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# Geography of Cambodia
## Political and human geography {#political_and_human_geography}
### Regional divisions {#regional_divisions}
## Area and boundaries {#area_and_boundaries}
Area:
:\*total: 181035 km2
:\*\*country rank in the world: *88th*
:\*land: 176515 km2
:\*water: 4520 km2
Area comparative:
:\*Australia comparative: slightly less than `{{sfrac|4|5}}`{=mediawiki} the size of Victoria
:\*Canada comaparative: slightly more than `{{sfrac|2|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} times the size of New Brunswick
:\*United States comparative: approximately the size of Oklahoma
:\*United Kingdom comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|3|4}}`{=mediawiki} the size of the United Kingdom
:\*EU comparative: slightly less than twice the size of Portugal
Maritime claims:
:\*territorial sea: 12 nmi
:\*contiguous zone: 24 nmi
:\*exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi
:\*continental shelf: 200 nmi
Elevation extremes
:\*lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
:\*highest point: Phnum Aoral 1810 m
Border disputes
:\* Cambodian--Thai border dispute
:\* Cambodian--Vietnamese land dispute
Lakes
:\*Tonlé Sap Lake
:\*Yak Loum Crater Lake --- Ratanakiri
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
### Natural hazards {#natural_hazards}
- Monsoonal rains (June to November)
- Mekong flooding
- Occasional droughts
### Human impact {#human_impact}
**Issues**
- Illegal logging activities throughout the country
- rubber tree mono-cultures and strip mining for gold in the eastern highlands
- gem mining in the western region along the border with Thailand
- destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries, illegal fishing and over-fishing
- large scale sand mining in river beds and estuaries of Koh Kong\'s mangrove marshes affects tidal balance
A nascent environmental movement has been noticed by NGO\'s - and it is gaining strength, as the example of local resistance against the building of a Chinese hydro-electric dam in the Areng Valley shows.
Cambodia has a bad but improving performance in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 146 out of 180 countries in 2016. This is among the worst in the Southeast Asian region, only ahead of Laos and Myanmar. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations\' Sustainable Development Goals.
The environmental areas where Cambodia performs worst on the EPI (i.e. highest ranking) are air quality (148), water resource management (140) and health impacts of environmental issues (137), with the areas of sanitation, environmental impacts of fisheries and forest management following closely. Cambodia has an unusually large expanse of protected areas, both on land and at sea, with the land-based protections covering about 20% of the country. This secures Cambodia a better than average ranking of 61 in relation to biodiversity and habitat, despite the fact deforestation, illegal logging, construction and poaching are heavily deteriorating these protections and habitats in reality, partly fueled by the government\'s placement of economic land concessions and plantations within protected areas.
In November 2017, the U.S. cut funds to help clear unexploded ordnance including land mines and chemical weapons in Cambodia which it had dropped during the Vietnam War
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# Telecommunications in Cambodia
**Telecommunications in Cambodia** include telephone, radio, television, and Internet services, which are regulated by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. Transport and posts were restored throughout most of the country in the early 1980s during the People\'s Republic of Kampuchea regime after being disrupted under Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge).
In January 1987, the Soviet-aided Intersputnik space communications station began operation in Phnom Penh and established two-way telecommunication links between the Cambodian capital and the cities of Moscow, Hanoi, Vientiane and Paris. The completion of the earth satellite station restored the telephone and telex links among Phnom Penh, Hanoi, and other countries for the first time since 1975. Although telecommunications services were initially limited to the government, these advances in communications helped break down the country\'s isolation, both internally and internationally.
Today, with the availability of mobile phones, communications are open to all, though the country\'s Prime Minister Hun Sen decreed that 3G mobile phones would not be allowed to support video calling.
## Telephones
As of Q1 2020, Cambodia\'s mobile connection is at 21.4 million. Smart Axiata, a leading telecommunications company, in 2019 conducted a live trial of its 5G network with support from China\'s Huawei. The company said it expects to begin rolling out 5G services in Cambodia by the end of 2019.
GSMA predicted that by 2025, Cambodia will have approximately 24.3 million total mobile connections with smartphone connections up to 69%. The market is predicted to adopt 1.6 million of 5G connections within 5 years from 2020. Though so, it\'s believed that 4G still have room for growth and will continue to be the majority network connection.
The government state communications corporation is Telecom Cambodia, founded in 2006 as an expansion of the telecom operating department of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications.
### Mobile networks {#mobile_networks}
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| Network | Company | Notes |
+=========+======================================================+========================================================+
| Smart | Smart Axiata Co., Ltd | - Incorporates the former Hello Axiata and Star-Cell |
| | | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| Mobitel | CamGSM Co., Ltd. | - Also known as Cellcard |
| | | - Incorporates the former Mfone |
| | | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| CooTel | Xinwei (Cambodia) Telecom Co., Ltd | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| SEATEL | Southeast Asia Telecom (Cambodia) Co., Ltd. | - Incorporates the former GT-TEL |
| | | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| Metfone | Viettel (Cambodia) Pte., Ltd. | - Incorporates the former Beeline |
| | | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| qb | Cambodia Advance Communications Co., Ltd. (CADCOMMS) | - |
+---------+------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
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# Telecommunications in Cambodia
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
As of 2019, Cambodian broadcasters were a mixture of state-owned, joint public-private, and privately owned companies.
### Radio stations {#radio_stations}
As of 2019, there were roughly 84 radio broadcast stations: 1 state-owned broadcaster with multiple stations and a large mixture of public and private broadcasters. Several international broadcasters are also available.
#### Phnom Penh {#phnom_penh}
- Apsara Radio FM 97
- Angel Radio 96.3Mhz Kampot
- BBC World Service 100.0 MHz
- Dance Radio 96.6Mhz
- DAP Radio FM 93.75
- Family FM 99.5
- Hang Meas Radio FM 104.5
- Koh Santepheap Daily FM 87.75
- National Radio Kampuchea
- Phnom Penh Radio FM 103
- Radio FM 90.5
- Radio Beehive FM 105
- DaunPenh eFM 87.50Mhz
- ABC News FM 107.5
- Lotus Radio FM 100.5hz
- Radio Free Asia
- Radio Khmer FM 107
- Radio Love FM 97.5
- Radio Town FM 102.3 MHz
- Raksmey Hang Meas Radio FM 95.7000
- Royal Cambodia Armed Forces Radio FM 98
- Voice of America Khmer
- Women\'s Media Centre of Cambodia (WMC) Radio FM 102
#### Provincial stations {#provincial_stations}
There are radio stations in each of the following provinces: Banteay Meanchey, Battambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom, Kampot, Kandal, Pailin, Preah Vihear, Siem Reap, Sihanoukville and Svay Rieng.
### Television
Cambodia has 27 TV broadcast stations with most operating on multiple channels, including 1 state-operated station broadcasting from multiple locations, 11 stations either jointly operated or privately owned with some broadcasting from several locations. Multi-channel cable and satellite systems are also available. There is one Chinese joint venture television station with the Ministry of Interior. Several television and radio operators broadcast online only (often via Facebook).
#### Broadcast and cable networks {#broadcast_and_cable_networks}
- PNN TV
- Apsara Television (TV11)
- Bayon Television
- Bayon News Television
- Cambodia Cable Television (CCTV)
- Cambodian News Channel (CNC)
- Cambodian Television Network (CTN)
- CTV 8 HD
- Hang Meas HDTV
- Khmer Television 9 HDTV (TV9 HDTV)
- My TV
- National Television of Cambodia (TVK)
- One TV (Royal Media Entertainment Corporation, LTD)
- Phnom Penh Municipal Cable Television (PPCTV Co., LTD)
- Phnom Penh Television (TV3)
- TV5 Cambodia
- One News
#### Provincial television stations {#provincial_television_stations}
- Kandal Province - Broadcasting on channel 27, Bayon Television is Cambodia\'s only UHF channel. A private television company belonging to Prime Minister Hun Sen, it also operates Bayon Radio FM 95 MHz. It was established in January 1998.
- Mondulkiri - Established in 1999, relays TVK on channel 10.
- Preah Vihear - Established in 2006, broadcasts on channel 7.
- Ratanakiri - Established in 1993, relays TVK on channel 7.
- Siem Reap - Established in 2002, relays TV3 on channel 12.
### Most viewed channels {#most_viewed_channels}
Position Channel Share of total viewing (%)
---------- ----------- ----------------------------
1 Hang Meas 22.1
2 CTN 18.3
3 MyTV 10.5
4 PNN TV 8.1
5 TV5 4.4
6 Bayon TV 2.6
7 CTV 8 2.0
8 SEATV 1.4
9 TV9 1.2
10 TV11 1.0
11 TV3 0.9
12 CNC 0.8
13 ETV 0.6
14 TVK 0.4
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# Telecommunications in Cambodia
## Internet
the number of internet users in Cambodia rose to 15.8 million, about 98.5% of the population. According to the Telecommunications Regulator of Cambodia (TRC), the number of registered SIM cards rose by 9.4 percent during the first half of the year, reaching 20.8 million. The SIM card market is saturated, with Cambodia now having more active SIM cards than people. According to TRC, there are six telecommunications firms in the country: Cellcard, Smart Axiata, Metfone, Seatel, Cootel, and qb. Three companies, Metfone, Cellcard, and Smart, account for 90% of users. TRC noted that, as of February 2019, Facebook had seven million users in Cambodia.
