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▁not ▁allow ▁diss ent , ▁and ▁opposition ▁to ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁severely ▁pun ished . ▁The ▁Song ▁had ▁been ▁not ified ▁before hand ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁plan . ▁They ▁prepared ▁by ▁secur ing ▁their ▁def enses ▁along ▁the ▁border , ▁mainly ▁near ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁River , ▁but ▁were ▁ham per ed ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁inde c is iveness . ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁desire ▁for ▁peace ▁made ▁him ▁a verse ▁to ▁prov oking ▁the ▁Jin . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁began ▁the ▁invasion ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 1 ▁without ▁formally ▁decl aring ▁war . ▁Jur chen ▁arm ies ▁personally ▁led ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁left ▁Ka if eng ▁on ▁October ▁ 1 5 , ▁reached ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁border ▁on ▁October ▁ 2 8 , ▁and ▁mar ched ▁in ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁the ▁Yang t ze . ▁The ▁Song ▁lost ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁to ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁but ▁captured ▁a ▁few ▁Jin ▁pre fect ures ▁in ▁the ▁west , ▁slow ing ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁advance . ▁A ▁group ▁of ▁Jur chen ▁gener als ▁were ▁sent ▁to ▁cross ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁near ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁( s outh ▁of ▁Ma ' ans han ▁in ▁modern ▁An hui ) ▁while ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁established ▁a ▁base ▁near ▁Yang z hou . ▁ ▁The ▁Song ▁official ▁Yu ▁Y un wen ▁was ▁in ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁army ▁defending ▁the ▁river . ▁The ▁Jur chen |
▁army ▁was ▁defeated ▁while ▁attacking ▁Ca ishi ▁between ▁November ▁ 2 6 ▁and ▁ 2 7 ▁during ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi . ▁The ▁p addle - wheel ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁navy , ▁armed ▁with ▁tre bu che ts ▁that ▁fired ▁gun pow der ▁bombs , ▁overwhelmed ▁the ▁light ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁fleet . ▁Jin ▁ships ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁compete ▁because ▁they ▁were ▁smaller ▁and ▁hast ily ▁constructed . ▁The ▁bombs ▁launched ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁contained ▁mi xtures ▁of ▁gun pow der , ▁l ime , ▁scrap s ▁of ▁iron , ▁and ▁a ▁poison ▁that ▁was ▁likely ▁ar sen ic . ▁Trad itional ▁Chinese ▁accounts ▁consider ▁this ▁the ▁turning ▁point ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁character izing ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁military ▁upset ▁that ▁secured ▁southern ▁China ▁from ▁the ▁northern ▁inv aders . ▁The ▁significance ▁of ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁riv aled ▁a ▁similarly ▁rever ed ▁victory ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Fe i ▁River ▁in ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁century . ▁Cont empor aneous ▁Song ▁accounts ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁ 1 8 , 0 0 0 ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁commanded ▁by ▁Yu ▁Y un wen ▁and ▁task ed ▁with ▁defending ▁Ca ishi ▁were ▁able ▁to ▁defeat ▁the ▁inv ading ▁Jur chen ▁army ▁of ▁ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁soldiers . ▁Modern ▁histor ians ▁are ▁more ▁ske pt ical ▁and ▁consider ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁numbers ▁an ▁exagger ation . ▁Song ▁histor ians ▁may ▁have ▁confused ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁Jur chen ▁soldiers ▁at ▁the ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁with ▁the ▁total |
▁number ▁of ▁soldiers ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang . ▁The ▁conflict ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁one - s ided ▁battle ▁that ▁traditional ▁accounts ▁imply , ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁numerous ▁advantages ▁over ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Song ▁fleet ▁was ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁Jin ' s , ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁use ▁their ▁greatest ▁asset , ▁caval ry , ▁in ▁a ▁naval ▁battle . ▁ ▁A ▁modern ▁analysis ▁of ▁the ▁battle field ▁has ▁shown ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁minor ▁battle , ▁although ▁the ▁victory ▁did ▁boost ▁Song ▁mor ale . ▁The ▁Jin ▁lost , ▁but ▁only ▁suffered ▁about ▁ 4 , 0 0 0 ▁casual ties ▁and ▁the ▁battle ▁was ▁not ▁fatal ▁to ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁war ▁effort . ▁It ▁was ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁poor ▁relationships ▁with ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁gener als , ▁who ▁desp ised ▁him , ▁that ▁do omed ▁the ▁chances ▁of ▁a ▁Jin ▁victory . ▁On ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁was ▁assass inated ▁in ▁his ▁military ▁camp ▁by ▁dis aff ect ed ▁officers . ▁He ▁was ▁succeeded ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Sh iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 6 1 – 1 1 8 9 ). ▁Sh iz ong ▁was ▁press ured ▁into ▁ending ▁the ▁un pop ular ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Song , ▁and ▁ordered ▁the ▁withdrawal ▁of ▁Jin ▁forces ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 2 . ▁Emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁retired ▁from ▁the ▁throne ▁that ▁same ▁year . ▁His ▁m ish and ling ▁of ▁the |
▁war ▁with ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁many ▁reasons ▁for ▁his ▁ab d ication . ▁Sk irm ishes ▁between ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁Jin ▁continued ▁along ▁the ▁border , ▁but ▁subs ided ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 5 ▁after ▁the ▁neg ot iation ▁of ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y . ▁There ▁were ▁no ▁major ▁territor ial ▁changes . ▁The ▁treat y ▁dict ated ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁still ▁had ▁to ▁pay ▁the ▁annual ▁ind em n ity , ▁but ▁the ▁ind em n ity ▁was ▁renamed ▁from ▁" t ribute ", ▁which ▁had ▁implied ▁a ▁sub ord inate ▁relationship , ▁to ▁" payment ". ▁ ▁Song ▁rev anch ism ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁were ▁weak ened ▁by ▁the ▁pressure ▁of ▁the ▁rising ▁Mong ols ▁to ▁the ▁north , ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁flood s ▁cul min ating ▁in ▁a ▁Yellow ▁River ▁flood ▁in ▁ 1 1 9 4 ▁that ▁devast ated ▁He be i ▁and ▁Sh and ong ▁in ▁northern ▁China , ▁and ▁the ▁d rought s ▁and ▁sw arm ing ▁loc ust s ▁that ▁pl ag ued ▁the ▁south ▁near ▁the ▁Hu ai . ▁The ▁Song ▁were ▁informed ▁of ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁pred ic ament ▁by ▁their ▁amb ass ad ors , ▁who ▁traveled ▁twice ▁a ▁year ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁capital , ▁and ▁started ▁prov oking ▁their ▁northern ▁neighbor . ▁The ▁host ilities ▁were ▁inst ig ated ▁by ▁ch ancell or ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou . ▁The ▁Song ▁Emperor ▁N ing z ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 9 4 – 1 2 |
2 4 ) ▁took ▁little ▁interest ▁in ▁the ▁war ▁effort . ▁Under ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ' s ▁super vision , ▁prepar ations ▁for ▁the ▁war ▁proceed ed ▁gradually ▁and ▁caut iously . ▁The ▁court ▁v ener ated ▁the ▁ir red ent ist ▁hero ▁Y ue ▁Fe i ▁and ▁Han ▁or chestr ated ▁the ▁publishing ▁of ▁historical ▁records ▁that ▁justified ▁war ▁with ▁the ▁Jin . ▁From ▁ 1 2 0 4 ▁on wards , ▁Chinese ▁armed ▁groups ▁ra ided ▁Jur chen ▁settlement s . ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ▁was ▁designated ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁national ▁security ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 5 . ▁The ▁Song ▁funded ▁ins urg ents ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁that ▁profess ed ▁loyal ist ▁sym path ies . ▁These ▁early ▁cl ashes ▁continued ▁to ▁escal ate , ▁partly ▁ab ett ed ▁by ▁rev anch ist ▁Song ▁officials , ▁and ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁was ▁officially ▁declared ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 2 0 6 . ▁The ▁document ▁that ▁announced ▁the ▁war ▁claimed ▁the ▁Jin ▁lost ▁the ▁Mand ate ▁of ▁Heaven , ▁a ▁sign ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁un fit ▁to ▁rule , ▁and ▁called ▁for ▁an ▁ins ur rection ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁state . ▁ ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁led ▁by ▁general ▁Bi ▁Z ai y u ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 1 7 ) ▁captured ▁the ▁barely ▁def ended ▁border ▁city ▁of ▁S iz hou ▁ ▁( on ▁the ▁north ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁across ▁from ▁modern ▁X uy i ▁County ) |
▁but ▁suffered ▁large ▁losses ▁against ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁in ▁He be i . ▁The ▁Jin ▁rep elled ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁moved ▁south ▁to ▁bes ie ge ▁the ▁Song ▁town ▁of ▁Ch uz hou ▁ ▁on ▁the ▁Grand ▁Canal ▁just ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River . ▁Bi ▁def ended ▁the ▁town , ▁and ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁withd rew ▁from ▁the ▁sie ge ▁after ▁three ▁months . ▁By ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁however , ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁had ▁captured ▁multiple ▁towns ▁and ▁military ▁bases . ▁The ▁Jin ▁initiated ▁an ▁offensive ▁against ▁Song ▁pre fect ures ▁in ▁the ▁central ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁capt uring ▁Za oy ang ▁and ▁Gu an gh ua ▁( ; ▁on ▁the ▁Han ▁River ▁near ▁modern ▁La o he k ou ). ▁By ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁the ▁Song ▁offensive ▁had ▁already ▁failed ▁dis astr ously . ▁Sold ier ▁mor ale ▁sank ▁as ▁weather ▁conditions ▁w ors ened , ▁supplies ▁ran ▁out , ▁and ▁hunger ▁spread , ▁forcing ▁many ▁to ▁desert . ▁The ▁massive ▁defe ctions ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁in ▁northern ▁China ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁expected ▁never ▁material ized . ▁ ▁A ▁notable ▁betray al ▁did ▁occur ▁on ▁the ▁Song ▁side , ▁however : ▁Wu ▁X i ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 0 7 ), ▁the ▁governor - general ▁of ▁S ich uan , ▁defect ed ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁December ▁ 1 2 0 6 . ▁The ▁Song ▁had ▁depend ed ▁on |
▁Wu ' s ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁to ▁di vert ▁Jin ▁soldiers ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁eastern ▁front . ▁He ▁had ▁attacked ▁Jin ▁positions ▁earlier ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 6 , ▁but ▁his ▁army ▁of ▁about ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁men ▁had ▁been ▁rep elled . ▁Wu ' s ▁defe ction ▁could ▁have ▁meant ▁the ▁loss ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁western ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁but ▁Song ▁loyal ists ▁assass inated ▁Wu ▁on ▁March ▁ 2 9 , ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁before ▁Jin ▁troops ▁could ▁take ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁sur rend ered ▁territor ies . ▁An ▁B ing ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 2 1 ) ▁was ▁given ▁Wu ▁X i ' s ▁position , ▁but ▁the ▁co hes ion ▁of ▁Song ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁fell ▁apart ▁after ▁Wu ' s ▁dem ise ▁and ▁command ers ▁turned ▁on ▁each ▁other ▁in ▁the ▁en su ing ▁inf ight ing . ▁ ▁Fight ing ▁continued ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁but ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁that ▁year ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁at ▁a ▁st al em ate . ▁The ▁Song ▁was ▁now ▁on ▁the ▁defensive , ▁while ▁the ▁Jin ▁failed ▁to ▁make ▁gains ▁in ▁Song ▁territory . ▁The ▁failure ▁of ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou ' s ▁aggressive ▁policies ▁led ▁to ▁his ▁dem ise . ▁On ▁December ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 1 2 0 7 , ▁Han ▁was ▁beaten ▁to ▁death ▁by ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Palace ▁Gu ards . ▁His ▁accompl ice ▁Su ▁Sh idan ▁() |
▁was ▁executed , ▁and ▁other ▁officials ▁connected ▁to ▁Han ▁were ▁dismissed ▁or ▁ex iled . ▁Since ▁neither ▁combat ant ▁was ▁eager ▁to ▁continue ▁the ▁war , ▁they ▁returned ▁to ▁negotiations . ▁A ▁peace ▁treat y ▁was ▁signed ▁on ▁November ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 2 0 8 , ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁t ribute ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁was ▁re inst ated . ▁The ▁Song ▁annual ▁ind em n ity ▁increased ▁by ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁ta els ▁of ▁silver ▁and ▁ 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁pack s ▁of ▁fabric . ▁The ▁treat y ▁also ▁st ip ulated ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁had ▁to ▁present ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁Han ▁Tu oz hou , ▁who ▁the ▁Jin ▁held ▁responsible ▁for ▁starting ▁the ▁war . ▁The ▁heads ▁of ▁Han ▁and ▁Su ▁were ▁sever ed ▁from ▁their ▁ex hum ed ▁corps es , ▁exhib ited ▁to ▁the ▁public , ▁then ▁delivered ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁Jin – S ong ▁war ▁during ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁ ▁The ▁Mong ols , ▁a ▁nom ad ic ▁conf eder ation , ▁had ▁un ified ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁the ▁tw elf th ▁century . ▁They ▁and ▁other ▁step pe ▁nom ads ▁occasionally ▁ra ided ▁the ▁Jin ▁empire ▁from ▁the ▁north west . ▁The ▁Jin ▁sh ied ▁away ▁from ▁pun itive ▁exped itions ▁and ▁was ▁content ▁with ▁appe as ement , ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁practices ▁of ▁the ▁Song . ▁The ▁Mong ols , ▁formerly ▁a ▁Jin ▁t ribut ary , ▁ended ▁their |
▁Jur chen ▁v ass al age ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 0 ▁and ▁attacked ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 1 . ▁In ▁light ▁of ▁this ▁event , ▁the ▁Song ▁court ▁deb ated ▁ending ▁t ribut ary ▁payments ▁to ▁the ▁weak ened ▁Jin , ▁but ▁they ▁again ▁chose ▁to ▁avoid ▁ant agon izing ▁the ▁Jin . ▁They ▁refused ▁Western ▁X ia ' s ▁offers ▁of ▁al lying ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 4 ▁and ▁will ingly ▁com plied ▁when ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 5 ▁the ▁Jin ▁rejected ▁a ▁request ▁to ▁lower ▁the ▁annual ▁ind em n ity . ▁Meanwhile , ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 4 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁ret reated ▁from ▁the ▁bes ie ged ▁capital ▁of ▁Z h ong du ▁to ▁Ka if eng , ▁which ▁became ▁the ▁new ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁dyn asty . ▁As ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁expanded , ▁the ▁Jin ▁suffered ▁territor ial ▁losses ▁and ▁attacked ▁the ▁Song ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 7 ▁to ▁compens ate ▁for ▁their ▁shr inking ▁territory . ▁Period ic ▁Song ▁ra ids ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁were ▁the ▁official ▁just ification ▁for ▁the ▁war . ▁Another ▁likely ▁mot ive ▁was ▁that ▁the ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁would ▁have ▁given ▁the ▁Jin ▁a ▁place ▁to ▁escape ▁should ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁succeed ▁in ▁taking ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁north . ▁Sh i ▁M iy uan ▁( ; ▁ 1 1 6 4 – 1 2 3 3 ), ▁the ▁ch ancell or ▁of ▁Song ▁Emperor ▁Liz ong ▁( r . |
▁ 1 2 2 4 – 1 2 6 4 ), ▁was ▁hes it ant ▁to ▁fight ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁delayed ▁the ▁declaration ▁of ▁war ▁for ▁two ▁months . ▁Song ▁gener als ▁were ▁largely ▁autonom ous , ▁allowing ▁Sh i ▁to ▁ev ade ▁blame ▁for ▁their ▁military ▁bl und ers . ▁The ▁Jin ▁advanced ▁across ▁the ▁border ▁from ▁the ▁center ▁and ▁western ▁front s . ▁Jur chen ▁military ▁success es ▁were ▁limited , ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁faced ▁repeated ▁ra ids ▁from ▁the ▁neighbor ing ▁state ▁of ▁Western ▁X ia . ▁In ▁ 1 2 1 7 , ▁the ▁Song ▁gener als ▁M eng ▁Z ong z heng ▁() ▁and ▁Hu ▁Za ix ing ▁() ▁defeated ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁prevented ▁them ▁from ▁capt uring ▁Za oy ang ▁and ▁Su iz hou . ▁ ▁A ▁second ▁Jin ▁campaign ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 2 1 7 ▁did ▁margin ally ▁better ▁than ▁the ▁first . ▁In ▁the ▁east , ▁the ▁Jin ▁made ▁little ▁head way ▁in ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁River ▁valley , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁west ▁they ▁captured ▁X i he z hou ▁and ▁Das an ▁Pass ▁( ; ▁modern ▁Sha an xi ) ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 2 1 7 . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tried ▁to ▁captured ▁Su iz hou ▁in ▁J ing xi ▁South ▁circuit ▁again ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 8 ▁and ▁ 1 2 1 9 , ▁but ▁failed . ▁A ▁Song ▁counter off ensive ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 2 1 8 ▁captured ▁S iz hou ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 2 1 9 ▁the |
▁Jin ▁cities ▁of ▁D eng z hou ▁and ▁T ang z hou ▁were ▁pill aged ▁twice ▁by ▁a ▁Song ▁army ▁commanded ▁by ▁Z ha o ▁F ang ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 2 1 ). ▁In ▁the ▁west , ▁command ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁forces ▁in ▁S ich uan ▁was ▁given ▁to ▁An ▁B ing , ▁who ▁had ▁previously ▁been ▁dismissed ▁from ▁this ▁position . ▁He ▁successfully ▁def ended ▁the ▁western ▁front , ▁but ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁advance ▁further ▁because ▁of ▁local ▁up ris ings ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tried ▁to ▁ext ort ▁an ▁ind em n ity ▁from ▁the ▁Song ▁but ▁never ▁received ▁it . ▁In ▁the ▁last ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁campaigns , ▁in ▁early ▁ 1 2 2 1 , ▁the ▁Jin ▁captured ▁the ▁city ▁of ▁Q iz hou ▁( ; ▁in ▁Hu ain an ▁West ) ▁deep ▁in ▁Song ▁territory . ▁Song ▁arm ies ▁led ▁by ▁Hu ▁Za ix ing ▁and ▁Li ▁Qu an ▁( ; ▁d . ▁ 1 2 3 1 ) ▁defeated ▁the ▁Jin , ▁who ▁then ▁withd rew . ▁In ▁ 1 2 2 4 ▁both ▁sides ▁agreed ▁on ▁a ▁peace ▁treat y ▁that ▁ended ▁the ▁annual ▁t ributes ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁Di plom atic ▁missions ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁Song ▁were ▁also ▁cut ▁off . ▁ ▁Mong ol – S ong ▁alliance ▁ ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 2 3 3 , ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁took ▁Ka if eng ▁after ▁a ▁sie ge ▁of ▁more ▁than ▁ 1 0 ▁months ▁and ▁the |
