ▁was ▁a ▁patron , ▁spons or ▁and ▁huge ▁promot er ▁of ▁Roman es que ▁art ▁in ▁Catal onia ▁from ▁an ▁early ▁date . ▁In ▁ 1 0 0 8 ▁he ▁was ▁appointed ▁ab bot ▁of ▁the ▁monaster ies ▁in ▁R ip oll ▁and ▁Cu ix á ▁and ▁ten ▁years ▁later ▁he ▁was ▁appointed ▁b ishop ▁of ▁V ich . ▁His ▁travels ▁to ▁Rome ▁( 1 0 1 1 ▁and ▁ 1 0 1 6 ) ▁and ▁his ▁contact ▁with ▁Franco ▁mon astic ism , ▁account ed ▁for ▁his ▁knowledge ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁lit ur gy ▁and ▁its ▁introduction ▁into ▁the ▁Catal an ▁Church . ▁The ▁Bened ict ine ▁reform ▁in ▁Cl un y ▁had ▁a ▁considerable ▁impact ▁on ▁Cu ix á ▁with ▁which ▁O lib a ▁maintained ▁close ▁relations . ▁O lib a ▁adopted ▁Cl un y ' s ▁standards , ▁both ▁in ▁architecture
▁as ▁well ▁as ▁customs ▁and ▁under ▁his ▁patron age ▁and ▁direction ▁major ▁reform s ▁were ▁carried ▁out , ▁new ▁buildings ▁or ▁in ▁other ▁cases ▁mere ▁extensions ▁to ▁suit ▁the ▁needs ▁of ▁the ▁times . ▁During ▁these ▁initial ▁years ▁Abb ot ▁O lib a ▁ende av ored ▁to ▁be ▁present ▁at ▁con sec r ations ▁- ▁meetings ▁in ▁which ▁discussions ▁regarding ▁a ▁particular ▁construction , ▁etc . ▁were ▁held . ▁O lib a , ▁during ▁the ▁period ▁between ▁ 1 0 3 0 ▁and ▁ 1 0 4 0 ▁was ▁the ▁driving ▁force ▁behind ▁important ▁buildings ▁such ▁as : ▁ ▁Church ▁of ▁Sant ▁Vic en ç , ▁completely ▁re built . ▁Mont ser rat ▁and ▁Mont b uy ▁Mon aster ies . ▁The ▁R ip oll , ▁Cu ix á , ▁St - Mart in - du - Can ig ou ▁and ▁Vic ▁Mon aster ies , ▁the ▁latter ▁of ▁which ▁he ▁was ▁personally ▁and ▁directly ▁involved . ▁Sant ▁Pere ▁de ▁R odes . ▁G iron a ▁Cat hedral . ▁ ▁Architect ural ▁schools ▁in ▁Spain ▁ ▁In ▁Spain ▁ge ographical ▁schools ▁of ▁architecture ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁in ▁France , ▁are ▁not ▁easily ▁distinguished , ▁because ▁they ▁are ▁usually ▁mixed ▁with ▁other ▁architect ural ▁forms . ▁However , ▁there ▁are ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁buildings ▁that ▁can ▁be ▁clearly ▁identified , ▁if ▁not ▁entirely ▁but ▁to ▁a ▁large ▁extent , ▁as ▁following ▁the ▁pattern ▁of ▁these ▁French ▁schools : ▁ ▁The ▁Au ver g ne ▁School ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁Cat
hedral ▁and ▁the ▁San ▁Vic ente ▁Bas il ica ▁in ▁Av ila . ▁The ▁Po it ou ▁School , ▁with ▁Sant o ▁Dom ingo ▁de ▁S oria ▁and ▁most ▁tw elf th - century ▁Catal an ▁churches , ▁such ▁as ▁Sant ▁Pere ▁de ▁R odes ▁and ▁Sant ▁Pere ▁de ▁Gall ig ants . ▁The ▁P ér ig ord ▁School , ▁examples ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁now ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁transition ▁to ▁the ▁G oth ic , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Tor o ▁Col leg iate ▁( except ▁its ▁By z antine - in flu enced ▁d ome ). ▁ ▁Local ▁variations ▁ ▁Each ▁kingdom , ▁region ▁or ▁ge ographic ▁region ▁of ▁the ▁pen insula , ▁and ▁some ▁human ▁events ▁( such ▁as ▁the ▁Cam ino ▁de ▁Santiago ), ▁marked ▁a ▁distinctive ▁style ▁influenced ▁by ▁the ▁ge ographical ▁environment ▁itself , ▁by ▁tradition , ▁or ▁simply ▁by ▁the ▁gang s ▁of ▁hired ▁m asons ▁and ▁build ers ▁who ▁moved ▁from ▁one ▁place ▁to ▁another . ▁As ▁a ▁result , ▁in ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁in ▁Spain ▁there ▁are ▁variations ▁such ▁as ▁Catal an ▁Roman es que , ▁Ar ag ones e ▁Roman es que , ▁Pal encia ▁Roman es que , ▁Cast il ian ▁and ▁Le ón ese ▁Roman es que , ▁among ▁others . ▁ ▁Another ▁fact ▁to ▁consider ▁is ▁the ▁survival ▁of ▁the ▁Mo or ish ▁populations , ▁who ▁formed ▁gang s ▁of ▁workers ▁and ▁artists ▁who ▁gave ▁a ▁special ▁stamp ▁to ▁buildings . ▁These ▁are ▁what ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁brick ▁Roman es que
▁or ▁Mo or ish ▁Roman es que . ▁ ▁Roman es que ▁periods ▁ ▁In ▁Spain , ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁Christian ▁world , ▁Roman es que ▁art ▁developed ▁over ▁three ▁stages ▁with ▁their ▁own ▁characteristics . ▁Hist ori ography ▁has ▁defined ▁these ▁stages ▁as ▁early ▁Roman es que , ▁full ▁Roman es que ▁and ▁late ▁Roman es que . ▁ ▁First ▁Roman es que : ▁architecture ▁compris es ▁a ▁well - defined ▁ge ographical ▁area ▁that ▁runs ▁from ▁northern ▁Italy , ▁Mediterranean ▁France , ▁Burg und y ▁and ▁Catal an ▁and ▁Ar ag ones e ▁lands ▁in ▁Spain . ▁It ▁developed ▁from ▁the ▁late ▁t enth ▁century ▁until ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century , ▁except ▁in ▁isolated ▁locations . ▁During ▁this ▁Roman es que ▁period , ▁there ▁were ▁neither ▁mini ature ▁paintings ▁nor ▁monument al ▁sculpt ures . ▁Full ▁Roman es que : ▁developed ▁from ▁east ▁towards ▁Lis bon ▁and ▁from ▁the ▁south ▁of ▁Italy ▁to ▁Sc and in avia . ▁It ▁spread , ▁thanks ▁to ▁the ▁mon astic ▁movement , ▁the ▁un ification ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁faith ▁with ▁the ▁Roman ▁lit ur gy ▁and ▁communication ▁channels ▁along ▁the ▁routes . ▁It ▁began ▁its ▁launch ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century ▁and ▁continued ▁until ▁mid - tw elf th ▁century . ▁The ▁best ▁examples ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁" p il gr image ▁churches " ▁( e . g . ▁the ▁Santiago ▁cat hedral ), ▁especially ▁in ▁areas ▁of ▁the ▁rep ob l
ación . ▁It ▁is ▁characterized ▁by ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁monument al ▁sculpt ures ▁in ▁the ▁port als ▁and ▁sp and rel s ▁and ▁for ▁the ▁decor ation ▁and ▁sty ling ▁of ▁the ▁cap itals , ▁m ould ings , ▁f asci as , ▁etc . ▁The ▁Jac a ▁Cat hedral ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁tem ples ▁– ▁if ▁not ▁the ▁first ▁– ▁that ▁was ▁elev ated ▁with ▁the ▁aesthetic ▁ideas ▁and ▁architecture ▁of ▁this ▁Roman es que ▁style ▁which ▁entered ▁the ▁pen insula ▁with ▁large ▁French ▁Roman es que ▁influences . ▁The ▁decor ation ▁of ▁its ▁imp ost s ▁and ▁Roman es que ▁ar ches ▁with ▁geometric ▁them ed ▁check er board ▁played ▁a ▁role ▁in ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁buildings ▁that ▁were ▁later ▁built , ▁giving ▁this ▁style ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁be le agu ered ▁or ▁che qu ered ▁Ja ques . ▁Late ▁Roman es que : ▁chron ologically ▁it ▁was ▁diff used ▁from ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁full ▁Roman es que ▁period ▁until ▁the ▁first ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁th ir teenth ▁century , ▁when ▁it ▁began ▁to ▁be ▁succeeded ▁by ▁G oth ic ▁art . ▁This ▁period ▁was ▁the ▁bus iest ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁monaster ies ▁by ▁the ▁C ister c ian ▁mon ks . ▁ ▁Construction ▁of ▁Roman es que ▁buildings ▁in ▁Spain ▁ ▁Roman es que ▁religious ▁buildings ▁were ▁never ▁as ▁monument al ▁as ▁the ▁French ▁const ructions , ▁or ▁the ▁const ructions ▁that ▁later ▁gave ▁rise ▁to ▁G oth ic ▁art . ▁The ▁first ▁buildings
