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Taking
informationization as the goal and strategic focus in its modernization drive, the Navy gives
high priority to the development of maritime information systems, and new-generation
weaponry and equipment
(China's National Defense in 2006). As a part of PLAN
modernization program, PLAN has been developing blue water navy capabilities.
PLAN does not currently have an aircraft carrier. However, evidence suggests they are
pursing such technology and have the capability to construct one. Renovation to a former
Soviet Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier may be used for training purposes, and the Chinese
have expressed interest in acquiring Russian Su-33 carrier-borne fighters. The ex-Australian
carrier Melbourne also provided research for the PLAN as it was towed to China for scrap.
Russian assistance, coupled with an already capable ship building infrastructure, could allow
PLAN to rapidly develop an aircraft carrier. The PLAN's ambitions include operating out to
the first and second island chains, extending operations to the South Pacific near Australia,
north to the Aleutian Islands, and west to the Strait of Malacca towards the Indian Ocean
(Annual Report to Congress 2008).
China
s submarine fleet is derived from outdated Russian technology and is seeking to
become a more modern and smaller force. Early Chinese submarines were domestically
produced versions of the Soviet Romeo class submarine, which were only capable of coastal
patrols with deployment to sea limited to a few days per year. One Romeo was modified to
carry six YJ-1 (C-801) anti-ship missiles, but it had to surface to fire them. The Chinese
Ming class submarines produced in the 1970s were not much better, other than being of
newer construction. This was followed by the Song class submarine, which had a
streamlined hull and can be fitted with anti-ship missiles capable of being fired while
submerged. China returned to purchasing subs in the late 1990s with the Russian Kilo class
submarine. The Type 041 Yuan Class is the newest diesel-electric submarine in the PLAN.
Its design incorporates parts of the Song class and Russian Kilo class submarines. The Yuan
class has five torpedo tubes capable of launching indigenous torpedos as well as Russian
Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
designed torpedos, and it is believed to have anti-ship missiles. This ship was designed to
replace the aging Romeo and Ming class submarines which currently form the backbone of
the PLAN
s submarine fleet (Chinese Submarines 2008; see also China
s Navy 2007).
Chinese produced Han class nuclear submarines were plagued with problems. A follow-on
Type 093 nuclear submarine was developed with experience from the Han class and further
assistance from Russian submarine builders, such as advanced wielding and construction
techniques. Despite being armed with new Chinese wire-guided torpedoes; the Type 093
overall capability remains comparable to Russian technology of the late 1970s. Nevertheless,
China continues to make progress and the true level of Russian assistance lacks transparency
(Smith 2001). Further, the Type 093 may have benefited from German fuel cell technology
and French design, which could allow for two to three weeks of submerged operations
without having to surface to recharge batteries. Internet-source photos of Type 039s under
construction also show Chinese mastery of advanced multi-layer rubber/polymer hull
coatings that greatly reduce hull-radiated noise while limiting the effectiveness of activesonar detection (Chinese Submarines 2008).
China maintains a fleet of approximately 28 destroyers, 48 frigates, and 30 ocean-capable fast
attack craft. The frigates were designed for anti-surface warfare, and lacking significant selfdefence. Chinese-built destroyers include the Luhu class, the Luhai class, and the Luda
I/II/III, from oldest to newest, respectively. The Luhai and Luda class are armed with a
battery of guns, torpedos, mortars, optional helicopter pads, and domestically built Crotale
SAMs which were built from designs provided by France in the 1980s. Construction of the
Luhai class was delayed from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s due to construction of frigates
for the Thai Navy. The most powerful addition to the PLAN is the Russian-built
Sovremenny class destroyers. These include MOSKIT anti-ship missiles and KASHTAN
combined gun/missile ship defence systems. While these designs are non-stealth 1970s
Russian technology, outdated by current designs, they provided the PLAN with modern antiship, anti-air, and anti-submarine systems. The most recent Sovremenny acquisitions carry 8
Sunburn supersonic sea-skimming ASM and the SA-N-7 Gadfly, which will give PLAN
limited naval air-defence capability. Up to this point, China only possessed short-range
SAMs of French or domestic design (Surface Combatants 2008; IISS 2008).
Improvements in stealth design of the PLAN
s ships further the notion that China seeks to
modernize by purchasing or clandestinely obtaining technology from other states, reverse
engineering that technology, and then attempting to make upgraded domestically produced
versions. According to Frank Moore of the Institute for Defence and Disarmament Studies:
The PLA developed new stealthy warships benefiting from Russian or Ukrainian design
advice, weapons, electronics and other systems, plus new computer aided design methods
which speeded their development. By 2002 it was possible to observe the construction of
three new classes of warships via Chinese internet sources ... the No. 168 class, which
armed with Russian SHTIL SAMs, Russian radar, Kamov Ka-28 ASW helicopters and
Chinese C-802/803 anti-ship missiles, and powered by Ukrainian gas turbine engines. Soon
after two No. 170 class destroyers were launched. These featured large phased array radar
similar in appearance to the U.S. AEGIS system... Most likely the new "AEGIS" radar comes
from the Ukrainian KVANT bureau and is a newly-developed active phased array radar with a
broad search range of about 150km ... In 2003 [PLAN] launched two Type 054 stealthy
frigates. Some sources indicate production was halted at two ships pending the completion of
a new Russian SAM... In early 2004 internet-source pictures of a model of this new variant,
apparently from a Chinese shipbuilding exhibition, confirmed that it will feature a new verticallaunched SAM and be outfitted with Russian radar and missile guidance systems. The Type
054 is also powered by co-produced French-designed SEMT Pielstick marine diesel engines.
Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
A fourth stealthy warship emerged in April 2004: a new fast-attack craft (FAC). Now being
produced at two or three shipyards, this new FAC utilizes a wave-piercing catamaran (twin)
hull design, which improves stability at high speeds even in rough seas. It is based on a
design obtained from the Australian fast-ferry firm AMD... [with] radar-absorbing materials
applied to the hull. (Moore 2000).
Not only does this illustrate China
s use of foreign technology, it also demonstrates the
complexity of modern warfare. These are highly sophisticated weapons, weapons pieced
together from multiple sources, the existence of which was leaked onto the internet.
Air Force
The People
s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) is the third largest air force in the world
behind the United States and Russia. The PLAAF employs 250,000 personnel and 1,762
combat aircraft (IISS 2008). The Soviet Union helped found the PLAAF in 1949, providing
aircraft in 1951, and production technology and pilot training in 1953. China gained limited
air combat experience during the Korean War. In 1956 China began assembling its own
aircraft based on Soviet design, such as the J-2, J-5, and J-6, copies of the MiG-15, Mig-17,