▁Jin ▁court ▁ret reated ▁to ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁Ca iz hou . ▁In ▁ 1 2 3 3 ▁Emperor ▁A iz ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 2 2 4 – 1 2 3 4 ) ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁dis pat ched ▁diplom ats ▁to ▁impl ore ▁the ▁Song ▁for ▁supplies . ▁Jin ▁env o ys ▁reported ▁to ▁the ▁Song ▁that ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁would ▁inv ade ▁the ▁Song ▁after ▁they ▁were ▁done ▁with ▁the ▁Jin — a ▁forecast ▁that ▁would ▁later ▁be ▁proven ▁true — but ▁the ▁Song ▁ignored ▁the ▁warning ▁and ▁re buff ed ▁the ▁request . ▁They ▁instead ▁formed ▁an ▁alliance ▁with ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁against ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Song ▁provided ▁supplies ▁to ▁the ▁Mong ols ▁in ▁return ▁for ▁parts ▁of ▁Hen an . ▁The ▁Jin ▁dyn asty ▁collapsed ▁when ▁Mong ol ▁and ▁Song ▁troops ▁defeated ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁at ▁the ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Ca iz hou ▁in ▁ 1 2 3 4 . ▁General ▁M eng ▁G ong ▁() ▁led ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁against ▁Ca iz hou . ▁The ▁pen ult imate ▁emperor ▁of ▁the ▁Jin , ▁Emperor ▁A iz ong , ▁took ▁his ▁own ▁life . ▁His ▁short - l ived ▁success or , ▁Emperor ▁Mo , ▁was ▁killed ▁in ▁the ▁town ▁a ▁few ▁days ▁later . ▁The ▁Mong ols ▁later ▁turned ▁their ▁s ights ▁towards ▁the ▁Song . ▁After ▁decades ▁of ▁war , ▁the ▁Song ▁dyn asty ▁also ▁fell ▁in ▁ 1 2 7 9 , ▁when ▁the ▁remaining ▁Song ▁loyal ists ▁lost ▁to ▁the |
▁Mong ols ▁in ▁a ▁naval ▁battle ▁near ▁Gu ang d ong . ▁ ▁Historical ▁significance ▁ ▁Cultural ▁and ▁dem ographic ▁changes ▁Jur chen ▁migr ants ▁from ▁the ▁nort he astern ▁reaches ▁of ▁Jin ▁territory ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁Jin - cont rolled ▁lands ▁of ▁northern ▁China . ▁Const itut ing ▁less ▁than ▁ten ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁total ▁population , ▁the ▁two ▁to ▁three ▁million ▁ruling ▁Jur chen s ▁were ▁a ▁minority ▁in ▁a ▁region ▁that ▁was ▁still ▁dominated ▁by ▁ 3 0 ▁million ▁Han ▁Chinese . ▁The ▁south ward ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁caused ▁the ▁Jin ▁to ▁transition ▁their ▁decent ral ized ▁government ▁of ▁semi - agr arian ▁tribes ▁to ▁a ▁bureau cr atic ▁Chinese - style ▁dyn asty . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin ▁government ▁initially ▁promoted ▁an ▁independent ▁Jur chen ▁culture ▁alongside ▁their ▁adoption ▁of ▁the ▁central ized ▁Chinese ▁imperial ▁bureau cr acy , ▁but ▁the ▁empire ▁was ▁gradually ▁sin ic ized ▁over ▁time . ▁The ▁Jur chen s ▁became ▁fl uent ▁in ▁the ▁Chinese ▁language , ▁and ▁the ▁philosophy ▁of ▁Conf uc ian ism ▁was ▁used ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁the ▁ruling ▁government . ▁Conf uc ian ▁state ▁rit uals ▁were ▁adopted ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Emperor ▁X iz ong ▁( 1 1 3 5 – 1 1 5 0 ). ▁The ▁Jin ▁implemented ▁imperial ▁exam s ▁on ▁the ▁Conf uc ian ▁Class ics , ▁first ▁region ally ▁and ▁then ▁for ▁the ▁entire ▁empire . ▁The ▁Class ics ▁and ▁other ▁works ▁of ▁Chinese ▁literature ▁were ▁translated ▁into ▁Jur chen ▁and ▁studied |
▁by ▁Jin ▁intellect uals , ▁but ▁very ▁few ▁Jur chen s ▁actively ▁contributed ▁to ▁the ▁classical ▁literature ▁of ▁the ▁Jin . ▁The ▁Kh itan ▁script , ▁from ▁the ▁Chinese ▁family ▁of ▁scripts , ▁formed ▁the ▁basis ▁of ▁a ▁national ▁writing ▁system ▁for ▁the ▁empire , ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁script . ▁All ▁three ▁scripts ▁were ▁working ▁languages ▁of ▁the ▁government . ▁Jur chen ▁cl ans ▁adopted ▁Chinese ▁personal ▁names ▁with ▁their ▁Jur chen ▁names . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁( Pr ince ▁of ▁H ailing ; ▁r . ▁ 1 1 5 0 – 1 1 6 1 ) ▁was ▁an ▁enthusi astic ▁pro ponent ▁of ▁Jur chen ▁sin ic ization ▁and ▁en act ed ▁policies ▁to ▁encourage ▁it . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ▁had ▁been ▁acc ultur ated ▁by ▁Song ▁diplom ats ▁from ▁childhood , ▁and ▁his ▁em ulation ▁of ▁Song ▁practices ▁earned ▁him ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁nick name ▁of ▁" aping ▁the ▁Chinese ". ▁He ▁studied ▁the ▁Chinese ▁class ics , ▁drank ▁tea , ▁and ▁played ▁Chinese ▁che ss ▁for ▁rec reation . ▁Under ▁his ▁reign , ▁the ▁administrative ▁core ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁state ▁was ▁moved ▁south ▁from ▁Hu ining . ▁He ▁inst ated ▁Beijing ▁as ▁the ▁Jin ▁main ▁capital ▁in ▁ 1 1 5 3 . ▁Pal aces ▁were ▁ere cted ▁in ▁Beijing ▁and ▁Ka if eng , ▁while ▁the ▁original , ▁more ▁nor ther ly ▁resid ences ▁of ▁Jur chen ▁ch ie ft ains ▁were ▁demol ished . ▁ ▁The ▁emperor ' s ▁political ▁reform s ▁were ▁connected |
▁with ▁his ▁desire ▁to ▁con quer ▁all ▁of ▁China ▁and ▁to ▁legit im ize ▁himself ▁as ▁a ▁Chinese ▁emperor . ▁The ▁prospect ▁of ▁conqu ering ▁southern ▁China ▁was ▁cut ▁short ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁assass ination . ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁success or , ▁Emperor ▁Sh iz ong , ▁was ▁less ▁enthusi astic ▁about ▁sin ic ization ▁and ▁revers ed ▁several ▁of ▁W any an ▁Li ang ' s ▁ed icts . ▁He ▁san ction ed ▁new ▁policies ▁with ▁the ▁intent ▁to ▁slow ▁the ▁ass im ilation ▁of ▁the ▁Jur chen s . ▁Sh iz ong ' s ▁prohib itions ▁were ▁abandoned ▁by ▁Emperor ▁Z hang z ong ▁( r . ▁ 1 1 8 9 – 1 2 0 8 ), ▁who ▁promoted ▁reform s ▁that ▁transformed ▁the ▁political ▁structure ▁of ▁the ▁dyn asty ▁closer ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁T ang ▁dyn ast ies . ▁Despite ▁cultural ▁and ▁dem ographic ▁changes , ▁military ▁host ilities ▁between ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁the ▁Song ▁pers isted ▁until ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁south , ▁the ▁retreat ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dyn asty ▁led ▁to ▁major ▁dem ographic ▁changes . ▁The ▁population ▁of ▁refugees ▁from ▁the ▁north ▁that ▁res ett led ▁in ▁Lin ' an ▁and ▁J ian k ang ▁( mod ern ▁H ang z hou ▁and ▁N anj ing ) ▁eventually ▁grew ▁greater ▁than ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁original ▁residents , ▁whose ▁numbers ▁had ▁dw ind led ▁from ▁repeated ▁Jur chen ▁ra ids |
. ▁The ▁government ▁encouraged ▁the ▁res ett lement ▁of ▁pe asant ▁migr ants ▁from ▁the ▁southern ▁provin ces ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁to ▁the ▁under pop ulated ▁territor ies ▁between ▁the ▁Yang t ze ▁and ▁the ▁Hu ai ▁rivers . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁capital ▁Lin ' an ▁grew ▁into ▁a ▁major ▁commercial ▁and ▁cultural ▁center . ▁It ▁rose ▁from ▁a ▁m idd ling ▁city ▁of ▁no ▁special ▁importance ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁and ▁most ▁prosper ous . ▁During ▁his ▁stay ▁in ▁Lin ' an ▁in ▁the ▁Y uan ▁dyn asty ▁( 1 2 6 0 – 1 3 6 8 ), ▁when ▁the ▁city ▁was ▁not ▁as ▁wealthy ▁as ▁it ▁had ▁been ▁under ▁the ▁Song , ▁Marco ▁Pol o ▁remarked ▁that ▁" this ▁city ▁is ▁greater ▁than ▁any ▁in ▁the ▁world ". ▁Once ▁ret aking ▁northern ▁China ▁became ▁less ▁pl aus ible ▁and ▁Lin ' an ▁grew ▁into ▁a ▁significant ▁trading ▁city , ▁the ▁government ▁buildings ▁were ▁extended ▁and ▁renov ated ▁to ▁better ▁be fit ▁its ▁status ▁as ▁an ▁imperial ▁capital . ▁The ▁mod estly ▁s ized ▁imperial ▁palace ▁was ▁expanded ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 3 ▁with ▁new ▁roof ed ▁alley ways ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 1 4 8 ▁with ▁an ▁extension ▁of ▁the ▁palace ▁walls . ▁ ▁The ▁loss ▁of ▁northern ▁China , ▁the ▁cultural ▁center ▁of ▁Chinese ▁civilization , ▁dimin ished ▁the ▁regional ▁status ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dyn asty . ▁After ▁the ▁Jur chen ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁north , ▁Korea ▁recognized ▁the ▁Jin , ▁not ▁the |
▁Song , ▁as ▁the ▁legitimate ▁dyn asty ▁of ▁China . ▁The ▁Song ' s ▁military ▁failures ▁reduced ▁it ▁to ▁a ▁sub ord inate ▁of ▁the ▁Jin , ▁turning ▁it ▁into ▁a ▁" Ch ina ▁among ▁equals ". ▁The ▁Song ▁economy , ▁however , ▁recovered ▁quickly ▁after ▁the ▁move ▁south . ▁Government ▁reven ues ▁earned ▁from ▁tax ing ▁foreign ▁trade ▁nearly ▁dou bled ▁between ▁the ▁closing ▁of ▁the ▁Northern ▁Song ▁era ▁in ▁ 1 1 2 7 ▁and ▁the ▁final ▁years ▁of ▁Ga oz ong ' s ▁reign ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 1 6 0 s . ▁The ▁recovery ▁was ▁not ▁uniform , ▁and ▁areas ▁like ▁Hu ain an ▁and ▁H ube i ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁directly ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁war ▁took ▁decades ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁their ▁pre - war ▁levels . ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁multiple ▁wars , ▁the ▁Jin ▁remained ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁trading ▁partners ▁of ▁the ▁Song . ▁Song ▁demand ▁for ▁foreign ▁products ▁like ▁fur ▁and ▁horses ▁went ▁un ab ated . ▁Histor ian ▁ ▁believes ▁that ▁Song ▁commerce ▁with ▁the ▁north ▁was ▁profitable ▁enough ▁that ▁it ▁compens ated ▁for ▁the ▁silver ▁delivered ▁annually ▁as ▁an ▁ind em n ity ▁to ▁the ▁Jin . ▁ ▁The ▁Jin – S ong ▁Wars ▁were ▁one ▁of ▁several ▁wars ▁in ▁northern ▁China ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁U pr ising ▁of ▁the ▁Five ▁Bar bar ians , ▁An ▁L ush an ▁Reb ell ion , ▁Hu ang ▁Ch ao ▁Reb ell ion ▁and ▁the ▁wars ▁of ▁the ▁Five ▁D yn ast ies ▁and ▁Ten ▁Kingdom |
s ▁which ▁caused ▁a ▁mass ▁migration ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁from ▁northern ▁China ▁to ▁southern ▁China ▁called ▁ 衣 <0xE5> <0x86> <0xA0> 南 渡 ( y ì ▁gu ā n ▁n án ▁d ù ). ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 6 - 1 1 2 7 ▁over ▁half ▁a ▁million ▁fled ▁from ▁northern ▁China ▁to ▁southern ▁China ▁including ▁Li ▁Q ing z ha o . ▁One ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Conf u cius ▁family ▁led ▁by ▁Duke ▁Y ans heng ▁Kong ▁Du any ou ▁moved ▁south ▁to ▁Qu z hou ▁with ▁Southern ▁Song ▁emperor ▁Ga oz ong ▁while ▁his ▁brother ▁Kong ▁Du anc ao ▁remained ▁behind ▁in ▁Q uf u ▁and ▁became ▁the ▁Duke ▁Y ans heng ▁for ▁the ▁Jin ▁dyn asty . ▁A ▁section ▁of ▁the ▁Z eng zi ▁family ▁also ▁moved ▁south ▁with ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁while ▁the ▁other ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Z eng zi ▁family ▁stayed ▁in ▁the ▁north . ▁ ▁However , ▁there ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁reverse ▁migration ▁when ▁the ▁war ▁was ▁over ▁of ▁Han ▁Chinese ▁f rop ▁the ▁Southern ▁Song ▁towards ▁Jin ▁ruled ▁northern ▁China ▁leading ▁southern ▁China ' s ▁population ▁to ▁shr ink ▁and ▁northern ▁China ' s ▁population ▁to ▁grow . ▁ ▁Gun pow der ▁war fare ▁ ▁The ▁battles ▁between ▁the ▁Song ▁and ▁the ▁Jin ▁sp ur red ▁the ▁invention ▁and ▁use ▁of ▁gun pow der ▁weapons . ▁There ▁are ▁reports ▁that ▁the ▁fire ▁l ance , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁ancestors ▁of ▁the ▁fire arm , ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁against ▁the ▁Jur chen s |
▁bes ie ging ▁De ' an ▁( ; ▁modern ▁An lu ▁in ▁eastern ▁H ube i ) ▁in ▁ 1 1 3 2 , ▁during ▁the ▁Jin ▁invasion ▁of ▁H ube i ▁and ▁Sha an xi . ▁The ▁weapon ▁consisted ▁of ▁a ▁spe ar ▁attached ▁with ▁a ▁fl am eth row er ▁capable ▁of ▁firing ▁project iles ▁from ▁a ▁barrel ▁constructed ▁of ▁bamb oo ▁or ▁paper . ▁They ▁were ▁built ▁by ▁soldiers ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁Chen ▁G ui ▁( ), ▁who ▁led ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁defending ▁De ' an . ▁The ▁fire ▁l ances ▁with ▁which ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁were ▁equipped ▁at ▁De ' an ▁were ▁built ▁for ▁destroying ▁the ▁wooden ▁sie ge ▁engines ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁and ▁not ▁for ▁combat ▁against ▁the ▁Jin ▁inf antry . ▁Song ▁soldiers ▁compens ated ▁for ▁the ▁limited ▁range ▁and ▁mobility ▁of ▁the ▁weapon ▁by ▁timing ▁their ▁attacks ▁on ▁the ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁engines , ▁waiting ▁until ▁they ▁were ▁within ▁range ▁of ▁the ▁fire ▁l ances . ▁Later ▁fire ▁l ances ▁used ▁metal ▁barrel s , ▁fired ▁project iles ▁farther ▁and ▁with ▁greater ▁force , ▁and ▁could ▁be ▁used ▁against ▁inf antry . ▁ ▁Early ▁r ud iment ary ▁bombs ▁like ▁the ▁h u op ao ▁fire ▁bomb ▁() ▁and ▁the ▁h u op ao ▁() ▁bombs ▁prop elled ▁by ▁tre bu chet ▁were ▁also ▁in ▁use ▁as ▁inc end i ary ▁weapons . ▁The ▁defending ▁Song ▁army ▁used ▁h u op ao ▁() ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Ka if eng ▁in ▁ 1 |
1 2 6 . ▁On ▁the ▁oppos ing ▁side , ▁the ▁Jin ▁launched ▁inc end i ary ▁bombs ▁from ▁sie ge ▁tow ers ▁down ▁onto ▁the ▁city ▁below . ▁In ▁ 1 1 2 7 , ▁h u op ao ▁() ▁were ▁employed ▁by ▁the ▁Song ▁troops ▁defending ▁De ' an ▁and ▁by ▁the ▁Jin ▁soldiers ▁bes ie ging ▁the ▁city . ▁The ▁government ▁official ▁Lin ▁Z hip ing ▁() ▁proposed ▁to ▁make ▁inc end i ary ▁bombs ▁and ▁ar rows ▁mandatory ▁for ▁all ▁war ships ▁in ▁the ▁Song ▁navy . ▁At ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁Ca ishi ▁in ▁ 1 1 6 1 , ▁Song ▁ships ▁fired ▁p ili ▁h uo q iu ▁( ), ▁also ▁called ▁p ili ▁h u op ao ▁bombs ▁( ), ▁from ▁tre bu che ts ▁against ▁the ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁Jin ▁fleet ▁commanded ▁by ▁W any an ▁Li ang . ▁The ▁gun pow der ▁mixture ▁of ▁the ▁bomb ▁contained ▁powder ed ▁l ime , ▁which ▁produced ▁bl inding ▁smoke ▁once ▁the ▁cas ing ▁of ▁the ▁bomb ▁sh attered . ▁The ▁Song ▁also ▁deployed ▁inc end i ary ▁weapons ▁at ▁the ▁battle ▁of ▁T ang dao ▁during ▁the ▁same ▁year . ▁ ▁Gun pow der ▁was ▁also ▁applied ▁to ▁ar rows ▁in ▁ 1 2 0 6 ▁by ▁a ▁Song ▁army ▁station ed ▁in ▁X i ang y ang . ▁The ▁ar rows ▁were ▁most ▁likely ▁an ▁inc end i ary ▁weapon , ▁but ▁its ▁function ▁may ▁also ▁have ▁re sembled ▁that ▁of ▁an ▁early ▁rock et . |
▁At ▁the ▁Jin ▁sie ge ▁of ▁Q iz hou ▁() ▁in ▁ 1 2 2 1 , ▁the ▁Jur chen s ▁fought ▁the ▁Song ▁with ▁gun pow der ▁bombs ▁and ▁ar rows . ▁The ▁Jin ▁tie hu op ao ▁( , ▁" iron ▁h u op ao "), ▁which ▁had ▁cast ▁iron ▁cas ings , ▁are ▁the ▁first ▁known ▁bombs ▁that ▁could ▁explode . ▁The ▁bomb ▁needed ▁to ▁be ▁capable ▁of ▁det on ating ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁pen et rate ▁the ▁iron ▁cas ing . ▁The ▁Song ▁army ▁had ▁a ▁large ▁supply ▁of ▁inc end i ary ▁bombs , ▁but ▁there ▁are ▁no ▁reports ▁of ▁them ▁having ▁a ▁weapon ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁Jin ' s ▁det on ating ▁bombs . ▁A ▁participant ▁in ▁the ▁sie ge ▁rec ount ed ▁in ▁the ▁X insi ▁Q i ▁Q i ▁Lu ▁( <0xE8> <0xBE> <0x9B> <0xE5> <0xB7> <0xB3> <0xE6> <0xB3> <0xA3> <0xE8> <0x98> <0x84> 錄 ) ▁that ▁the ▁Song ▁army ▁at ▁Q iz hou ▁had ▁an ▁ar senal ▁of ▁ 3 0 0 0 ▁h u op ao ▁( ), ▁ 7 0 0 0 ▁inc end i ary ▁gun pow der ▁ar rows ▁for ▁cross b ows ▁and ▁ 1 0 0 0 0 ▁for ▁b ows , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁ 2 0 0 0 0 ▁pid ap ao ▁( ), ▁probably ▁leather ▁bags ▁filled ▁with ▁gun pow der . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Song ▁dyn asty ▁ ▁Tim eline ▁of ▁the ▁Jin – S ong ▁wars ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ |
▁Cit ations ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ); ▁ ▁( paper back ). ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁▁▁ ▁( hard cover ) ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 2 th ▁century ▁in ▁China ▁Category : 1 3 th ▁century ▁in ▁China ▁Category : 1 1 2 0 s ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 3 0 s ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 2 5 ▁in ▁Asia ▁Category : 1 1 3 4 ▁in ▁Asia <0x0A> </s> ▁Intern ation ella ▁Eng els ka ▁Gym nas iet ▁S ö der mal m , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁International ▁English ▁Gym nas ium ▁S ö der mal m , ▁is ▁a ▁secondary ▁school ▁located ▁in ▁S ö der mal m , ▁Sweden . ▁The ▁inst itute ▁offers ▁four ▁Swedish ▁national ▁program mes ▁and ▁the ▁International ▁B ac cal a ure ate ▁( IB ) ▁programme , ▁which ▁qualify ▁students ▁for ▁university ▁studies ▁in ▁Sweden ▁or ▁abroad . ▁ ▁Most ▁courses ▁( except ▁Swedish , ▁C iv ics ▁A , ▁Law ▁and ▁Modern ▁L anguages ) ▁are ▁taught ▁in ▁English ▁language . ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁teachers ▁are ▁native ▁English ▁speakers ▁recru ited ▁from ▁USA , ▁Canada , ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁other ▁English - spe aking ▁countries . ▁Near ly ▁ 2 5 % ▁of ▁the ▁current ▁teaching ▁staff ▁have ▁PhD s ▁in ▁their ▁fields ; ▁and ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁staff ▁have ▁master ' s ▁degrees ▁and ▁qualified ▁teacher - status . ▁Currently ▁there |
▁are ▁eight y ▁staff ▁members ▁working ▁at ▁IE GS . ▁ ▁The ▁school ▁is ▁free ▁of ▁charge ▁for ▁the ▁students . ▁The ▁education ▁is ▁paid ▁for ▁by ▁the ▁national ▁v ouch er ▁system . ▁ ▁At ▁IE GS ▁a ▁house ▁system ▁has ▁been ▁introduced ▁and ▁adapted ▁from ▁the ▁British ▁model . ▁Te achers ▁and ▁students ▁are ▁assigned ▁to ▁a ▁house , ▁which ▁forms ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁group ▁activities , ▁ment or ▁time , ▁as sembl ies ▁and ▁compet itions . ▁Currently , ▁IE GS ▁has ▁four ▁houses : ▁King ▁House , ▁Russ el ▁House , ▁Pav lov ▁House ▁and ▁Cur ie ▁House . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : G ym nas ium s ▁( school ) ▁in ▁Sweden ▁Category : Sch ools ▁in ▁Stockholm ▁Category : Intern ational ▁B ac cal a ure ate ▁schools ▁in ▁Sweden <0x0A> </s> ▁Ger ald ▁Baker ▁( born ▁ 2 2 ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 9 ) ▁is ▁an ▁English ▁former ▁professional ▁football er ▁born ▁in ▁South ▁Hi end ley , ▁then ▁in ▁Hem sw orth ▁R ural ▁District , ▁York shire , ▁who ▁played ▁as ▁a ▁full ▁back ▁in ▁the ▁Football ▁League ▁for ▁Brad ford ▁Park ▁Avenue . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Hem sw orth ▁Category : English ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁full backs ▁Category : B rad ford ▁( P ark ▁Avenue ) ▁A . F . C . ▁players ▁Category : King |