▁designs ▁had ▁thick ▁walls ▁and ▁small ▁open ings ▁through ▁which ▁a ▁dim ▁light ▁could ▁enter ▁from ▁outside . ▁Later ▁there ▁was ▁an ▁evolution ▁in ▁the ▁construction ▁of ▁the ▁walls ▁allowing ▁the ▁buildings ▁to ▁be ▁better ▁light ened ▁and ▁for ▁opening ▁bigger ▁windows . ▁ ▁The ▁mon astic ▁buildings ▁were ▁the ▁most ▁numerous ▁sharing ▁importance ▁with ▁the ▁cat hed r als . ▁Ch urches ▁and ▁par ishes ▁were ▁constructed ▁in ▁cities ▁while ▁in ▁small ▁towns ▁countless ▁small ▁churches , ▁known ▁as ▁rural ▁Roman es que , ▁were ▁built . ▁ ▁Material ▁ ▁The ▁most ▁precious ▁but ▁also ▁the ▁most ▁expensive ▁material ▁was ▁the ▁stone . ▁The ▁st on em asons ▁bus ied ▁themselves ▁car ving ▁it ▁with ▁a ▁ch is el , ▁always ▁selecting ▁the ▁good ▁face ▁of ▁the ▁block . ▁These ▁were ▁made ▁into ▁as hl ars , ▁which ▁were ▁generally ▁available ▁in ▁horizontal ▁rows ▁and ▁sometimes ▁used ▁along ▁the ▁edges . ▁Hard ▁rocks ▁were ▁almost ▁always ▁used . ▁Mason ry ▁was ▁also ▁used , ▁with ▁he wn ▁stone ▁in ▁the ▁corners , ▁windows ▁and ▁doors . ▁If ▁the ▁stone ▁was ▁hard ▁to ▁get , ▁because ▁the ▁corresponding ▁ge ographic ▁location ▁had ▁no ▁quar ries , ▁or ▁because ▁it ▁was ▁too ▁expensive ▁at ▁certain ▁times , ▁they ▁used ▁b aked ▁brick , ▁sl ate ▁or ▁any ▁as hl ars ▁stone . ▁P aint ▁and ▁pl aster ▁were ▁used ▁as ▁finish , ▁both ▁for ▁the ▁stone ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁for ▁the ▁m ason ry ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁materials , ▁so ▁that , ▁once ▁the
▁walls ▁were ▁painted , ▁it ▁was ▁difficult ▁to ▁distinguish ▁whether ▁it ▁had ▁one ▁or ▁the ▁other ▁underneath . ▁Col our ful ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁was ▁as ▁widespread ▁as ▁it ▁had ▁been ▁in ▁Roman ▁buildings . ▁ ▁Found ations ▁ ▁Med ieval ▁build ers ▁did ▁extensive ▁study ▁for ▁the ▁foundation , ▁taking ▁into ▁account ▁the ▁type ▁of ▁building ▁that ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁built , ▁the ▁materials ▁that ▁were ▁to ▁be ▁used ▁and ▁the ▁ground ▁upon ▁which ▁the ▁building ▁would ▁be ▁laid . ▁First ▁deep ▁dit ches ▁were ▁dug ▁and ▁were ▁filled ▁with ▁stones ▁and ▁rub ble . ▁T ren ches ▁were ▁distributed ▁under ▁the ▁walls ▁that ▁would ▁go ▁over ▁them ▁and ▁others ▁were ▁made ▁cross wise ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁join ▁the ▁passage ways ▁together ▁and ▁strengthen ▁the ▁pill ars ▁of ▁the ▁trans verse ▁ar ches . ▁The ▁foundation ▁formed ▁a ▁network ▁that ▁practically ▁sk et ched ▁the ▁plan ▁of ▁the ▁temple , ▁thus ▁differ ing ▁from ▁the ▁isolated ▁foundation ▁for ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁pill ars ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁G oth ic ▁style . ▁In ▁some ▁ruined ▁churches ▁all ▁that ▁remains ▁is ▁this ▁foundation , ▁giving ▁archae ologists ▁good ▁study ▁material . ▁Arch ae ologists ▁are ▁able ▁to ▁determine ▁the ▁thickness ▁of ▁the ▁walls ▁from ▁these ▁revealed ▁remains ▁of ▁the ▁found ations , ▁although ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁that ▁in ▁this ▁respect ▁the ▁build ers ▁rather ▁exagger ated ▁and ▁made ▁excess ively ▁deep ▁tren ches ▁and ▁over ly ▁thick ▁foundation ▁for ▁fear ▁of ▁land sl ides . ▁ ▁V ault s , ▁n aves
▁and ▁ce il ings ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁First ▁Roman es que ▁period , ▁many ▁rural ▁churches ▁were ▁still ▁being ▁covered ▁with ▁a ▁wooden ▁roof , ▁more ▁so ▁in ▁Catal onia ▁and ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁Bo i ▁Valley ▁where ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁renew al ▁of ▁old ▁churches ▁was ▁done ▁by ▁L omb ard ▁build ers ▁who ▁covered ▁the ▁g abled ▁n aves ▁with ▁a ▁wooden ▁structure , ▁respect ing ▁the ▁old ▁traditions ▁of ▁the ▁region . ▁However , ▁the ▁ap se ▁in ▁these ▁churches ▁was ▁always ▁to pped ▁with ▁an ▁oven ▁vault . ▁ ▁Throughout ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century , ▁n aves ▁were ▁covered ▁with ▁barrel ▁vault s , ▁either ▁a ▁half ▁barrel ▁or ▁a ▁quarter ▁barrel , ▁a ▁device ▁used ▁in ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁throughout ▁Europe . ▁Later ▁the ▁gro in ▁vault ▁was ▁used . ▁In ▁Catal onia , ▁these ▁barrel ▁vault s ▁were ▁used ▁without ▁reinforce ments , ▁while ▁in ▁Cast ile ▁and ▁Le ón ▁ar ches ▁were ▁used ▁as ▁support . ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁gro in ▁vault ▁( ar ising ▁from ▁the ▁crossing ▁of ▁two ▁per pend icular ▁barrel ▁vault s ) ▁had ▁been ▁lost ▁and ▁was ▁later ▁taken ▁up ▁by ▁great ▁master ▁build ers . ▁The ▁gro in ▁vault ▁in ▁turn ▁gave ▁way ▁to ▁the ▁rib bed ▁vault , ▁which ▁later ▁became ▁very ▁common ▁in ▁G oth ic ▁architecture . ▁ ▁The ▁type ▁of ▁vault s ▁used ▁exclusively ▁on ▁the ▁stairs ▁of ▁the ▁tow ers ▁were ▁also ▁called ▁helic al ▁vault s . ▁Examples ▁of ▁their
▁use ▁are ▁at ▁San ▁Mart ín ▁de ▁From ista , ▁Sant ▁Pere ▁de ▁Gall ig ants ▁and ▁San ▁Salvador ▁de ▁Le y re , ▁among ▁others . ▁ ▁Cor ner ▁vault s ▁were ▁built ▁in ▁the ▁clo ister s ▁of ▁monaster ies ▁and ▁cat hed r als . ▁These ▁result ▁from ▁the ▁meeting ▁of ▁two ▁groups ▁in ▁a ▁clo ister . ▁The ▁finishing ▁of ▁these ▁vault s ▁was ▁not ▁very ▁easy , ▁so ▁build ers ▁had ▁to ▁use ▁various ▁tricks ▁that ▁ens ured ▁that ▁fl aws ▁were ▁not ▁easily ▁visible ▁to ▁the ▁naked ▁eye . ▁ ▁Ar ches ▁ ▁In ▁Spain ▁the ▁most ▁used ▁arch ▁was ▁the ▁sem ic ir cular ▁although ▁the ▁horses ho e ▁arch ▁and ▁the ▁pointed ▁arch ▁were ▁also ▁used . ▁The ▁arch ▁was ▁used ▁exclusively ▁throughout ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century ▁and ▁first ▁half ▁of ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century . ▁In ▁order ▁to ▁achieve ▁certain ▁he ights , ▁the ▁vault s ▁were ▁made ▁quite ▁st ilt ed , ▁as ▁in ▁Sant ▁Joan ▁de ▁les ▁Ab ad ess es . ▁Many ▁ar cs ▁were ▁built ▁dou bled ▁with ▁the ▁intention ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁be ▁stronger . ▁Later , ▁in ▁the ▁port als , ▁ar ches ▁were ▁formed ▁with ▁arch iv ol ts , ▁i . e . ▁a ▁sequence ▁of ▁concent ric ▁ar ches ▁decorated ▁with ▁simple ▁or ▁decor ative ▁plants ▁or ▁geometric ▁m ould ings . ▁ ▁Point ed ▁ar ches ▁came ▁from ▁the ▁O rient . ▁It ▁is ▁unknown ▁the ▁exact ▁date ▁of ▁their ▁use ▁in
▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁in ▁Spain , ▁although ▁histor ians ▁proposed ▁some ▁dates ▁based ▁on ▁buildings ▁containing ▁one ▁or ▁more ▁pointed ▁ar ches ▁that ▁sometimes ▁spawn ▁an ▁entire ▁vault ▁in ▁some ▁of ▁its ▁parts . ▁There ▁are ▁buildings ▁that ▁correspond ▁to ▁the ▁first ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁L ug o ▁and ▁Santa ▁Maria ▁de ▁Terr ass a ▁cat hed r als . ▁The ▁early ▁use ▁of ▁these ▁ar cs ▁became ▁a ▁construction ▁element ▁which ▁provided ▁many ▁advantages . ▁It ▁was ▁an ▁architect ural ▁break through ▁that ▁the ▁C ister c ian ▁mon ks ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁see ▁from ▁the ▁beginning . ▁ ▁But t ress es ▁ ▁But t ress es ▁are ▁continuous ▁thick ▁vertical ▁walls ▁that ▁are ▁placed ▁at ▁the ▁sides ▁of ▁an ▁arch ▁or ▁vault ▁to ▁counter act ▁attacks . ▁They ▁were ▁also ▁placed ▁on ▁the ▁outer ▁walls ▁of ▁the ▁n aves ▁of ▁churches ▁or ▁clo ister s . ▁In ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁are ▁always ▁visible ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁elements ▁that ▁character ize ▁it , ▁especially ▁in ▁Spanish ▁architecture , ▁except ▁in ▁the ▁Catal onia ▁area ▁where ▁construction ▁was ▁done ▁ad op ting ▁a ▁greater ▁thickness ▁of ▁the ▁walls . ▁ ▁Co vers ▁ ▁The ▁buildings ▁were ▁covered ▁with ▁a ▁roof ▁that ▁could ▁be ▁made ▁of ▁different ▁materials : ▁ ▁Stone ▁( used ▁frequently ). ▁These ▁covers ▁can ▁still ▁be ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁Gall o ▁tower ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁of ▁Sal am anca ▁cat hedral ▁and ▁the ▁Á v ila ▁Cat hedral
. ▁Ro of ▁tile ▁- ▁capable ▁of ▁being ▁changed ▁frequently , ▁the ▁material ▁res ists ▁weather ing ▁over ▁time . ▁Gl azed ▁sheets , ▁rare ▁materials . ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁sp ire ▁of ▁the ▁tower ▁of ▁the ▁former ▁Vall ad olid . ▁Sl ate , ▁especially ▁in ▁areas ▁where ▁this ▁material ▁is ▁abund ant , ▁especially ▁in ▁Gal icia . ▁ ▁Tow ers ▁In ▁Spanish ▁buildings ▁tow ers ▁are ▁located ▁in ▁different ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁church ▁- ▁on ▁the ▁sides , ▁over ▁the ▁tr anse pt ▁and , ▁in ▁very ▁special ▁cases , ▁over ▁the ▁straight ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁ap se , ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁churches ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁S ah ag ún ▁in ▁Le ón . ▁This ▁placement ▁was ▁because , ▁being ▁built ▁of ▁brick ▁( a ▁material ▁less ▁consistent ▁than ▁stone ), ▁the ▁build ers ▁had ▁to ▁locate ▁the ▁tow ers ▁in ▁the ▁strongest , ▁more ▁res istant ▁section ▁( us ually ▁at ▁the ▁a ps es ). ▁A ▁faç ade ▁made ▁up ▁of ▁two ▁tow ers ▁was ▁not ▁very ▁common ▁and ▁usually ▁seen ▁only ▁in ▁tem ples ▁of ▁great ▁importance . ▁ ▁Tow ers ▁served ▁as ▁st ee ples , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁styles ▁in ▁Cast ile ▁and ▁Le ón , ▁they ▁are ▁what ▁are ▁called ▁Tur res ▁sign orum . ▁In ▁many ▁cases ▁they ▁were ▁built ▁as ▁defence ▁tow ers , ▁especially ▁in ▁border ▁territor ies ▁experiencing ▁military ▁conflict , ▁and ▁the ▁location ▁of ▁the ▁tower ▁depend ed ▁on ▁what ▁was ▁being ▁def
ended . ▁Thus ▁the ▁tower ▁of ▁the ▁church ▁of ▁the ▁Sil os ▁monaster y ▁was ▁located ▁to ▁defend ▁the ▁monaster y , ▁the ▁tower ▁of ▁the ▁San ▁Pedro ▁de ▁Ar lan za ▁monaster y ▁was ▁a ▁very ▁important ▁defence ▁for ▁the ▁entire ▁area . ▁The ▁military ▁aspect ▁of ▁these ▁Roman es que ▁tow ers ▁evolved ▁and ▁changed ▁over ▁time ▁so ▁that ▁at ▁present ▁it ▁is ▁difficult ▁to ▁guess ▁at ▁their ▁original ▁purpose ▁or ▁purpose ▁for ▁which ▁they ▁were ▁used ▁in ▁other ▁er as . ▁In ▁many ▁cases ▁these ▁tow ers ▁were ▁attached ▁to ▁the ▁sides ▁of ▁the ▁church , ▁and ▁some ▁even ▁completely ▁independent ▁of ▁the ▁churches . ▁ ▁Bell - g ables ▁ ▁A ▁g able ▁is ▁an ▁architect ural ▁element ▁that ▁is ▁usually ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁faç ade ▁and ▁used , ▁instead ▁of ▁a ▁tower , ▁to ▁house ▁the ▁b ells . ▁The ▁bell - g able ▁( re ferred ▁to ▁as ▁esp ada ña ▁in ▁the ▁I ber ian ▁pen insula ) ▁was ▁built ▁as ▁a ▁vertical ▁continu ation ▁of ▁the ▁wall ▁and ▁the ▁sp ans ▁were ▁opened ▁to ▁receive ▁the ▁b ells . ▁The ▁g able ▁was ▁easier ▁and ▁cheaper ▁to ▁build . ▁In ▁Spanish ▁Roman es que ▁they ▁were ▁very ▁numerous ▁especially ▁in ▁smaller ▁rural ▁Roman es que ▁churches . ▁They ▁were ▁made ▁of ▁a ▁single ▁span ▁or ▁several ▁terr aced ▁store ys . ▁They ▁usually ▁had ▁pointed ▁or ▁pin ion ▁tops . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁all ▁kinds ▁of ▁g ables ▁in ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁style ▁of
▁Camp oo ▁and ▁Val der red ible . ▁There ▁are ▁some ▁spectacular ▁ones ▁in ▁other ▁locations ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁at ▁Ag ull ana ▁in ▁the ▁Al to ▁A mp urd án ▁or ▁the ▁A stud illo , ▁with ▁five ▁open ings . ▁There ▁are ▁more ▁modest ▁ones ▁such ▁as ▁at ▁the ▁Santa ▁Maria ▁de ▁Val bu ena ▁Mon aster y ▁where ▁its ▁ve ins ▁also ▁have ▁a ▁unique ▁placement . ▁ ▁P aint ings ▁During ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁era , ▁a ▁building ▁was ▁not ▁considered ▁finished ▁until ▁its ▁walls ▁had ▁appropriate ▁paintings . ▁The ▁walls ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁and ▁significant ▁parts ▁( especially ▁the ▁a ps es ) ▁were ▁lined ▁inside ▁with ▁icon ographic ▁paintings , ▁many ▁of ▁which ▁have ▁come ▁down ▁to ▁the ▁twenty - first ▁century , ▁such ▁as ▁those ▁belonging ▁to ▁churches ▁in ▁the ▁T ah ull ▁Valley . ▁The ▁walls , ▁both ▁inside ▁and ▁out , ▁were ▁covered ▁with ▁a ▁layer ▁of ▁paint ▁in ▁one ▁color ▁and ▁the ▁imp ost s , ▁v ains ▁and ▁columns ▁were ▁highlighted ▁in ▁the ▁original ▁material , ▁but ▁sometimes ▁they ▁were ▁also ▁painted ▁in ▁bright ▁colors : ▁green , ▁yellow , ▁och er , ▁red ▁and ▁blue . ▁This ▁custom ▁of ▁painting ▁or ▁rev oking ▁the ▁buildings ▁was ▁not ▁new ▁or ▁unique ▁to ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁of ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges ▁but ▁represented ▁an ▁inherit ance ▁or ▁continu ity ▁of ▁the ▁construction ▁method ▁from ▁old en ▁times . ▁ ▁Whether ▁the ▁material ▁used ▁was ▁stone , ▁as hl ar
