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asymmetric warfare, the former successfully used by the US, and the latter successfully used
against the US. At the turn of the century, the bulk of China
s traditional military force
remained 1950s to 1970s era technology imported and reverse engineered from Russia.
China is seeking to modernize this force. The size of China
s traditional force will shrink, as
fewer numbers are needed when new technology is introduced (Cordesman and Kleiber 2006;
Corpus 2006; Moore 2000).
Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
China
s defence budget has increased dramatically over the last 15 years. The official
military budget of China was US$57 billion in 2008, making it the second largest military
budget in the world. By contrast, the largest is the US with $623 billion, and the third largest
is Russia with $50 billion. Japan, South Korea, and India are the next largest spenders in the
Asia Pacific region with $41 billion, $21 billion, and $19 billion, respectively (World Wide
Military Expenditures 2007). China
s annual defence budget increases at approximately the
same rate as its annual GDP, with an average increase of 9% per year since 1996 (Pike 2008;
China's National Defense in 2006). However, China
s total military spending may be far
greater than the official figures reported. Foreign acquisitions, research and development of
dual use science and technology, national security, construction, and emergency response and
disaster relief, are a few examples of expenditures which may fall under non-military
headings but directly relate to the advancement of the military. The US Department of
Defence estimates China
s total military-related spending for 2007 could be between $97
billion and $139 billion. Think tanks and academic institutions report a wide range of
estimates for China
s defence budget, using varying methodologies and sources, however
most arrive at the same conclusion: China significantly under-reports its defence expenditures
(Annual Report to Congress 2008; International Assessment and Strategy Center 2005).
Ground Force
The PLA Ground Force (PLAGF) is the world
s largest, with 1.25 million personnel, or about
70% of the PLA
s total manpower (Annual Report to Congress 2008). Approximately
400,000 of these troops are based in the three military regions (MRs) opposite Taiwan.
According to the 2008 Military Balance of the International Institute for Strategic Studies
(IISS), the PLAGF comprises 18 group armies which include 9 armoured divisions, 3
mechanised infantry divisions, 24 motorised infantry divisions, 15 infantry divisions, two
amphibious assault divisions, one mechanised infantry brigade, 22 motorised infantry
brigades, 12 armoured brigades, 7 artillery divisions, 14 artillery brigades, and nine antiaircraft artillery missile brigades. China
s military doctrine places an emphasis on electronic
and information warfare, long-range precision strikes, surface-to-air missiles, special
operations forces, army aviation helicopters, and satellite communications. The PLAGF
continues to reduce its overall size, opting for a more high tech and mobile force (China's
National Defense in 2006).
While much of the equipment remains antiquated, China is continually upgrading. This
includes approximately 200 Type 98 and Type 99 main battle tanks now deployed to units in
the Beijing and Shenyang MRs. As many as 6,000 tanks were produced by China in the
1960
s. From the early 1970
s to 2000, China
s tank inventory remained around 10,000.
This was mostly composed of old Soviet tanks and Chinese versions of old Soviet designs.
China continually upgraded over the decades, but was always one step behind the current
Soviet models. The Chinese-produced versions of the Soviet T-54A (Type 59 and Type 69)
account for over two-thirds of the total PLA tank inventory. While retiring some of the older
Type 59/69 series and replacing them with the second generation Type 88 and Type 96, the
PLA is also upgrading the remaining Type 59/69 series tanks with new technologies
including improved communication and fire-control systems, night vision equipment,
explosive reactive armour, improved power plant, and gun-fired anti-tank missiles so that
they can remain in service as mobile fire-support platforms. China
s newest tank, the Type
99, entered PLA service in 2001. Maintenance of such a massive force becomes a problem,
and many of China
s tanks may have fallen into disrepair. This may also be a push for
modernizing to a smaller but more effective force (Armoured Fighting Vehicles 2008).
Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80
Copyright
2008 Jason Fritz
The PLAGF
s hand guns further illustrate China
s attempts to modernize and catch up by
means of foreign acquisition and reverse engineering. Most of China
s weapons are derived
from Soviet models acquired before the Sino-Soviet split in late 1950s and early 1960s.
Examples include Soviet or Russian small arms like the Mosin-Nagant series rifles and
carbines, the SKS carbine, the AK-47 assault rifle, the RPD light-machine gun, the Tokarev
TT33 pistol, and the DShK heavy machine gun. The PLA
s main infantry rifle, the QBZ-95
is derived from the Russian AK-47, and the Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle is a direct copy,
albeit locally produced and with a permanently attached bayonet with a more sword-like,
stiletto style. The Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle, a locally produced version of the SKS, also
differs from its Russian counterpart by having a permanently attached bayonet. The Chinese
Type 56 was mass produced from the 1960
s to 1980
s and was exported to many states
around the world (Small Arms 2008).
Navy
The People
s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) is composed of 250,000 personnel divided into
three major fleets, the North Sea Fleet, East Sea Fleet, and South Sea Fleet, each containing
surface ships, submarines, naval air force, coastal defence, and marine units. China
s naval
force includes 57 attack submarines, 55 medium and heavy amphibious ships, and 49 coastal
missile patrol craft. A priority has been placed on anti-air capabilities with improvements in
over-the-horizon targeting, range, and accuracy in surface-to-air missiles.

asymmetric warfare, the former successfully used by the US, and the latter successfully used

against the US. At the turn of the century, the bulk of China

s traditional military force

remained 1950s to 1970s era technology imported and reverse engineered from Russia.