' s ▁Lyn n ▁F . C . ▁players ▁Category : English ▁Football ▁League ▁players ▁Category : Foot ball ers ▁from ▁York shire <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁rap ach ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁larger ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁der k ach , ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁r attle . ▁ ▁Rap ach s ▁are ▁used ▁by ▁churches ▁in ▁the ▁Pre š ov ▁region ▁of ▁Slov ak ia ▁by ▁ethnic ▁Ukrain ians ▁instead ▁of ▁b ells ▁during ▁Easter . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Ukrain ian ▁folk ▁music ▁Rat chet ▁( in strument ) ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Hum eni uk , ▁A . ▁Ukrain ski ▁nar od ni ▁mu zy chn i ▁instrument y , ▁K iev : ▁N au k ova ▁d um ka , ▁ 1 9 6 7 ▁ ▁M iz y ne c , ▁V . ▁Ukrain ian ▁Fol k ▁In str uments , ▁Melbourne : ▁Bay da ▁books , ▁ 1 9 8 4 ▁ ▁Cher k ask y , ▁L . ▁Ukrain ski ▁nar od ni ▁mu zy chn i ▁instrument y , ▁T ek hn ika , ▁K iev , ▁Ukraine , ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁- ▁ 2 6 2 ▁pages . ▁▁▁ ▁Category : P erc uss ion ▁instruments ▁Category : U kr ain ian ▁musical ▁instruments <0x0A> </s> ▁K V PI - FM ▁( 9 2 . 5 ▁FM , ▁" Class ic ▁H its ▁ 9 2 . 5 ") ▁is ▁a ▁radio ▁station ▁air ing ▁a ▁classic ▁hits ▁format , ▁licensed ▁to ▁V ille ▁Pl atte |
, ▁Louisiana . ▁ ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁owned ▁by ▁V ille ▁Pl atte ▁Broad cast ing ▁Co ., ▁Inc . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁K V PI - FM ' s ▁official ▁website ▁ ▁Category : Class ic ▁hits ▁radio ▁stations ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : Radio ▁stations ▁in ▁Louisiana <0x0A> </s> ▁Sp as - K up al ish che ▁() ▁is ▁a ▁rural ▁local ity ▁( a ▁sel o ) ▁in ▁Lav rov sk oy e ▁R ural ▁S ett lement , ▁Sud og od sky ▁District , ▁Vlad imir ▁O bl ast , ▁Russia . ▁The ▁population ▁was ▁ 3 4 ▁as ▁of ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁There ▁is ▁ 1 ▁street . ▁ ▁Ge ography ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁right ▁bank ▁of ▁the ▁K ly az ma ▁River . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : R ural ▁local ities ▁in ▁Vlad imir ▁O bl ast <0x0A> </s> ▁See ▁also : ▁ 1 9 8 0 s ▁in ▁com ics , ▁other ▁events ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁ 2 0 0 0 s ▁in ▁com ics ▁and ▁the ▁list ▁of ▁years ▁in ▁com ics ▁ ▁__ NOT OC __ ▁Public ations : ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁– ▁ 1 9 |
9 7 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁– ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁ ▁Public ations ▁▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁▁ ▁S ail or ▁Moon ▁by ▁Na oko ▁Take uch i ▁debut s ▁in ▁Nak ay oshi . ▁▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁▁ 1 9 9 4 ▁ ▁Jack ▁Kir by ▁dies ▁at ▁age ▁ 7 6 ▁of ▁heart ▁failure ▁in ▁his ▁Th ous and ▁O aks , ▁California ▁home . ▁▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁ ▁The ▁Av engers ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Captain ▁America ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Fant astic ▁Four ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Iron ▁Man ▁( volume ▁ 2 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁On sl aught : ▁Marvel ▁Universe ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁On sl aught : ▁X - Men ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁▁ 1 9 9 7 ▁ ▁Hero es ▁Reb orn : ▁The ▁Return ▁# 1 – 4 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁On sl aught : ▁Ep il ogue ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁One ▁P iece ▁by ▁E i ich iro ▁O da ▁debut s ▁in ▁Week ly ▁Sh ō nen ▁J ump . ▁▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁ ▁The ▁Av engers ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Captain ▁America ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– |
▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Fant astic ▁Four ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁Iron ▁Man ▁( volume ▁ 3 ) ▁# 1 ▁– ▁Marvel ▁Com ics ▁▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁The ▁Dark ▁Age : ▁Gr im , ▁Great ▁& ▁G imm icky ▁Post - Mod ern ▁Com ics ▁( by ▁Mark ▁V og er , ▁ 1 6 8 ▁pages , ▁Two M or rows ▁Publishing , ▁) <0x0A> </s> ▁On ni ▁K ass lin ▁( 2 7 ▁February ▁ 1 9 2 7 ▁– ▁ 9 ▁August ▁ 2 0 0 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Finn ish ▁cycl ist . ▁He ▁competed ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁and ▁ 1 9 5 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 0 3 ▁deaths ▁Category : F inn ish ▁male ▁cycl ists ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁cycl ists ▁of ▁Finland ▁Category : C ycl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 8 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : C ycl ists ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 2 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁V ant aa <0x0A> </s> ▁Ocean ▁general ▁circulation ▁models ▁( O GC Ms ) ▁are ▁a ▁particular ▁kind ▁of ▁general ▁circulation ▁model ▁to ▁describe ▁physical ▁and ▁therm od ynam ical ▁processes ▁in ▁o ce ans . ▁The ▁ocean ic ▁general ▁circulation ▁is ▁defined ▁as ▁the ▁horizontal ▁space ▁scale ▁and ▁time ▁scale ▁larger ▁than |
▁mes osc ale ▁( of ▁order ▁ 1 0 0 km ▁and ▁ 6 ▁months ). ▁They ▁dep ict ▁o ce ans ▁using ▁a ▁three - dimensional ▁grid ▁that ▁include ▁active ▁therm od ynamics ▁and ▁hence ▁are ▁most ▁directly ▁applicable ▁to ▁climate ▁studies . ▁They ▁are ▁the ▁most ▁advanced ▁tools ▁currently ▁available ▁for ▁sim ulating ▁the ▁response ▁of ▁the ▁global ▁ocean ▁system ▁to ▁increasing ▁green house ▁gas ▁concentr ations . ▁A ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁O GC Ms ▁have ▁been ▁developed ▁that ▁include ▁varying ▁degrees ▁of ▁spatial ▁coverage , ▁resolution , ▁ge ographical ▁real ism , ▁process ▁detail , ▁etc . ▁ ▁History ▁The ▁first ▁generation ▁of ▁O GC Ms ▁assumed ▁“ rig id ▁lid ” ▁to ▁eliminate ▁high - speed ▁external ▁gravity ▁waves . ▁According ▁to ▁C FL ▁criteria ▁without ▁those ▁fast ▁waves , ▁we ▁can ▁use ▁a ▁bigger ▁time ▁step , ▁which ▁is ▁not ▁so ▁computation ally ▁expensive . ▁But ▁it ▁also ▁filtered ▁those ▁ocean ▁t ides ▁and ▁other ▁waves ▁having ▁the ▁speed ▁of ▁ts un am is . ▁Within ▁this ▁assumption , ▁Bryan ▁and ▁co - worker ▁C ox ▁developed ▁a ▁ 2 D ▁model , ▁a ▁ 3 D ▁box ▁model , ▁and ▁then ▁a ▁model ▁of ▁full ▁circulation ▁in ▁G FD L , ▁with ▁variable ▁density ▁as ▁well , ▁for ▁the ▁world ▁ocean ▁with ▁its ▁complex ▁coast line ▁and ▁bottom ▁top ography . ▁The ▁first ▁application ▁with ▁specified ▁global ▁geometry ▁was ▁done ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 7 0 s . ▁C ox ▁designed ▁a ▁ 2 ° |
▁lat itude - long itude ▁grid ▁with ▁up ▁to ▁ 1 2 ▁vertical ▁levels ▁at ▁each ▁point . ▁ ▁With ▁more ▁and ▁more ▁research ▁on ▁ocean ▁model , ▁mes osc ale ▁phenomenon , ▁e . g . ▁most ▁ocean ▁current s ▁have ▁cross - stream ▁dimensions ▁equal ▁to ▁Ross by ▁radius ▁of ▁de formation , ▁started ▁to ▁get ▁more ▁awareness . ▁However , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁analyze ▁those ▁ed d ies ▁and ▁current s ▁in ▁numerical ▁models , ▁we ▁need ▁grid ▁sp acing ▁to ▁be ▁approximately ▁ 2 0 km ▁in ▁middle ▁lat itudes . ▁Thanks ▁to ▁those ▁faster ▁computers ▁and ▁further ▁filter ing ▁the ▁equations ▁in ▁advance ▁to ▁remove ▁internal ▁gravity ▁waves , ▁those ▁major ▁current s ▁and ▁low - frequency ▁ed d ies ▁then ▁can ▁be ▁resolved , ▁one ▁example ▁is ▁the ▁three - layer ▁quasi - ge ost ro ph ic ▁models ▁designed ▁by ▁Holland . ▁Meanwhile , ▁there ▁are ▁some ▁model ▁ret aining ▁internal ▁gravity ▁wave , ▁for ▁example ▁one ▁ad i ab atic ▁lay ered ▁model ▁by ▁O ' B rien ▁and ▁his ▁students , ▁which ▁did ▁retain ▁internal ▁gravity ▁waves ▁so ▁that ▁equ ator ial ▁and ▁coastal ▁problems ▁involving ▁these ▁waves ▁could ▁be ▁treated , ▁led ▁to ▁an ▁initial ▁understanding ▁of ▁El ▁Ni ño ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁those ▁waves . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁simulations ▁could ▁finally ▁be ▁undert aken ▁using ▁the ▁G FD L ▁form ulation ▁with ▁ed d ies ▁margin ally ▁resolved ▁over ▁extensive ▁domains ▁and ▁with |
▁observed ▁winds ▁and ▁some ▁atm ospher ic ▁influence ▁on ▁density . ▁Furthermore ▁these ▁simulations ▁with ▁high ▁enough ▁resolution ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Southern ▁Ocean ▁south ▁of ▁lat itude ▁ 2 5 ° , ▁the ▁North ▁Atlantic , ▁and ▁the ▁World ▁Ocean ▁without ▁the ▁Ar ctic ▁ ▁provided ▁first ▁side - by - side ▁comparison ▁with ▁data . ▁Early ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁for ▁those ▁large - scale ▁and ▁ed d ies ▁res olv able ▁models , ▁the ▁computer ▁requirement ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 D ▁anc ill ary ▁problem ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁rigid ▁lid ▁approximation ▁was ▁becoming ▁excessive . ▁Furthermore , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁predict ▁tid al ▁effects ▁or ▁compare ▁height ▁data ▁from ▁satell ites , ▁methods ▁were ▁developed ▁to ▁predict ▁the ▁height ▁and ▁pressure ▁of ▁the ▁ocean ▁surface ▁directly . ▁For ▁example , ▁one ▁method ▁is ▁to ▁treat ▁the ▁free ▁surface ▁and ▁the ▁vert ically ▁aver aged ▁velocity ▁using ▁many ▁small ▁steps ▁in ▁time ▁for ▁each ▁single ▁step ▁of ▁the ▁full ▁ 3 D ▁model . ▁Another ▁method ▁developed ▁at ▁Los ▁Al amos ▁National ▁Labor atory ▁sol ves ▁the ▁same ▁ 2 D ▁equations ▁using ▁an ▁implicit ▁method ▁for ▁the ▁free ▁surface . ▁Both ▁methods ▁are ▁quite ▁efficient . ▁ ▁Import ance ▁O GC Ms ▁have ▁many ▁important ▁applications : ▁dynam ical ▁coupling ▁with ▁the ▁atmosphere , ▁sea ▁ice , ▁and ▁land ▁run - off ▁that ▁in ▁reality ▁joint ly ▁determine ▁the ▁ocean ic ▁boundary ▁flux es ; ▁trans p ire ▁of ▁bi oge oc hem ical ▁materials ; |
▁interpretation ▁of ▁the ▁pale oc lim ate ▁record ; cl imate ▁prediction ▁for ▁both ▁natural ▁vari ability ▁and ▁anth rop ogen ic ▁ch af es ; ▁data ▁ass im ilation ▁and ▁fisher ies ▁and ▁other ▁b ios pher ic ▁management . ▁O GC Ms ▁play ▁a ▁critical ▁role ▁in ▁Earth ▁system ▁model . ▁They ▁maintain ▁the ▁thermal ▁balance ▁as ▁they ▁transport ▁energy ▁from ▁tropical ▁to ▁the ▁polar ▁lat itudes . ▁To ▁analyze ▁the ▁feedback ▁between ▁ocean ▁and ▁atmosphere ▁we ▁need ▁ocean ▁model , ▁which ▁can ▁initi ate ▁and ▁ampl ify ▁climate ▁change ▁on ▁many ▁different ▁time ▁scales , ▁for ▁instance , ▁the ▁inter ann ual ▁vari ability ▁of ▁El ▁Ni ño ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁potential ▁modification ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁patterns ▁for ▁ocean ic ▁heat ▁transport ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁increasing ▁green house ▁g ases . ▁O ce ans ▁are ▁a ▁kind ▁of ▁unders am pled ▁nature ▁fluid ▁system , ▁so ▁by ▁using ▁O GC Ms ▁we ▁can ▁fill ▁in ▁those ▁data ▁blank ▁and ▁improve ▁understanding ▁of ▁basic ▁processes ▁and ▁their ▁inter connected ness , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁to ▁help ▁interpret ▁sp arse ▁observations . ▁Even ▁though , ▁simpler ▁models ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁estimate ▁climate ▁response , ▁only ▁O GC M ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁conj unction ▁with ▁atm ospher ic ▁general ▁circulation ▁model ▁to ▁estimate ▁global ▁climate ▁change . ▁ ▁Sub grid scale ▁parameter ization ▁ ▁M ole cular ▁fr iction ▁rarely ▁up sets ▁the ▁dominant ▁bal ances ▁( ge ost ro ph ic ▁and ▁hydro static ) ▁in ▁the ▁ocean . ▁With |
▁kin em atic ▁vis cos ities ▁of ▁ ▁v = 1 0 − 6 m ▁ 2 ▁s − 1 ▁ ▁the ▁Ek man ▁number ▁is ▁several ▁orders ▁of ▁magnitude ▁smaller ▁than ▁unity ; ▁therefore , ▁molecular ▁fr ict ional ▁forces ▁are ▁certainly ▁negl igible ▁for ▁large - scale ▁ocean ic ▁mot ions . ▁A ▁similar ▁argument ▁holds ▁for ▁the ▁tr acer ▁equations , ▁where ▁the ▁molecular ▁therm od iff us ivity ▁and ▁salt ▁diff us ivity ▁lead ▁to ▁Reyn olds ▁number ▁of ▁negl igible ▁magnitude , ▁which ▁means ▁the ▁molecular ▁diff usive ▁time ▁scales ▁are ▁much ▁longer ▁than ▁ad ve ct ive ▁time ▁scale . ▁So ▁we ▁can ▁thus ▁safely ▁conclude ▁that ▁the ▁direct ▁effects ▁of ▁molecular ▁processes ▁are ▁ins ign ific ant ▁for ▁large - scale . ▁Yet ▁the ▁molecular ▁fr iction ▁is ▁essential ▁somewhere . ▁The ▁point ▁is ▁that ▁large - scale ▁mot ions ▁in ▁the ▁ocean ▁interact ed ▁with ▁other ▁scales ▁by ▁the ▁non linear ities ▁in ▁primitive ▁equation . ▁We ▁can ▁show ▁that ▁by ▁Reyn olds ▁approach , ▁which ▁will ▁leads ▁to ▁the ▁closure ▁problem . ▁That ▁means ▁new ▁variables ▁arise ▁at ▁each ▁level ▁in ▁the ▁Reyn olds ▁aver aging ▁procedure . ▁ ▁This ▁leads ▁to ▁the ▁need ▁of ▁parameter ization ▁scheme ▁to ▁account ▁for ▁those ▁sub ▁grid ▁scale ▁effects . ▁ ▁Here ▁is ▁a ▁sche matic ▁“ family ▁tree ” ▁of ▁sub grid scale ▁( S GS ) ▁mixing ▁schemes . ▁Although ▁there ▁is ▁a ▁considerable ▁degree ▁of ▁overlap ▁and ▁inter related ness ▁among ▁the ▁huge ▁variety |
▁of ▁schemes ▁in ▁use ▁today , ▁several ▁branch ▁points ▁maybe ▁defined . ▁Most ▁importantly , ▁the ▁approaches ▁for ▁later al ▁and ▁vertical ▁sub grid scale ▁closure ▁vary ▁considerably . ▁Fil ters ▁and ▁higher - order ▁operators ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁remove ▁small - scale ▁noise ▁that ▁is ▁numer ically ▁necessary . ▁Those ▁special ▁dynam ical ▁parameter izations ▁( top ographic ▁stress , ▁ed dy ▁thickness ▁diffusion ▁and ▁conve ction ) ▁are ▁becoming ▁available ▁for ▁certain ▁processes . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁vertical , ▁the ▁surface ▁mixed ▁layer ▁( s ml ) ▁has ▁histor ically ▁received ▁special ▁attention ▁because ▁of ▁its ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁air - sea ▁exchange . ▁Now ▁there ▁are ▁so ▁many ▁schemes ▁can ▁be ▁chose ▁from : ▁Price - W eller - P ink el , ▁Pac an ow ks i ▁and ▁Phil ander , ▁bulk , ▁M ell or - Y am ada ▁and ▁K PP ▁( k - profile ▁parameter ization ) ▁schemes . ▁ ▁Ad apt ive ▁( non - constant ) ▁mixing ▁length ▁schemes ▁are ▁widely ▁used ▁for ▁parameter ization ▁of ▁both ▁later al ▁and ▁vertical ▁mixing . ▁In ▁the ▁horizontal , ▁parameter izations ▁dependent ▁on ▁the ▁rates ▁of ▁stress ▁and ▁strain ▁( Sm ag ro insky ), ▁grid ▁sp acing ▁and ▁Reyn olds ▁number ▁( Re ) ▁have ▁been ▁advoc ated . ▁In ▁the ▁vertical , ▁vertical ▁mixing ▁as ▁a ▁function ▁stability ▁frequency ▁( N ^ 2 ) ▁and / or ▁Richard son ▁number ▁are ▁histor ically ▁preval ent . ▁The ▁rot ated ▁mixing ▁tens ors ▁scheme ▁is |
▁the ▁one ▁considering ▁the ▁angle ▁of ▁the ▁principle ▁direction ▁of ▁mixing , ▁as ▁for ▁in ▁the ▁main ▁therm oc line , ▁mixing ▁along ▁is opy cn als ▁domin ates ▁di apy c nal ▁mixing . ▁Therefore ▁the ▁principle ▁direction ▁of ▁mixing ▁is ▁neither ▁strictly ▁vertical ▁nor ▁purely ▁horizontal , ▁but ▁a ▁spat ially ▁variable ▁mixture ▁of ▁the ▁two . ▁ ▁Compar ison ▁with ▁At m ospher ic ▁General ▁Cir cul ation ▁Model ▁O GC Ms ▁and ▁A GC Ms ▁have ▁much ▁in ▁common , ▁such ▁as , ▁the ▁equations ▁of ▁motion ▁and ▁the ▁numerical ▁techniques . ▁However , ▁O GC Ms ▁have ▁some ▁unique ▁features . ▁For ▁example , ▁the ▁atmosphere ▁is ▁forced ▁therm ally ▁throughout ▁its ▁volume , ▁the ▁ocean ▁is ▁forced ▁both ▁therm ally ▁and ▁mechan ically ▁primarily ▁at ▁its ▁surface , ▁in ▁addition , ▁the ▁geometry ▁of ▁ocean ▁bas ins ▁is ▁very ▁complex . ▁ ▁The ▁boundary ▁conditions ▁are ▁totally ▁different . ▁For ▁ocean ▁models , ▁we ▁need ▁to ▁consider ▁those ▁narrow ▁but ▁important ▁boundary ▁layers ▁on ▁nearly ▁all ▁bound ing ▁surfaces ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁within ▁the ▁ocean ic ▁interior . ▁These ▁boundary ▁conditions ▁on ▁ocean ▁flows ▁are ▁difficult ▁to ▁define ▁and ▁to ▁parameter ize , ▁which ▁results ▁in ▁a ▁high ▁computation ally ▁demand . ▁ ▁Ocean ▁modeling ▁is ▁also ▁strongly ▁constr ained ▁by ▁the ▁existence ▁in ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁world ' s ▁o ce ans ▁of ▁mes osc ale ▁ed d ies ▁with ▁time ▁and ▁space ▁scales , ▁respectively , ▁of ▁weeks ▁to ▁months ▁and ▁tens ▁to ▁hundreds ▁of |
▁kilom eters . ▁D ynam ically , ▁these ▁nearly ▁ge ost ro ph ic ▁turb ulent ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁the ▁ocean ographic ▁counter parts ▁of ▁the ▁atm ospher ic ▁syn opt ic ▁scale . ▁Nevertheless , ▁there ▁are ▁important ▁differences . ▁First , ▁ocean ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁not ▁perturb ations ▁on ▁an ▁energet ic ▁mean ▁flow . ▁They ▁may ▁play ▁an ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁pole ward ▁transport ▁of ▁heat . ▁Second , ▁they ▁are ▁relatively ▁small ▁in ▁horizontal ▁extent ▁so ▁that ▁ocean ▁climate ▁models , ▁which ▁must ▁have ▁the ▁same ▁overall ▁exterior ▁dimensions ▁as ▁A GC Ms , ▁may ▁require ▁as ▁much ▁as ▁ 2 0 ▁times ▁the ▁resolution ▁as ▁A GC M ▁if ▁the ▁ed d ies ▁are ▁to ▁be ▁explicitly ▁resolved . ▁ ▁Most ▁of ▁the ▁difference ▁between ▁O GC Ms ▁and ▁A GC Ms ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁data ▁are ▁sp ar ser ▁for ▁O GC Ms . ▁Also , ▁the ▁data ▁are ▁not ▁only ▁sp arse ▁but ▁also ▁non uniform ▁and ▁indirect . ▁ ▁Class ification ▁We ▁can ▁class ify ▁ocean ▁models ▁according ▁to ▁different ▁standards . ▁For ▁example , ▁according ▁to ▁vertical ▁ord inates ▁we ▁have ▁ge o - pot ential , ▁is opy c nal ▁and ▁top ography - follow ing ▁models . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁horizontal ▁discret izations ▁we ▁have ▁un st agger ed ▁or ▁stagger ed ▁gr ids . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁methods ▁of ▁approximation ▁we ▁have ▁finite ▁difference ▁and ▁finite ▁element ▁models . ▁There ▁are ▁three ▁basic ▁types ▁of ▁O GC Ms |
: ▁▁ ▁Ide al ized ▁geometry ▁models : ▁Mod els ▁with ▁ideal ized ▁bas in ▁geometry ▁have ▁been ▁used ▁extens ively ▁in ▁ocean ▁modeling ▁and ▁have ▁played ▁a ▁major ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁new ▁modeling ▁method ologies . ▁They ▁use ▁a ▁simpl ified ▁geometry , ▁offering ▁a ▁bas in ▁itself , ▁while ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁winds ▁and ▁bu oy ancy ▁force ▁are ▁generally ▁chosen ▁as ▁simple ▁functions ▁of ▁lat itude . ▁ ▁Bas in - scale ▁models : ▁To ▁compare ▁O GC M ▁results ▁with ▁observations ▁we ▁need ▁realistic ▁bas in ▁information ▁instead ▁of ▁ideal ized ▁data . ▁However , ▁if ▁we ▁only ▁pay ▁attention ▁to ▁local ▁observation ▁data , ▁we ▁don ' t ▁need ▁to ▁run ▁whole ▁global ▁simulation , ▁and ▁by ▁doing ▁that ▁we ▁can ▁save ▁a ▁lot ▁of ▁comput ational ▁resources . ▁▁ ▁Global ▁models : ▁This ▁kind ▁of ▁model ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁computation ally ▁cost ly ▁one . ▁More ▁experiments ▁are ▁needed ▁as ▁a ▁pre liminary ▁step ▁in ▁construct ing ▁coupled ▁Earth ▁system ▁models . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁ocean ▁circulation ▁models ▁General ▁circulation ▁model ▁( GC M ) ▁Cl imate ▁model ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : N umer ical ▁climate ▁and ▁weather ▁models ▁Category : Comput ational ▁science ▁Category : Phys ical ▁ocean ography <0x0A> </s> ▁Est her ▁Elizabeth ▁Wood ▁( Se ptember ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 0 5 ▁– ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁historian , ▁educ ator , ▁author , ▁and ▁journalist . |