List of Internet service providers `{{div col|colwidth=28em}}`{=mediawiki}
- AngkorNet
- AZ (Online)
- Cambo Technology (ISP) Co., Ltd.
- Cambodia Internet Corp
- Cambotech
- Camintel
- Camnet (Telecom Cambodia)
- CB (Cambodian Broadband)
- CDC
- Cellcard (Mobitel)
- CooTel
- Chuan Wei
- CIDC IT
- Citylink
- Digi ISP
- Dragon Royal Telecom
- EmCom
- Everyday
- Ezecom
- GTD
- Hiway Telecom
- Home Internet
- Kingtel Communications Limited
- MaxBIT
- MekongNet (Angkor Data Communication Group)
- Metfone
- Mobilastic
- Neocom ISP (NTC)
- NTC - NeocomISP Limited
- Open Net
- PCP
- PP Net Phone
- PPCTV Broadband Internet Service
- SingMeng Telemedia
- yes SEATEL Cambodia
- SINET (S.I Group Co., Ltd)
- Smart \@Home
- TeleSURF
- Telecom Cambodia
- TODAY ISP (Today Communication Co., Ltd)
- Turbotech
- Vimean Seile
- Wicam
- WIP
- Wireless Internet Provider
- WirelessIP
- Y5Net (BDKTel Co,LTD)
- Mekong CLOUD Cambodia
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
In its *Freedom on the Net 2013* report, Freedom House gives Cambodia a \"Freedom on the Net Status\" of \"partly free\".
Compared to traditional media in Cambodia, new media, including online news, social networks and personal blogs, enjoy more freedom and independence from government censorship and restrictions. However, the government does proactively block blogs and websites, either on moral grounds, or for hosting content deemed critical of the government. The government restricts access to sexually explicit content, but does not systematically censor online political discourse. Since 2011 three blogs hosted overseas have been blocked for perceived antigovernment content. In 2012, government ministries threatened to shutter internet cafes too near schools---citing moral concerns---and instituted surveillance of cafe premises and cell phone subscribers as a security measure.
Early in 2011, very likely at the urging of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, all Cambodian ISPs blocked the hosting service Blogspot, apparently in reaction to a December 2010 post on KI-Media, a blog run by Cambodians from both inside and outside the country. The site, which is often critical of the administration, described the prime minister and other officials as \"traitors\" after opposition leader Sam Rainsy alleged they had sold land to Vietnam at a contested national border. All ISPs but one subsequently restored service to the sites following customer complaints. In February 2011, however, multiple ISPs reinstated blocks on individual Blogspot sites, including KI-Media, Khmerization---another critical citizen journalist blog---and a blog by the Khmer political cartoonist Sacrava.
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without appropriate legal authority. During 2012 NGOs expressed concern about potential online restrictions. In February and November, the government published two circulars, which, if implemented fully, would require Internet cafes to install surveillance cameras and restrict operations within major urban centers. Activists also reported concern about a draft "cybercrimes" law, noting that it could be used to restrict online freedoms. The government maintained it would only regulate criminal activity.
The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press; however, these rights were not always respected in practice. The 1995 press law prohibits prepublication censorship or imprisonment for expressing opinions; however, the government uses the penal code to prosecute citizens on defamation, disinformation, and incitement charges. The penal code does not prescribe imprisonment for defamation, but does for incitement or spreading disinformation, which carry prison sentences of up to three years. Judges also can order fines, which may lead to jail time if not paid. The constitution requires that free speech not adversely affect public security.
The constitution declares that the king is "inviolable," and a Ministry of Interior directive conforming to the defamation law reiterates these limits and prohibits publishers and editors from disseminating stories that insult or defame government leaders and institutions. The continued criminalization of defamation and disinformation and a broad interpretation of criminal incitement constrains freedom of expression.
The law provides for the privacy of residence and correspondence and prohibits illegal searches; however, NGOs report that police routinely conduct searches and seizures without warrants.
Corruption remains pervasive and governmental human rights bodies are generally ineffective. A weak judiciary that sometimes fails to provide due process or fair trial procedures is a serious problem. The courts lack human and financial resources and, as a result, are not truly independent and are subject to corruption and political influence.
On 17 February 2021, the Cambodian government announced its plans to launch a censorship scheme called \"National Internet Gateway\" which heavily resembles China\'s Great Firewall, and it will get launched in February 2022
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# History of Cameroon
At the crossroads of West Africa and Central Africa, the territory of what is now **Cameroon** has seen human habitation since some time in the Middle Paleolithic, likely no later than 130,000 years ago. The earliest discovered archaeological evidence of humans dates from around 30,000 years ago at Shum Laka. The Bamenda highlands in western Cameroon near the border with Nigeria are one of the most likely origin for the Bantu peoples, whose language and culture came to dominate most of central and southern Africa between 1000 BCE and 1000 CE.
European traders arrived in the fifteenth century and Cameroon was the exonym given by the Portuguese to the Wouri river, which they called *Rio dos Camarões---*\"river of shrimps\" or \"shrimp river\", referring to the then-abundant Cameroon ghost shrimp. Cameroon was a source of slaves for the slave trade. While the northern part of Cameroon was subject to influence from the Islamic kingdoms in the Chad basin and the Sahel, the south was largely ruled by small kings, chieftains, and fons.
Cameroon as a political entity emerged from the colonization of Africa by Europeans. From 1884, Cameroon was a German colony, German Kamerun, with its borders drawn through negotiations between the Germans, British, and French. After the First World War, the League of Nations mandated France to administer most of the territory, with the United Kingdom administering a small portion in the west. Following World War II, the League of Nations\' successor, the United Nations, instituted a Trusteeship system, leaving France and Britain in control of their respective regions, French Cameroon and British Cameroon. In 1960, Cameroon became independent with part of British Cameroons voting to join former French Cameroon. Cameroon has had only two presidents since independence and while opposition parties were legalized in 1990 only one party has ever governed. Cameroon has maintained close relations with France and allied itself largely with Western political and economic interests throughout the Cold War and into the twenty-first century. This consistency gave Cameroon a reputation as one of the most stable countries in the region. In 2017, tensions between Anglophone Cameroonians in former British territory and the Francophone-dominated government led to an ongoing civil war known as the Anglophone Crisis in the west of the country, while Islamist insurgents Boko Haram continue to carry out military and terror attacks in the north of the country.
In January 2024, Cameroon launched the world\'s first routine malaria vaccine program, using the World Health Organization (WHO)-approved RTS,S vaccine developed by British drugmaker GSK. The initiative aims to save thousands of African children\'s lives annually. Despite some skepticism, health experts emphasize careful community outreach to combat vaccine hesitancy and stress the importance of using existing preventive measures alongside vaccines.
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# History of Cameroon
## Pre-colonial history {#pre_colonial_history}
### Prehistory
Archaeological research has been relatively scarce in Cameroon due to a lack of resources and transportation infrastructure. Historically the warm, wet climate in many parts of the country was thought of as inhospitable to the preservation of remains, but recent finds and the introduction of new techniques have challenged that assumption. Evidence from digs at Shum Laka in the Northwest Region shows human occupation dating back 30,000 years while in the dense forests of the south, the oldest evidence of occupation is around 7000 years old. Recent research in southern Cameroon indicates that the Iron Age may have started there as early as 1000 BCE and was certainly well established by 100 BCE at the latest.
Linguistic analysis, supported by archaeological and genetic research, has shown that the Bantu expansion, a series of migrations that spread Bantu culture across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, most likely originated in the highlands on the Nigeria-Cameroon border around 1000 BCE. Bantu languages spread with these people along with agricultural methods and possibly iron tools, first east and then south, forming one of the largest language families in Africa. In Cameroon, Bantu people largely displaced Central African Pygmies such as the Baka, who were hunter-gatherers and who now survive in much smaller numbers in the heavily forested southeast. Despite Cameroon being the original homeland of the Bantu people, the great medieval Bantu-speaking kingdoms arose elsewhere, such as what is now Kenya, Congo, Angola, and South Africa.
### Northern Cameroon {#northern_cameroon}
The earliest known civilization to have left clear traces of their presence in the territory of modern Cameroon is known as the Sao civilisation. Known for their elaborate terracotta and bronze artwork and round, walled settlements in the Lake Chad Basin, little else is known with any certainty due to the lack of historical records. The culture possibly arose as early as the fourth century BC but certainly, by the end of the first millennium BC, their presence was well established around Lake Chad and near the Chari River. The city-states of the Sao reached their apex sometime between the ninth and fifteenth centuries AD. The Sao were displaced or assimilated by the sixteenth century.
After the Muslim conquest of North Africa in 709, Islam\'s influence began to spread south with the growth of trans-Saharan trade, including in what is now northern Cameroon. The Kanem-Bornu Empire began in what is now Chad and likely came into conflict with the Sao. The Kanem Empire began in Chad in the eighth century and gradually extended its influence northward into Libya and southward into Nigeria and Cameroon. Slaves from raids in the south were their principal trade good along with mined salt. The Empire was Muslim from at least the eleventh century and reached its first peak in the 13th, controlling most of what is now Chad and smaller regions in surrounding countries. After a period of internal instability, the center of power shifted to Bornu with its capital at Ngazargamu, in what is now northwestern Nigeria, and territory was gradually reconquered and new territory in present-day Niger also conquered. The Empire began to decline in the seventeenth century though it continued to control much of northern Cameroon.