China is seeking to modernize this force. The size of China

s traditional force will shrink, as

fewer numbers are needed when new technology is introduced (Cordesman and Kleiber 2006;

Corpus 2006; Moore 2000).

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

China

s defence budget has increased dramatically over the last 15 years. The official

military budget of China was US$57 billion in 2008, making it the second largest military

budget in the world. By contrast, the largest is the US with $623 billion, and the third largest

is Russia with $50 billion. Japan, South Korea, and India are the next largest spenders in the

Asia Pacific region with $41 billion, $21 billion, and $19 billion, respectively (World Wide

Military Expenditures 2007). China

s annual defence budget increases at approximately the

same rate as its annual GDP, with an average increase of 9% per year since 1996 (Pike 2008;

China's National Defense in 2006). However, China

s total military spending may be far

greater than the official figures reported. Foreign acquisitions, research and development of

dual use science and technology, national security, construction, and emergency response and

disaster relief, are a few examples of expenditures which may fall under non-military

headings but directly relate to the advancement of the military. The US Department of

Defence estimates China

s total military-related spending for 2007 could be between $97

billion and $139 billion. Think tanks and academic institutions report a wide range of

estimates for China

s defence budget, using varying methodologies and sources, however

most arrive at the same conclusion: China significantly under-reports its defence expenditures

(Annual Report to Congress 2008; International Assessment and Strategy Center 2005).

Ground Force

The PLA Ground Force (PLAGF) is the world

s largest, with 1.25 million personnel, or about

70% of the PLA

s total manpower (Annual Report to Congress 2008). Approximately

400,000 of these troops are based in the three military regions (MRs) opposite Taiwan.

According to the 2008 Military Balance of the International Institute for Strategic Studies

(IISS), the PLAGF comprises 18 group armies which include 9 armoured divisions, 3

mechanised infantry divisions, 24 motorised infantry divisions, 15 infantry divisions, two

amphibious assault divisions, one mechanised infantry brigade, 22 motorised infantry

brigades, 12 armoured brigades, 7 artillery divisions, 14 artillery brigades, and nine antiaircraft artillery missile brigades. China

s military doctrine places an emphasis on electronic

and information warfare, long-range precision strikes, surface-to-air missiles, special

operations forces, army aviation helicopters, and satellite communications. The PLAGF

continues to reduce its overall size, opting for a more high tech and mobile force (China's

National Defense in 2006).

While much of the equipment remains antiquated, China is continually upgrading. This

includes approximately 200 Type 98 and Type 99 main battle tanks now deployed to units in

the Beijing and Shenyang MRs. As many as 6,000 tanks were produced by China in the

1960

s. From the early 1970

s to 2000, China

s tank inventory remained around 10,000.

This was mostly composed of old Soviet tanks and Chinese versions of old Soviet designs.

China continually upgraded over the decades, but was always one step behind the current

Soviet models. The Chinese-produced versions of the Soviet T-54A (Type 59 and Type 69)

account for over two-thirds of the total PLA tank inventory. While retiring some of the older

Type 59/69 series and replacing them with the second generation Type 88 and Type 96, the

PLA is also upgrading the remaining Type 59/69 series tanks with new technologies

including improved communication and fire-control systems, night vision equipment,

explosive reactive armour, improved power plant, and gun-fired anti-tank missiles so that

they can remain in service as mobile fire-support platforms. China

s newest tank, the Type

99, entered PLA service in 2001. Maintenance of such a massive force becomes a problem,

and many of China

s tanks may have fallen into disrepair. This may also be a push for

modernizing to a smaller but more effective force (Armoured Fighting Vehicles 2008).

Culture Mandala, Vol. 8, No. 1, October 2008, pp.28-80

Copyright

2008 Jason Fritz

The PLAGF

s hand guns further illustrate China

s attempts to modernize and catch up by

means of foreign acquisition and reverse engineering. Most of China

s weapons are derived

from Soviet models acquired before the Sino-Soviet split in late 1950s and early 1960s.

Examples include Soviet or Russian small arms like the Mosin-Nagant series rifles and

carbines, the SKS carbine, the AK-47 assault rifle, the RPD light-machine gun, the Tokarev

TT33 pistol, and the DShK heavy machine gun. The PLA

s main infantry rifle, the QBZ-95

is derived from the Russian AK-47, and the Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle is a direct copy,

albeit locally produced and with a permanently attached bayonet with a more sword-like,

stiletto style. The Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle, a locally produced version of the SKS, also

differs from its Russian counterpart by having a permanently attached bayonet. The Chinese

Type 56 was mass produced from the 1960

s to 1980

s and was exported to many states

around the world (Small Arms 2008).

Navy

The People

s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) is composed of 250,000 personnel divided into

three major fleets, the North Sea Fleet, East Sea Fleet, and South Sea Fleet, each containing

surface ships, submarines, naval air force, coastal defence, and marine units. China

s naval

force includes 57 attack submarines, 55 medium and heavy amphibious ships, and 49 coastal

missile patrol craft. A priority has been placed on anti-air capabilities with improvements in

over-the-horizon targeting, range, and accuracy in surface-to-air missiles.