▁She ▁taught ▁history ▁and ▁social ▁science ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te achers ▁College ▁( now ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ) ▁for ▁ 4 3 ▁years . ▁After ▁her ▁retirement , ▁she ▁wrote ▁four ▁books , ▁a ▁newspaper ▁column , ▁and ▁numerous ▁articles ▁describing ▁the ▁history ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine , ▁where ▁her ▁family ▁had ▁lived ▁for ▁generations , ▁achieving ▁local ▁celebr ity ▁as ▁the ▁" town ▁historian ". ▁She ▁was ▁indu cted ▁into ▁the ▁Maine ▁Women ' s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁ ▁Est her ▁Elizabeth ▁Wood ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine , ▁to ▁John ▁Friend ▁Wood ▁and ▁his ▁wife , ▁L izz ie ▁M add ocks ▁Wood . ▁Her ▁ancestors ▁had ▁settled ▁in ▁the ▁eastern ▁Maine ▁towns ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Ell sw orth , ▁and ▁De er ▁Is le ▁before ▁ 1 7 9 0 . ▁Her ▁father ▁managed ▁quar ries ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁and ▁De er ▁Is le . ▁She ▁grew ▁up ▁in ▁Friend ' s ▁Cor ner , ▁a ▁rural ▁neighborhood ▁named ▁after ▁her ▁p ater nal ▁great - grand father ▁who ▁had ▁moved ▁there ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 2 0 s . ▁By ▁ 1 9 0 0 ▁the ▁neighborhood ▁was ▁home ▁to ▁six ▁families ; ▁growing ▁up , ▁Est her ▁had ▁four ▁same - age ▁cous ins ▁living ▁close ▁by . ▁ ▁Wood ▁graduated ▁from ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁She ▁earned |
▁her ▁A . B . ▁degree ▁from ▁Col by ▁College ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁and ▁took ▁a ▁teaching ▁job ▁at ▁the ▁high ▁school ▁in ▁St on ington , ▁where ▁her ▁father ▁was ▁working ▁as ▁a ▁stone cut ter . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁she ▁entered ▁Rad cl iffe ▁College , ▁earning ▁her ▁A . M . ▁degree ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 9 . ▁She ▁returned ▁to ▁Rad cl iffe ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁for ▁another ▁year ▁of ▁study . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁Te aching ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 9 ▁she ▁taught ▁at ▁Miss ▁Hall ' s ▁School ▁in ▁Pitt s field , ▁Massachusetts , ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 0 ▁came ▁to ▁the ▁Gor ham ▁Normal ▁School ▁to ▁teach ▁Maine ▁and ▁American ▁history . ▁She ▁continued ▁as ▁a ▁professor ▁of ▁history ▁and ▁social ▁sciences ▁at ▁the ▁school ▁after ▁its ▁ren aming ▁to ▁the ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te achers ▁College ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁and ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 5 . ▁Both ▁she ▁and ▁her ▁classes ▁were ▁well - lik ed . ▁She ▁also ▁spoke ▁to ▁local ▁groups ▁on ▁historical ▁topics . ▁From ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁to ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁she ▁held ▁the ▁post ▁of ▁Dean ▁of ▁Women . ▁ ▁Writing ▁ ▁Wood ▁retired ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁her ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁farm house , ▁where ▁she ▁lived ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁her ▁life . ▁She ▁had |
▁begun ▁writing ▁a ▁column ▁titled ▁" The ▁Native " ▁for ▁The ▁Ell sw orth ▁American , ▁rec ount ing ▁her ▁memories ▁of ▁growing ▁up ▁in ▁rural ▁Maine , ▁and ▁continued ▁producing ▁this ▁column ▁for ▁ 2 4 ▁years ▁until ▁ 1 9 9 2 . ▁She ▁also ▁wrote ▁regularly ▁for ▁The ▁Christian ▁Science ▁Monitor ▁and ▁Maine ▁Life , ▁and ▁contributed ▁stories ▁to ▁Sunday ▁school ▁publications ▁and ▁magazines . ▁In ▁addition , ▁she ▁p enn ed ▁four ▁books ▁dealing ▁with ▁the ▁history ▁and ▁society ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁region . ▁ ▁Contin uing ▁to ▁speak ▁for ▁local ▁groups ▁and ▁events , ▁Wood ▁became ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁" town ▁historian ", ▁although ▁she ▁dis lik ed ▁the ▁mon iker . ▁Her ▁family ▁l ore ▁formed ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁her ▁historical ▁stories , ▁as ▁she ▁had ▁heard ▁her ▁father ' s ▁and ▁grandfather ' s ▁personal ▁rec ol lections ▁of ▁living ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 0 s . ▁According ▁to ▁Hugh ▁Cur ran , ▁a ▁University ▁of ▁Maine ▁professor ▁who ▁vide ot aped ▁Wood ▁for ▁an ▁oral ▁history ▁project : ▁" Her ▁memory ▁str add led ▁ 2 0 0 ▁years ... ▁The ▁uniqu eness ▁to ▁me ▁was ▁her ▁almost ▁total ▁recall . ▁She ▁could ▁speak ▁for ▁an ▁hour ▁and ▁not ▁repeat ▁herself . ▁She ▁had ▁an ▁incredible ▁memory ". ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁she ▁wrote ▁a ▁short ▁history ▁of ▁her ▁al ma ▁mater , ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy , ▁for ▁their ▁student ▁hand book , ▁which ▁has |
▁been ▁printed ▁in ▁all ▁subsequent ▁ed itions . ▁ ▁Wood ' s ▁historical ▁notes ▁are ▁often ▁mentioned ▁in ▁tour ▁books ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁region . ▁She ▁contributed ▁the ▁report ▁on ▁historical ▁and ▁ar che ological ▁resources ▁for ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 1 ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Com pre hens ive ▁Plan , ▁which ▁was ▁re print ed ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Com pre hens ive ▁Plan . ▁▁ ▁Like ▁her ▁mother , ▁who ▁maintained ▁a ▁daily ▁journal ▁from ▁ 1 8 9 3 ▁to ▁ 1 9 7 1 , ▁Wood ▁wrote ▁daily ▁in ▁her ▁journal ▁from ▁ 1 9 7 3 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁ ▁Other ▁activities ▁ ▁Wood ▁was ▁an ▁active ▁supp orter ▁of ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy , ▁serving ▁as ▁a ▁trust ee ▁and ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁executive ▁committee ▁for ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁end ow ment ▁campaign . ▁She ▁personally ▁contributed ▁to ▁campaigns ▁for ▁a ▁library ▁expansion ▁and ▁the ▁installation ▁of ▁tennis ▁courts . ▁She ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Historical ▁Society , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Bapt ist ▁Church , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁C emetery ▁Association , ▁the ▁State ▁C emetery ▁Association , ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Garden ▁Club , ▁and ▁the ▁Jonathan ▁Fisher ▁Memorial , ▁serving ▁as ▁secretary ▁for ▁the ▁latter ▁organization . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 0 ▁she ▁end owed ▁a ▁$ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁scholarship ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁at ▁Lew ist on - |
A ub urn ▁in ▁memory ▁of ▁Ed na ▁Frances ▁D ic key , ▁her ▁fellow ▁history ▁professor ▁at ▁Gor ham ▁State ▁Te achers ▁College . ▁ ▁Awards ▁and ▁hon ors ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 2 , ▁Col by ▁College ▁awarded ▁her ▁an ▁honor ary ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Hum ane ▁Let ters . ▁In ▁ 1 9 7 3 , ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁dedicated ▁two ▁new ▁dorm itory ▁buildings ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁history ▁teachers ▁Wood ▁and ▁D ic key . ▁Res em bling ▁round ▁tow ers , ▁the ▁Wood ▁Tower ▁and ▁D ic key ▁Tower ▁each ▁have ▁eight ▁floors . ▁ ▁Wood ▁was ▁named ▁Woman ▁of ▁the ▁Year ▁by ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Commerce ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁and ▁was ▁the ▁recipient ▁of ▁the ▁Maine ▁School ▁Super int end ents ▁Association ▁Award ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 7 . ▁She ▁was ▁indu cted ▁into ▁the ▁Maine ▁Women ' s ▁Hall ▁of ▁Fame ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Death ▁and ▁legacy ▁Wood ▁did ▁not ▁marry . ▁She ▁died ▁on ▁December ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁at ▁her ▁farm house ▁and ▁was ▁buried ▁in ▁the ▁Se as ide ▁C emetery ▁in ▁Blue ▁Hill . ▁Her ▁farm house ▁was ▁purchased ▁by ▁novel ist ▁Jonathan ▁Let hem , ▁who ▁uses ▁it ▁as ▁a ▁summer ▁home ▁and ▁writes ▁in ▁the ▁same ▁study ▁that ▁Wood ▁did . ▁ ▁The ▁Est her ▁Wood ▁Papers , ▁containing ▁her ▁lecture ▁notes ▁on ▁New ▁England ▁history ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 6 th ▁century |
▁through ▁the ▁American ▁Revolution ary ▁War ▁and ▁American ▁Civil ▁War , ▁and ▁ 2 0 th - century ▁United ▁States ▁diplom acy , ▁are ▁hous ed ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine . ▁An ▁oral ▁history ▁project ▁which ▁Hugh ▁Cur ran ▁conducted ▁with ▁Wood ▁over ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁several ▁years , ▁compr ising ▁four ▁ 4 0 - minute ▁vide ot apes , ▁is ▁hous ed ▁at ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁Public ▁Library ▁and ▁the ▁George ▁Stevens ▁Academy ▁library . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁ ▁Books ▁ ▁( cont aining ▁family ▁history ▁and ▁family ▁recipes ) ▁▁ ▁( about ▁her ▁aunt ' s ▁youth ) ▁re print ed ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁as ▁Hannah ▁Wood ▁of ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine : ▁Rem in isc ences ▁of ▁an ▁ 1 8 5 0 ▁Child hood ▁ ▁( published ▁for ▁the ▁Blue ▁Hill ▁b ic ent ennial ) ▁ ▁Se lected ▁articles ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁"' Deep ▁Root s ' ▁takes ▁a ▁look ▁at ▁early ▁life ▁in ▁coastal ▁Maine " ▁( book ▁review ) ▁Bang or ▁Daily ▁News , ▁February ▁ 1 3 , ▁ 1 9 9 0 ▁ ▁Category : Univers ity ▁of ▁Southern ▁Maine ▁faculty ▁Category : Writ ers ▁from ▁Maine ▁Category : Journal ists ▁from ▁Maine ▁Category : Col by ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : Rad cl iffe ▁College ▁al umn i ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Blue ▁Hill , ▁Maine ▁Category : 1 9 0 5 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 |
0 0 2 ▁deaths ▁Category : Hist or ians ▁of ▁Maine <0x0A> </s> ▁Ren an ▁Roberto ▁de ▁Fre itas ▁( born ▁ 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 8 4 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Brazil ian ▁football ▁manager , ▁currently ▁in ▁charge ▁of ▁O este . ▁ ▁Career ▁Born ▁in ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁Fre itas ▁started ▁working ▁at ▁O este ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁He ▁joined ▁the ▁club ' s ▁staff ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 , ▁as ▁an ▁assistant ▁manager . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁after ▁Ivan ▁B ait ello ' s ▁dismiss al , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁named ▁inter im ▁manager ▁of ▁the ▁club , ▁being ▁in ▁charge ▁during ▁a ▁ 3 – 0 ▁loss ▁at ▁A SA ▁two ▁days ▁later . ▁After ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁Lu ís ▁Carlos ▁Mart ins , ▁he ▁returned ▁to ▁his ▁previous ▁role . ▁ ▁In ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁again ▁inter im ▁in ▁the ▁place ▁of ▁s acked ▁Roberto ▁Cav alo . ▁After ▁managing ▁to ▁avoid ▁re leg ation , ▁he ▁was ▁definitely ▁appointed ▁as ▁manager ▁for ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 6 ▁Campeonato ▁Paul ista . ▁ ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁dismissed ▁by ▁the ▁club ▁on ▁ 2 ▁April ▁ 2 0 1 6 , ▁just ▁hours ▁before ▁a ▁match ▁against ▁São ▁Paulo , ▁but ▁continued ▁to ▁work ▁as ▁an ▁assistant ▁in ▁the ▁following ▁years . ▁He ▁was ▁also ▁an ▁inter im ▁during ▁the ▁first ▁matches ▁of ▁the ▁ |
2 0 1 8 ▁campaign , ▁as ▁Cav alo ▁was ▁out ▁due ▁to ▁personal ▁problems . ▁ ▁On ▁ 7 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 8 , ▁Fre itas ▁was ▁appointed ▁permanent ▁manager ▁of ▁O este ▁for ▁the ▁upcoming ▁season . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 4 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁São ▁Paulo ▁Category : B raz il ian ▁football ▁managers ▁Category : Cam peonato ▁Bras ile iro ▁S érie ▁B ▁managers ▁Category : O este ▁Fut eb ol ▁Cl ube ▁managers <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 5 , ▁or ▁MC 6 8 4 5 , ▁was ▁a ▁ ▁display ▁controller ▁that ▁was ▁widely ▁used ▁in ▁ 8 - bit ▁computers ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Origin ally ▁intended ▁for ▁designs ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 0 0 ▁CPU ▁and ▁given ▁a ▁related ▁part ▁number , ▁it ▁was ▁more ▁widely ▁used ▁alongside ▁various ▁other ▁process ors , ▁and ▁was ▁most ▁commonly ▁found ▁in ▁machines ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁Z il og ▁Z 8 0 ▁and ▁M OS ▁ 6 5 0 2 . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁not ▁an ▁entire ▁display ▁solution ▁on ▁its ▁own ; ▁the ▁chip ' s ▁main ▁function ▁is ▁to ▁properly ▁time ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁display ▁memory , ▁and ▁to ▁calculate ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁of ▁the ▁next ▁portion ▁to ▁be ▁drawn . ▁Other ▁circuit ry ▁in ▁the ▁machine |
▁then ▁uses ▁the ▁address ▁provided ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁to ▁fetch ▁the ▁pattern ▁and ▁then ▁draw ▁it . ▁The ▁implementation ▁of ▁that ▁hardware ▁is ▁entirely ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁designer , ▁and ▁varied ▁widely ▁among ▁machines . ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁intended ▁for ▁character ▁displays , ▁but ▁could ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁pixel - based ▁graphics , ▁with ▁some ▁clever ▁programming . ▁ ▁Among ▁its ▁better - known ▁uses ▁is ▁the ▁BBC ▁Micro , ▁Am str ad ▁C PC , ▁and ▁V ide x ▁Video Term ▁display ▁cards ▁for ▁the ▁Apple ▁II . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁part ▁of ▁many ▁early ▁graphics ▁adapter ▁cards ▁for ▁the ▁IBM ▁PC , ▁including ▁the ▁M DA , ▁Her cules ▁Graph ics ▁Card ▁( H GC ), ▁and ▁Color ▁Graph ics ▁Ad apter ▁( C GA ). ▁Its ▁functionality ▁was ▁du plicated ▁and ▁extended ▁by ▁custom ▁circ uits ▁in ▁the ▁E GA ▁and ▁V GA ▁PC ▁video ▁ad ap ters . ▁ ▁Origin ally ▁designed ▁by ▁Hit achi ▁as ▁the ▁HD 4 6 5 0 5 , ▁Hit achi - built ▁versions ▁are ▁in ▁a ▁wide ▁variety ▁of ▁Japanese ▁computers , ▁from ▁Sony , ▁Sh arp , ▁Pan ason ic , ▁and ▁Cas io . ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁C RT C ▁or ▁the ▁C RT C 6 8 4 5 , ▁meaning ▁" c ath ode ▁ray ▁tube ▁controller ". ▁ ▁A ▁common ▁clone ▁of ▁this ▁C RT ▁controller ▁is ▁the ▁United ▁Micro elect ron |
ics ▁Corporation ▁( UM C ) ▁U M 6 8 4 5 E ▁C RT ▁controller . ▁ ▁Over view ▁The ▁chip ▁generates ▁the ▁signals ▁necessary ▁to ▁interface ▁with ▁a ▁r aster ▁display ▁but ▁does ▁not ▁generate ▁the ▁actual ▁pixels , ▁though ▁it ▁does ▁contribute ▁cursor ▁and ▁video - blank ing ▁information ▁to ▁the ▁pixel ▁video ▁( int ensity ) ▁signals . ▁It ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁produce ▁correctly ▁tim ed ▁horizontal ▁and ▁vertical ▁sync ▁and ▁provide ▁the ▁address ▁in ▁memory ▁from ▁which ▁the ▁next ▁pixel ▁or ▁set ▁of ▁pixels ▁should ▁be ▁read . ▁The ▁process ▁of ▁reading ▁that ▁value , ▁conver ting ▁it ▁into ▁pixels , ▁and ▁sending ▁it ▁to ▁a ▁C RT ▁is ▁left ▁to ▁other ▁circ uits . ▁Because ▁of ▁this , ▁systems ▁using ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁may ▁have ▁very ▁different ▁numbers ▁and ▁values ▁of ▁colors , ▁or ▁may ▁not ▁support ▁color ▁at ▁all . ▁ ▁Inter l aced ▁and ▁non - inter l aced ▁output ▁modes ▁are ▁supported , ▁as ▁is ▁a ▁hardware ▁text ▁cursor . ▁ ▁The ▁sync ▁generation ▁includes ▁generation ▁of ▁horizontal ▁and ▁vertical ▁video ▁blank ing ▁signals , ▁which ▁are ▁used ▁to ▁condition ▁the ▁external ▁pixel ▁generation ▁circ uits . ▁ ▁Also , ▁an ▁internal ▁l atch ▁is ▁provided ▁which ▁when ▁triggered ▁will ▁duplicate ▁and ▁retain ▁a ▁copy ▁of ▁the ▁video ▁address ▁so ▁that ▁it ▁can ▁later ▁be ▁read ▁back ▁by ▁the ▁CPU . ▁ ▁This ▁is ▁useful ▁for ▁light ▁pens ▁and ▁light ▁guns ▁which ▁can ▁function ▁by ▁sending ▁a ▁pulse ▁to ▁the ▁ |
6 8 4 5 ▁when ▁the ▁electron ▁beam ▁passes , ▁allowing ▁a ▁running ▁program ▁to ▁read ▁back ▁the ▁location ▁that ▁was ▁pointed ▁at . ▁Because ▁of ▁this ▁feature , ▁most ▁computer ▁video ▁ad ap ters ▁using ▁a ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁included ▁a ▁light ▁pen ▁interface , ▁though ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁an ▁internal ▁conne ctor ▁on ▁the ▁board ▁itself , ▁not ▁on ▁the ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁computer , ▁and ▁it ▁was ▁usually ▁und ocument ed ▁in ▁the ▁user ▁manual . ▁ ▁Because ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁video ▁timing ▁are ▁program m able , ▁a ▁single ▁machine ▁can ▁switch ▁between ▁NT SC ▁and ▁P AL ▁tim ings ▁in ▁software . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁be ▁used ▁to ▁drive ▁mon itors ▁or ▁any ▁other ▁r aster ▁display . ▁ ▁Intern als ▁ ▁The ▁chip ▁has ▁a ▁total ▁of ▁ ▁registers ▁controlling ▁all ▁aspects ▁of ▁video ▁tim ings . ▁Only ▁two ▁addresses ▁are ▁exposed ▁to ▁external ▁components ▁- ▁one ▁to ▁select ▁which ▁internal ▁register ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁read ▁or ▁written ▁to ▁and ▁another ▁to ▁access ▁that ▁register . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁intended ▁for ▁character ▁based ▁displays . ▁Every ▁address ▁it ▁generates ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁two ▁parts ▁- ▁a ▁ 1 4 ▁bit ▁character ▁address ▁and ▁a ▁ 5 ▁bit ▁row ▁address . ▁Using ▁the ▁full ▁address ▁range ▁R A 0 - RA 4 : CA 0 - CA 1 3 ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 2 1 4 + 5 ▁= ▁ ▁of |