From 1804 to 1808 the Fulani War saw the Bornu pushed north out of Cameroon and the Sokoto Caliphate took control of the region, as well as most of northern Nigeria and large swathes of Niger and Mali. A feudal empire with local rulers pledging allegiance and paying tributes to the Caliph, northern Cameroon was likely part of the Adamawa Emirate within the Caliphate. This structure proved susceptible to exploitation by colonial powers beginning in the 1870s, who sought to undermine local rulers\' ties to the Caliphate.
### Southern Regions {#southern_regions}
The Muslim empires of the Sahara and Sahel never reached further south than the highlands of the Cameroon Line. Further south, there is little archaeological evidence of large empires or kingdoms and no historical record due to the lack of writing in the region. When the Portuguese arrived in the region in the fifteenth century, a large number of kings, chiefs, and fons ruled small territories. Many ethnic groups, particularly speakers of the Grassfields languages in the west, have oral histories of migrating south fleeing Muslim invaders, likely reference to the Fulani War and subsequent conflicts in Nigeria and northern Cameroon.
Malaria prevented significant European settlement or exploration until the late 1870s, when large supplies of the malaria suppressant quinine became available. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of slaves. The Cameroon coast was a major hub for the purchase of slaves who were taken across the Atlantic to Brazil, the United States, and the Caribbean. In 1807, the British abolished slavery in the Empire and began military efforts to suppress the slave trade, particularly in West Africa. Combined with the end of legal slave imports in the United States the same year, the international slave trade in Cameroon declined sharply. Christian missionaries established a presence in the late nineteenth century. Around this time, the Aro Confederacy, was expanding its economic and political influence from southeastern Nigeria into western Cameroon. However, the arrival of British and German colonizers cut short its growth and influence.
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# History of Cameroon
## Colonial period {#colonial_period}
### Scramble for Africa and German Kamerun (1884--1918) {#scramble_for_africa_and_german_kamerun_18841918}
The Scramble for Africa beginning in the late 1870s, saw European powers, primarily seeking to establish formal control over the parts of Africa not yet colonized. The Cameroon coast was of interest to both the British, already established in what is now Nigeria and with missionaries outposts in several towns, and the Germans who had extensive trading relationships and plantations established in the Douala region. On July 5, 1884, German explorer and administrator Gustav Nachtigal began signing agreements with Duala leaders establishing a German protectorate in the region. A brief conflict ensued with rival Duala chiefs which Germany and its allies won, leaving the British with little choice but to acknowledge Germany\'s claim to the region. The borders of modern Cameroon were established through a series of negotiations with the British and French. Germany established an administration for the colony with a capital first at Buea and later at Yaoundé and continued to explore the interior and co-opt or subjugate local rulers. The largest conflicts were the Bafut Wars and the Adamawa Wars which ended by 1907 with German victories.
Germany was particularly interested in Cameroon\'s agricultural potential and entrusted large firms with the task of exploiting and exporting it. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck defined the order of priorities as follows: \"first the merchant, then the soldier\". It was under the influence of a businessman Adolph Woermann, whose company set up a trading house in Douala, that Bismarck, initially skeptical about the interest of the colonial project, was convinced. Large German trading companies (Woermann, Jantzen & Thormählen) and concession companies (Südkamerun Gesellschaft, Nord-West Kamerun Gesellschaft) established themselves massively in the colony. Letting the big companies impose their order, the administration simply supported them, protected them, and tried to eliminate indigenous rebellions.The Imperial German government made substantial investments in the infrastructure of Cameroon, including the extensive railways, such as the 160-metre single-span railway bridge on the southern branch of Sanaga River. However, the indigenous peoples proved reluctant to work on these projects, so the Germans instigated a harsh and unpopular system of forced labour. In fact, Jesko von Puttkamer was relieved of duty as governor of the colony due to his untoward actions toward the native Cameroonians. In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez after the Agadir Crisis, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km^2^ portion of the territory of French Equatorial Africa to Kamerun which became Neukamerun (New Cameroon), while Germany ceded a smaller area in the north in present-day Chad to France.
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the British invaded Cameroon from Nigeria and the French from French Equatorial Africa in the Kamerun campaign. The last German fort in the country surrendered in February 1916. After the Allied victory, the territory was partitioned between the United Kingdom and France, which was formalized on June 28, 1919, with League of Nations mandates (Class B). France gained the larger geographical share, transferred Neukamerun back to neighboring French colonies, and ruled the rest from Yaoundé as Cameroun (French Cameroons). Britain\'s territory, a strip bordering Nigeria from the sea to Lake Chad, with a roughly equal population was ruled from Lagos as part of Nigeria, known as Cameroons (British Cameroons).
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# History of Cameroon
## Colonial period {#colonial_period}
### French Cameroon (1918--1960) {#french_cameroon_19181960}
#### League of Nations Mandate, Free France, and UN Trust Territory {#league_of_nations_mandate_free_france_and_un_trust_territory}
The French administration declined to return much of the property in Cameroon to its prior German owners, reassigning much of it to French companies. This was particularly the case for the Société financière des Caoutchoucs, which obtained plantations put into operation during the German period and became the largest company in French Cameroon. Roads and other infrastructure projects were undertaken with native labor, often in extremely harsh conditions. The Douala-Yaoundé railway line, begun under the German regime, was completed. Thousands of workers were forcibly deported to this site to work fifty-four hours a week. Workers also suffered from lack of food and the massive presence of mosquitoes and related illnesses. In 1925, the mortality rate on the site was 61.7%. However, the other sites were not as deadly, although working conditions were generally very harsh.
French Cameroon joined the Free France in August 1940. The system established by Free France was essentially a military dictatorship. Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque established a state of siege throughout the country and abolished almost all public freedom. The objective was to neutralize any potential feelings of independence or sympathy for the former German colonizer. Indigenous people known for their Germanophilia were executed in public places. In 1945, the country was placed under the supervision of the United Nations, as successor to the League of Nations, which left Cameroon under French control as a UN Trust Territory.
#### Independence Movement {#independence_movement}
In 1948, the Union des populations du Cameroun (UPC), a nationalist movement, was founded and Ruben Um Nyobe took over as its leader. In May 1955, the arrests of independence activists were followed by riots in several cities across the country. The repression caused several dozen or hundreds of deaths - the French administration officially lists twenty-two, although secret reports acknowledge many more. The UPC was banned and nearly 800 of its activists were arrested, many of whom would be beaten in prison. Because they were wanted by the police, UPC activists took refuge in the forests, where they formed guerilla bands; they also took refuge in neighboring British Cameroon. The French authorities repressed these events and made arbitrary arrests. The party received the support of personalities such as Gamal Abdel Nasser and Kwame Nkrumah and France\'s action was denounced at the UN by representatives of countries such as India, Syria, and the Soviet Union.
An insurrection broke out among the Bassa people on 18 to 19 December 1956. Several dozen anti-UPC figures were murdered or kidnapped, bridges, telephone lines, and other infrastructure were sabotaged. The French military and native security forces violently repressed these uprisings, which led to many native Cameroonians joining the cause of independence and long-running guerilla war. Several UPC militias were formed though their access to weapons was very limited. Though the UPC was a multi-ethnic movement, the pro-independence movement was seen as particularly strong among the Bamileke and Bassa peoples, and both were targeted by the French for severe repression, including razing of villages, forced relocations, and indiscriminate killings in what was sometimes called the Bamileke War or the Cameroon Independence War. Though the uprising was suppressed, guerilla violence and reprisals continued even after independence.
Legislative elections were held on 23 December 1956 and the resulting Assembly passed a decree on 16 April 1957 which made French Cameroon a state. It took back its former status of associated territory as a member of the French Union. Its inhabitants became Cameroonian citizens, and Cameroonian institutions were created under a parliamentary democracy. On 12 June 1958, the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon asked the French government to: \"Accord independence to the State of Cameroon at the ends of their trusteeship. Transfer every competence related to the running of internal affairs of Cameroon to Cameroonians\". On 19 October 1958, France recognized the right of its United Nations trust territory to choose independence. On 24 October 1958, the Legislative Assembly of French Cameroon solemnly proclaimed the desire of Cameroonians to see their country accede full independence on 1 January 1960. It enjoined the government of French Cameroon to ask France to inform the General Assembly of the United Nations, to abrogate the trusteeship accord concomitant with the independence of French Cameroon.
On 12 November 1958, France asked the United Nations to grant French Cameroon independence and end the Trusteeship. On 5 December 1958, the United Nations' General Assembly took note of the French government\'s declaration according to which French Cameroon would gain independence on 1 January 1960. On 13 March 1959, the United Nations' General Assembly resolved that the UN Trusteeship Agreement with France for French Cameroon would end when French Cameroon became independent on 1 January 1960.
### British Cameroons (1918--1961) {#british_cameroons_19181961}
#### Nigerian administration {#nigerian_administration}
The British territory was administered as two areas, Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons. Northern Cameroons consisted of two non-contiguous sections, divided by a point where the Nigerian and Cameroon borders met and were governed as part of the Northern Region of Nigeria. Southern Cameroons was administered as a province of Eastern Nigeria. In British Cameroons, many German administrators were allowed to run the plantations of the southern coastal area after World War I. A British parliamentary publication, *Report on the British Sphere of the Cameroons* (May 1922, p. 62-8), reported that the German plantations there were \"as a whole . . . wonderful examples of industry, based on solid scientific knowledge. The natives have been taught discipline and have come to realize what can be achieved by industry. Large numbers who return to their villages take up cocoa or other cultivation on their own account, thus increasing the general prosperity of the country.\" In the 1930s, most of the white population still consisted of Germans, most of whom were interned in British camps starting in June 1940. The native population showed little interest in volunteering for the British forces during World War II; only 3,500 men did so.