▁or ▁if ▁the ▁m ason ry ▁was ▁in ▁br icks , ▁the ▁finish ▁was ▁a ▁painted ▁surface . ▁Thus , ▁in ▁many ▁cases ▁it ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁determined ▁if ▁the ▁exterior ▁was ▁made ▁of ▁stone ▁or ▁brick , ▁which ▁could ▁only ▁be ▁determined ▁from ▁pl aster ▁scrap ings . ▁The ▁paint ▁finish ▁gave ▁the ▁buildings ▁protection ▁against ▁environmental ▁assault s ▁but ▁these ▁were ▁removed ▁in ▁the ▁nineteenth - century ▁when ▁theories ▁were ▁applied ▁to ▁expose ▁the ▁original ▁building ▁materials . ▁ ▁Some ▁of ▁these ▁paintings ▁have ▁remained ▁in ▁certain ▁buildings , ▁as ▁a ▁testimony ▁of ▁the ▁past , ▁on ▁walls , ▁sculpt ures ▁and ▁cap itals . ▁On ▁the ▁faç ade ▁of ▁the ▁, ▁traces ▁of ▁paint ▁were ▁still ▁visible ▁into ▁the ▁twentieth ▁century , ▁as ▁witnessed ▁and ▁described ▁by ▁the ▁Spanish ▁historian ▁Mar qu és ▁de ▁L oz oya . ▁Sometimes ▁car ving ▁the ▁b ask ets ▁of ▁the ▁cap itals ▁was ▁too ▁expensive ▁and ▁they ▁were ▁left ▁completely ▁smooth ▁so ▁that ▁the ▁painter ▁could ▁finish ▁them ▁with ▁fl oral ▁or ▁historical ▁mot ifs . ▁In ▁the ▁San ▁Pa io ▁de ▁Ab el eda ▁church ▁in ▁O uren se , ▁there ▁are ▁vest iges ▁of ▁paintings ▁on ▁some ▁cap itals , ▁which ▁have ▁even ▁been ▁rep ainted ▁throughout ▁its ▁history . ▁Fr ag ments ▁of ▁cap itals ▁with ▁their ▁original ▁painting ▁have ▁been ▁found ▁among ▁the ▁ru ins ▁of ▁the ▁San ▁Pedro ▁de ▁Ar lan za ▁monaster y ▁and ▁they ▁give ▁an ▁indication ▁of ▁how ▁the ▁rest ▁was ▁decorated . ▁ ▁C
ister c ian ▁and ▁Prem on str at ens ians ▁mon ks ▁also ▁painted ▁the ▁walls ▁of ▁their ▁churches , ▁in ▁white ▁or ▁a ▁light ▁earth y ▁color , ▁and ▁they ▁sometimes ▁outlined ▁the ▁joint s ▁of ▁the ▁blocks . ▁ ▁S cul pt ures ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁sculpt ures ▁as ▁decor ation ▁for ▁buildings ▁during ▁the ▁full ▁Roman es que ▁period ▁was ▁something ▁so ▁common place ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁considered ▁a ▁necessity . ▁Architect ure ▁and ▁sculpt ing ▁represented ▁an ▁in separ able ▁icon ographical ▁program . ▁The ▁idea ▁of ▁the ▁Church ▁( an ▁idea ▁developed ▁and ▁disse min ated ▁by ▁the ▁Bened ict ines ▁of ▁Cl un y ), ▁was ▁to ▁teach ▁Christian ▁doctrine ▁through ▁the ▁sculpt ures ▁and ▁paintings ▁of ▁the ▁a ps es ▁and ▁interior ▁walls . ▁The ▁cap itals ▁of ▁the ▁columns , ▁the ▁sp and rel s , ▁the ▁f rie zes , ▁the ▁cant ile vers ▁and ▁the ▁arch iv ol ts ▁of ▁the ▁port als ▁were ▁intr ic ately ▁decorated ▁with ▁stories ▁from ▁the ▁Old ▁and ▁New ▁Test aments . ▁These ▁sculpt ures ▁were ▁not ▁limited ▁to ▁religious ▁dep ictions ▁but ▁also ▁covered ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁prof ane ▁but ▁equally ▁important ▁issues ▁to ▁the ▁ele vent h - ▁and ▁tw elf th - century ▁population , ▁such ▁as ▁field ▁work , ▁the ▁calendar ▁( as ▁in ▁the ▁case ▁of ▁the ▁cap itals ▁of ▁the ▁Santa ▁María ▁la ▁Real ▁de ▁Nie va ▁clo ister , ▁from ▁late ▁Roman es que ), ▁war , ▁customs , ▁among
▁others . ▁In ▁other ▁buildings ▁real , ▁myth ological ▁and ▁symbol ic ▁animals ▁were ▁sculpt ed , ▁plus ▁alleg ories ▁of ▁v ices ▁and ▁virt ues ▁( the ▁best ▁example ▁can ▁be ▁given ▁in ▁the ▁er otic ▁cor b els ▁of ▁the ▁San ▁Pedro ▁de ▁C erv atos ▁Col leg iate ▁in ▁southern ▁Cant ab ria ). ▁These ▁decor ations ▁were ▁not ▁always ▁of ▁a ▁historical ▁or ▁animals ▁type ; ▁geometric ▁decor ation ▁was ▁very ▁important ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁thus ▁fl oral ▁and ▁plant ▁decor ation ▁were ▁also ▁used . ▁Often ▁the ▁carved ▁tym pan um ▁or ▁the ▁f rie ze ▁depicted ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁images ▁along ▁the ▁cap itals ▁of ▁the ▁columns ▁of ▁the ▁arch iv ol ts . ▁ ▁Ch urches ▁ ▁The ▁tem ples ▁of ▁the ▁First ▁Roman es que ▁are ▁simple , ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁n ave ▁to pped ▁by ▁a ▁sem ic ir cular ▁ap se ▁( without ▁a ▁tr anse pt ). ▁The ▁prototype ▁of ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁church ▁was ▁non - r ural , ▁medium - sized ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁floor ▁plan ▁of ▁a ▁bas il ica ▁with ▁three ▁n aves ▁containing ▁three ▁sem ic ir cular ▁a ps es ▁and ▁a ▁tr anse pt . ▁Throughout ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century ▁the ▁traditional ▁His panic ▁type ▁tem ples ▁with ▁three ▁straight ▁and ▁terr aced ▁a ps es ▁were ▁still ▁being ▁built ▁in ▁some ▁areas ▁( such ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Z am ora ). ▁Church ▁plans ▁were ▁adapted
▁to ▁the ▁lit urg ical ▁needs , ▁as ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁can ons ▁or ▁f ri ars ▁who ▁required ▁more ▁alt ars ▁for ▁their ▁religious ▁functions ▁was ▁increasing . ▁T empl es ▁were ▁built ▁with ▁Bened ict ine ▁Cl un y - style ▁a ps es ▁added . ▁A ▁long ▁tr anse pt ▁that ▁could ▁accommodate ▁more ▁a ps es ▁was ▁adopted ▁in ▁C ister c ian ▁architecture , ▁and ▁there ▁are ▁more ▁examples ▁of ▁this ▁type ▁of ▁construction . ▁This ▁feature ▁was ▁also ▁adopted ▁by ▁the ▁cat hed r als ▁( T arr ag ona , ▁L le ida , ▁O uren se ▁and ▁Sig ü enza ). ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁examples ▁of ▁cru c iform ▁structures ▁that ▁precisely ▁dep ict ▁a ▁Latin ▁cross , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁ele vent h - century ▁Santa ▁Mart a ▁de ▁T era ▁church ▁in ▁Z am ora , ▁or ▁the ▁San ▁Loren zo ▁de ▁Z or ita ▁del ▁P á ram o ▁church ▁in ▁Pal encia , ▁whose ▁header ▁is ▁not ▁square ▁but ▁sem ic ir cular . ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁circular ▁plans , ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁n ave ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁San ▁Mar cos ▁church ▁in ▁Sal am anca , ▁or ▁the ▁V era ▁Cruz ▁church ▁in ▁Seg ov ia . ▁ ▁V est ry ▁In ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁era ▁small ▁churches ▁or ▁parish ▁churches ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁vest ries . ▁V est ries ▁were ▁only ▁added ▁to ▁these ▁churches ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁six teenth ▁century . ▁However , ▁in ▁the ▁grand ▁monaster
ies ▁or ▁cat hed r als ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁space ▁adapted ▁in ▁the ▁clo ister ▁for ▁this ▁purpose . ▁ ▁C rypt s ▁C rypt s ▁are ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁characteristic ▁features ▁of ▁Roman es que ▁architecture . ▁In ▁the ▁First ▁Roman es que , ▁its ▁use ▁spread ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁the ▁Fr anks . ▁Sp aces ▁were ▁built ▁just ▁below ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁church ▁and ▁were ▁intended ▁for ▁keeping ▁the ▁re lic s ▁of ▁mart yr s , ▁the ▁worship ▁of ▁whom ▁came ▁about ▁from ▁Carol ing ian ▁influence . ▁They ▁usually ▁had ▁three ▁n aves ▁with ▁a ▁gro in ▁vault ▁cover , ▁although ▁there ▁are ▁variations , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁circular ▁crypt ▁with ▁a ▁pill ar ▁in ▁the ▁center ▁( C u ix á ▁and ▁Sant ▁Pere ▁de ▁R odes ). ▁Throughout ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century , ▁they ▁began ▁to ▁lose ▁importance ▁as ▁recip ients ▁of ▁re lic s ▁and ▁were ▁instead ▁built ▁for ▁practical ▁and ▁necessary ▁architect ural ▁purposes , ▁ad ap ting ▁to ▁the ▁terrain ▁on ▁which ▁the ▁church ▁was ▁built ▁( this ▁is ▁the ▁function ▁of ▁the ▁Mon aster y ▁of ▁Le y re ▁crypt ). ▁Throughout ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century , ▁few ▁crypt s ▁were ▁built ▁and ▁those ▁that ▁were ▁built ▁were ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁une ven ▁ground . ▁Later ▁the ▁crypt s ▁were ▁converted ▁to ▁fun er ary ▁purposes . ▁ ▁Trib unes ▁The ▁trib unes ▁were ▁g aller ies ▁over ▁the ▁a is les ▁that ▁were ▁used ▁by ▁important ▁people