▁memory , ▁where ▁a ▁word ▁may ▁be ▁any ▁number ▁of ▁bits ▁chosen ▁by ▁the ▁system ▁designer ▁as ▁the ▁memory ▁width . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁one ▁byte , ▁as ▁is ▁often ▁the ▁case , ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 5 1 2 ▁Ki B . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁ 3 2 ▁bits , ▁e . g . ▁for ▁ 3 2 - bit ▁color ▁graphics ▁with ▁one ▁pixel ▁per ▁word , ▁then ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁ 2 0 4 8 ▁ki B , ▁which ▁equals ▁ 2 ▁Mi B ▁( and ▁for ▁ 6 4 - bit ▁words , ▁it ▁can ▁address ▁twice ▁that ). ▁These ▁limits ▁arise ▁from ▁the ▁combination ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁and ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁the ▁external ▁memory ▁connected ▁to ▁it , ▁not ▁from ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁alone . ▁ ▁The ▁number ▁of ▁unique ▁addresses ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁is ▁limited ▁( to ▁ 5 1 2 * 1 0 2 4 ), ▁but ▁the ▁amount ▁of ▁memory ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁can ▁address ▁is ▁theoret ically ▁un limited , ▁because ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁im poses ▁no ▁limit ▁on ▁the ▁size ▁of ▁each ▁memory ▁location ▁that ▁it ▁addresses . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁also ▁significant ▁that ▁each ▁word ▁addressed ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁to ▁equal ▁one ▁pixel ▁or ▁one ▁character . ▁ ▁As |
▁an ▁example , ▁consider ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁in ▁the ▁IBM ▁C GA , ▁where ▁the ▁word ▁size ▁is ▁one ▁byte ▁and ▁each ▁word ▁represents ▁four ▁or ▁eight ▁pixels ▁( in ▁the ▁medium - ▁or ▁high - ▁resolution ▁graphics ▁mode , ▁respectively ) ▁or ▁one - half ▁character . ▁In ▁C GA ▁al phan umeric ▁( text ) ▁mode , ▁there ▁are ▁two ▁bytes ▁per ▁character , ▁accessed ▁sequ entially ▁by ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 — the ▁first ▁byte ▁is ▁a ▁character ▁code ▁byte ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁byte ▁is ▁a ▁character ▁attribute ▁byte . ▁▁ ▁The ▁character ▁address ▁increases ▁line arly . ▁When ▁the ▁chip ▁signals ▁horizontal ▁sync ▁it ▁increases ▁the ▁row ▁address . ▁If ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁does ▁not ▁equal ▁the ▁program m atically ▁set ▁number ▁of ▁rows ▁per ▁character , ▁then ▁the ▁character ▁address ▁is ▁reset ▁to ▁the ▁value ▁it ▁had ▁at ▁the ▁beginning ▁of ▁the ▁scan line ▁that ▁was ▁just ▁completed . ▁Otherwise ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁is ▁reset ▁to ▁zero ▁and ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁continues ▁increasing ▁line arly . ▁This ▁causes ▁the ▁same ▁sequence ▁of ▁character ▁values ▁to ▁be ▁re - read ▁from ▁the ▁memory ▁for ▁each ▁r aster ▁line ▁of ▁each ▁character ▁row , ▁before ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁advances ▁the ▁memory ▁address ▁to ▁the ▁next ▁character ▁row ▁and ▁repe ats ▁the ▁same ▁pattern . ▁ ▁Therefore , ▁if ▁a ▁character ▁occup ies ▁one ▁" word " ▁in ▁the ▁video ▁buffer , ▁a ▁display ▁of ▁l ▁lines ▁and ▁c ▁columns |
▁of ▁characters ▁with ▁s ▁scan ▁lines ▁per ▁character ▁requires ▁l ▁× ▁c ▁words ▁of ▁memory ▁to ▁represent ▁a ▁full ▁screen ▁of ▁characters ▁but ▁takes ▁s ▁times ▁that ▁many ▁memory ▁access es ▁to ▁complete ▁one ▁refresh ▁cycle ▁( as ▁each ▁line ▁of ▁character ▁words ▁is ▁repeatedly ▁read ▁s ▁times ▁before ▁the ▁next ▁one ▁is ▁read ). ▁ ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁character ▁displays ▁using ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 , ▁compared ▁to ▁all - points - address able ▁graphics ▁displays ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁resolution , ▁require ▁much ▁less ▁memory ▁but ▁still ▁require ▁high ▁memory ▁band width ▁on ▁the ▁order ▁of ▁the ▁band width ▁required ▁for ▁graphics . ▁ ▁( A ▁different ▁video ▁display ▁controller ▁that ▁buffers ▁one ▁whole ▁line ▁of ▁character ▁data ▁intern ally ▁can ▁avoid ▁this ▁repeated ▁reading ▁of ▁each ▁line ▁of ▁characters ▁from ▁the ▁display ▁buffer ▁RAM , ▁reducing ▁the ▁required ▁memory ▁band width ▁and ▁allowing ▁either ▁slower , ▁less ▁expensive ▁memory ▁chips ▁to ▁be ▁used , ▁more ▁time ▁for ▁a ▁system ▁CPU ▁to ▁access ▁the ▁memory , ▁or ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁both . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s , ▁ 1 9 8 0 s , ▁and ▁to ▁a ▁lesser ▁extent ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 0 s , ▁memory ▁was ▁expensive , ▁fast ▁memory ▁was ▁especially ▁so , ▁and ▁this ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁concern . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s ▁and ▁early ▁to ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s , ▁chip ▁circuit ▁dens ities ▁were ▁not ▁very ▁high ▁either , ▁and |
▁putting ▁an ▁ 8 0 - byte ▁or ▁larger ▁character ▁buffer ▁into ▁a ▁chip ▁like ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁might ▁have ▁en larg ed ▁the ▁chip ▁die ▁by ▁ 5 0 - 1 0 0 %, ▁in ▁turn ▁making ▁it ▁more ▁expensive ▁by ▁a ▁few ▁times ▁that ▁factor ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁ex ponential ▁growth ▁of ▁chip ▁defect ▁rates ▁and ▁the ▁consequ ent ▁decline ▁of ▁production ▁yield ▁with ▁die ▁size . ▁ ▁Therefore , ▁adding ▁such ▁a ▁character ▁buffer ▁to ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁cost - effective ▁approach ▁when ▁the ▁chip ▁was ▁introduced . ▁ ▁Now ▁that ▁memory ▁is ▁very ▁in exp ensive , ▁fast ▁memory ▁included , ▁there ▁is ▁little ▁motivation ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁memory ▁band width ▁required ▁by ▁a ▁video ▁display ▁controller , ▁so ▁this ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁an ▁important ▁engineering ▁consideration . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁chip ▁dens ities ▁have ▁sky rock eted — which ▁is ▁actually ▁the ▁main ▁reason ▁for ▁today ' s ▁low ▁memory ▁prices — and ▁many ▁chips ▁used ▁in ▁computers ▁have ▁large ▁buffers ▁and ▁c aches ; ▁a ▁chip ▁like ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁designed ▁today ▁could ▁easily ▁use ▁a ▁character ▁line ▁cache ▁to ▁avoid ▁reading ▁and ▁re - read ing ▁characters ▁for ▁each ▁video ▁scan ▁line ▁within ▁a ▁character ▁line . ▁ ▁For ▁low - power ▁hand held ▁devices , ▁which ▁would ▁be ▁the ▁main ▁ones ▁likely ▁to ▁use ▁character ▁displays ▁now , ▁the ▁power ▁used ▁for ▁high - band width ▁memory ▁access ▁would ▁be |
▁good ▁reason ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁memory ▁band width ▁for ▁display ▁refresh ▁through ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁ ▁a ▁line ▁cache ▁in ▁the ▁display ▁controller . ▁ ▁If ▁the ▁character ▁address ▁is ▁used ▁to ▁look ▁up ▁a ▁character ▁reference ▁in ▁RAM ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁to ▁index ▁a ▁table ▁of ▁character ▁graphics ▁in ▁R OM ▁an ▁ordinary ▁text ▁mode ▁display ▁is ▁constructed . ▁The ▁character ▁reference ▁read ▁from ▁memory ▁must ▁be ▁combined ▁with ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁to ▁form ▁the ▁address ▁for ▁the ▁character ▁graphics ▁R OM , ▁with ▁the ▁character ▁reference ▁selecting ▁a ▁set ▁of ▁scan ▁line ▁patterns ▁that ▁forms ▁one ▁character ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁index ing ▁into ▁that ▁set ▁to ▁select ▁one ▁scan ▁line . ▁In ▁other ▁words , ▁the ▁R OM ▁address ▁is ▁split ▁into ▁two ▁parts ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁R OM ▁as ▁a ▁two - dimensional ▁array : ▁the ▁first ▁dimension ▁select s ▁a ▁character , ▁and ▁the ▁second ▁select s ▁a ▁row ▁of ▁that ▁character ' s ▁graphic ▁pattern . ▁ ▁Line ar ▁frame buff ers ▁As ▁described ▁above , ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁is ▁not ▁ordin arily ▁able ▁to ▁provide ▁large ▁linear ▁frame buff ers . ▁A ▁design ▁could ▁use ▁only ▁the ▁ ▁character ▁address ▁and ▁set ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁rows ▁per ▁character ▁to ▁ 1 ▁but ▁it ▁would ▁be ▁constr ained ▁to ▁ ▁of ▁address able ▁memory . ▁ ▁A ▁solution ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁Am str ad ▁C PC , ▁which ▁comb ines ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁and ▁character ▁address ▁to ▁provide ▁linear ▁scan |
lines ▁within ▁a ▁non - linear ▁buffer . ▁It ▁maps ▁row ▁address ▁R A 0 - RA 2 ▁to ▁memory ▁address ▁MA 1 1 - MA 1 3 ▁and ▁character ▁address ▁CA 0 - CA 1 0 ▁to ▁memory ▁address ▁MA 0 - MA 1 0 . ▁This ▁has ▁the ▁advantages ▁of ▁easier ▁programming ▁for ▁non - character ▁display ▁and ▁easy ▁smooth ▁horizontal ▁scroll ing ▁but ▁can ▁imped e ▁smooth ▁vertical ▁scroll ing . ▁ ▁D if ferences ▁from ▁the ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁Although ▁overwhelming ly ▁compatible , ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁small ▁variations ▁exist ▁between ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁and ▁ 6 5 4 5 . ▁ ▁The ▁biggest ▁difference ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁may ▁be ▁configured ▁so ▁that ▁it ▁has ▁sole ▁access ▁to ▁the ▁address ▁bus ▁for ▁video ▁memory . ▁Two ▁additional ▁registers ▁are ▁included ▁for ▁setting ▁any ▁address ▁the ▁CPU ▁wishes ▁to ▁read ▁and ▁the ▁chip ▁altern ates ▁between ▁output ting ▁addresses ▁for ▁display ▁generation ▁and ▁the ▁display ▁set ▁for ▁CPU ▁access . ▁ ▁Sm aller ▁changes ▁are ▁that ▁the ▁M OS ▁Technology ▁and ▁one ▁variation ▁of ▁the ▁Rock well ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁lack ▁inter l aced ▁output ▁support ▁and ▁all ▁ 6 5 4 5 s ▁include ▁an ▁optional ▁address ▁ske w , ▁which ▁del ays ▁display ▁enable ▁for ▁one ▁character ▁cycle ▁if ▁set . ▁This ▁second ▁feature ▁was ▁incorporated ▁into ▁later ▁variations ▁of ▁the ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 5 . ▁ ▁The ▁ 6 5 4 5 |
▁may ▁be ▁set ▁to ▁work ▁in ▁linear ▁ 1 4 ▁bit ▁mode ▁using ▁a ▁status ▁bit . ▁On ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁the ▁same ▁thing ▁requires ▁adjust ment ▁of ▁the ▁character ▁height . ▁ ▁Tr icks ▁The ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁reads ▁the ▁start ▁address ▁for ▁its ▁display ▁once ▁per ▁frame . ▁However , ▁if ▁the ▁internal ▁timing ▁values ▁on ▁the ▁chip ▁are ▁altered ▁at ▁the ▁correct ▁time ▁it ▁can ▁be ▁made ▁to ▁prepare ▁for ▁a ▁new ▁frame ▁without ▁ending ▁the ▁current ▁one ▁- ▁creating ▁a ▁non - contin uous ▁break ▁in ▁generated ▁addresses ▁mid way ▁through ▁the ▁display . ▁This ▁is ▁commonly ▁used ▁by ▁dem os ▁and ▁much ▁more ▁rarely ▁games ▁to ▁provide ▁one ▁moving ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁display ▁( us ually ▁the ▁play ▁field ) ▁and ▁one ▁static ▁( us ually ▁a ▁status ▁display ). ▁ ▁Vert ical ▁scroll ing ▁appears ▁constr ained ▁because ▁only ▁the ▁character ▁start ▁address ▁can ▁be ▁set ▁and ▁the ▁row ▁address ▁is ▁always ▁zero ed ▁at ▁frame ▁start , ▁but ▁by ▁adjust ing ▁border ▁times ▁it ▁is ▁possible ▁to ▁shift ▁the ▁position ▁the ▁frame buffer ▁is ▁shown ▁on ▁the ▁r aster ▁display ▁for ▁incre ments ▁in ▁between ▁whole ▁characters . ▁With ▁drawing ▁of ▁blank ▁pixels ▁at ▁the ▁screen ▁edges , ▁this ▁can ▁be ▁made ▁invisible ▁to ▁the ▁user ▁creating ▁just ▁the ▁illusion ▁of ▁a ▁smooth ▁vertical ▁scroll . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Motor ola ▁ 6 8 4 7 , ▁a ▁complete ▁video ▁display ▁generator ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁home ▁computers ▁by ▁video ▁hardware |
▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁HTML ▁documentation ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁registers ▁ ▁Z ipped ▁T IF s ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 8 4 5 ▁data ▁sheets ▁ ▁D if ferences ▁of ▁C RT C ▁models ▁ ▁Syn er tek ▁ 6 5 4 5 ▁Application ▁Note ▁ ▁Category : Graphics ▁chips ▁ 6 8 4 5 <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁four ▁such ▁grand ▁commit te es ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Parliament . ▁The ▁other ▁three ▁are ▁for ▁Scotland , ▁Wales ▁and , ▁as ▁of ▁October ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁England . ▁The ▁membership ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁includes ▁all ▁participating ▁Northern ▁Irish ▁MP s , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁up ▁to ▁ 2 5 ▁other ▁MP s ▁who ▁are ▁nominated ▁by ▁the ▁Committee ▁of ▁Selection . ▁ ▁The ▁purpose ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁is ▁to ▁read ▁bills ▁that ▁are ▁relevant ▁to ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁before ▁their ▁second ▁or ▁third ▁read ings ▁in ▁Parliament . ▁It ▁also ▁provides ▁an ▁opportunity ▁for ▁MP s ▁to ▁question ▁minister s , ▁debate ▁current ▁matters ▁and ▁for ▁minister s ▁to ▁make ▁statements . ▁There ▁are ▁between ▁three ▁and ▁six ▁committee ▁meetings ▁per ▁year . ▁ ▁Until ▁recently , ▁unlike ▁its ▁Scottish ▁and ▁Wel sh ▁counter parts , ▁the ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁met ▁at ▁West min ster ▁and ▁never ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland . ▁ ▁However , ▁the ▁Democratic ▁Union ist ▁Party ▁pressed ▁for ▁a ▁meeting ▁to ▁take ▁place ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁itself . ▁The ▁government ▁agreed , ▁and ▁in ▁December |
▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁the ▁first ▁local ▁meeting ▁of ▁the ▁committee ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁the ▁council ▁chamber ▁at ▁B elf ast ▁City ▁Hall . ▁The ▁committee ▁met ▁again ▁in ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 3 , ▁this ▁time ▁in ▁the ▁Senate ▁Chamber ▁at ▁Parliament ▁Build ings , ▁Storm ont . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Legisl ative ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁List ▁of ▁Commit te es ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom ▁Parliament ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Affairs ▁Select ▁Committee ▁Scottish ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Wel sh ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Deb ates ▁Northern ▁Ireland ▁Grand ▁Committee ▁Deb ates ▁by ▁parliament ary ▁year : ▁ 2 0 0 6 - 2 0 0 7 ▁ 2 0 0 5 - 2 0 0 6 ▁ 2 0 0 4 - 2 0 0 5 ▁ 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 4 ▁ 2 0 0 2 - 2 0 0 3 ▁ 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 2 ▁ 2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 1 ▁ 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 ▁ 1 9 9 8 - 1 9 9 9 ▁ 1 9 9 7 - 1 9 9 8 ▁ ▁Category : Commit te es ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁House ▁of ▁Commons <0x0A> </s> ▁Ram ▁D ass ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁politician ▁and ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁B har ati ya ▁Jan ata ▁Party . ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach |
al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁from ▁the ▁K ut le har ▁constitu ency ▁in ▁Una ▁district . ▁Mal ang ar ▁was ▁Deputy ▁Spe aker ▁of ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁from ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 3 ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Una ▁district ▁Category : B har ati ya ▁Jan ata ▁Party ▁politicians ▁from ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁Category : 1 9 4 7 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 5 ▁deaths ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Indian ▁politicians ▁Category : Dep uty ▁Spe akers ▁of ▁the ▁Him ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly <0x0A> </s> ▁Ar ina ▁Hug en hol tz ▁( 1 8 4 8 – 1 9 3 4 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Dutch ▁ ▁painter . ▁She ▁is ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁landscape ▁and ▁genre ▁paintings . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Hug en hol tz ▁was ▁born ▁ 2 0 ▁September ▁ 1 8 4 8 ▁in ▁C illa ar sh o ek . ▁She ▁attended ▁Royal ▁Academy ▁of ▁Art ▁at ▁The ▁H ague ▁and ▁the ▁State ▁Academy ▁of ▁Fine ▁Arts ▁in ▁Amsterdam . ▁She ▁studied ▁with ▁Anton ▁Mau ve . ▁ ▁Hug en hol tz ▁exhib ited ▁her ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁Palace ▁of ▁Fine ▁Arts ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 8 9 3 ▁World ' s ▁Columb ian ▁Ex position ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁Illinois . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 9 4 |
▁she ▁settled ▁in ▁L aren , ▁where ▁she ▁had ▁a ▁studio ▁built ▁and ▁she ▁was ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁L aren ▁School ▁ ▁Hug en hol tz ▁died ▁ 4 ▁April ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁in ▁L aren . ▁ ▁Her ▁works ▁are ▁in ▁the ▁S inger ▁Museum ▁in ▁L aren ▁and ▁the ▁Fr ans ▁H als ▁Museum ▁in ▁Ha ar lem . ▁ ▁Gallery ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 8 4 8 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 4 ▁deaths ▁Category : D utch ▁women ▁pain ters ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁women ▁artists ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Dutch ▁pain ters ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Dutch ▁pain ters <0x0A> </s> ▁Count ▁Em mo ▁or ▁Em mon ▁( d . ▁before ▁ 1 7 ▁Jan ▁ 1 0 7 8 ) ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁known ▁Count s ▁of ▁L oon . ▁Before ▁him ▁one ▁more ▁count ▁is ▁known ▁with ▁confidence , ▁G is el bert ▁of ▁L oon , ▁but ▁it ▁is ▁not ▁certain ▁that ▁G is el bert ▁was ▁his ▁father . ▁Ver hel st ▁for ▁example ▁has ▁proposed ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁his ▁uncle , ▁and ▁that ▁G is el bert ' s ▁brother ▁Count ▁Arn ulf ▁was ▁father ▁of ▁Em mo ▁and ▁also ▁a ▁count ▁of ▁L oon . ▁ ▁More ▁secure ly , ▁his ▁mother ▁is ▁named ▁clearly ▁as ▁L uit gar de ▁of |
▁Nam ur , ▁a ▁sister ▁of ▁Count ▁Albert ▁of ▁Nam ur , ▁in ▁a ▁work ▁about ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁her ▁cousin , ▁Bishop ▁Arn ulf ▁of ▁So iss ons . ▁ ▁Un us ually , ▁Em mo ▁and ▁his ▁brother ▁Otto ▁were ▁sometimes ▁joint ly ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁Count s ▁of ▁L oon , ▁though ▁Otto ' s ▁descend ants ▁became ▁Count s ▁of ▁neighbor ing ▁Dur as , ▁perhaps ▁through ▁his ▁marriage ▁to ▁the ▁he i ress . ▁Em mo ' s ▁family ▁was ▁probably ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁ 1 0 th ▁century ▁families ▁who ▁held ▁count ies ▁in ▁the ▁local ▁H es b aye ▁region , ▁which ▁were ▁eventually ▁replaced ▁by ▁L oon ▁and ▁Dur as . ▁In ▁ 9 6 6 ▁the ▁lord ▁of ▁Gel men ▁was ▁a ▁Count ▁Im mo . ▁ ▁Em mo ▁married ▁Su an h ild is , ▁who ▁was ▁possibly ▁the ▁daughter ▁of ▁D irk ▁III ▁Hier os ol ym ita , ▁Count ▁of ▁Holland , ▁and ▁O the land is ▁of ▁Nord mar ck . ▁ ▁Em mo ▁and ▁Su an h ild is ▁had ▁four ▁children : ▁▁ ▁Sophie ▁( d . ▁ 1 0 6 5 ) ▁married ▁G é za ▁I , ▁King ▁of ▁Hung ary . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁uncertain ▁whether ▁the ▁subsequent ▁dyn asty ▁of ▁Kings ▁of ▁Hung ary ▁were ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Sophie ▁or ▁G é za ’ s ▁second ▁wife . ▁ ▁Arnold ▁I , ▁Count ▁of ▁L oo z ▁ ▁Th ier ry ▁( |