When the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946, British Cameroons was reclassified as a UN trust territory, administered through the UN Trusteeship Council, but remained under British control. The United Nations approved the Trusteeship Agreements for British Cameroons to be governed by Britain on June 12, 1946.
#### Plebiscite and independence {#plebiscite_and_independence}
French Cameroun became independent, as Cameroun or Cameroon, in January 1960, and Nigeria was scheduled for independence later that same year, which raised the question of what to do with the British territory. After some discussion (which had been going on since 1959), a plebiscite was agreed to and held on 11 February 1961. The Muslim-majority Northern area opted for union with Nigeria, and the Southern area voted to join Cameroon.
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# History of Cameroon
## Independence and the Ahidjo era (1960--1982) {#independence_and_the_ahidjo_era_19601982}
French Cameroon achieved independence on January 1, 1960. After Guinea, it was the second of France\'s colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa to become independent. On 21 February 1960, the new nation held a constitutional referendum, approving a new constitution. On 5 May 1960, Ahmadou Ahidjo became president. Ahidjo aligned himself closely with France and allowed many French advisers and administrators to stay on as well as leaving most of the country\'s assets in the hands of French companies.
### Union with Southern Cameroon {#union_with_southern_cameroon}
On 12 February 1961, the results of the Southern Cameroon plebiscite were announced and it was learned that Southern Cameroons had voted for unification with the Republic Of Cameroon, sometimes called \"reunification\" since both regions had been part of German Kamerun. To negotiate the terms of this union, the Foumban Conference was held on 16--21 July 1961. John Ngu Foncha, the leader of the Kamerun National Democratic Party and the Southern Cameroons elected government represented Southern Cameroons while Ahidjo represented Cameroon. The agreement reached was a new constitution, based heavily on the version adopted in Cameroon earlier that year, but with a federal structure granting former British Cameroons - now West Cameroon - jurisdiction over certain issues and procedural rights. Buea became the capital of West Cameroon while Yaounde doubled as the federal capital and East Cameroonian capital. Neither side was particularly satisfied as Ahidjo had wanted a unitary or more centralized state while the West Cameroonians had wanted more explicit protections. On 14 August 1961, the federal constitution was adopted, with Ahidjo as president. Foncha became the prime minister of West Cameroon and vice president of the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The unification of British and French Cameroon has caused linguistic and cultural tensions within Cameroon, which has led to violence.
### Civil War and repression {#civil_war_and_repression}
The UPC, which had demanded a full break with France and many of whom espoused Marxist or other leftist ideologies, were not satisfied with Ahidjo\'s rule and close cooperation with the French and did not lay down their arms at independence and sought to overthrow Ahidjo\'s regime which they viewed as too subservient to France and some, but not all, espoused overtly Marxist views. Ahidjo requested continued French assistance in suppressing the UPC rebels in what became known as the Bamileke War after the region where much of the fighting took place. The UPC was ultimately defeated with government forces capturing the last important rebel leader in 1970. During the intervening years, Ahidjo used emergency powers granted due to the war and the fear of further ethnic conflict to centralize power in himself. He implemented a highly centralized and authoritarian government that used arbitrary police custody, prohibition of meetings and rallies, submission of publications to prior censorship, restriction of freedom of movement through the establishment of passes or curfews, and a prohibition on trade unions to prevent opposition. Anyone accusation of \"compromising public safety\" was handled outside traditional criminal process - without the right to a lawyer or any appeal. Sentences of life imprisonment at hard labor or death were numerous and executions were often public.
In 1966, opposition parties were banned and Cameroon became a one-party state. On 28 March 1970 Ahidjo was re-elected as president with 100% of the vote and 99.4% turnout. Solomon Tandeng Muna became vice president. In 1972, a referendum was held on a new constitution, which replaced the federation between East and West with a unitary state called the **United Republic of Cameroon** and further expanded the power of the president. Official results claimed 98.2% turnout and 99.99% of votes in favor of the new constitution. Although Ahidjo\'s rule was authoritarian, he was seen as noticeably lacking in charisma in comparison to many post-colonial African leaders. He didn\'t follow the anti-western policies pursued by many of these leaders, which helped Cameroon achieve a degree of comparative political stability, retain Western investment, and see fairly steady economic growth.
### Discovery of oil {#discovery_of_oil}
Cameroon became an oil-producing country in 1977. The accounting of oil revenues was totally opaque and many Cameroonians felt the money was mismanaged or embezzled since. Oil remains a primary driver of the economy, though the country is not as oil-dependent as many other producers in the region.
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# History of Cameroon
## Biya Era (1982--present) {#biya_era_1982present}
On 30 June 1975, Paul Biya, a long-serving bureaucrat and administrator in the Ahidjo government, was appointed Prime Minister. On November 4, 1982, Ahidjo resigned as president and Biya was his legal successor. Many observers were surprised, as Biya is a Christian from the south while Ahidjo was a Muslim from the North and Ahidjo was only 59 years old. However, Ahidjo did not resign his role as leader of the governing party, and many speculated that he hoped Biya would be a figurehead, or perhaps even a temporary caretaker, as Ahidjo was rumored to be ill and receiving medical care in France.
### Rift and coup attempt {#rift_and_coup_attempt}
Despite previous good relations, in 1983 a rift was apparent between Biya and Ahidjo. Ahidjo left for France and publicly accused Biya of abuse of power. Ahidjo sought to use his continuing control over the party apparatus to sideline Biya, by causing the party, not the President to set the government\'s agenda. However, at the party conference in September, Biya was elected to lead the party and Ahidjo resigned. In January 1984, Biya was elected president of the country, running unopposed. In February, two senior officials were arrested and, along with Ahidjo who was tried *in absentia* alongside them.
On April 6, 1984, supporters of Ahidjo attempted a coup d\'état, led by the Republican Guard, an elite force recruited by Ahidjo, mainly from the north. The Republican Guard under Colonel Saleh Ibrahim took control of the Yaounde airport, national radio station, and other key points around the capital. However, Biya was able to hole up in the presidential palace with his bodyguard until troops from outside the capital were able to retake control within two days. Ahidjo denied knowledge or responsibility for the coup attempt but was widely viewed as behind it.
### Limnic eruptions {#limnic_eruptions}
On August 15, 1984, Lake Monoun exploded in a limnic eruption that released enormous amounts of carbon dioxide, suffocating 37 people to death. On August 21, 1986, another limnic eruption at Lake Nyos killed as many as 1,800 people and 3,500 livestock. The two disasters are the only recorded instances of limnic eruptions, though geologic and sedimentary evidence indicates they may have caused large localized die-offs before historical records began.
### Brief political loosening {#brief_political_loosening}
Biya had initially seemed supportive of loosening restrictions on civil society, but the coup attempt ended any sign of opening up. However, by 1990, pressure from Western governments was mounting as the end of the Cold War made them less tolerant of authoritarian allies. In December 1990, opposition parties were legalized for the first time since 1966. The first multiparty elections were held in 1992 and were hotly contested. Biya won with 40% of the vote against 36 for his closest competitor and 19 for another opposition party. In Parliament, Biya\'s ruling party on a plurality with 45% of the votes but failed to obtain a majority. The competitiveness of the election was not to Biya\'s liking and subsequent elections have been widely criticized by opposition parties and international observers as rigged and suffering from numerous and widespread irregularities. The ruling party has had no trouble gaining large majorities.
Pressure from Anglophone groups in former British Cameroons resulted in changes to the constitution in 1996, which purported to decentralize power but fell short of Anglophone demands to reestablish the federal structure. As a result of continued opposition, many of the changes adopted in 1996 have never been fully implemented and power remains highly centralized in the President.
### Bakassi border conflict {#bakassi_border_conflict}
Bakassi is a peninsula on the Gulf of Guinea between the Cross River estuary and the Rio del Rey estuary on the east. The area was administered by Nigeria through the colonial era. However, after independence, efforts to demarcate the border revealed that a 1913 agreement between Britain and Germany, placed Bakassi in German Cameroon and accordingly should belong to Cameroon. Nigeria pointed to other colonial-era documents and agreements and their long history of administration to object to this narrative. The competing claims grew contentious after oil was discovered in the region. An agreement between the two countries in 1975 was derailed by a coup in Nigeria. In 1981, clashes between Nigerian and Cameroonian forces resulted in several deaths and nearly led to war between the two nations. The border saw further clashes several times throughout the 1980s. In 1993, the situation worsened with both countries sending large military contingents to the region and numerous reports of skirmishes and attacks against civilians. On 29 March 1994, Cameroon referred the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ).
In October 2002, the International Court of Justice ruled in favor of Cameroon. However, the ruling was resisted by Nigeria. Pressure from the UN and international community and the threat of withdrawal of foreign aid ultimately forced Nigeria to acquiesce and in 2006 the Greentree Agreement laid out a plan for the transfer of administration over two years. The transfer was successfully accomplished but many inhabitants of the peninsula retained their Nigerian citizenship and remain dissatisfied with the transition. Low-level violence continued until it was subsumed in the Anglophone Crisis in 2017.