▁to ▁monitor ▁the ▁lit ur gy . ▁They ▁had ▁little ▁importance ▁in ▁Roman es que ▁Spain , ▁with ▁their ▁construction ▁being ▁very ▁scar ce . ▁Two ▁examples ▁are ▁known : ▁the ▁San ▁Vic ente ▁de ▁Av ila ▁and ▁the ▁Bas il ica ▁of ▁San ▁Is id oro . ▁Trad itional ▁histor i ography ▁suggests ▁that , ▁in ▁the ▁latter ▁church , ▁the ▁trib une ▁was ▁a ▁special ▁place ▁for ▁Queen ▁S anch a , ▁wife ▁of ▁Ferd inand ▁I , ▁but ▁more ▁recent ▁studies ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁dates ▁do ▁not ▁match . ▁There ▁is ▁little ▁information ▁on ▁this ▁architecture . ▁ ▁Tr if oria ▁A ▁tr if or ium ▁is ▁a ▁gallery ▁with ▁ar ches ▁running ▁along ▁the ▁top ▁of ▁the ▁lower ▁n aves ▁of ▁a ▁church , ▁below ▁the ▁large ▁windows ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁n ave . ▁It ▁sometimes ▁surround s ▁the ▁ap se ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁height . ▁Its ▁origin ▁was ▁purely ▁cos metic , ▁since ▁if ▁the ▁n ave ▁was ▁too ▁high ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁heavy ▁space ▁between ▁the ▁ceiling ▁windows ▁and ▁the ▁supporting ▁ar ches ▁of ▁the ▁lower ▁later al ▁n aves . ▁ ▁At ▁first ▁the ▁arch ▁of ▁the ▁tr if or ium ▁was ▁not ▁set , ▁but ▁it ▁was ▁then ▁thought ▁that ▁it ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁provide ▁light ▁and ▁vent ilation , ▁while ▁leaving ▁a ▁passage ▁for ▁building ▁services ▁and ▁surveillance . ▁This ▁construction ▁could ▁be ▁done ▁because ▁the ▁a is les ▁are ▁always ▁pushed ▁into ▁the ▁central ▁n ave , ▁thus ▁leaving ▁a ▁us able
▁hole ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁depth ▁as ▁the ▁width ▁of ▁the ▁a isle . ▁This ▁element ▁had ▁its ▁true ▁development ▁in ▁the ▁G oth ic ▁era . ▁In ▁Spanish ▁Roman es que ▁architecture ▁tr if oria ▁are ▁scar ce ▁because ▁the ▁bare ▁wall ▁was ▁usually ▁left ▁in ▁their ▁place ▁or ▁a ▁blind ▁arc ade ▁was ▁built . ▁ ▁A ▁good ▁example ▁of ▁a ▁tr if or ium ▁is ▁the ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁cat hedral . ▁The ▁a is les ▁of ▁this ▁temple ▁has ▁two ▁floors ▁and ▁the ▁tr if or ium ▁occup ies ▁the ▁entire ▁second , ▁covering ▁the ▁entire ▁building ▁and ▁l ining ▁the ▁outside ▁by ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁windows ▁that ▁provide ▁light ▁and ▁interior ▁ar ches . ▁Another ▁example ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁L ug o ▁Cat hedral , ▁although ▁in ▁this ▁case ▁it ▁runs ▁along ▁all ▁the ▁walls . ▁In ▁San ▁Vic ente ▁de ▁Á v ila ▁the ▁tr if or ium ▁is ▁a ▁dark ▁gallery ▁that ▁does ▁not ▁provide ▁light ▁from ▁outside . ▁ ▁In ▁some ▁pil gr image ▁churches ▁the ▁tr if or ium ▁was ▁at ▁times ▁used ▁as ▁an ▁area ▁for ▁overnight ▁accommodation ▁for ▁pil gr ims . ▁ ▁Port icos ▁and ▁g aller ies ▁The ▁port ico ▁is ▁a ▁space ▁originally ▁designed ▁for ▁preventing ▁inc lement ▁weather . ▁It ▁was ▁constructed ▁in ▁both ▁rural ▁and ▁city ▁churches , ▁in ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁door ▁to ▁protect ▁it . ▁In ▁most ▁cases ▁they ▁were ▁made ▁with ▁a ▁wooden ▁structure ▁that ▁stood ▁the ▁test ▁of ▁time , ▁but
▁in ▁many ▁cases ▁the ▁construction ▁was ▁in ▁stone ▁resulting ▁in ▁g aller ies ▁of ▁great ▁development , ▁which ▁in ▁some ▁cases ▁were ▁true ▁works ▁of ▁art . ▁ ▁The ▁port icos ▁were ▁rem inis cent ▁of ▁the ▁n art hex ▁of ▁the ▁Latin ▁bas il icas . ▁It ▁formed ▁an ▁advanced ▁body ▁over ▁the ▁central ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁faç ade ▁and ▁if ▁this ▁faç ade ▁had ▁tow ers ▁then ▁it ▁occupied ▁the ▁space ▁between ▁them , ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁Port ico ▁of ▁Gl ory ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela ▁cat hedral . ▁At ▁other ▁times ▁it ▁occupied ▁the ▁entire ▁front , ▁forming ▁a ▁covered ▁space ▁that ▁was ▁called ▁a ▁" G al ile e ". ▁ ▁Rose ▁windows ▁Rose ▁windows ▁are ▁circular ▁windows ▁made ▁of ▁stone , ▁whose ▁origin ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁Roman ▁o cul us ▁of ▁the ▁bas il icas . ▁In ▁Spain ▁these ▁rose ▁windows ▁were ▁employed ▁from ▁the ▁ele vent h ▁century . ▁Throughout ▁the ▁Roman es que , ▁rose ▁windows ▁became ▁important ▁and ▁increased ▁in ▁size , ▁cul min ating ▁in ▁the ▁G oth ic ▁era , ▁which ▁produced ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁beautiful ▁and ▁spectacular ▁spec im ens . ▁ ▁C lo ister s ▁ ▁The ▁clo ister ▁is ▁an ▁architect ural ▁unit ▁usually ▁built ▁next ▁to ▁cat hed r als ▁and ▁mon astic ▁churches , ▁attached ▁to ▁the ▁north ▁or ▁south . ▁The ▁clo ister ▁par ▁excell ence ▁is ▁the ▁one ▁prom ul g ated ▁by ▁the ▁Bened ict ine ▁mon ks . ▁The ▁different
▁units ▁of ▁the ▁clo ister , ▁h ing ed ▁on ▁all ▁four ▁sides ▁of ▁a ▁square ▁cour tyard , ▁were ▁dedicated ▁to ▁the ▁service ▁of ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁community . ▁In ▁Spanish ▁Roman es que ▁many ▁clo ister s ▁have ▁been ▁preserved , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁Catal an ▁region . ▁ ▁Civil ▁and ▁military ▁architecture ▁The ▁Roman es que ▁civil ▁architecture ▁is ▁almost ▁un he ard ▁of ▁and ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁buildings ▁that ▁are ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁from ▁this ▁period , ▁are ▁not , ▁although ▁some ▁retain ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁foundation ▁or ▁a ▁door ▁or ▁sem ic ir cular ▁window ▁from ▁the ▁Roman es que ▁era , ▁their ▁development ▁and ▁architect ural ▁design ▁belong ▁to ▁more ▁modern ▁times . ▁ ▁Civil ▁buildings ▁ ▁Dom estic ▁buildings , ▁including ▁pal aces , ▁had ▁no ▁great ▁pret ensions . ▁H ouses ▁were ▁built ▁of ▁fl im sy ▁material ▁( as ▁opposed ▁to ▁the ▁grand eur ▁of ▁the ▁churches ) ▁and ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁stand ▁the ▁test ▁of ▁time . ▁When ▁they ▁wished ▁to ▁give ▁importance ▁to ▁the ▁civil ▁architecture , ▁the ▁little ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁transformed ▁and ▁the ▁new ▁one ▁was ▁built ▁with ▁G oth ic ▁tend encies . ▁So ▁it ▁was ▁with ▁the ▁so - called ▁Roman es que ▁palace ▁of ▁Diego ▁G elm í rez ▁in ▁Santiago ▁de ▁Com post ela , ▁which ▁is ▁actually ▁a ▁totally ▁G oth ic ▁factory , ▁or ▁buildings ▁of ▁Seg ov ia ▁s ine c ures ▁from ▁the ▁Middle ▁A ges . ▁ ▁There ▁is ▁the