Dir k ) ▁de ▁L oo z ▁( d . ▁after ▁April ▁ 1 1 2 5 ), ▁Count ▁of ▁Horn . ▁▁▁ ▁Me ch th ilde , ▁Abb ess ▁of ▁Mun ster bil zen ▁ ▁Rena ud , ▁advocate ▁of ▁F oss es - la - V ille , ▁mentioned ▁in ▁a ▁for ged ▁document ? ▁ ▁Em mo ▁was ▁succeeded ▁as ▁Count ▁of ▁L oo z ▁by ▁his ▁son ▁Arnold ▁upon ▁his ▁death . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁S ources ▁ ▁Jean ▁Ba erten , ▁Het ▁gra af sch ap ▁L oon ▁( 1 1 de - 1 4 de ▁e e uw ), ▁Ass en , 1 9 6 9 ▁( link ) ▁Sou vere yn s ; ▁B ij st erv eld ▁( 2 0 0 8 ), ▁" De el ▁ 1 : ▁De ▁gr aven ▁van ▁L oon ", ▁Lim burg ▁- ▁Het ▁O ude ▁Land ▁van ▁L oon ▁( link ) ▁V ander kind ere , ▁Lé on ▁( 1 9 0 2 ), ▁La ▁formation ▁territor iale ▁des ▁princip aut és ▁bel ges ▁au ▁M oy en ▁Age ▁( link ), ▁Vol . 2 , ▁Ch . ▁ 9 , ▁p . 1 2 8 ▁Ver don k , ▁" De ▁her kom st ▁van ▁de ▁her en ▁van ▁Her la er " ▁link ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Med ieval ▁L ands ▁Project , ▁Com tes ▁de ▁L oo z ▁ ▁Category : 1 0 7 8 ▁deaths ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth |
▁unknown ▁Em mo <0x0A> </s> ▁James ▁Marcus ▁King ▁( 1 8 ▁March ▁ 1 8 3 9 - 3 ▁October ▁ 1 9 0 7 ) ▁was ▁an ▁American ▁Method ist ▁minister , ▁writer , ▁and ▁political ▁activ ist . ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁anti - C ath olic ▁League ▁for ▁the ▁Protection ▁of ▁American ▁Institute ▁from ▁its ▁founding ▁in ▁the ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 8 8 9 ▁until ▁his ▁death ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 7 . ▁Supp orters ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁included ▁John ▁D . ▁Roc ke f eller , ▁Corn el ius ▁V ander b ilt , ▁and ▁A br am ▁He w itt ▁among ▁others . ▁ ▁Family ▁and ▁early ▁life ▁King ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Gir ard , ▁Pennsylvania ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 9 . ▁His ▁father . ▁Rev . ▁E lij ah ▁King , ▁was ▁ord ained ▁by ▁Bishop ▁Francis ▁As bury . ▁James ▁King ▁studied ▁at ▁New bury ▁Sem inary ▁in ▁Verm ont ▁before ▁attending ▁Wes ley an ▁University ▁in ▁Connecticut . ▁After ▁gradu ating ▁in ▁ 1 8 6 2 , ▁he ▁taught ▁for ▁six ▁years ▁at ▁the ▁Fort ▁Edward ▁Col leg iate ▁Inst itution , ▁which ▁was ▁run ▁by ▁his ▁brother , ▁Rev . ▁Joseph ▁E . ▁King . ▁In ▁ 1 8 6 6 , ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁minister ▁in ▁the ▁Method ist ▁Ep isc op al ▁Church . ▁He ▁first ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁T roy , ▁New ▁York ▁area ▁before ▁being ▁moved ▁to ▁New ▁York ▁City , ▁where ▁he ▁remained |
▁for ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁his ▁life . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 8 , ▁The ▁Tre asury , ▁an ▁evangel ical ▁Protest ant ▁magazine , ▁described ▁King ▁as ▁" the ▁recognized ▁leader ▁and ▁representative ▁of ▁the ▁Method ist ▁Ep isc op al ▁Church " ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 9 , ▁King ▁became ▁general ▁secretary ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁League ▁for ▁the ▁Protection ▁of ▁American ▁Institut ions . ▁The ▁League ▁was ▁formed ▁to ▁advocate ▁to ▁promote ▁a ▁new ▁constitutional ▁am endment ▁which ▁would ▁have ▁banned ▁the ▁dis b urs ing ▁of ▁public ▁funds ▁to ▁religious ▁institutions , ▁most ▁notably ▁the ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁Church . ▁It ▁was ▁an ▁updated ▁version ▁of ▁the ▁Bl aine ▁Am endment ▁which ▁had ▁nearly ▁passed ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 5 . ▁The ▁NL PA I ▁was ▁formed ▁during ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁intense ▁anti - C ath olic ▁sentiment ; ▁the ▁American ▁Prote ct ive ▁Association ▁had ▁been ▁formed ▁two ▁years ▁earlier . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 3 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 0 7 ▁deaths ▁Category : People ▁from ▁E rie ▁County , ▁Pennsylvania ▁Category : American ▁Method ist ▁cler gy ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁Method ist ▁minister s ▁Category : W es ley an ▁University ▁al umn i <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁Parker ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁May ▁ 1 9 7 1 ) ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁Australian ▁rules ▁football er ▁who ▁played ▁with ▁the ▁Br is b ane ▁B ears ▁in |
▁the ▁Australian ▁Football ▁League ▁( A FL ). ▁ ▁Parker , ▁from ▁Frank ston , ▁was ▁chosen ▁by ▁the ▁B ears ▁with ▁the ▁first ▁pick ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 2 ▁Mid - Se ason ▁D raft . ▁ ▁He ▁didn ' t ▁play ▁a ▁senior ▁game ▁that ▁year ▁and ▁instead ▁made ▁his ▁debut ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 3 ▁season , ▁against ▁Carl ton ▁at ▁Prin ces ▁Park . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁week ▁he ▁played ▁again , ▁this ▁time ▁a ▁home ▁fixture ▁against ▁North ▁Melbourne ▁and ▁he ▁had ▁ 1 1 ▁dispos als . ▁ ▁His ▁only ▁other ▁appearance ▁for ▁the ▁B ears ▁came ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 0 4 - point ▁loss ▁to ▁Fitz roy . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : Austral ian ▁rules ▁football ers ▁from ▁Victoria ▁( Austral ia ) ▁Category : B ris b ane ▁B ears ▁players ▁Category : Fr ank ston ▁B om bers ▁players ▁Category : L iving ▁people <0x0A> </s> ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Par ish ▁is ▁a ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁parish ▁designated ▁for ▁Polish ▁immigrants ▁in ▁New ▁Bed ford , ▁Massachusetts , ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁Found ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 5 , ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pt ual ▁Help ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Polish - American ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁in ▁New ▁England ▁in ▁the ▁Di oc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River . ▁ ▁Since ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁the ▁parish ▁has ▁been ▁staff |
ed ▁by ▁the ▁Con vent ual ▁Francis c ans . ▁ ▁Bibli ography ▁▁▁▁ ▁The ▁Official ▁Catholic ▁Direct ory ▁in ▁USA ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Church ▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Par ish ▁- ▁Paris hes On line . com ▁ ▁Our ▁Lady ▁of ▁Per pet ual ▁Help ▁Par ish ▁- ▁The C ath olic Directory . com ▁ ▁Di oc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River ▁ ▁Category : Pol ish - American ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁par ishes ▁of ▁Di oc ese ▁of ▁Fall ▁River ▁Category : R oman ▁Catholic ▁churches ▁in ▁Massachusetts ▁Category : Ch urches ▁in ▁New ▁Bed ford , ▁Massachusetts <0x0A> </s> ▁My cos pha er ella ▁pom i ▁is ▁a ▁plant ▁path ogen . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁My cos pha er ella ▁species ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : F ung al ▁plant ▁path og ens ▁and ▁diseases ▁pom i ▁Category : F ung i ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 9 7 <0x0A> </s> ▁Case ▁départ ▁( T ee ▁box ) ▁is ▁a ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁French ▁comedy ▁film ▁directed ▁by ▁Lion el ▁Ste ket ee , ▁Fab rice ▁E b ou é ▁and ▁Thomas ▁N ' G ij ol . ▁ ▁Plot ▁Half - bro thers ▁R ég is ▁( F ab rice ▁E b ou e ) ▁and ▁Joel ▁( Th omas ▁T g ij ol ) ▁G ros d és ir ▁are ▁called |
▁to ▁their ▁est r anged ▁father ' s ▁death bed ▁in ▁the ▁French ▁Ant illes . ▁He ▁has ▁nothing ▁to ▁be que ath ▁them ▁but ▁the ▁family ▁treasure ▁- ▁the ▁certificate ▁of ▁man um ission ▁that ▁freed ▁their ▁common ▁ancest or ▁from ▁slavery . ▁ ▁Unfortunately ▁wide ▁boy ▁R ég is ▁and ▁Uncle ▁Tom ▁race ▁trait or ▁Joel ▁are ▁observed ▁by ▁their ▁aunt ▁( Is abel ▁del ▁Carm en ▁Solar ▁Mont al vo ) ▁as ▁they ▁tear ▁the ▁precious ▁document ▁up ▁and ▁mock ▁it . ▁She ▁is ▁en r aged ▁and ▁cast s ▁a ▁spell ▁to ▁send ▁them ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century , ▁where ▁they ▁are ▁immediately ▁picked ▁up ▁and ▁sold ▁as ▁slaves . ▁In ▁a ▁Back ▁to ▁the ▁Future ▁style ▁coming - of - age ▁story line ▁they ▁must ▁help ▁their ▁great - grand parents ▁to ▁meet ▁and ▁fall ▁in ▁love , ▁if ▁they ▁have ▁any ▁hope ▁of ▁returning ▁to ▁their ▁lives ▁- ▁or ▁to ▁a ▁better ▁version ▁of ▁themselves . ▁ ▁Cast ▁ ▁Fab rice ▁E b ou é ▁– ▁R ég is ▁G ros d és ir ▁ ▁Thomas ▁N ' G ij ol ▁– ▁Jo ël ▁G ros d és ir ▁ ▁St é fi ▁Cel ma ▁– ▁Ros alie ▁ ▁E ri q ▁E b ou an ey ▁– ▁Is id ore ▁ ▁José ph ine ▁de ▁Me aux ▁– ▁José ph ine ▁Jour d ain ▁ ▁Catherine ▁H os mal in ▁– ▁Mad ame ▁Jour d ain ▁ ▁Ét ienne ▁Ch ic ot |
▁– ▁Mons ieur ▁Jour d ain ▁ ▁Bl anche ▁Gard in ▁– ▁Cor in ne ▁ ▁Nicol as ▁Mar ié ▁– ▁The ▁Mayor ▁ ▁Fran ck ▁de ▁la ▁Person ne ▁– ▁The ▁Pri est ▁ ▁David ▁S all es ▁– ▁M ▁Henri ▁ ▁D oud ou ▁M asta ▁– ▁Neg ' ▁Mar ron ' s ▁Chief ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : F rench ▁films ▁Category : F rench - language ▁films ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁films ▁Category : F rench ▁comedy ▁films ▁Category : Fil ms ▁about ▁race ▁and ▁ethnic ity ▁Category : Fil ms ▁about ▁slavery ▁Category : Fil ms ▁set ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁century ▁Category : Fil ms ▁shot ▁in ▁Cuba ▁Category : 2 0 1 1 ▁comedy ▁films <0x0A> </s> ▁Chris ▁Ch arter is ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 6 ) ▁is ▁a ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt or , ▁jew eller ▁and ▁car ver . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁ ▁Ch arter is ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁A uck land , ▁adopted ▁into ▁a ▁P ake ha ▁family ▁as ▁a ▁young ▁child , ▁and ▁told ▁he ▁was ▁M ā ori , ▁before ▁discover ing ▁much ▁later ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁of ▁Kir ib ati , ▁F ij ian ▁and ▁English ▁descent . ▁He ▁began ▁his ▁artistic ▁training ▁in ▁K ait a ia ▁in ▁Ma ori ▁car ving ▁and ▁design . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁and ▁ 1 9 9 6 , ▁he ▁worked ▁as ▁a ▁car ving ▁tut |
or ▁at ▁O tag o ▁and ▁South land ▁Poly techn ics , ▁and ▁the ▁Dun ed in ▁College ▁of ▁Education ' s ▁A rai ▁Te ▁U ru ▁K ok iri ▁Youth ▁Learning ▁Centre . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁he ▁established ▁Te ▁Wh are ▁Wh ak airo ▁Gallery ▁and ▁Work shop ▁in ▁Dun ed in . ▁ ▁Career ▁ ▁He ▁has ▁exhib ited ▁at ▁F h E ▁G aller ies ▁in ▁A uck land ▁with ▁T uan ako ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁To ▁the ▁Heart ▁of ▁the ▁M atter ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁and ▁M ata u ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁His ▁work ▁has ▁been ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁group ▁exhibition ▁W und err ū ma : ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery , ▁exhib ited ▁at ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ▁in ▁Lower ▁H utt ▁and ▁at ▁Gal erie ▁Hand werk ▁in ▁Mun ich . ▁His ▁work ▁was ▁also ▁part ▁of ▁Pas if ika ▁St yles ▁at ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁Arch ae ology ▁and ▁Anth rop ology , ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge . ▁His ▁work ▁was ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁third ▁and ▁fourth ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ien n ials , ▁Tur ang awa ew ae : ▁A ▁Public ▁Out ing , ▁held ▁at ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 , ▁and ▁Gram mar : ▁Subject s ▁and ▁Object s , ▁held ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁▁ 1 ▁Nob le ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D |
us ky ▁M aid ens ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁Ch arter is ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁jew ellers ▁N iki ▁H ast ings - Mc Fall ▁and ▁Sof ia ▁T ek ala - Sm ith ▁on ▁the ▁exhibition ▁ 1 ▁Nob le ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D us ky ▁M aid ens ▁at ▁Jud ith ▁Anderson ▁Gallery ▁in ▁A uck land , ▁which ▁helped ▁draw ▁attention ▁to ▁a ▁new ▁generation ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁artists ▁of ▁Pacific ▁descent ▁and ▁showed ▁“ what ▁contemporary ▁jew ellers ▁might ▁offer ▁to ▁contemporary ▁Pacific ▁identity ▁− ▁notably ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁play ful ▁appropri ation ▁of ▁Pacific ▁ad orn ment ▁that ▁is ▁iron ic ▁and ▁serious ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time .” ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁publication ▁titled ▁ 1 ▁Nob le ▁Sav age , ▁ 2 ▁D us ky ▁M aid ens ▁with ▁reprodu ctions ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁artists ' ▁work ▁and ▁essays ▁by ▁Mark ▁Kir by , ▁Lisa ▁Ta ou ma ▁and ▁Nicholas ▁Thomas . ▁The ▁publication ' s ▁c atalogue ▁featured ▁a ▁photograph ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁artists ▁in ▁a ▁f aux - eth n ographic ▁style , ▁dressed ▁in ▁traditional ▁manner ▁and ▁mim icking ▁the ▁convent ions ▁of ▁photographs ▁taken ▁in ▁Sam oa ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 9 0 s ▁for ▁Western ▁consumption , ▁as ▁a ▁comment ▁on ▁stere ot yp ical ▁present ations ▁of ▁Pacific ▁peoples . ▁ ▁Now ▁and ▁Then ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁Ch arter is ▁again ▁held ▁a ▁joint ▁exhibition ▁with ▁H ast |
ings - Mc Fall ▁titled ▁Now ▁and ▁Then ▁at ▁the ▁R H ▁Gallery ▁at ▁Wo oll ast on ▁in ▁Nelson . ▁The ▁over arch ing ▁principle ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁exhibition ▁was ▁' V a ', ▁or ▁the ▁Sam o an ▁concept ▁of ▁' the ▁space ▁between '. ▁In ▁his ▁work ▁for ▁the ▁exhibition ▁Ch arter is ▁explored ▁new ▁materials , ▁using ▁car ▁paint , ▁magn ets ▁and ▁mother ▁of ▁pear l ▁in ▁one ▁work , ▁and ▁n ik au ▁bark ▁in ▁another . ▁ ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Kir ib ati ▁project ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁Ch arter is ▁collabor ated ▁with ▁designer ▁and ▁director ▁Jeff ▁Smith ▁on ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Kir ib ati ▁project . ▁The ▁two ▁artists ▁trav elled ▁to ▁Kir ib ati ▁and ▁on ▁their ▁return ▁made ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁works ▁that ▁were ▁displayed ▁at ▁the ▁A uck land ▁War ▁Memorial ▁Museum ▁and ▁the ▁M ang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre . ▁At ▁the ▁Museum ▁items ▁from ▁the ▁Pacific ▁collection ▁were ▁mixed ▁with ▁new ▁art ▁works ▁by ▁Ch arter is , ▁a ▁digital ▁interactive ▁by ▁Smith , ▁and ▁arch ival ▁film ▁footage ; ▁items ▁from ▁the ▁Museum ' s ▁collection ▁were ▁also ▁shown ▁with ▁new ▁works ▁by ▁Smith ▁and ▁Ch arter is ▁at ▁the ▁M ang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre . ▁ ▁The ▁new ▁work ▁at ▁the ▁M ang ere ▁Arts ▁Centre ▁included ▁a ▁large - scale ▁installation ▁titled ▁Te ▁ma ▁( F ish - tr ap ). ▁ 7 . 4 ▁metres |
▁long ▁and ▁ 4 . 6 ▁metres ▁wide , ▁the ▁work ▁was ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁heart - shaped ▁fish ▁tr aps ▁built ▁off ▁the ▁sh ores ▁of ▁Kir ib ati ; ▁Ch arter is ▁used ▁ 8 0 0 0 ▁pairs ▁of ▁Ring ed ▁Ven us ▁shell s ▁to ▁rec reate ▁the ▁walls ▁of ▁the ▁fish ▁trap , ▁which ▁in ▁Kir ib ati ▁are ▁made ▁of ▁broken ▁cor al . ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁was ▁accompanied ▁by ▁a ▁publication , ▁T ung aru : ▁the ▁Kir ib ati ▁project , ▁with ▁an ▁extended ▁essay ▁by ▁Mark ▁Amer y , ▁and ▁photographs ▁of ▁the ▁artists ' ▁research ▁visit ▁to ▁Kir b ati ▁and ▁their ▁works . ▁ ▁The ▁exhibition ▁tou red ▁to ▁Pat aka ▁Art ▁+ ▁Museum ▁and ▁H ast ings ▁City ▁Art ▁Gallery ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 5 . ▁ ▁Collections ▁ ▁His ▁work ▁is ▁held ▁in ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Te ▁Papa ▁T ong are wa , ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum , ▁the ▁A uck land ▁War ▁Memorial ▁Museum , ▁the ▁British ▁Museum ▁and ▁the ▁Museum ▁of ▁Arch ae ology ▁and ▁Anth rop ology , ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge . ▁ ▁Further ▁information ▁Inter view ▁with ▁Chris ▁Ch arter is ▁Stand ing ▁Room ▁Only , ▁Radio ▁New ▁Zealand ▁National ▁ 2 0 1 4 ▁ ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum ; ▁Richard ▁Bell , ▁The ▁Third ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ien n ial : ▁Tur ang awa ew ae : ▁A ▁Public ▁Out ing , ▁ 1 9 9 |
8 . ▁ ▁Deb or ah ▁Crow e ; ▁The ▁Dow se ▁Art ▁Museum , ▁ 4 th ▁New ▁Zealand ▁Jew ell ery ▁B ien n ale : ▁Gram mar : ▁Subject s ▁and ▁Object s , ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 6 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁New ▁Zealand ▁sculpt ors ▁Category : People ▁from ▁A uck land <0x0A> </s> ▁" S aved ▁by ▁Love " ▁is ▁a ▁ 1 9 8 8 ▁single ▁by ▁the ▁Christian ▁music ▁singer ▁Amy ▁Grant . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁as ▁the ▁first ▁single ▁from ▁her ▁Lead ▁Me ▁On ▁album . ▁ ▁Key board ist ▁Ben mont ▁Ten ch ▁from ▁Tom ▁Pet ty ▁& ▁the ▁Heart break ers ▁was ▁the ▁featured ▁Ham mond ▁B - 3 ▁organ ▁player ▁on ▁the ▁song ' s ▁mid - s olo . ▁ ▁" S aved ▁by ▁Love " ▁was ▁a ▁number - one ▁Christian ▁hit ▁and ▁pe aked ▁at ▁# 3 2 ▁on ▁the ▁adult ▁contemporary ▁chart . ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Music ▁sample ▁ ▁Category : A my ▁Grant ▁songs ▁Category : 1 9 8 8 ▁singles ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Amy ▁Grant ▁Category : 1 9 8 8 ▁songs ▁Category : A & M ▁Records ▁singles <0x0A> </s> ▁A bar is ▁usually ▁refers ▁to ▁A bar is ▁the ▁Hy per b ore an , ▁a ▁legendary |