### 2008 protests
In February 2008, Cameroon experienced widespread violent unrest as a strike by transport workers opposing high fuel prices and poor working conditions coincided with President Paul Biya\'s announcement that he wanted the constitution to be amended to remove term limits. Biya was scheduled to leave power at the end of his term in 2011. After several days of widespread rioting, looting, and reports of gunfire in all the major cities, calm was eventually restored after a crackdown with thousands arrested, and at least several dozen killed. The government announced lower fuel prices, increased wages for the military and civil servants, and decreased duties on key foodstuffs and construction materials. Many opposition groups reported additional harassment and restrictions on speech, gatherings, and political activity in the wake of the protests. Ultimately, the constitutional term limits were revoked and Biya was reelected in 2011 in an election criticized by the opposition and international observers as plagued by irregularities and low turnout.
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# History of Cameroon
## Contemporary issues {#contemporary_issues}
### Boko Haram {#boko_haram}
thumb\|right\|Map of Boko Haram impacted areas including northern Cameroon In 2014, the Boko Haram insurgency spread into Cameroon from Nigeria. In May 2014, in the wake of the Chibok schoolgirl kidnapping, Presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and Idriss Déby of Chad announced they were waging war on Boko Haram, and deployed troops to the Northern Nigerian border. Cameroon announced in September 2018 that Boko Haram had been repelled, but the conflict persists in the northern border areas nonetheless.
### Anglophone Crisis {#anglophone_crisis}
In November 2016, major protests broke out in the Anglophone regions of Cameroon. In September 2017, the protests and the government\'s response to them escalated into an armed conflict, with separatists declaring the independence of Ambazonia and starting a guerilla war against the Cameroonian Army.
## Football
Cameroon has received some international attention following the relative success of its football team. The team has qualified for the FIFA World Cup eight times, more than any other African team. However, the team has only made it out of the group stage once, in 1990, when they became the first African team to reach the quarter-final of the World Cup. They have also won five Africa Cup of Nations
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# Geography of Cameroon
At 475440 km2, Cameroon is the world\'s 53rd largest country. It is slightly larger than the nation of Sweden and the US state of California. It is comparable in size to Papua New Guinea. Cameroon\'s landmass is 472710 km2, with 2730 km2 of water.
The country is located in Central and West Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria.
Cameroon is sometimes described as \"Africa in miniature\" because it exhibits all the major climates and vegetation of the continent: mountains, desert, rain forest, savanna grassland, and ocean coastland. Cameroon can be divided into five geographic zones. These are distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features.
## Natural regions {#natural_regions}
`{{MapLibrary|Cameroon_sat.png|Cameroon}}`{=mediawiki} Cameroon is one of the wettest parts of Africa and records Africa\'s second highest concentration of biodiversity. In Cameroon forest cover is around 43% of the total land area, equivalent to 20,340,480 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 22,500,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 20,279,380 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 61,100 hectares (ha). Around 15% of the forest area was found within protected areas, for the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.
Cameroon\'s coastal plain extends 10 to inland from the Gulf of Guinea (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of Mount Cameroon reaches almost to the sea. The plain is densely forested including areas of Central African mangroves especially around Douala and in the estuary of the Cross River on the border with Nigeria.
A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 643 km^2^ of tidal flats in Cameroon, making it the 39th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area.
The low South Cameroon Plateau, rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1500 to. It is less humid than the coast.
In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extends from Mount Cameroon almost to Lake Chad at the northern tip of the country. This region includes the Bamenda, Bamiléké, and Mambilla highlands. It also contains some of the country\'s most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon. This area of tropical forest has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion with Mount Cameroon considered separately because as an active volcano it has a distinct environment from the other mountains.
From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged Adamaoua (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is 3400 ft.
The southern savanna plain extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures has been included as part of the East Sudanian savanna ecoregion.
## Climate
The climate varies with terrain, from tropical along the coast to semiarid and hot in the north. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, Debundscha, at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has an average annual rainfall of 405 in.
## Biodiversity
The wide diversity of climates and natural regions of Cameroon, as coastline, mountains, savanna, deserts, and tropical forests, allows that the country counts with rich biodiversity. Twenty-two million hectares from the Congo Basin forest ecosystem are located in Cameroon, where 9,000 plant species, 900 bird species, and 320 mammals species live, included 156 endemic plants, eight endemic birds, and 14 endemic mammals. The border with Nigeria has one of the highest concentration of biodiversity in Africa.
As part of the conservation efforts to protect threatened natural resources, Cameroon has established protected areas since 1932, included national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, faunal reserves, and one flora sanctuary.
Cameroon had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.00/10, ranking it 29th globally out of 172 countries.
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# Geography of Cameroon
## Rivers
The country has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers flow southwestward or westward directly to the Gulf of Guinea -- the Wouri, and lesser Dibamba, Bimbia and Mungo to the Cameroon estuary near Douala; Sanaga, Nyong, and Ntem further south along the coast; Akwayafe and Manyu (which joins Nigerian Cross), and the lesser Ndian and Meme north of the coast. The Dja and Kadeï, however, drain southeastward into the Congo River. In northern Cameroon, the Benoué River (Benue) runs north and west, eventually into the Niger, while the Logone River flows northward into Lake Chad.
Some of the borders of Cameron follow rivers, including the Aïna, Akwayafe, and Ntem or Campo.
## Data
**Location:** Central Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
**Geographic coordinates:** 6 N 12 E region:CM_type:country
**Continent:** Africa
**Area:**\
*total:* 475,440 km2\
*land:* 472,710 km2\
*water:* 2,730 km2\
*country rank in the world: 53rd*
**Area -- comparative:**
:\* Australia comparative: slightly more than twice the size of Victoria
:\* Canada comparative: slightly smaller than the Yukon
:\* United Kingdom comparative: slightly less than twice the size of the United Kingdom
:\* United States comparative: slightly more than `{{sfrac|1|10}}`{=mediawiki} larger than California
:\* EU comparative: slightly smaller than Spain; slightly larger than Sweden
**Land boundaries:**\
*total:* 5,018 km\
*border countries:* Central African Republic 901 km, Chad 1,116 km, Republic of the Congo 494 km, Equatorial Guinea 183 km, Gabon 349 km, Nigeria 1,975 km
**Coastline:** 402 km
**Maritime claims:**\
*territorial sea:* 12 nmi
**Terrain:** diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Atlantic Ocean 0 m\
*highest point:* Fako (on. Mt. Cameroon) 4,095 m
**Natural resources:** petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 13.12%\
*permanent crops:* 3.28%\
*other:* 83.61% (2012)
**Irrigated land:** 256.5 km^2^ (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 285.5 km^3^ (2011)
**Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):**\
*total:* 0.97 km^3^/yr (23%/10%/68%)\
*per capita:* 58.9 m^3^/yr (2005)
**Natural hazards:** Recent limnic eruptions with release of carbon dioxide:
- from Lake Monoun, 15 August 1984, killing 37
- from Lake Nyos, 21 August 1986, killing as many as 1,800
**Environment -- current issues:** water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
**Environment -- international agreements:**\
*party to:* Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling\
*signed, but not ratified:* Nuclear Test Ban
**Geography -- note:** sometimes referred to as \'the hinge of Africa;\' throughout the country there are areas of thermal springs and indications of current or prior volcanic activity; Mount Cameroon, the highest mountain in Sub-Saharan west Africa, is an active volcano
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of Cameroon, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.
- Northernmost point -- unnamed peninsula jutting into Lake Chad, Far North Region
- Easternmost point -- unnamed location on the border with the Republic of Congo in the Sangha River opposite the Congolese town of Bomassa, East Region
- Southernmost point -- unnamed headland at the confluence on the Sangha River and the Ngoko River immediately north of the Congolese town of Ouesso, East Region
- Westernmost point -- unnamed point on Akwabana Island, Southwest Region
## Gallery
<File:Koppen-Geiger> Map CMR present.svg\|Cameroon map of Köppen climate classification. <File:Hills> near Ngaoundal.jpg\|Countryside near Ngaoundal in Cameroon\'s Adamawa Region. <File:Berges> du Wouri 05
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# Demographics of Cameroon
The **demographic profile of Cameroon** is complex for a country of its population. Cameroon comprises an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:
- **western highlanders** (**Semi-Bantu** or **grassfielders**), including the Bamileke, Bamum (or *Bamoun*), and many smaller Tikar groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population);
- **coastal tropical forest peoples**, including the Bassa, Duala (or *Douala*), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%);
- **southern tropical forest peoples**, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka, Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%);
- **predominantly Islamic peoples** of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani (*Peul* or *Peuhl*; *Fulɓe*) (14%); *and*
- **the \"Kirdi\"**, non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
The Cameroon government held two national censuses during the country\'s first 44 years as an independent country, in 1976 and again in 1987. Results from the second head count were never published. A third census, expected to take years to produce results, began on November 11, 2005, with a three-week interviewing phase. It is one of a series of projects and reforms required by the International Monetary Fund as prerequisites for foreign debt relief. The first results were published in 2010.
## Population
According to `{{UN_Population|source}}`{=mediawiki} the total population was `{{UN_Population|Cameroon}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, compared to only 4 466 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.6%, 55.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.5% was 65 years or older.