▁famous ▁palace ▁of ▁Don a ▁Ber eng uela ▁in ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Leon , ▁called ▁a ▁Roman es que ▁palace , ▁but ▁its ▁structure ▁and ▁planning ▁actually ▁correspond ▁to ▁the ▁last ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁late ▁Middle ▁A ges , ▁far ▁from ▁Roman es que , ▁though ▁it ▁ret ains ▁( per haps ▁from ▁outside ▁the ▁original ▁location ) ▁some ▁Roman es que ▁windows . ▁There ▁is ▁also , ▁in ▁Cu é ll ar , ▁the ▁, ▁the ▁origin ▁of ▁which ▁is ▁supposed ▁to ▁date ▁from ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁Rep ob l ación . ▁Maybe ▁part ▁of ▁its ▁found ations ▁are ▁Roman es que , ▁but ▁the ▁current ▁building ▁is ▁from ▁the ▁early ▁four teenth ▁century , ▁even ▁though ▁it ▁has ▁a ▁Roman es que ▁portal ▁that ▁was ▁perhaps ▁inherited ▁from ▁the ▁previous ▁building ▁or ▁re used ▁from ▁another . ▁This ▁palace ▁is ▁however ▁considered ▁as ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁few ▁examples ▁of ▁civil ▁Roman es que . ▁Trad itionally , ▁buildings ▁that ▁have ▁a ▁good ▁portal ▁with ▁a ▁sem ic ir cular ▁arch ▁and ▁large ▁segments ▁have ▁been ▁called ▁" R oman es que " ▁houses ▁or ▁pal aces , ▁but ▁they ▁are ▁actually ▁structures ▁from ▁the ▁G oth ic ▁era . ▁ ▁An ▁example ▁of ▁what ▁could ▁be ▁a ▁Roman es que ▁palace ▁built ▁in ▁stone ▁is ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁faç ade ▁of ▁the ▁Palace ▁of ▁the ▁Kings ▁of ▁Nav ar re ▁in ▁Est ella , ▁Nav ar re . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Spanish ▁Roman es que ▁Roman es que ▁churches ▁in
▁Madrid ▁List ▁of ▁Roman es que ▁buildings ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Al cal de ▁C res po , ▁Gon z alo . ▁I gles ias ▁r up est res . ▁O ll eros ▁de ▁P is uer ga ▁y ▁otras ▁de ▁su ▁ent orno . ▁ ▁Ed iles a , ▁ 2 0 0 7 . ▁▁ ▁B ango ▁Tor vis o , ▁Is id ro ▁G . ▁Tes or os ▁de ▁España . ▁Vol . ▁III . ▁Rom án ico . ▁Esp asa ▁Cal pe , ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁▁ ▁B ango ▁Tor vis o , ▁Is id ro ▁G . ▁Historia ▁del ▁Ar te ▁de ▁Cast illa ▁y ▁Le ón . ▁Tom o ▁II . ▁Ar te ▁Rom án ico . ▁Á mb ito ▁Ed iciones , ▁Vall ad olid ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁▁ ▁Ch am or ro ▁Lam as , ▁Manuel . ▁R ut as ▁rom án ica ▁en ▁Gal icia . ▁Ed iciones ▁En cu ent ro , ▁Madrid ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁▁ ▁Garc ía ▁Gu inea , ▁Miguel ▁Á ng el . ▁Rom án ico ▁en ▁Pal encia . ▁D ip ut ación ▁de ▁Pal encia , ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁( 2 nd ▁rev ised ▁edition ). ▁. ▁ ▁Garc ía ▁Gu inea , ▁Miguel ▁Á ng el , ▁Bl anco ▁Mart ín ▁and ▁Francisco ▁J avier . ▁In ici ación ▁al ▁Ar te ▁Rom án ico . ▁La ▁arqu itect ura ▁rom án ica
: ▁t éc nic as ▁y ▁princip ios . ▁Fund ación ▁de ▁Santa ▁María ▁la ▁Real . ▁A gu ilar ▁de ▁Camp oo , ▁ 2 0 0 0 . ▁▁ ▁Garc ía ▁Gu inea , ▁Miguel ▁Á ng el . ▁Rom án ico ▁en ▁Cant ab ria . ▁Gu ías ▁Est udio , ▁Sant ander ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁▁ ▁Herr era ▁Mar cos , ▁Jes ús , ▁Ar qu itect ura ▁y ▁sim bol ismo ▁del ▁rom án ico ▁en ▁Vall ad olid . ▁Ed ita ▁Ar s ▁Mag na , ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁D ip ut ación ▁de ▁Vall ad olid . ▁▁ ▁L amp é rez ▁y ▁Rome a , ▁Vic ente . ▁Historia ▁de ▁la ▁arqu itect ura ▁crist iana ▁españ ola ▁en ▁la ▁Ed ad ▁Media . ▁Tom o ▁I . ▁Editor ial ▁Á mb ito , ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁▁ ▁L amp é rez ▁y ▁Rome a , ▁Vic ente . ▁Historia ▁de ▁la ▁arqu itect ura ▁crist iana . ▁Man ual es ▁Gall ach . ▁Editor ial ▁Esp asa ▁Cal pe , ▁Madrid ▁ 1 9 3 5 ▁ ▁Nu ño ▁Gon zá lez , ▁Ja ime . ▁In ici ación ▁al ▁Ar te ▁Rom án ico : ▁A port ación ▁de ▁la ▁Historia , ▁de ▁la ▁Ar que ología ▁y ▁de ▁las ▁ci encias ▁aux ilia res ▁al ▁conoc imiento ▁del ▁est ilo ▁rom án ico . ▁A gu ilar ▁de ▁Camp oo , ▁ 2
0 0 0 . ▁▁ ▁P ijo án , ▁José . ▁Sum ma ▁Art is . ▁Historia ▁general ▁del ▁arte . ▁Vol . ▁IX . ▁El ▁arte ▁rom án ico ▁sig los ▁XI ▁y ▁XII . ▁Esp asa ▁Cal pe , ▁Madrid ▁ 1 9 4 9 . ▁▁▁ 0 1 ▁. ▁Category : Med ieval ▁architecture ▁Category : C ath olic ▁architecture ▁Category : R oman es que ▁architecture ▁Category : Arch itect ure ▁of ▁Spain ▁ ▁pl : Arch ite kt ura ▁rom a ń ska ▁w ▁His z pan ii <0x0A> </s> ▁Daniel ▁B él anger ▁( born ▁December ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 1 9 6 1 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Canadian ▁singer - s ong writer . ▁His ▁music ▁is ▁ec lect ic , ▁inspired ▁by ▁alternative ▁rock , ▁folk ▁and ▁electronic ▁music , ▁sometimes ▁hum orous , ▁sometimes ▁w ist ful . ▁ ▁Biography ▁In ▁middle ▁ 1 9 8 3 , ▁he ▁founded ▁the ▁band ▁H umph rey ▁Sal ade ▁with ▁Norman ▁L ach ance , ▁Eric ▁Ma ier ▁and ▁Jean ▁G au vin . ▁Unfortunately , ▁timing ▁was ▁not ▁right ▁and ▁the ▁band ▁never ▁recorded . ▁ ▁His ▁first ▁solo ▁album ▁released ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 2 , ▁Les ▁Ins om nia ques ▁s ' am us ent ▁has ▁sold ▁ 1 7 5 , 0 0 0 ▁copies ▁and ▁won ▁the ▁F él ix ▁for ▁best ▁pop - rock ▁album . ▁The ▁first ▁single ▁released ▁O pi um ▁was ▁number ▁one ▁in ▁Quebec ▁for
▁seven ▁weeks ▁and ▁won ▁the ▁F él ix ▁for ▁V ide oc l ip ▁of ▁the ▁Year . ▁ ▁This ▁first ▁album ▁also ▁earned ▁him ▁the ▁A DIS Q ▁awards ▁for ▁Best selling ▁Album ▁of ▁the ▁Year , ▁Male ▁Per former ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁and ▁Show ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁With ▁this ▁debut ▁album , ▁B él anger ▁had ▁carved ▁out ▁his ▁own ▁special ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁hearts ▁of ▁Quebec ers . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 6 , ▁Qu atre ▁sa isons ▁dans ▁le ▁dés ord re ▁was ▁released . ▁Awards ▁flo oded ▁in ▁( F él ix ▁for ▁the ▁Pop - R ock ▁Album , ▁S inger - S ong writer ▁and ▁Show ▁of ▁the ▁Year , ▁in ▁the ▁singer - s ong writer ▁category ), ▁sales ▁went ▁wild ▁( the ▁album ▁was ▁certified ▁Pl atinum ), ▁and ▁titles ▁like ▁Les ▁deux ▁print em ps , ▁Sort ez - m oi ▁de ▁mo i ▁and ▁Les ▁Tem ps ▁f ous ▁( F él ix ▁for ▁V ide oc l ip ▁of ▁the ▁Year ) ▁to pped ▁the ▁charts . ▁▁ 1 9 9 8 : ▁Daniel ▁B él anger ▁tou red , ▁revealing ▁an ▁artist ▁able ▁to ▁inhabit ▁the ▁whole ▁stage ▁performing ▁solo , ▁with ▁music ▁and ▁comic ▁mon olog ues ; ▁this ▁led ▁to ▁the ▁recording ▁of ▁an ▁unusual ▁album , ▁Tr icy cle ▁( 1 9 9 9 ), ▁featuring ▁ex cer pts ▁from ▁performances ▁recorded ▁at ▁different ▁points ▁in ▁his ▁career