▁sage , ▁he aler , ▁and ▁priest ▁of ▁A pol lo ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁Anc ient ▁Gree ks . ▁ ▁A bar is ▁may ▁also ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁My th ology ▁A bar is ▁( C au cas ian ), ▁a ▁C au cas ian ▁killed ▁by ▁Per se us ▁A bar is ▁( D ol ion ian ), ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Dol ion ians ▁A bar is ▁( A ene id ), ▁an ▁al ly ▁of ▁Turn us ▁ ▁Other ▁uses ▁A bar is , ▁another ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁opera ▁Les ▁Bor é ades ▁A bar is ▁Air craft , ▁a ▁US ▁aircraft ▁manufacturer ▁A bar is ▁Books , ▁a ▁US ▁schol arly ▁publishing ▁house ▁A bar is ▁( gen us ), ▁genus ▁of ▁be et les ▁Georg ios ▁A bar is , ▁Greek ▁football er ▁A bar is , ▁another ▁name ▁of ▁A var is , ▁Hy ks os ▁capital ▁of ▁Egypt <0x0A> </s> ▁Er kan ▁Mum cu ▁( b . ▁May ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 3 ▁I sp arta , ▁Turkey ) ▁is ▁a ▁Turkish ▁politician ▁and ▁the ▁sixth ▁leader ▁of ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party ▁( An av atan ▁Part isi , ▁AN AP ). ▁ ▁Biography ▁Mum cu ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁the ▁western ▁An at ol ian ▁town ▁of ▁Y al va ç ▁in ▁I sp arta ▁Province . ▁His ▁father ▁was ▁Sü le yman ▁and ▁his ▁mother ▁C em ile . ▁ ▁He ▁graduated ▁from ▁the ▁I stan bul ▁University ' s ▁Fac ulty |
▁of ▁Law . ▁ ▁He ▁entered ▁politics ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 ▁as ▁deputy ▁of ▁I sp arta ▁from ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 7 – 1 9 9 8 , ▁Er kan ▁Mum cu ▁served ▁as ▁secretary ▁general ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 – 1 9 9 9 , ▁he ▁was ▁vice ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁party . ▁He ▁became ▁a ▁member ▁in ▁the ▁coalition ▁government ▁of ▁B ül ent ▁E ce v it ▁as ▁Minister ▁for ▁Tour ism ▁serving ▁from ▁May ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁to ▁August ▁ 8 , ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁ ▁He ▁joined ▁the ▁Justice ▁and ▁Development ▁Party ▁and ▁was ▁re e lected ▁from ▁I sp arta ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁elections ▁into ▁the ▁parliament . ▁In ▁the ▁cabinet ▁of ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Abd ull ah ▁G ül , ▁he ▁was ▁first ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁National ▁Education ▁and ▁then ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁Culture ▁and ▁Tour ism . ▁ ▁After ▁a ▁dispute ▁with ▁Re cep ▁Tay y ip ▁Er do ğ an , ▁he ▁resigned ▁on ▁February ▁ 1 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 , ▁and ▁joined ▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party ▁again . ▁Er kan ▁Mum cu ▁was ▁elected ▁ 6 th ▁president ▁of ▁AN AP ▁at ▁the ▁extraordinary ▁party ▁congress ▁on ▁April ▁ 2 , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁On ▁October ▁ 2 5 , ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁Mum cu ▁resigned ▁the ▁leadership ▁of |
▁the ▁Mother land ▁Party . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁married ▁with ▁two ▁children . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Turkish ▁Grand ▁National ▁Assembly ▁official ▁website ▁▁ ▁Mother land ▁party ▁official ▁website ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 6 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : People ▁from ▁I sp arta ▁Category : I stan bul ▁University ▁Fac ulty ▁of ▁Law ▁al umn i ▁Category : G overn ment ▁minister s ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Lead ers ▁of ▁political ▁parties ▁in ▁Turkey ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : M other land ▁Party ▁( Tur key ) ▁politicians ▁Category : Just ice ▁and ▁Development ▁Party ▁( Tur key ) ▁politicians ▁Category : Min ister s ▁of ▁National ▁Education ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Min ister s ▁of ▁Culture ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 2 nd ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 1 st ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey ▁Category : Members ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 th ▁Parliament ▁of ▁Turkey <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁term ▁Hal b j ude ▁( English : ▁Half - J ew ) ▁is ▁a ▁der og atory ▁term ▁for ▁people ▁with ▁a ▁non - J ew ish ▁and ▁a ▁Jewish ▁parent . ▁The ▁overwhelming ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁half - J ew s ▁were ▁legally ▁classified ▁as ▁" first - degree ▁Jewish ▁hy br ids " ▁during ▁the ▁National ▁Social ist ▁era . ▁Occ asion ally , ▁the ▁term ▁was ▁used ▁even ▁before ▁the ▁National ▁Social ist ▁era . ▁Within ▁Jud a ism ▁the ▁term ▁half ▁Jew |
▁is ▁unusual , ▁since ▁it ▁only ▁knows ▁" wh ole " ▁Jews , ▁namely ▁born ▁into ▁the ▁cultural ▁community ▁(" J ew ish ▁is ▁he ▁who ▁has ▁a ▁Jewish ▁mother ") ▁or ▁converted ▁by ▁Gi ur . ▁ ▁Situ ation ▁within ▁the ▁German ▁Reich ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁National ▁Social ist ▁era , ▁half - J ew s ▁was ▁not ▁a ▁legal ▁term . ▁The ▁term ▁was ▁not ▁used ▁in ▁the ▁N ure mber g ▁Race ▁Law s ▁and ▁the ▁related ▁ordin ances . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁the ▁keyword ▁half - J ew ▁was ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁D ud en ▁for ▁the ▁first ▁time : ▁The ▁group ▁of ▁" J ew ish ▁half - bre eds " ▁was ▁further ▁divided ▁into ▁" J ew ish ▁half - bre eds ▁of ▁the ▁first ▁degree " ▁with ▁two ▁Jewish ▁grand parents ▁and ▁" J ew ish ▁half - bre eds ▁of ▁the ▁second ▁degree " ▁with ▁one ▁Jewish ▁grand parent . ▁However , ▁first - degree ▁hy br ids ▁were ▁classified ▁in ▁different ▁categories , ▁despite ▁the ▁assumption ▁of ▁the ▁same ▁" bi ological - rac ial ▁ancest ry ": ▁They ▁were ▁not ▁regarded ▁as ▁" hy br ids " ▁but ▁as ▁" full ▁Jews " ▁if ▁they ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁Jewish ▁religious ▁community , ▁were ▁married ▁to ▁a ▁Jew ▁or ▁married ▁a ▁Jew ▁after ▁ 1 9 3 5 . ▁The ▁term ▁" G elt ungs j ude " ▁was ▁later ▁co ined ▁for ▁this ▁group ▁of ▁" half - J ew |
s ". ▁ ▁This ▁different iated ▁classification , ▁which ▁is ▁blur red ▁by ▁the ▁term ▁" Hal b j ude ", ▁was ▁of ▁exist ential ▁importance ▁for ▁those ▁affected . ▁If ▁they ▁were ▁classified ▁unf av our ably , ▁they ▁were ▁not ▁admitted ▁to ▁university ; ▁they ▁were ▁forced ▁to ▁work ▁at ▁an ▁early ▁stage ▁or ▁were ▁refused ▁a ▁marriage ▁permit . ▁During ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁in ▁mar ital ▁union ▁with ▁a ▁" full ▁Jew ", ▁" half - J ew s " ▁classified ▁as ▁" J ew s ▁of ▁G elt ungs jud en " ▁were ▁deport ed ▁with ▁their ▁sp ouses ▁to ▁g he tt os ▁or ▁ex termin ation ▁camps . ▁This ▁danger ▁also ▁threatened ▁" half - J ew ish " ▁children ▁if ▁the ▁non - J ew ish ▁spouse ▁had ▁converted ▁to ▁the ▁Jewish ▁faith , ▁and ▁even ▁if ▁the ▁sp ouses ▁separated ▁again ▁to ▁spare ▁the ▁children ▁per secut ion . ▁This ▁is ▁met ic ulously ▁documented ▁using ▁the ▁example ▁of ▁a ▁family ▁from ▁the ▁We im ar - Ap old a - J ena ▁region . ▁ ▁National ▁Social ists ▁tried ▁- ▁as ▁discussed ▁at ▁the ▁W ann see ▁Conference ▁- ▁to ▁class ify ▁all ▁" half - J ew s " ▁legally ▁as ▁" full ▁Jews " ▁and ▁to ▁deport ▁them . ▁The ▁fact ▁that ▁many ▁" half - J ew s " ▁were ▁also ▁" half - Christ ians " ▁was ▁always ▁ignored . ▁ ▁Situ ation ▁in ▁the ▁Occ up ied |
▁Terr itories ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁occupied ▁Eastern ▁territor ies , ▁" half - J ew s " ▁were ▁included ▁in ▁the ▁ex termin ation ▁process ▁ind is crim in ately ▁like ▁" full ▁Jews ". ▁The ▁Jewish ▁Department ▁at ▁the ▁Reich ▁Main ▁Security ▁Office ▁attempted ▁to ▁influence ▁the ▁controversial ▁decision - making ▁process ▁within ▁the ▁Reich ▁by ▁also ▁creating ▁facts ▁in ▁the ▁Western ▁occupation ▁areas . ▁In ▁August ▁ 1 9 4 1 ▁Ad olf ▁E ich mann , ▁in ▁agreement ▁with ▁Arthur ▁Se y ß - In qu art , ▁decided ▁to ▁equ ate ▁the ▁" half - J ew s " ▁living ▁in ▁the ▁Netherlands ▁with ▁the ▁" full ▁Jews " ▁and ▁to ▁deport ▁them . ▁As ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 2 , ▁" half - J ew s " ▁were ▁also ▁oblig ed ▁to ▁wear ▁the ▁Jewish ▁star ▁there . ▁ ▁Term ▁after ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁ ▁The ▁term ▁" Hal b j ude " ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁various ▁people ▁even ▁after ▁the ▁war . ▁Therefore ▁Ign az ▁B ub is ▁critic ized ▁ 1 9 9 9 : ▁ ▁The ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁Hal b j ude ▁has ▁also ▁established ▁itself ▁in ▁the ▁English - spe aking ▁world ▁as ▁" half - J ew ish " ▁or ▁" part - J ew ish ", ▁where by ▁the ▁more ▁scientific ▁term ▁" B eta ▁G ers hom " ▁is ▁already ▁mentioned ▁in ▁the ▁Bible . ▁In ▁other ▁languages , ▁the ▁word ▁" F ather - |
J ew ", ▁introduced ▁by ▁Andre as ▁Burn ier ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 5 , ▁has ▁since ▁spread , ▁mark ing ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁father ▁is ▁a ▁Jew , ▁but ▁not ▁the ▁mother . ▁This ▁term ▁is ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁provisions ▁of ▁the ▁Hal ak ha , ▁according ▁to ▁which ▁Jewish ▁religious ▁affili ation ▁is ▁usually ▁derived ▁by ▁birth ▁from ▁a ▁Jewish ▁mother . ▁ ▁E arlier ▁history ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁ ▁There ▁are ▁few ▁places ▁where ▁the ▁term ▁" Hal b j ude " ▁is ▁used ▁histor ically . ▁The ▁un pop ular ▁rul er ▁Her od ▁was ▁insult ed ▁as ▁a ▁" half - J ew " ▁because ▁his ▁family ▁came ▁from ▁Id um ä a , ▁an ▁area ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁for c ibly ▁converted ▁to ▁Jud a ism . ▁Since ▁he ▁was ▁c rowned ▁king ▁of ▁J ude a ▁by ▁Rome , ▁the ▁term ▁" half - J ew ish " ▁can ▁be ▁interpreted ▁as ▁a ▁vague , ▁der og atory ▁term ▁for ▁" J ew , ▁but ▁not ▁serving ▁Jewish ▁interests ", ▁similar ▁to ▁later ▁in ▁other ▁context s ▁" house - ne ger " ▁as ▁opposed ▁to ▁" field - ne ger " ▁in ▁Mal colm ▁X . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 1 , ▁the ▁anti - Sem ite ▁Eug en ▁D üh ring ▁clearly ▁used ▁the ▁term ▁The ▁Jewish ▁Question ▁as ▁a ▁question ▁of ▁race , ▁mor als ▁and ▁culture ▁as ▁a ▁der og atory ▁her edit ary ▁biological ▁term ▁in ▁his |
▁writing ▁" Die ▁Jud en fr age ". ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁▁ ▁Category : N azi ▁termin ology ▁Category : The ▁Hol oca ust <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Cape ▁Government ▁Rail ways ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁loc omot ives ▁include ▁five ▁loc omot ive ▁types , ▁all ▁designated ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ir res pective ▁of ▁differences ▁in ▁wheel ▁arrangement ▁or ▁configuration . ▁ ▁When ▁the ▁Union ▁of ▁South ▁Africa ▁was ▁established ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁May ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁the ▁three ▁Col onial ▁government ▁rail ways ▁( C ape ▁Government ▁Rail ways , ▁Natal ▁Government ▁Rail ways ▁and ▁Central ▁South ▁African ▁Rail ways ) ▁were ▁united ▁under ▁a ▁single ▁administration ▁to ▁control ▁and ▁administer ▁the ▁rail ways , ▁ports ▁and ▁har b ours ▁of ▁the ▁Union . ▁Those ▁of ▁these ▁loc omot ives ▁which ▁still ▁survived , ▁were ▁considered ▁ob solete ▁and ▁designated ▁Class ▁ 0 4 ▁on ▁the ▁new ▁South ▁African ▁Rail ways . ▁▁ 4 - 4 - 2 ▁wheel ▁arrangement ▁ ▁C GR ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ 4 - 4 - 2 ▁( T ender ) ▁▁ 4 - 6 - 0 ▁wheel ▁arrangement ▁ ▁C GR ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ 4 - 6 - 0 TT ▁ 1 8 8 0 ▁( T ank ▁and ▁optional ▁tender ) ▁ ▁C GR ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ 4 - 6 - 0 TT ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁( T ank - and - t ender , ▁Stephen son ▁val ve ▁gear ) ▁ ▁C |
GR ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ 4 - 6 - 0 TT ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁Joy ▁( T ank - and - t ender , ▁Joy ▁val ve ▁gear ) ▁ ▁C GR ▁ 4 th ▁Class ▁ 4 - 6 - 0 TT ▁ 1 8 8 4 ▁( T ank - and - t ender , ▁experimental ) ▁ ▁Re ferences <0x0A> </s> ▁West ▁Square ▁is ▁a ▁historic ▁square ▁in ▁south ▁London , ▁England , ▁just ▁south ▁from ▁St ▁George ' s ▁Road . ▁The ▁square ▁is ▁within ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁South w ark , ▁but ▁as ▁it ▁is ▁located ▁in ▁post code ▁SE 1 1 , ▁it ▁is ▁commonly ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁Lamb eth . ▁ ▁Location ▁Im medi ately ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁is ▁the ▁Imperial ▁War ▁Museum ▁( former ly ▁the ▁Beth lem ▁Royal ▁Hospital ). ▁To ▁the ▁south ▁is ▁the ▁Imperial ▁War ▁Museum ▁Anne x ▁( which ▁used ▁to ▁be ▁an ▁or ph ans ' ▁home ) ▁in ▁Austral ▁Street . ▁ ▁The ▁terr aced ▁houses ▁in ▁the ▁square ▁surround ▁a ▁commun al ▁garden ▁that ▁is ▁open ▁to ▁the ▁public ▁during ▁the ▁day ▁but ▁locked ▁at ▁night . ▁The ▁square ▁forms ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁larger ▁conservation ▁area . ▁ ▁History ▁West ▁Square ▁has ▁the ▁following ▁entry ▁in ▁Volume ▁XX V ▁of ▁the ▁Survey ▁of ▁London , ▁published ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 5 ▁by ▁the ▁then ▁London ▁County ▁Council . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 8 0 0 s , ▁the ▁square ▁was |
▁used ▁to ▁house ▁some ▁staff ▁at ▁the ▁Beth le hem ▁Royal ▁Hospital ▁( now ▁the ▁Imperial ▁War ▁Museum ). ▁In ▁addition , ▁there ▁were ▁Ste ward ' s ▁Qu arters ▁in ▁the ▁north - east ▁corner ▁of ▁the ▁Hospital ▁grounds . ▁King ▁Edward ' s ▁Schools ▁( closed ▁and ▁demol ished ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ) ▁occupied ▁the ▁eastern ▁side , ▁together ▁with ▁an ▁area ▁of ▁d rying ▁posts . ▁The ▁whole ▁eastern ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁old ▁Hospital ▁grounds ▁is ▁now ▁given ▁over ▁to ▁sports ▁facilities . ▁ ▁J . ▁A . ▁R . ▁New lands ▁( 1 8 3 7 – 1 8 9 8 ), ▁the ▁Victorian ▁chem ist ▁who ▁discovered ▁the ▁Period ic ▁Law ▁for ▁the ▁chemical ▁elements , ▁was ▁born ▁and ▁raised ▁in ▁No . ▁ 1 9 . ▁A ▁blue ▁pl aque , ▁installed ▁by ▁the ▁Royal ▁Society ▁of ▁Chem istry , ▁comm emor ates ▁New lands ▁on ▁the ▁front ▁of ▁the ▁house . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 8 4 – 5 , ▁the ▁Charlotte ▁Shar man ▁School ▁was ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁north - west ▁side , ▁named ▁after ▁its ▁founder , ▁a ▁Christian ▁phil anth rop ist . ▁Construction ▁of ▁the ▁school ▁— ▁which ▁is ▁still ▁located ▁there ▁— ▁required ▁the ▁demol ition ▁of ▁some ▁thirty ▁houses . ▁Part ▁of ▁the ▁site ▁is ▁now ▁occupied ▁by ▁the ▁Si ob han ▁Dav ies ▁Dance ▁Centre ▁ ▁As ▁a ▁young ▁child , ▁Charlie ▁Chap lin ▁( 1 8 8 9 – 1 9 7 |
7 ) ▁lived ▁at ▁ 3 9 ▁West ▁Square ▁for ▁a ▁short ▁period . ▁He ▁later ▁recalled : ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁the ▁garden ▁in ▁the ▁square ▁was ▁threatened ▁with ▁building ▁development , ▁but ▁there ▁was ▁a ▁campaign ▁to ▁keep ▁it . ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 9 , ▁the ▁free hold ▁was ▁bought ▁for ▁some ▁£ 4 0 0 0 ▁by ▁the ▁London ▁County ▁Council ▁and ▁the ▁Met ropolitan ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁South w ark . ▁They ▁en larg ed ▁and ▁restored ▁the ▁garden , ▁which ▁was ▁then ▁opened ▁for ▁public ▁use ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 . ▁The ▁square ▁was ▁scheduled ▁to ▁protect ▁it ▁under ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 1 ▁London ▁S qu ares ▁Pres ervation ▁Act . ▁However , ▁after ▁the ▁Second ▁World ▁War , ▁it ▁was ▁proposed ▁that ▁the ▁buildings ▁should ▁be ▁demol ished ▁and ▁the ▁area ▁added ▁to ▁Ger ald ine ▁Mary ▁Har ms worth ▁Park . ▁This ▁was ▁blocked ▁by ▁the ▁C iv ic ▁A men ities ▁Act ▁and ▁instead ▁the ▁square ▁became ▁a ▁conservation ▁area . ▁ ▁The ▁terr ace ▁of ▁five ▁houses ▁in ▁the ▁north - west ▁corner ▁of ▁the ▁square ▁were ▁demol ished ▁c 1 9 7 0 , ▁and ▁replaced ▁by ▁modern ▁town ▁houses ▁designed ▁to ▁blend ▁in ▁with ▁the ▁original ▁Georg ian ▁architecture ▁( the ▁corner ▁house ▁had ▁at ▁one ▁point ▁been ▁converted ▁into ▁a ▁pub , ▁The ▁City ▁Ar ms ). ▁The ▁west ▁side ▁of ▁the ▁square ▁was ▁also ▁much - |
al tered , ▁with ▁pairs ▁of ▁houses ▁being ▁run ▁together ▁to ▁create ▁four ▁later al ▁fl ats ▁in ▁each ▁property . ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 7 – 8 , ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁numbers ▁ 1 0 ▁and ▁ 1 1 , ▁the ▁terr ace ▁was ▁recon verted ▁to ▁single ▁houses . ▁Overall , ▁the ▁square ▁remains ▁largely ▁intact ▁and ▁of ▁historic ▁interest , ▁a ▁fact ▁reflected ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 2 ▁Grade ▁II ▁listing ▁of ▁the ▁east , ▁south ▁and ▁wide ▁sides . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Lor rim ore ▁Square , ▁also ▁in ▁South w ark ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁▁ ▁A ▁Short ▁History ▁of ▁London ' s ▁Garden ▁S qu ares : ▁ 1 9 0 0 ▁to ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁ ▁A ▁Walk ▁through ▁Lamb eth ▁and ▁South w ark ▁ ▁West ▁Square ▁Conserv ation ▁Area ▁App rais al ▁( Microsoft ▁Word ▁document ) ▁ ▁Category : 1 7 9 1 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁England ▁Category : S qu ares ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁Lamb eth ▁Category : S qu ares ▁in ▁the ▁London ▁Bor ough ▁of ▁South w ark <0x0A> </s> ▁Rena ▁( Our ania ) ▁Str at ig ou ▁( ; ▁ 1 9 2 9 - 1 6 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 4 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Greek ▁actress . ▁ ▁Biography ▁She ▁began ▁her ▁acting ▁career ▁and ▁belonged ▁to ▁her ▁father ' s ▁family ▁company , ▁V ass ilis ▁Str at igos . ▁ |
▁She ▁was ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁S . E . I . ▁on ▁October ▁ 1 0 , ▁ 1 9 4 7 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁she ▁participated ▁with ▁V eb o ''' s ▁company . ▁ ▁She ▁played ▁in ▁the ▁helping ▁of ▁M im is ▁Tra if or os - G ior g ou ▁Gian nak op oul os ▁V y ra ▁t is ▁ag ky res . ▁ ▁Along ▁with ▁her ▁sisters ▁Ale ka ▁and a ▁St ella , ▁she ▁sang ▁the ▁famous ▁song ▁in ▁numbers ▁of ▁produ ctions . ▁ ▁She ▁did ▁not ▁acted ▁long ▁in ▁theater . ▁ ▁During ▁her ▁the atr ical ▁years ▁and ▁her ▁transition , ▁she ▁appeared ▁in ▁films ▁including ▁O ▁meth yst ak as ▁( Ο ▁ μ ε θ ύ σ τ α κ α ς , ▁ 1 9 5 0 ), ▁Hal ima ▁( Χ α λ ι μ ά , ▁a ▁production ▁of ▁an ▁oper etta ▁by ▁The op hr ast os ▁Sak ell ar id is ) ▁O ute ▁g ata ▁out e ▁z im ia ▁( Ο ύ τ ε ▁ γ ά τ α , ▁ ο ύ τ ε ▁ ζ η μ ι ά , ▁a ▁comedy ▁by ▁Ale k os ▁Sak ell arios - Christ os ▁Gian nak op oul os ), ▁Pi ass ame ▁tin ▁k ali ▁( Π ι ά σ α μ ε ▁ τ η ν ▁ κ α λ ή ' ', ▁ 1 9 |