Total population Population aged 0--14 (%) Population aged 15--64 (%) Population aged 65+ (%)
------ ------------------ --------------------------- ---------------------------- -------------------------
1950 4 466 000 39.6 56.9 3.5
1955 4 901 000 40.1 56.4 3.5
1960 5 409 000 40.6 55.9 3.6
1965 6 049 000 41.5 54.9 3.6
1970 6 842 000 42.4 54.0 3.6
1975 7 838 000 43.6 52.7 3.7
1980 9 110 000 44.6 51.8 3.6
1985 10 519 000 45.2 51.2 3.6
1990 12 181 000 45.2 51.3 3.6
1995 13 940 000 44.4 52.1 3.5
2000 15 678 000 42.8 53.7 3.5
2005 17 554 000 41.6 54.9 3.5
2010 19 599 000 40.6 55.9 3.5
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.I.2010) (Data refer to national projections.):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ----------- ----------- ------------ ---------
Total 9 599 224 9 806 876 19 406 100 100
0--4 1 662 298 1 624 936 3 287 234 16.94
5--9 1 412 467 1 370 992 2 783 459 14.34
10--14 1 227 470 1 167 201 2 394 671 12.34
15--19 1 068 509 1 101 526 2 170 035 11.18
20--24 855 334 981 955 1 837 289 9.47
25--29 712 550 813 266 1 525 816 7.86
30--34 588 210 621 397 1 209 607 6.23
35--39 460 394 482 319 942 713 4.86
40--44 388 539 405 307 793 846 4.09
45--49 323 507 316 740 640 247 3.30
50--54 261 626 260 284 521 910 2.69
55--59 178 876 159 112 337 988 1.74
60--64 155 208 160 671 315 879 1.63
65--69 110 645 116 645 227 290 1.17
70--74 88 969 100 602 189 571 0.98
75--79 47 173 50 905 98 078 0.51
80--84 31 609 39 976 71 585 0.37
85--89 12 109 14 455 26 564 0.14
90--94 6 942 8 773 15 715 0.08
95+ 6 789 9 814 16 603 0.09
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 4 302 235 4 163 129 8 465 364 43.62
15--64 4 992 753 5 302 577 10 295 330 53.05
65+ 304 236 341 170 645 406 3.33
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019) (Source: Population projections and estimates of priority targets for the various health programs and interventions, National Institute of Statistics (2016).):
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- ------------ ------------ ------------ ---------
Total 12 609 256 12 883 098 25 492 354 100
0--4 1 904 057 1 975 656 3 879 713 15.22
5--9 1 720 605 1 757 707 3 478 312 13.64
10--14 1 574 388 1 524 415 3 098 803 12.16
15--19 1 386 436 1 346 672 2 733 108 10.72
20--24 1 213 959 1 171 500 2 385 459 9.36
25--29 1 035 624 985 314 2 020 938 7.93
30--34 888 422 967 529 1 855 951 7.28
35--39 684 460 786 728 1 471 188 5.77
40--44 584 695 650 891 1 235 586 4.85
45--49 438 096 447 171 885 267 3.47
50--54 352 927 392 864 745 791 2.93
55--59 275 690 281 896 557 586 2.19
60--64 220 891 242 450 463 341 1.82
65--69 143 542 141 522 285 064 1.12
70--74 101 474 110 948 212 422 0.83
75--79 49 486 55 219 104 705 0.41
80+ 34 504 44 616 79 120 0.31
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 5 199 050 5 257 778 10 456 828 41.02
15--64 7 130 686 7 273 015 14 403 701 56.50
65+ 279 520 352 305 631 825 2.48
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural)
------ ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
1991 39 5.82 (5.17) 5.17 (4.52) 6.29 (5.66)
1998 37.4 5.2 (4.6) 31.5 3.9 (3.4) 40.1 5.8 (5.3)
2004 37.8 5.0 (4.5) 34.9 4.0 (3.7) 40.5 6.1 (5.6)
2011 38.1 5.1 (4.5) 34.6 4.0 41.3 6.4
2018 36.8 4.8 (4.3) 32.9 3.8 (3.4) 40.7 6.0 (5.5)
Fertility data as of 2011 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15--49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40--49
-------------------------- ---------------------- --------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
Adamaoua 5.2 8.6 6.5
Centre (except Yaoundé) 5.6 8.8 5.5
Douala 3.2 8.1 4.5
Est 5.4 12.0 5.6
Extrême-Nord 6.8 14.8 7.3
Littoral (except Douala) 4.6 8.4 5.1
Nord 6.5 12.4 7.1
Nord-Ouest 4.4 6.9 5.4
Ouest 6.0 10.1 5.8
Sud 4.6 9.6 5.2
Sud-Ouest 4.0 7.6 5.5
Yaoundé 3.5 6.5 4.4
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# Demographics of Cameroon
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events is in Cameroon not complete. The Population Departement of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Year Mid-year population Live births Deaths per Natural change CBR\* CDR\* NC\* IMR\* TFR\* Life expectancy (years)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------- ------------- ------------ ---------------- ------- ------- ------ ------- ------- -------------------------
1950 4 316 000 187 000 121 000 66 000 43.2 28.1 15.2 194.2 5.54 34.46
1951 4 382 000 189 000 122 000 67 000 43.2 27.9 15.2 193.1 5.52 34.64
1952 4 450 000 192 000 123 000 68 000 43.0 27.7 15.4 190.9 5.49 35.01
1953 4 519 000 194 000 123 000 71 000 43.0 27.3 15.6 188.5 5.47 35.43
1954 4 592 000 197 000 122 000 76 000 42.9 26.5 16.5 182.7 5.47 36.42
1955 4 671 000 201 000 120 000 81 000 43.0 25.7 17.3 177.3 5.47 37.36
1956 4 754 000 205 000 119 000 86 000 43.1 25.0 18.1 172.0 5.49 38.35
1957 4 841 000 209 000 122 000 88 000 43.3 25.1 18.2 167.0 5.51 38.26
1958 4 932 000 214 000 121 000 94 000 43.5 24.5 19.0 162.4 5.55 39.10
1959 5 028 000 220 000 121 000 99 000 43.7 24.0 19.8 158.3 5.59 39.84
1960 5 118 000 226 000 147 000 80 000 44.2 28.6 15.5 154.8 5.65 34.82
1961 5 200 000 232 000 146 000 86 000 44.7 28.2 16.5 151.9 5.71 35.41
1962 5 304 000 239 000 118 000 121 000 45.1 22.3 22.8 149.6 5.77 42.52
1963 5 428 000 246 000 120 000 126 000 45.3 22.0 23.3 147.5 5.83 42.92
1964 5 556 000 252 000 121 000 131 000 45.4 21.8 23.6 145.3 5.89 43.31
1965 5 690 000 258 000 122 000 137 000 45.4 21.4 24.0 142.7 5.95 43.89
1966 5 830 000 265 000 122 000 142 000 45.4 21.0 24.4 139.6 6.00 44.44
1967 5 975 000 271 000 122 000 149 000 45.3 20.4 24.9 135.8 6.06 45.18
1968 6 127 000 277 000 121 000 156 000 45.2 19.8 25.4 131.7 6.11 45.98
1969 6 286 000 283 000 121 000 163 000 45.1 19.2 25.9 127.5 6.14 46.82
1970 6 453 000 291 000 120 000 171 000 45.1 18.6 26.5 123.4 6.20 47.58
1971 6 627 000 299 000 120 000 179 000 45.1 18.1 27.0 119.9 6.26 48.25
1972 6 809 000 306 000 120 000 186 000 45.0 17.6 27.3 117.0 6.28 48.90
1973 6 999 000 315 000 121 000 193 000 44.9 17.3 27.6 115.0 6.31 49.32
1974 7 195 000 323 000 123 000 200 000 44.9 17.1 27.7 113.8 6.34 49.57
1975 7 397 000 332 000 126 000 206 000 44.9 17.0 27.9 113.1 6.39 49.72
1976 7 598 000 344 000 129 000 215 000 45.2 16.9 28.3 112.6 6.45 49.88
1977 7 797 000 355 000 132 000 223 000 45.4 16.9 28.6 111.9 6.52 50.00
1978 8 013 000 365 000 134 000 232 000 45.6 16.7 28.9 110.9 6.56 50.28
1979 8 243 000 378 000 136 000 242 000 45.8 16.5 29.3 109.4 6.61 50.58
1980 8 520 000 390 000 137 000 253 000 45.9 16.2 29.8 107.3 6.66 51.04
1981 8 829 000 407 000 139 000 267 000 46.1 15.8 30.3 104.6 6.64 51.52
1982 9 047 000 421 000 141 000 281 000 46.2 15.4 30.8 101.6 6.62 52.09
1983 9 241 000 422 000 138 000 284 000 45.6 14.9 30.7 98.3 6.61 52.76
1984 9 509 000 431 000 138 000 293 000 45.3 14.5 30.8 95.1 6.59 53.22
1985 9 804 000 444 000 138 000 306 000 45.2 14.0 31.2 92.0 6.58 53.90
1986 10 113 000 459 000 140 000 318 000 45.3 13.9 31.5 89.6 6.59 54.04
1987 10 434 000 471 000 140 000 332 000 45.2 13.4 31.8 87.2 6.56 54.72
1988 10 760 000 482 000 142 000 340 000 44.7 13.2 31.5 85.9 6.50 54.93
1989 11 089 000 492 000 145 000 347 000 44.4 13.1 31.3 85.3 6.44 54.95
1990 11 431 000 505 000 150 000 355 000 44.1 13.1 31.0 85.5 6.39 54.87
1991 11 778 000 517 000 155 000 362 000 43.9 13.2 30.7 86.3 6.35 54.66
1992 12 129 000 528 000 160 000 368 000 43.5 13.2 30.3 87.4 6.29 54.48
1993 12 487 000 538 000 167 000 372 000 43.1 13.4 29.7 88.7 6.19 54.06
1994 12 849 000 549 000 174 000 374 000 42.7 13.6 29.1 89.9 6.08 53.53
1995 13 212 000 556 000 180 000 376 000 42.1 13.6 28.5 90.7 5.96 53.22
1996 13 575 000 564 000 187 000 377 000 41.5 13.8 27.7 91.4 5.83 52.82
1997 13 941 000 573 000 191 000 382 000 41.1 13.7 27.4 91.6 5.72 52.74
1998 14 315 000 588 000 197 000 391 000 41.1 13.7 27.3 91.5 5.67 52.58
1999 14 699 000 607 000 200 000 407 000 41.3 13.6 27.7 90.6 5.63 52.70
2000 15 092 000 620 000 203 000 417 000 41.0 13.4 27.6 89.4 5.53 52.93
2001 15 493 000 632 000 205 000 427 000 40.8 13.2 27.5 87.9 5.44 53.14
2002 15 914 000 652 000 208 000 445 000 41.0 13.0 27.9 86.1 5.46 53.42
2003 16 354 000 674 000 209 000 465 000 41.2 12.8 28.4 84.3 5.46 53.88
2004 16 809 000 694 000 211 000 483 000 41.3 12.6 28.7 82.5 5.45 54.18
2005 17 275 000 711 000 215 000 496 000 41.1 12.4 28.7 80.8 5.41 54.36
2006 17 751 000 728 000 215 000 513 000 41.0 12.1 28.9 79.1 5.35 54.86
2007 18 252 000 745 000 217 000 528 000 40.8 11.9 28.9 77.4 5.33 55.17
2008 18 777 000 762 000 218 000 544 000 40.6 11.6 29.0 75.5 5.28 55.66
2009 19 319 000 779 000 218 000 561 000 40.3 11.3 29.0 73.7 5.23 56.10
2010 19 878 000 795 000 219 000 576 000 40.0 11.0 29.0 71.4 5.16 56.58
2011 20 449 000 805 000 218 000 588 000 39.4 10.6 28.7 69.1 5.06 57.13
2012 21 033 000 815 000 215 000 600 000 38.8 10.2 28.5 66.6 4.99 57.79
2013 21 633 000 827 000 213 000 615 000 38.2 9.8 28.4 64.0 4.91 58.48
2014 22 300 000 842 000 212 000 629 000 37.8 9.5 28.3 61.6 4.86 58.94
2015 23 013 000 869 000 211 000 658 000 37.8 9.2 28.6 59.1 4.83 59.66