Taking

informationization as the goal and strategic focus in its modernization drive, the Navy gives

high priority to the development of maritime information systems, and new-generation

weaponry and equipment

(China's National Defense in 2006). As a part of PLAN

modernization program, PLAN has been developing blue water navy capabilities.

PLAN does not currently have an aircraft carrier. However, evidence suggests they are

pursing such technology and have the capability to construct one. Renovation to a former

Soviet Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier may be used for training purposes, and the Chinese

have expressed interest in acquiring Russian Su-33 carrier-borne fighters. The ex-Australian

carrier Melbourne also provided research for the PLAN as it was towed to China for scrap.

Russian assistance, coupled with an already capable ship building infrastructure, could allow

PLAN to rapidly develop an aircraft carrier. The PLAN's ambitions include operating out to

the first and second island chains, extending operations to the South Pacific near Australia,

north to the Aleutian Islands, and west to the Strait of Malacca towards the Indian Ocean

(Annual Report to Congress 2008).

China

s submarine fleet is derived from outdated Russian technology and is seeking to

become a more modern and smaller force. Early Chinese submarines were domestically

produced versions of the Soviet Romeo class submarine, which were only capable of coastal

patrols with deployment to sea limited to a few days per year. One Romeo was modified to

carry six YJ-1 (C-801) anti-ship missiles, but it had to surface to fire them. The Chinese

Ming class submarines produced in the 1970s were not much better, other than being of

newer construction. This was followed by the Song class submarine, which had a

streamlined hull and can be fitted with anti-ship missiles capable of being fired while

submerged. China returned to purchasing subs in the late 1990s with the Russian Kilo class

submarine. The Type 041 Yuan Class is the newest diesel-electric submarine in the PLAN.

Its design incorporates parts of the Song class and Russian Kilo class submarines. The Yuan

class has five torpedo tubes capable of launching indigenous torpedos as well as Russian

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

designed torpedos, and it is believed to have anti-ship missiles. This ship was designed to

replace the aging Romeo and Ming class submarines which currently form the backbone of

the PLAN

s submarine fleet (Chinese Submarines 2008; see also China

s Navy 2007).