5 5 ). ▁ ▁She ▁had ▁a ▁small ▁sister , ▁I k len a ▁( <0xCE> <0x8A> κ λ ε ν α ) ▁who ▁died ▁at ▁a ▁young ▁age . ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁the ▁sister ▁of ▁Stefan os , ▁Ale ka ▁and ▁St ella . ▁ ▁She ▁died ▁in ▁At hens , ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁March ▁ 2 0 1 4 . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : 2 0 1 4 ▁deaths ▁Category : G reek ▁actress es ▁Category : Act ress es ▁from ▁At hens <0x0A> </s> ▁R of le pon ide ▁is ▁a ▁synthetic ▁gl uc oc ort ic oid ▁cort ic oster oid ▁which ▁was ▁never ▁market ed . ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : C ort ic oster oid ▁cycl ic ▁k et als ▁Category : C ycl ic ▁ac et als ▁with ▁al de hy des ▁Category : D ik et ones ▁Category : Di ols ▁Category : Fl u oro aren es ▁Category : Gl uc oc ort ic oids ▁Category : P reg n anes ▁Category : A band oned ▁drugs <0x0A> </s> ▁Man olo ▁Á l vare z ▁M era ▁( né ▁Manuel ▁Ern esto ▁Á l vare z - M era ▁ 7 ▁November ▁ 1 9 2 3 ▁Hav ana , ▁Cuba ▁– ▁ 1 6 ▁October ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁New ▁York ▁City ) ▁was ▁a ▁Cub an - born ▁ten or ▁who ▁flour ished ▁as ▁a ▁bel ▁c anto |
▁during ▁the ▁latter ▁ 1 9 4 0 s ▁and ▁full ▁ 1 9 5 0 s . ▁ ▁Despite ▁having ▁an ▁oper atic ▁cal iber ▁voice , ▁he ▁gained ▁popularity ▁signing ▁in ▁oper ett as , ▁musical ▁reviews , ▁radio , ▁television , ▁v au dev ille , ▁and ▁major ▁night ▁clubs ▁of ▁Cuba , ▁New ▁York , ▁and ▁Latin ▁America . ▁He ▁became ▁a ▁Cub an ▁ex ile ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 ▁after ▁the ▁Cub an ▁Revolution . ▁ ▁Career ▁▁ ▁Cuba ▁Á l vare z ▁was ▁born ▁November ▁ 7 , ▁ 1 9 2 3 , ▁to ▁the ▁marriage ▁of ▁Manuel ▁Al vare z ▁and ▁Ben iana ▁M era ▁( ma iden ), ▁in ▁the ▁L uy an ó ▁( e o ) ▁neighborhood ▁of ▁Die z ▁de ▁Oct ubre , ▁Hav ana , ▁Cuba . ▁After ▁formally ▁studying ▁voice ▁in ▁Hav ana , ▁Á l vare z ▁debut ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁at ▁the ▁Te atro ▁Pr incipal ▁de ▁la ▁Com edia ▁( Main ▁Theater ▁of ▁Com edy ) ▁in ▁Hav ana , ▁singing ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁Ni ño ▁Fernando ▁in ▁María ▁O ▁( es ), ▁a ▁one ▁act ▁z arz uela , ▁lyrics ▁by ▁Gust avo ▁S án chez ▁Gal arr aga ▁( 1 8 9 3 – 1 9 3 4 ), ▁music ▁by ▁Ern esto ▁L ec u ona . ▁ ▁Mar u ja ▁Gon zá lez ▁( 1 9 0 4 – 1 9 9 9 ) ▁sang ▁the |
▁sop r ano ▁role ▁of ▁Mary ▁O . ▁ ▁He ▁went ▁on ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁to ▁perform ▁at ▁the ▁Te atro ▁L í rico ▁Cub ano ▁( L y ric ▁Theater ▁of ▁Cuba ), ▁singing ▁in ▁La ▁Pl aza ▁de ▁la ▁C ated ral ▁( The ▁Cat hedral ▁Square ), ▁a ▁z arz uela ▁by ▁L ec u ona . ▁ ▁He ▁sang ▁the ▁same ▁work ▁for ▁radio ▁stations ▁R HC - C ad ena ▁Az ul ▁and ▁CM Q . ▁ ▁He ▁then ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁perform ▁in ▁several ▁z arz uel as ▁( mus icals ), ▁including ▁Lu isa ▁Fern anda , ▁Los ▁g av il anes ▁( es ), ▁La ▁le y enda ▁del ▁bes o ▁( es ), ▁La ▁dol or osa , ▁and ▁Cec ilia ▁V ald és , ▁which ▁included ▁sing ers ▁Mar u ja ▁Mont es ▁( 1 9 3 0 – 1 9 9 3 ), ▁Ros ita ▁For n és ▁( es ) ▁( born ▁ 1 9 4 3 ), ▁Z ora ida ▁Mar r ero ▁( 1 9 1 1 – 2 0 0 4 ), ▁Est her ▁Bor ja ▁( 1 9 1 3 – 2 0 1 3 ), ▁Sar ita ▁Esc arp ent ier ▁( born ▁ 1 9 2 5 ), ▁Dor ini ▁de ▁Dis o ▁( 1 9 0 1 – 1 9 4 8 ), ▁Miguel ▁de ▁Grand y , ▁Antonio ▁Pal ac ios , ▁Jes ús ▁Fre y re , ▁and ▁Greg |
orio ▁Bar rios ▁( es ) ▁( 1 9 1 1 – 1 9 7 8 ). ▁▁ ▁New ▁York ▁September ▁ 1 6 , ▁ 1 9 4 7 , ▁he ▁opened ▁in ▁New ▁York , ▁as ▁a ▁feature ▁singer ▁in ▁the ▁musical ▁rev ue ▁Vi ol ins ▁Over ▁Broadway ▁at ▁the ▁Diamond ▁H ors es ho es ▁Night ▁Club , ▁produced ▁by ▁imp res ario ▁Billy ▁Rose . ▁ ▁The ▁show ▁ran ▁for ▁two ▁years . ▁▁ ▁Brazil ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁Á l vare z ▁moved ▁to ▁Rio ▁de ▁Jane iro ▁and ▁performed ▁in ▁S ao ▁Paulo ▁and ▁on ▁several ▁Brazil ian ▁radio ▁stations . ▁▁ ▁Argentina , ▁Ch ili , ▁and ▁U rugu ay ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 2 , ▁Á l vare z ▁tou red ▁Buenos ▁Aires , ▁with ▁visits ▁to ▁Chile , ▁and ▁Monte video . ▁ ▁His ▁South ▁American ▁performances ▁were ▁ac claimed ▁by ▁the ▁Cub an ▁magazine , ▁Cart eles ▁( es ), ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 2 . ▁ ▁In ▁his ▁U rugu ay ▁radio ▁conc erts , ▁Á l vare z ▁was ▁h ailed ▁" Sir ▁Hy per b ole !" ▁Many ▁of ▁his ▁interpret ations , ▁including ▁" Mar ía ▁la ▁O " ▁( es ); ▁" Gr an ada ," ▁by ▁Ag ust ín ▁L ara ; ▁and ▁" A y - A y - A y ," ▁by ▁O sm án ▁Pé rez ▁Fre ire , ▁were ▁interrupted ▁with |
▁appl ause , ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁repeat ▁three ▁or ▁four ▁times . ▁ ▁The ▁night ▁of ▁the ▁fare well , ▁as ▁he ▁went ▁on ▁stage , ▁the ▁audience ▁— ▁more ▁than ▁two ▁thousand ▁excited ▁people ▁— ▁threw ▁a ▁rain ▁car n ations ▁and ▁ro ses , ▁forming ▁a ▁clo ak . ▁The ▁program ▁had ▁been ▁interrupted ▁for ▁a ▁long ▁time , ▁" the ▁natural ▁emotion ▁of ▁the ▁artist ▁in ▁such ▁a ▁beautiful ▁t ribute ." ▁ ▁" Á l vare z ▁continued ▁his ▁success ▁in ▁Brazil ▁and ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁For ▁months ▁Al vare z ▁had ▁been ▁an ▁exclusive ▁artist ▁for ▁Victor , ▁having ▁recorded ▁and ▁" Gr an ada ," ▁by ▁Ag ust ín ▁L ara , ▁and ▁" Des ped ida ," ▁by ▁María ▁Gre ver , ▁with ▁the ▁R CA ▁Orchestra ▁under ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁Ma estro ▁V ieri ▁F id anz ini ." ▁▁ ▁United ▁States ▁Á l vare z ▁returned ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 1 . ▁ ▁Acc om pan ied ▁by ▁the ▁Carlos ▁Mol ina ▁( 1 8 9 9 – 1 9 8 2 ) ▁Orchestra , ▁Á l vare z ▁sang ▁" Gr an ada " ▁in ▁a ▁short ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁film C arn ival ▁in ▁April , ▁released ▁in ▁ 3 D ▁by ▁Universal . ▁The ▁film ▁also ▁featured ▁T oni ▁Ar den , ▁Joseph ine ▁Prem ice , ▁and ▁Fernando ▁Rodr igue z . ▁ ▁On ▁April ▁ 4 , ▁ 1 9 |
5 4 , ▁he ▁appeared ▁on ▁the ▁television ▁show , ▁The ▁Col gate ▁Com edy ▁H our , ▁with ▁Eddie ▁Cant or . ▁ ▁He ▁also ▁appeared ▁at ▁the ▁Fl aming o ▁Las ▁Vegas ▁with ▁Fred die ▁Martin . ▁▁ ▁Hollywood ▁As ▁of ▁mid - M arch ▁ 1 9 5 3 , ▁Á l vare z ▁had ▁been ▁studying ▁six ▁months ▁with ▁Arthur ▁Rosen berg . ▁ ▁On ▁April ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 9 5 4 ▁— ▁Easter ▁Sunday ▁— ▁Á l vare z ▁sang ▁" The ▁Lord ' s ▁Pray er ," ▁in ▁a ▁sun rise ▁national ▁broadcast ▁produced ▁by ▁David ▁Rose ▁at ▁the ▁Hollywood ▁Bowl ▁with ▁condu ctor ▁Mik l ós ▁R óz sa . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 4 , ▁he ▁appeared ▁as ▁a ▁featured ▁singer ▁in ▁New ▁York ▁at ▁the ▁Wald orf ▁Ast oria ▁with ▁Fred die ▁Martin ▁and ▁His ▁Orchestra . ▁ ▁He ▁also ▁appeared ▁at ▁the ▁Edge water ▁Beach ▁in ▁Chicago , ▁and ▁the ▁Sky room ▁at ▁the ▁Map es ▁Hotel ▁in ▁Ren o . ▁ ▁He ▁held ▁a ▁principal ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁production ▁Spanish ▁Fant asy , ▁a ▁show ▁that ▁tou red ▁America , ▁performing ▁at ▁ven ues ▁that ▁included ▁the ▁Terr ace ▁Room ▁at ▁the ▁Stat ler ▁Hotel ▁in ▁Los ▁Angeles . ▁and ▁the ▁Empire ▁Room ▁at ▁the ▁Stat ler ▁H ilton ▁in ▁Dallas . ▁He ▁also ▁sang ▁on ▁the ▁NBC ▁television ▁program ▁Saturday ▁Night ▁Review , ▁Coast ▁to ▁Coast . ▁▁ ▁Ant io qu ia ▁and ▁Cuba ▁ ▁In |
▁August ▁ 1 9 5 5 , ▁Á l vare z ▁was ▁featured ▁in ▁a ▁T rop ican a ▁production ▁of ▁Ev oc ación ▁( Ev ocation ) ▁and ▁Se is ▁Lind as ▁Cub anas ▁( S ix ▁Pretty ▁Cub ans ), ▁the ▁latter ▁being ▁song ▁refer encing ▁the ▁six ▁provin ces ▁of ▁Cuba ▁( before ▁the ▁Revolution ). ▁ ▁The ▁production ▁was ▁st aged ▁by ▁Rodr igo ▁Ne ira ▁who ▁was ▁known ▁as ▁" R od ney ." ▁ ▁The ▁show ▁was ▁presented ▁in ▁a ▁tele cast ▁from ▁Med ell ín , ▁Ant io qu ia , ▁and ▁was ▁a ▁review ▁of ▁nineteenth ▁century ▁Cub an ▁dance ▁and ▁music . ▁Other ▁perform ers ▁included ▁X iom ara ▁Alf aro , ▁Cu art eto ▁F ax as , ▁Est el ita ▁Sant al ó , ▁Cu art eto ▁d ' A ida , ▁Leon ela ▁Gon zá lez , ▁D ancers ▁Ana ▁Gl oria ▁and ▁Rol ando , ▁and ▁the ▁L ago ▁Sister s ▁T rio . ▁ ▁The ▁same ▁production , ▁with ▁mostly ▁the ▁same ▁artists , ▁including ▁Á l vare z , ▁was ▁presented ▁in ▁a ▁tele cast ▁April ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 6 . ▁▁ ▁Hollywood ▁In ▁America , ▁he ▁once ▁replaced ▁the ▁voice ▁of ▁Mario ▁L anza ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 5 8 ▁film , ▁Seven ▁Hills ▁of ▁Rome . ▁▁ ▁Final ▁performances ▁in ▁Cuba ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 5 8 , ▁Á l vare z ▁head lined ▁in ▁the ▁Copa ▁Room ▁at |
▁the ▁Hotel ▁Hab ana ▁R iv iera ▁with ▁Cu art eto ▁d ' A ida . ▁ ▁Among ▁Á l vare z ' s ▁last ▁stage ▁performances ▁in ▁Cuba , ▁he ▁was ▁ac claimed ▁for ▁his ▁appearances ▁in ▁the ▁theater ▁as ▁Ivan ▁Mart i ▁in ▁La ▁le y enda ▁del ▁bes o ▁( es ) ▁( 1 9 5 9 ) ▁and ▁Ros illon ▁in ▁The ▁Mer ry ▁W id ow ▁( 1 9 6 0 ). ▁ ▁In ▁Cuba , ▁he ▁performed ▁on ▁television , ▁in ▁the aters , ▁on ▁several ▁record ings , ▁and ▁in ▁cas inos , ▁which ▁included ▁the ▁T rop ican a ▁and ▁Hotel ▁Cap ri . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 5 9 , ▁Á l vare z ▁sang ▁on ▁TV ▁" Ad ió s , ▁Gran ada ," ▁in ▁Em igr antes , ▁a ▁z arz uela ▁composed ▁by ▁Tom ás ▁Barr era ▁Sa aved ra ▁( es ) ▁( 1 8 7 0 – 1 9 3 8 ) ▁and ▁Raf ael ▁Cal le ja ▁G ó me z ▁( 1 8 7 0 – 1 9 3 8 ). ▁ ▁Other ▁perform ers ▁in ▁that ▁production ▁included ▁Alfred o ▁K ra us , ▁Miguel ▁F let a , ▁Victoria ▁de ▁los ▁Á ng eles , ▁T ito ▁Sch ipa , ▁Gi useppe ▁Di ▁Ste f ano , ▁H ip ól ito ▁L áz aro , ▁Pe pe ▁Rome u , ▁Juan ▁Garc ía , ▁Luis ▁Mar iano , ▁M isha ▁Alexand rov ich . |
▁( On ▁Arch ive . org ) ▁ ▁Ac claimed ▁by ▁the ▁Di ario ▁de ▁la ▁Marina ▁as ▁" the ▁First ▁Ten or ▁of ▁Cuba ▁and ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁best ▁in ▁the ▁world ," ▁Á l vare z , ▁on ▁February ▁ 2 , ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁head lined ▁on ▁N oche ▁Cub ana , ▁a ▁live ▁evening ▁national ▁tele cast ▁by ▁C MB F - TV ▁( es ). ▁ ▁Other ▁sing ers ▁included ▁Bar bar ito ▁Die z , ▁María ▁Ter esa ▁V era , ▁Loren zo ▁Hier rez uel o , ▁and ▁the ▁group ▁Cu art eto ▁d ' A ida . ▁ ▁On ▁August ▁ 2 1 , ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁Á l vare ze ▁was ▁featured ▁on ▁the ▁Ed ▁Sull ivan ▁Show , ▁singing ▁" M att in atta ." ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 6 3 , ▁he ▁settled ▁in ▁New ▁York , ▁where ▁he ▁died ▁on ▁October ▁ 1 4 , ▁ 1 9 8 6 . ▁He ▁had ▁lived ▁at ▁ 2 1 6 ▁West ▁ 1 0 2 nd ▁Street ▁in ▁Manhattan . ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁embargo ▁against ▁Cuba , ▁Á l vare z ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁return ▁to ▁Cuba ▁after ▁ 1 9 6 0 . ▁▁ ▁Family ▁ ▁Á l vare z ▁married ▁D elf ina ▁Cou g il ▁Fern ande z ▁( born ▁ 1 3 ▁March ▁ 1 9 2 5 ). ▁ ▁They ▁had ▁two ▁children : ▁( i ) ▁Ter |
es ita ▁( T erry ) ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 9 ), ▁( ii ) ▁Manuel ▁( born ▁ 1 9 6 1 ). ▁▁ ▁Se lected ▁disc ography ▁▁▁ ▁Man olo ▁Á l vare z - M era , ▁P uch it io ▁M LP - 5 0 5 ▁( LP ) ▁( 1 9 6 ?) ▁ ▁Man olo ▁Á l vare z - M era , ▁ten or ▁vocal ; ▁Or questa ▁B ajo , ▁Roberto ▁V ald és ▁Arn au , ▁director ▁▁▁ ▁Side ▁A ▁ ▁" J ú r ame " ▁( es ) ▁(" Sw ear "), ▁by ▁María ▁Gre ver ▁( on ▁YouTube ) <0x09> <0x09> ▁ ▁" M arta ," ▁by ▁M ois és ▁Sim ons ▁( On ▁YouTube ) <0x09> ▁ ▁" No ▁N ieg ues ▁que ▁me ▁qu is istes " ▁(" Do ▁Not ▁Den y ▁That ▁You ▁W anted ▁Me "), ▁by ▁Jorge ▁del ▁Mor al ▁( On ▁YouTube ) <0x09> <0x09> ▁ ▁" S iem pre ▁en ▁Mi ▁Cor az ón " ▁(" Al ways ▁In ▁My ▁Heart "), ▁by ▁Ern esto ▁L ec u ona ▁† ▁( 1 st ▁on ▁YouTube , ▁ 2 nd , ▁ 3 rd ) ▁▁ ▁" No ▁P ued o ▁ser ▁fel iz " ▁(" I ▁Can ▁Not ▁Be ▁Happy "), ▁by ▁Ad ol fo ▁Gu z man ▁( On ▁YouTube ) ▁ ▁Side ▁B ▁" T orna ▁a ▁Sor ri ento " ▁(" Come ▁Back ▁to ▁Sor rent o ") ▁by |
▁Ern esto ▁De ▁Curt is ▁" M att in atta " ▁(" M or ning "), ▁by ▁Rug ger o ▁Leon c av allo ▁( On ▁YouTube ) ▁ ‡ ▁" Core ▁' ng r ato " ▁(" In gr ate ▁Heart "), ▁by ▁Salv atore ▁Card illo , ▁Ric card o ▁Cord ifer ro ▁( it ) ▁" La ▁don na ▁è ▁mobile " ▁(" W omen ▁Are ▁Flight y "), ▁by ▁Ver di ▁" E stre ll ita " ▁ ▁(" L ittle ▁Star "), ▁by ▁Manuel ▁P once ▁▁ ▁C anc iones ▁Cub anas ▁( C ub an ▁Songs ), ▁Vol . ▁II , ▁P uch it io ▁M LP - 5 5 3 ▁& ▁Ant illa ▁M LP - 5 5 3 ▁( LP ) ▁( 1 9 6 ?) ▁ ▁Man olo ▁Á l vare z - M era ; ▁Gran ▁Or questa , ▁Roberto ▁V ald és ▁Arn au , ▁director ▁▁▁ ▁Side ▁A ▁ ▁" Mar ía ▁Bel én ▁Ch ac ón " ▁(" Rom ance ▁of ▁María ▁Bel én "), ▁words ▁adopted ▁by ▁José ▁S án chez ▁Arc illa , ▁music ▁by ▁Rodr igo ▁Pr ats ▁ ▁" Si ▁l le go ▁a ▁bes arte " ▁(" If ▁I ▁Kiss ▁You "), ▁by ▁Luis ▁Cas as ▁Rom ero ▁( 1 8 8 2 – 1 9 5 0 ) ▁( On ▁YouTube ) ▁ ▁" Q ui é reme ▁Much o " ▁(" Y ours "), ▁lyrics ▁by ▁Ag ust in ▁Rodr igue z , |
▁music ▁by ▁Gon z alo ▁Ro ig ▁( On ▁YouTube ) ▁ ▁" Mir ame ▁así " ▁(" Look ▁At ▁Me , ▁Well "), ▁by ▁Edu ardo ▁S án chez ▁de ▁F uent es ▁( On ▁YouTube ) ▁ ▁" S ol ed ad " ▁(" L onel iness "), ▁by ▁Rodr igo ▁Pr ats ▁▁ ▁Side ▁B ▁" Es cl avo ▁libre " ▁(" Free ▁Sl ave "), ▁by ▁Ern esto ▁L ec u ona ▁" La ▁Bay ames a " ▁(" W omen ▁ ▁of ▁Bay amo , ▁Cuba "), ▁by ▁S indo ▁Gar ay ▁On ▁YouTube ▁" Cor az on " ▁(" He art "), ▁by ▁Edu ardo ▁S án chez ▁de ▁F uent es <0x09> ▁" H aban era ▁T ú " ▁(" You ▁Dance " ▁the ▁H aban era ), ▁by ▁Edu ardo ▁S án chez ▁de ▁F uent es ▁( 1 st ▁on ▁YouTube , ▁ 2 nd ) ▁" Mar ía ▁la ▁O " ▁( es ), ▁lyrics ▁by ▁Gust avo ▁S án chez ▁Gal arr aga ▁( 1 8 9 3 – 1 9 3 4 ), ▁music ▁by ▁Ern esto ▁L ec u ona ▁▁ ▁Por ▁Los ▁Camp os ▁De ▁Cuba ▁( Th rough ▁the ▁Field s ▁of ▁Cuba ) ▁AF ▁Records ▁( LP ) ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) ▁" La ▁Bay ames a " ▁(" W omen ▁ ▁of ▁Bay amo , ▁Cuba "), ▁by ▁S indo ▁Gar ay ▁( of ▁ 1 5 ▁tracks ) ▁▁ ▁America ▁In m ort |
al , ▁Re yes ▁( LP ) ▁( 1 9 9 6 ) <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> <0x09> ▁" La ▁Bay ames a " ▁(" W omen ▁ ▁of ▁Bay amo , ▁Cuba "), ▁by ▁S indo ▁Gar ay ▁( of ▁ 1 5 ▁tracks ) ▁▁ ▁Fun c ion ▁de ▁G ala ▁( G ala ), ▁J . ▁& ▁G . ▁Record ings ▁( 1 9 6 ?) ▁ ▁Live , ▁Te atro ▁Mart i , ▁Hav ana ▁▁ ▁" E len a ," ▁by ▁Roberto ▁Garc ía ▁Mas vid al ▁( of ▁ 1 2 ▁tracks ) ▁" Y o ▁S oy ▁T ú ▁Fr ac as o " ▁(" I ' m ▁Your ▁Fail ure "), ▁by ▁Roberto ▁Garc ía ▁Mas vid al ▁( of ▁ 1 2 ▁tracks ) ▁▁ ▁Man olo ▁Al vare z - M era , ▁R CA ▁Victor ▁ 8 2 - 5 4 7 0 ▁( 7 8 ▁r pm ) ▁▁ 8 2 - 5 4 5 0 - A : ▁" Gr an ada ," ▁by ▁Ag ust ín ▁L ara ▁▁ 8 2 - 5 4 5 0 - B : ▁" Des ped ida ," ▁by ▁María ▁Gre ver ▁▁ ▁S MC ▁Records ▁( 7 8 ▁r pm ) ▁ ▁Man olo ▁Al vare z - M era ; ▁Orchestra ▁directed ▁by ▁Roberto ▁V ald és ▁Arn au ▁▁ 2 5 2 1 - B ▁" Rom ance ▁Git ano ," ▁by ▁Carlos ▁Gran |
ados ▁▁▁▁ ▁† ▁The ▁song ▁" Al ways ▁in ▁My ▁Heart " ▁received ▁an ▁Oscar ▁nom ination ▁for ▁" Best ▁Original ▁Song ," ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁film , ▁Always ▁in ▁My ▁Heart , ▁losing ▁to ▁" White ▁Christmas " ▁from ▁the ▁film ▁White ▁Christmas . ▁ ▁Non etheless , ▁some ▁critics ▁regard ▁Á l vare z ' s ▁recording ▁of ▁" S iem pre ▁en ▁mi ▁cor az on " ▁as ▁the ▁best ▁performance ▁of ▁the ▁song . ▁▁▁ ‡ ▁" M att in ata " ▁(" M or ning "), ▁written ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 4 , ▁was ▁the ▁first ▁song ▁ever ▁written ▁express ly ▁for ▁the ▁Gram oph one ▁Company ▁( the ▁present ▁day ▁H M V ). ▁▁ ▁Se lected ▁vide ography ▁▁ ▁" Gen esis " ▁ ▁Manuel ▁Al vare z ▁M era ▁▁ ▁" La ▁Vi uda " ▁(" The ▁Mer ry ▁W id ow ") ▁ ▁Manuel ▁Al vare z ▁M era ▁▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁General ▁sources ▁▁ ▁Man olo ▁Á l vare z ▁on ▁E cu Red '' ▁( access ed ▁December ▁ 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 5 ) ▁ ▁Article ▁Man olo ▁Al vare z - M era . ▁Available ▁at ▁. ▁Access ed : ▁August ▁ 1 9 , ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁ ▁Man olo ▁Al vare z ▁M era ' s ▁photo , ▁courtesy ▁University ▁of ▁Miami ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁In line ▁cit ations ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 2 3 ▁birth s |
▁Category : 1 9 8 6 ▁deaths ▁Category : People ▁from ▁Hav ana ▁Category : C ub an ▁male ▁sing ers ▁Category : C ub an ▁oper atic ▁ten ors ▁Category : C ub an ▁classical ▁musicians ▁Category : C ub an ▁male ▁musical ▁theatre ▁actors ▁Category : Met ro - Gold w yn - M ayer ▁contract ▁players ▁Category : Oper a ▁c ros so ver ▁sing ers ▁Category : R CA ▁Victor ▁artists ▁Category : Tr ad itional ▁pop ▁music ▁sing ers ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁classical ▁musicians ▁Category : C ub an ▁ex iles ▁Category : C ub an ▁exp atri ates ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁Cub an ▁sing ers ▁Category : 2 0 th - century ▁male ▁sing ers <0x0A> </s> ▁Nick named ▁The ▁R azor ▁Junior ▁Far z an ▁Ali ▁is ▁the ▁current ▁W BF ▁Asia ▁Pacific ▁light weight ▁champion . ▁With ▁ 2 5 ▁wins ▁for ▁ 3 2 ▁fights , ▁Far z an ▁is ▁regarded ▁as ▁F iji ' s ▁best ▁pound ▁for ▁pound ▁box er . ▁He ▁has ▁a ▁brother , ▁Joy ▁Ali ▁who ▁is ▁also ▁ranked ▁internation ally . ▁Far z an ▁is ▁scheduled ▁to ▁fight ▁Ryan ▁Lan gh am ▁for ▁the ▁World ▁Box ing ▁Foundation ▁Wel ter weight ▁title ▁in ▁August . ▁Far z an ▁is ▁F iji ' s ▁local ▁champion ▁in ▁seven ▁divisions ▁ranging ▁from ▁b ant am weight ▁to ▁wel ter weight . ▁ ▁Ex ternal ▁links ▁ ▁Box ▁Rec |
▁profile ▁ ▁Re ferences ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 8 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : W el ter weight ▁box ers ▁Category : F ij ian ▁Muslims ▁Category : F ij ian ▁male ▁box ers ▁Category : S ports people ▁from ▁N adi <0x0A> </s> ▁Max ▁Glass ▁( J une ▁ 1 2 , ▁ 1 8 8 1 ▁– ▁July ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 9 6 5 ) ▁was ▁an ▁Aust rian ▁screen writer , ▁film ▁director , ▁and ▁producer . ▁ ▁Glass ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Jar os l au , ▁which ▁was ▁then ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Aust ro - H ung arian ▁Empire , ▁into ▁a ▁Jewish ▁family , ▁but ▁later ▁converted ▁to ▁Catholic ism . ▁He ▁gained ▁a ▁PH D ▁in ▁Philosoph y ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Vienna . ▁Glass ▁entered ▁the ▁German ▁film ▁industry ▁as ▁a ▁writer , ▁but ▁soon ▁became ▁a ▁producer . ▁By ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 2 0 s ▁he ▁rose ▁to ▁be ▁head ▁of ▁production ▁at ▁Ter ra ▁Film ▁before ▁breaking ▁away ▁to ▁set ▁up ▁his ▁own ▁production ▁company ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 8 ▁Glass ' ▁lover ▁the ▁actress ▁Ruth ▁Wer ner ▁appeared ▁in ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁his ▁films ▁but ▁was ▁unable ▁to ▁marry ▁him ▁until ▁he ▁had ▁secured ▁a ▁divorce ▁from ▁his ▁first ▁wife . ▁ ▁Following ▁the ▁Nazi ▁take over ▁of ▁power ▁in ▁Germany ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁Glass ' ▁production ▁companies ▁were ▁shut ▁down ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁go |
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