2016 23 712 000 895 000 211 000 684 000 37.7 8.9 28.9 56.9 4.82 60.23
2017 24 393 000 913 000 210 000 703 000 37.4 8.6 28.8 54.8 4.77 60.81
2018 25 077 000 921 000 210 000 711 000 36.7 8.4 28.3 53.0 4.69 61.18
2019 25 506 000 923 000 208 000 715 000 36.2 8.2 28.0 53.3 4.65 61.7
2020 26 211 000 929 000 212 000 716 000 35.4 8.1 27.3 51.8 4.56 61.7
2021 26 916 000 936 000 222 000 714 000 34.8 8.3 26.5 59.3 4.47 61.1
2022 27 633 000 947 000 212 000 735 000 34.3 7.7 26.6 48.8 4.40 62.4
2023 28 373 000 957 000 203 000 755 000 33.7 7.2 26.6 47.4 4.32 63.7
\* CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)
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# Demographics of Cameroon
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
- Cameroon Highlanders 31%
- Equatorial Bantu 19%
- Kirdi 11%
- Fulani 10%
- Baggara Arabs (also called Arab Shuwa)
- Hausa
- Mafa
- Kanuri
- Northwestern Bantu 8%
- Eastern Nigritic 7%
- Other African 13%
- Non-African less than 1%
## Languages
*Main article: Languages of Cameroon*
There are 24 major African language groups in Cameroon; additionally, English and French are official languages. Cameroonian Pidgin English is also widely spoken.
Peoples concentrated in the Southwest and Northwest Provinces---around Buea and Bamenda---use standard English and Cameroonian Pidgin English, as well as their local languages. In the three northern provinces---Adamawa, North, and Far North---either French or Fulfulde (the language of the Fulani) is widely spoken. Elsewhere, French is the principal second language, although pidgin and some local languages such as Ewondo, the dialect of a Beti clan from the Yaoundé area, have a wide currency. In Far North Region the northernmost constituent province of Cameroon, Mafa Language Arab Shuwa (an Arab dialect) and is spoken by the Baggara Arabs (also called Arab Shuwa).
Indigenous languages of Cameroon include:
- Arab Shuwa
- Bamum
- Basaa
- Bikya
- Bung
- Kanuri
- Ngumba
- Yeni
- Lamnso
- Meta\'
- Mafa
## Religion
Roman Catholic 38.3%, Protestant 25.5%, other Christian 6.9%, Muslim 24.4%, animist 2.2%, other 0.5%, none 2.2% (2018 est
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# Politics of Cameroon
The **politics of Cameroon** takes place in the context of an electoral autocracy where multi-party elections have been held since 1992, the ruling party wins every election, and Paul Biya has been president since 1982. Since Cameroon\'s independence in 1960, it has been a single-party state and ruled only by two presidents: Ahmadou Ahidjo and Paul Biya. Political opposition are repressed and elections are manipulated in favor of the ruling party.
Nominally, it is a unitary presidential republic, whereby the President of Cameroon is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. A prime ministerial position exists and is nominally head of government, implying a semi-presidential system, although de facto only serves to assist the president. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly of Cameroon.
## Political background {#political_background}
The government adopted legislation in 1997 to authorize the formation of multiple political parties and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private newspapers. Cameroon\'s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in 1992 followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in 1997. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October 1997 presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, Bello Bouba Maigari of the NUDP, subsequently joined the government.
Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. Censorship was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests journalists. Although a 1990 law authorizes private radio and television stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.
The Cameroonian Government\'s human rights record has been improving over the years but remains flawed. There continue to be reported abuses, including beatings of detainees, arbitrary arrests, and illegal searches. The judiciary is frequently corrupt, inefficient, and subject to political influence.
Worthy of note is the fact that Cameroon is the only country in which two Constitutions are applicable side by side. For example, the 1972 Constitution designates the Prime Minister as constitutional successor of the Head of State in case of incapacity, death, resignation or unaccountable absence of the incumbent. Contrarily, the 1996 Constitutional Reform designates the President of the Senate as constitutional successor; but the Senate (provided for by 1996 Reform) does not exist. Apart from increasing the presidential mandate from 5 years to 7 years, very few amendments of the 1996 Constitutional Reform have been applied.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Paul Biya \|Cameroon People\'s Democratic Movement \|6 November 1982 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Joseph Dion Ngute \|Cameroon People\'s Democratic Movement \|4 January 2019 \|} The 1972 constitution of the **Republic of Cameroon** as modified by 1996 reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The president is empowered to name and dismiss cabinet members (regardless of parliamentary representation), judges, generals, provincial governors, prefects, sub-prefects, and heads of Cameroon\'s parastatal (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or veto regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly. In 2008, a constitutional amendment was passed that eliminated term limits for president.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch\'s Ministry of Justice. The Supreme court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president\'s request.
All local government officials are employees of the central government\'s Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.
While the president, the minister of justice, and the president\'s judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and probate law. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The 180-member National Assembly meets in ordinary session three times a year (March/April, June/July, and November/December), and has seldom, until recently, made major changes in legislation proposed by the executive. Laws are adopted by majority vote of members present or, if the president demands a second reading, of a total membership.
Following government pledges to reform the strongly centralized 1972 constitution, the National Assembly adopted a number of amendments in December 1995 which were promulgated in January 1996. The amendments call for the establishment of a 100-member senate as part of a bicameral legislature, the creation of regional councils, and the fixing of the presidential term to 7 years, renewable once. One-third of senators are to be appointed by the President, and the remaining two-thirds are to be chosen by indirect elections. The government has established the Senate in 2013.
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# Politics of Cameroon
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch\'s Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Court may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president\'s request.
## The role of women {#the_role_of_women}
In an article on the construction of a 'model Cameroonian woman' in the Cameroonian parliament, Lilian Atanga, examines arguments used to perpetuate a popular ideal and discourses which \"sustain and maintain the status quo (e.g. of women as domestic or women as cooks)\"
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# Telecommunications in Cameroon
**Telecommunications in Cameroon** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## History
During German rule, It was set up in the protectorate of Kamerun the first telegraph line, the first telephone line, and the first wireless telegraph. However, the country remained undeveloped in telecommunications. During First World War, Germans followed a scorched-earth policy that meant the destruction of communication lines, included telephone and telegraph.
In British Cameroon, from 1916 to 1950s, communications in the country relied on flag post runners that had been described as \"human telephone lines\". Paths followed by the runners served as a base of the development of telegraph lines in the territory. For instance, the line from Buea-Kumba to Ossidinge used the same paths that the mail runners. In the mid-1930s, the wiring of British Cameroon received more support.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations:
- state-owned Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV); one private radio broadcaster; about 70 privately owned, unlicensed radio stations operating, but subject to closure at any time; foreign news services are required to partner with a state-owned national station (2007);
- 2 AM, 9 FM, and 3 shortwave stations (2001).