. ▁▁ 2 0 0 0 : ▁Daniel ▁B él anger ▁thr illed ▁his ▁fans ▁with ▁Er re ur ▁d ’ im pression , ▁a ▁collection ▁of ▁ 1 5 0 ▁wh ims ical ▁stories ▁and ▁ref lections ▁bord ering ▁on ▁the ▁absurd , ▁and ▁founded ▁the ▁publishing ▁house ▁Cor on et ▁liv . ▁He ▁continued ▁to ▁take ▁part ▁in ▁major ▁shows , ▁including ▁the ▁opening ▁concert ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 2 th ▁Franco F ol ies ▁de ▁Mon tr éal , ▁featuring ▁legendary ▁sing ers ▁from ▁three ▁generations : ▁Jean - P ierre ▁Fer land , ▁Michel ▁R iv ard ▁and ▁himself . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁album ▁R ê ver ▁mie ux ▁( cert ified ▁Pl atinum ) ▁released ▁in ▁October ▁ 2 0 0 1 , ▁B él anger ▁employed ▁electro ▁sounds ▁with ▁play ful ▁inspiration ▁and ▁w owed ▁his ▁fans . ▁R ê ver ▁mie ux ▁was ▁shower ed ▁with ▁t ributes ▁( seven ▁A DIS Q ▁awards ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 , ▁including ▁Pop - R ock ▁Album ▁of ▁the ▁Year , ▁and ▁the ▁following ▁year , ▁the ▁A DIS Q ▁award ▁for ▁V ide oc l ip ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁for ▁Dans ▁un ▁Sp out nik , ▁the ▁Jun o ▁Award ▁for ▁Franc oph one ▁Album ▁of ▁the ▁Year , ▁and ▁various ▁other ▁dist in ctions ). ▁ ▁Daniel ▁B él anger ▁has ▁also ▁made ▁successful ▁in ro ads ▁into ▁the ▁world ▁of ▁film ▁music ▁( nom ination ▁for ▁the ▁Gen ie ▁Award ▁for ▁Best ▁Original
▁Song ▁for ▁the ▁movie ▁theme ▁Le ▁D ern ier ▁sou ff le ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 0 ; ▁J ut ra ▁for ▁Best ▁Music ▁for ▁L ’ Aud ition ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 ). ▁ ▁L ' É che c ▁du ▁mat éri el , ▁in ▁stores ▁April ▁ 2 0 0 7 , ▁is ▁an ▁album ▁just ▁as ▁poet ic ▁and ▁melod ious ▁as ▁R ê ver ▁mie ux , ▁but ▁more ▁ro oted ▁in ▁the ▁concerns ▁and ▁aspir ations ▁of ▁his ▁contempor aries . ▁ ▁Bel anger ▁won ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁Jun o ▁Award ▁for ▁Franc oph one ▁Album ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁for ▁L ' É che c ▁du ▁mat éri el . ▁In ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁he ▁released ▁his ▁album ▁N ous ▁and , ▁once ▁again , ▁won ▁the ▁F él ix ▁for ▁the ▁Pop - R ock ▁Album ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁he ▁wrote ▁the ▁music ▁for ▁the ▁French ▁musical ▁Les ▁B elles - S oe urs ▁and ▁its ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁English ▁adaptation , ▁B elles ▁So eurs : ▁The ▁musical . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 8 ▁his ▁album ▁Pal oma ▁was ▁named ▁Franc oph one ▁album ▁of ▁the ▁year ▁at ▁the ▁Jun o ▁Awards . ▁ ▁Disc ography ▁ ▁V ide ography ▁▁ ▁En sor cel ée ▁( 1 9 9 2 ) ▁ ▁Les ▁temps ▁f ous ▁( 1 9 9 2
) ▁ ▁Le ▁par ap lu ie ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Ch ante ▁encore ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁ ▁Sp out nik ▁( 2 0 0 2 ) ▁ ▁R este ▁( 2 0 0 9 ) ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : Sing ers ▁from ▁Montreal ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁singer - s ong writ ers ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁pop ▁sing ers ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁male ▁sing ers ▁Category : F rench - language ▁sing ers ▁of ▁Canada ▁Category : J uno ▁Award ▁for ▁Franc oph one ▁Album ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁winners ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : A udi ogram ▁artists ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Canadian ▁sing ers ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Canadian ▁sing ers ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁male ▁sing ers ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁male ▁sing ers <0x0A> </s> ▁Bon am ia ▁men z ies ii , ▁commonly ▁known ▁as ▁Hawaii ▁lady ' s ▁night cap , ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁flower ing ▁plant ▁in ▁the ▁morning ▁glory ▁family , ▁Con vol v ul aceae , ▁that ▁is ▁end emic ▁to ▁Hawaii . ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁vine ▁or ▁tw isting ▁li ana ▁with ▁branches ▁that ▁can ▁reach ▁ ▁in ▁length . ▁Hawaii ▁lady ' s ▁night cap ▁inhab its ▁steep ▁sl opes ▁and ▁level ▁ground ▁in ▁dry , ▁coastal ▁mes ic , ▁mixed ▁mes ic , ▁and ,
▁sometimes , ▁wet ▁forests ▁at ▁elev ations ▁of ▁. ▁ ▁Sc attered ▁populations ▁exist ▁on ▁most ▁main ▁islands , ▁but ▁the ▁total ▁number ▁of ▁individuals ▁remaining ▁is ▁probably ▁fewer ▁than ▁ 1 0 0 0 . ▁ ▁The ▁plant ▁is ▁threatened ▁by ▁habitat ▁loss . ▁Hab itat ▁has ▁been ▁destroyed ▁or ▁de graded ▁by ▁development , ▁fires , ▁exotic ▁plant ▁species , ▁and ▁agriculture . ▁Military ▁exercises ▁damage ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁critical ▁habitat ▁on ▁O ahu . ▁F eral ▁p igs , ▁go ats , ▁cattle , ▁sheep ▁and ▁deer ▁eat ▁the ▁plant ▁and ▁tr ample ▁the ▁habitat . ▁The ▁non - native ▁sweet ▁pot ato ▁bug ▁( Phys omer us ▁gross ipes ) ▁has ▁been ▁noted ▁to ▁feed ▁on ▁the ▁plant . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁men z ies ii ▁Category : End emic ▁fl ora ▁of ▁Hawaii ▁Category : C rit ically ▁end ang ered ▁plants ▁Category : N ature Ser ve ▁crit ically ▁imper iled ▁species ▁Category : Tax onomy ▁articles ▁created ▁by ▁Pol bot <0x0A> </s> ▁F uro ▁I y en emi ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁July ▁ 1 9 7 8 ) ▁is ▁a ▁retired ▁Niger ian ▁international ▁football er ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁def ender ▁for ▁clubs ▁in ▁France , ▁Belgium , ▁Switzerland ▁and ▁Greece . ▁ ▁Club ▁career ▁Born ▁in ▁Ok rika , ▁I y en emi ▁moved ▁to ▁France ▁and ▁began ▁playing ▁football ▁for ▁Paris ▁Saint - G erm ain ' s ▁reserve ▁side ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 . ▁He ▁signed ▁a
▁contract ▁with ▁Belg ian ▁Pro ▁League ▁club ▁K . S . V . ▁W are gem ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁He ▁acquired ▁Belg ian ▁citizens hip ▁and ▁moved ▁to ▁Swiss ▁Super ▁League ▁side ▁FC ▁S ion . ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 3 , ▁I y en emi ▁joined ▁Greek ▁Super le ague ▁side ▁Ak rat itos ▁F . C ., ▁where ▁he ▁would ▁make ▁ 7 ▁league ▁appearances ▁before ▁leaving ▁the ▁club . ▁ ▁International ▁career ▁I y en emi ▁played ▁for ▁Nigeria ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Sydney . ▁He ▁capt ained ▁the ▁team ▁as ▁they ▁reached ▁the ▁last ▁eight ▁of ▁the ▁tournament . ▁ ▁I y en emi ▁played ▁for ▁the ▁Nigeria ▁national ▁football ▁team ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁African ▁Cup ▁of ▁Nations ▁fin als , ▁making ▁five ▁appearances ▁as ▁Nigeria ▁finished ▁run ners - up . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁F uro ▁I y en emi ▁official ▁website ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Ok rika ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁Rivers ▁State ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁defend ers ▁Category : N iger ian ▁football ers ▁Category : N iger ia ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁football ers ▁of ▁Nigeria ▁Category : Foot ball ers ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : 2 0 0 0 ▁African ▁Cup ▁of ▁Nations