Chinese produced Han class nuclear submarines were plagued with problems. A follow-on

Type 093 nuclear submarine was developed with experience from the Han class and further

assistance from Russian submarine builders, such as advanced wielding and construction

techniques. Despite being armed with new Chinese wire-guided torpedoes; the Type 093

overall capability remains comparable to Russian technology of the late 1970s. Nevertheless,

China continues to make progress and the true level of Russian assistance lacks transparency

(Smith 2001). Further, the Type 093 may have benefited from German fuel cell technology

and French design, which could allow for two to three weeks of submerged operations

without having to surface to recharge batteries. Internet-source photos of Type 039s under

construction also show Chinese mastery of advanced multi-layer rubber/polymer hull

coatings that greatly reduce hull-radiated noise while limiting the effectiveness of activesonar detection (Chinese Submarines 2008).

China maintains a fleet of approximately 28 destroyers, 48 frigates, and 30 ocean-capable fast

attack craft. The frigates were designed for anti-surface warfare, and lacking significant selfdefence. Chinese-built destroyers include the Luhu class, the Luhai class, and the Luda

I/II/III, from oldest to newest, respectively. The Luhai and Luda class are armed with a

battery of guns, torpedos, mortars, optional helicopter pads, and domestically built Crotale

SAMs which were built from designs provided by France in the 1980s. Construction of the

Luhai class was delayed from the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s due to construction of frigates

for the Thai Navy. The most powerful addition to the PLAN is the Russian-built

Sovremenny class destroyers. These include MOSKIT anti-ship missiles and KASHTAN

combined gun/missile ship defence systems. While these designs are non-stealth 1970s

Russian technology, outdated by current designs, they provided the PLAN with modern antiship, anti-air, and anti-submarine systems. The most recent Sovremenny acquisitions carry 8

Sunburn supersonic sea-skimming ASM and the SA-N-7 Gadfly, which will give PLAN

limited naval air-defence capability. Up to this point, China only possessed short-range

SAMs of French or domestic design (Surface Combatants 2008; IISS 2008).

Improvements in stealth design of the PLAN

s ships further the notion that China seeks to

modernize by purchasing or clandestinely obtaining technology from other states, reverse

engineering that technology, and then attempting to make upgraded domestically produced

versions. According to Frank Moore of the Institute for Defence and Disarmament Studies:

The PLA developed new stealthy warships benefiting from Russian or Ukrainian design

advice, weapons, electronics and other systems, plus new computer aided design methods

which speeded their development. By 2002 it was possible to observe the construction of

three new classes of warships via Chinese internet sources ... the No. 168 class, which

armed with Russian SHTIL SAMs, Russian radar, Kamov Ka-28 ASW helicopters and

Chinese C-802/803 anti-ship missiles, and powered by Ukrainian gas turbine engines. Soon

after two No. 170 class destroyers were launched. These featured large phased array radar

similar in appearance to the U.S. AEGIS system... Most likely the new "AEGIS" radar comes

from the Ukrainian KVANT bureau and is a newly-developed active phased array radar with a

broad search range of about 150km ... In 2003 [PLAN] launched two Type 054 stealthy

frigates. Some sources indicate production was halted at two ships pending the completion of

a new Russian SAM... In early 2004 internet-source pictures of a model of this new variant,

apparently from a Chinese shipbuilding exhibition, confirmed that it will feature a new verticallaunched SAM and be outfitted with Russian radar and missile guidance systems. The Type

054 is also powered by co-produced French-designed SEMT Pielstick marine diesel engines.

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

A fourth stealthy warship emerged in April 2004: a new fast-attack craft (FAC). Now being

produced at two or three shipyards, this new FAC utilizes a wave-piercing catamaran (twin)

hull design, which improves stability at high speeds even in rough seas. It is based on a

design obtained from the Australian fast-ferry firm AMD... [with] radar-absorbing materials

applied to the hull. (Moore 2000).

Not only does this illustrate China

s use of foreign technology, it also demonstrates the

complexity of modern warfare. These are highly sophisticated weapons, weapons pieced

together from multiple sources, the existence of which was leaked onto the internet.

Air Force

The People

s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) is the third largest air force in the world

behind the United States and Russia. The PLAAF employs 250,000 personnel and 1,762

combat aircraft (IISS 2008). The Soviet Union helped found the PLAAF in 1949, providing

aircraft in 1951, and production technology and pilot training in 1953. China gained limited

air combat experience during the Korean War. In 1956 China began assembling its own

aircraft based on Soviet design, such as the J-2, J-5, and J-6, copies of the MiG-15, Mig-17,