▁players ▁Category : R oyal ▁Ant werp ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : K . S . V . ▁W are gem ▁players ▁Category : FC ▁S ion ▁players ▁Category : Serv ette ▁FC ▁players ▁Category : A k rat itos ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : Bel g ian ▁Second ▁Division / Bel g ian ▁First ▁Division ▁B ▁players ▁Category : Super ▁League ▁Greece ▁players ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁France ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁Belgium ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁Switzerland ▁Category : Ex pat ri ate ▁football ers ▁in ▁Greece ▁Category : N iger ian ▁exp atri ate ▁football ers <0x0A> </s> ▁Mount ▁Rat ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁sub div ision ▁in ▁South ▁Australia ▁located ▁in ▁the ▁local ity ▁of ▁Wa ural tee ▁on ▁the ▁Y or ke ▁Pen insula . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁jun ction ▁of ▁the ▁Spencer ▁Highway ▁and ▁Mount ▁Rat ▁Road ▁about ▁halfway ▁between ▁the ▁cent res ▁of ▁M ait land ▁and ▁Min lat on . ▁It ▁was ▁first ▁founded ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 5 0 s , ▁and ▁by ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁had ▁a ▁school , ▁hotel , ▁black smith s , ▁chap el ▁and ▁a ▁large ▁water ▁tank . ▁By ▁ 1 9 0 5 ▁the ▁school ▁had ▁closed , ▁and ▁now ▁the ▁town ▁has ▁mostly ▁disappeared . ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁two ▁water ▁tanks ▁and ▁a ▁tele commun ications ▁tower ▁at ▁Mount ▁Rat . ▁
▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Mount ▁Rat ▁Home ▁Page ▁on ▁Very ph ot ographic . com . au ▁ ▁Category : G host ▁towns ▁in ▁South ▁Australia <0x0A> </s> ▁P FLAG ▁is ▁the ▁United ▁States ' ▁first ▁and ▁largest ▁organization ▁un iting ▁parents , ▁families , ▁and ▁allies ▁with ▁people ▁who ▁are ▁les bian , ▁gay , ▁bis ex ual , ▁trans gender , ▁and ▁que er ▁( L GBT Q + ). ▁P FLAG ▁National ▁is ▁the ▁national ▁organization , ▁which ▁provides ▁support ▁to ▁the ▁P FLAG ▁network ▁of ▁local ▁chapters . ▁P FLAG ▁has ▁over ▁ 4 0 0 ▁chapters ▁across ▁the ▁United ▁States , ▁with ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁members ▁and ▁supporters . ▁ ▁P FLAG ▁( pr on ounced ▁ ▁) ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁an ▁ac ron ym , ▁but ▁just ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁organization . ▁Prior ▁to ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁the ▁ac ron ym ▁stood ▁for ▁Parent s ▁and ▁Friends ▁of ▁Les b ians ▁and ▁G ays ▁( l ater ▁broad ened ▁to ▁Parent s , ▁Famil ies ▁and ▁Friends ▁of ▁Les b ians ▁and ▁G ays ). ▁Until ▁removal ▁of ▁the ▁hyp hen ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁the ▁name ▁was ▁officially ▁styled ▁as ▁P - FLAG . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁the ▁membership ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁voted ▁to ▁officially ▁change ▁the ▁name ▁to ▁P FLAG ▁to ▁reflect ▁the ▁decades ▁of ▁fully ▁inclusive ▁work ▁it ▁had ▁been ▁doing ▁in ▁the ▁LGBT Q +
▁community . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁In ▁April ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁Jean ne ▁Man ford , ▁an ▁elementary ▁school ▁teacher , ▁and ▁her ▁husband ▁were ▁at ▁home ▁in ▁Fl ushing , ▁Queens , ▁when ▁they ▁learned ▁from ▁a ▁hospital ' s ▁telephone ▁call ▁that ▁her ▁son ▁Mort y , ▁a ▁gay ▁activ ist , ▁had ▁been ▁beaten ▁while ▁distribut ing ▁fly ers ▁inside ▁the ▁f ift i eth ▁annual ▁In ner ▁Circle ▁dinner , ▁a ▁political ▁gathering ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁In ▁response , ▁she ▁wrote ▁a ▁letter ▁of ▁protest ▁to ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁Post ▁that ▁identified ▁herself ▁as ▁the ▁mother ▁of ▁a ▁gay ▁pro tes ter ▁and ▁complained ▁of ▁police ▁in action . ▁She ▁gave ▁interviews ▁to ▁radio ▁and ▁television ▁shows ▁in ▁several ▁cities ▁in ▁the ▁weeks ▁that ▁followed , ▁sometimes ▁accompanied ▁by ▁her ▁husband ▁or ▁son . ▁On ▁June ▁ 2 5 , ▁she ▁participated ▁with ▁her ▁son ▁in ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁Pr ide ▁March , ▁carrying ▁a ▁hand - let tered ▁sign ▁that ▁read ▁" Parent s ▁of ▁G ays ▁Un ite ▁in ▁Support ▁for ▁Our ▁Children ". ▁Prom pt ed ▁by ▁their ▁enthusi astic ▁reception , ▁they ▁developed ▁an ▁idea ▁for ▁an ▁organization ▁of ▁the ▁parents ▁of ▁g ays ▁and ▁les b ians ▁that ▁could ▁be , ▁she ▁later ▁said , ▁" a ▁bridge ▁between ▁the ▁gay ▁community ▁and ▁the ▁heter osexual ▁community ". ▁They ▁were ▁soon ▁holding ▁meetings ▁for ▁such ▁parents , ▁with ▁her ▁husband ▁participating ▁as ▁well . ▁She ▁called ▁him ▁" a ▁very
▁artic ulate ▁person ... ▁a ▁much ▁better ▁speaker ▁than ▁I . ▁He ▁was ▁right ▁along ▁with ▁me ▁on ▁everything ." ▁ ▁The ▁first ▁formal ▁meeting ▁took ▁place ▁on ▁March ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁at ▁the ▁Met ropolitan - Du ane ▁Method ist ▁Church ▁in ▁Green wich ▁Village ▁( now ▁the ▁Church ▁of ▁the ▁Village ). ▁Appro xim ately ▁ 2 0 ▁people ▁attended . ▁In ▁the ▁next ▁few ▁years , ▁through ▁word ▁of ▁mouth ▁and ▁community ▁need , ▁similar ▁groups ▁spr ang ▁up ▁around ▁the ▁country , ▁offering ▁" safe ▁hav ens " ▁and ▁mutual ▁support ▁for ▁parents ▁with ▁gay ▁and ▁les bian ▁children . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 6 , ▁P FLAG ▁LA ▁had ▁their ▁first ▁meeting ▁of ▁ 3 0 ▁parents . ▁By ▁ 1 9 7 7 , ▁the ▁group ▁had ▁integrated ▁with ▁other ▁LGBT ▁activ ist ▁groups ▁to ▁opp ose ▁An ita ▁Bry ant ' s ▁anti - g ay ▁cr us ade ▁and ▁defeat ▁the ▁state wide ▁Brig gs ▁Init iative . ▁Following ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁National ▁March ▁on ▁Washington ▁for ▁Les bian ▁and ▁Gay ▁Rights , ▁representatives ▁from ▁these ▁groups ▁met ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time ▁in ▁Washington , ▁DC . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 8 0 , ▁P FLAG , ▁then ▁known ▁as ▁Parent s ▁FL AG , ▁began ▁to ▁distribute ▁information ▁to ▁educational ▁institutions ▁and ▁communities ▁of ▁faith ▁nation wide , ▁establishing ▁itself ▁as ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁information ▁for ▁the ▁general ▁public . ▁When ▁A