- Television stations:
- state-owned Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV), 2 private TV broadcasters (2007);
- one station (2001).
BBC World Service radio is available via local relays (98.4 FM in Yaounde, the capital).
The government maintains tight control over broadcast media. State-owned Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV), operates both a TV and a radio network. It was the only officially recognized and fully licensed broadcaster until August 2007 when the government issued licenses to two private TV and one private radio broadcasters.
Approximately 375 privately owned radio stations were operating in 2012, three-fourths of them in Yaounde and Douala. The government requires nonprofit rural radio stations to submit applications to broadcast, but they were exempt from licensing fees. Commercial radio and television broadcasters must submit a licensing application and pay an application fee and thereafter pay a high annual licensing fee. Several rural community radio stations function with foreign funding. The government prohibits these stations from discussing politics.
In spite of the government\'s tight control, Reporters Without Borders reported in its 2011 field survey that \"\[i\]t is clear from the diversity of the media and the outspoken reporting style that press freedom is a reality\".
## Telephones
- Calling code: +237
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines:
- 737,400 lines in use, 88th in the world (2012);
- 130,700 lines in use (2006).
- Mobile cellular:
- 13.1 million lines, 64th in the world (2012);
- 4.5 million lines (2007).
- Telephone system: system includes cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter; Camtel, the monopoly provider of fixed-line service, provides connections for only about 3 per 100 persons; equipment is old and outdated, and connections with many parts of the country are unreliable; mobile-cellular usage, in part a reflection of the poor condition and general inadequacy of the fixed-line network, has increased sharply, reaching a subscribership base of 50 per 100 persons (2011).
- Communications cables: South Atlantic 3/West Africa Submarine Cable (SAT-3/WASC) fiber-optic cable system provides connectivity to Europe and Asia (2011); Africa Coast to Europe (ACE), cable system connecting countries along the west coast of Africa to each other and to Portugal and France, is planned.
- Satellite earth stations: 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
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# Telecommunications in Cameroon
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .cm
- Internet users:
- 1.1 million users, 113th in the world; 5.7% of the population, 184th in the world (2012).
- 985,565 users (2011);
- 749,600 users, 106th in the world (2009).
- Fixed broadband: 1,006 subscriptions, 180th in the world; less than 0.05% of the population, 190th in the world (2012).
- Wireless broadband: Unknown (2012).
- Internet hosts:
- 10,207 hosts, 134th in the world (2012);
- 69 hosts (2008).
- IPv4: 137,728 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 6.8 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet service providers (ISPs):
- Creolink Communications
A number of projects are underway that will improve Internet access, telecommunications, and Information and communications technology (ICT) in general:
- Implementation of the e-post project, connecting 234 post offices throughout the country;
- Extension of the national optical fiber network, installation of the initial 3,200 km of fiber is complete and studies for the installation of an additional 3,400 km are underway;
- Construction of multipurpose community telecentres, some 115 telecentres are operating with an additional 205 under construction;
- Construction of metropolitan optical loops, the urban optical loop of Douala is complete and construction of the Yaounde loop is underway;
- Construction of submarine cable landing points;
- Establishment of public key infrastructure (PKI);
- Construction of a regional technology park to support the development of ICTs.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms.
Although the law provides for freedom of speech and press, it also criminalizes media offenses, and the government restricts freedoms of speech and press. Government officials threaten, harass, arrest, and deny equal treatment to individuals or organizations that criticize government policies or express views at odds with government policy. Individuals who criticize the government publicly or privately sometimes face reprisals. Press freedom is constrained by strict libel laws that suppress criticism. These laws authorize the government, at its discretion and the request of the plaintiff, to criminalize a civil libel suit or to initiate a criminal libel suit in cases of alleged libel against the president and other high government officials. Such crimes are punishable by prison terms and heavy fines.
Although the constitution and law prohibit arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, these rights are subject to restriction for the \"higher interests of the state\", and there are credible reports that police and gendarmes harass citizens, conduct searches without warrants, and open or seize mail with impunity
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# Transport in Cameroon
This article provides a breakdown of the transportation options available in Cameroon. These options are available to citizens and tourists such as railways, roadways, waterways, pipelines, and airlines. These avenues of transport are used by citizens for personal transportation, of goods, and by tourists for both accessing the country and traveling.
## Railways
*Main article: Rail transport in Cameroon*
Railways in Cameroon are operated by Camrail, a subsidiary of French investment group Bolloré. As of May 2014, Camrail operated regular daily services on three routes:
- Douala - Kumba
- Douala - Yaoundé
- Yaoundé - Ngaoundéré
- Kribi - Mbalam and Nabeba in Republic of the Congo - under construction in 2022.
- Edéa - Kribi - proposed connection to deep water port.
There are no rail links with neighboring countries except Republic of the Congo.
## Roadways
*Total highways:* 50,000 km\
*Paved:* 5,000 km\
*Unpaved:* 45,000 km (2004)
Cameroon lies at a key point in the Trans-African Highway network, with three routes crossing its territory:
- Dakar-N\'Djamena Highway, connecting just over the Cameroon border with the N\'Djamena-Djibouti Highway
- Lagos-Mombasa Highway
- Tripoli-Cape Town Highway
Cameroon\'s central location in the network means that efforts to close the gaps in the network across Central Africa rely on Cameroon\'s participation in maintaining the network, and the network has the potential to profoundly influence Cameroon\'s regional trade. Except for the several relatively good toll roads that connect major cities (all of them one-lane) roads are poorly maintained and subject to inclement weather, since only 10% of the roadways are tarred. It is likely that within a decade, a great deal of trade between West Africa and Southern Africa will be moving on the network through Yaoundé.
National highways in Cameroon:
- N1: Yaoundé - Bertoua - Ngaoundéré - Garoua - Maroua - Kouséri, border with Chad.
- N2: Yaoundé - Mbalmayo - Ebolowa - Woleu Ntem, border with Gabon.
- N3: Yaoundé - Edéa - Douala - Idenau.
- N4: Yaoundé - Bafia - Bafoussam.
- N5: Douala - Nkongsamba - Bafang - Bafoussam.
- N6: Ejagham, border with Nigeria - Bamenda - Bafoussam - Tibati - Lokoti.
- N7: Edéa - Kribi.
- N8: Mutengene - Kumba - Mamfé.
- N9: Mbalmayo - Nki, border with Congo.
- N10: Yaoundé - Bertoua - Batouri - Kenzou, border with the Central African Republic.
- N11 Bamenda Ring Road Linking, Mezam, Ngokitujia, Mbui, Boyo and Menchum
Prices of petrol rose steadily in 2007 and 2008, leading to a transport union strike in Douala on 25 February 2008. The strike quickly escalated into violent protests and spread to other major cities. The uprising finally subsided on 29 February.
## Waterways
2,090 km; of decreasing importance. Navigation mainly on the Benue River; limited during the rainy season.
## Seaports and harbors {#seaports_and_harbors}
- Douala - main port, railhead, and second-largest city
- Bonaberi - railhead to northwest
- Garoua
- Kribi - oil pipeline from Chad
- Kribi South - proposed iron ore export port, about 40 km south of Kribi.
- Tiko
## Pipelines
888 km of oil line (2008)
## Airports
The main international airport is the Douala International Airport and a secondary international airport at Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport. As of May 2014, Cameroon had regular international air connections with nearly every major international airport in West and Southwest Africa and several connections to Europe and East Africa.
In 2008 there were 34 airports, only 10 of which had paved runways
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# Cameroon Armed Forces
The **Cameroon Armed Forces** (*Forces armées camerounaises (FAC)*) are the military of the Republic of Cameroon. The armed forces number 40,000 personnel in ground, air, and naval forces. There are approximately 40,000 troops in the army across three military regions. Approximately 1,300 troops are part of the Cameroonian Navy, which is headquartered at Douala. Under 600 troops are part of the Air Force. There is an additional 12,500 paramilitary troops that serve as a gendarmerie (policing force) or reconnaissance role.
The Cameroonian armed forces have bases spread all over Cameroon, including in Ngaoundéré. Air Force bases are located in Garoua, Yaoundé, Douala and Bamenda.
It has generally remained loyal to the government and acted to ensure the stability of the regime, and not acted as an independent political force. Traditional dependence on the French defense capability, although reduced, continues to be the case as French military advisers remain closely involved in preparing the Cameroonian forces for deployment to the contested Bakassi Peninsula.
## Army
With over 40,000 troops, the Army remains the most important component in terms of numbers. The Army is under the responsibility of the Chief of Staff, Major-General Nkoa Atenga, whose staff is in Yaoundé.
Currently, the organization dates from 2001 with a distribution in several types of units: combat units, response units (*unités d\'intervention*), *unités de soutien et d\'appui*, and finally special reserve units as part of 3 joint military régions (*interarmées*) and the 10 military land sectors.
Army units have been trained and equipped to fight in the swampy coastal terrain facing the Bakassi peninsula. Although prepared for an armed conflict with Nigeria in recent years, the Cameroon Army does not have operational experience against other forces, therefore, it is not possible to assess its ability to respond to changing threats and opposing tactics.
Combat units of the army include:
- The Headquarters Brigade, located in Yaoundé. This brigade is responsible for protecting the capital and supporting the institutions. The President of the Republic has to allow any of its deployments. The brigade consists of acommand and support battalion; a support battalion; a *bataillon honneurs et protection* (BHP); and three infantry battalions.
- Three command and support battalions;
- The Rapid Intervention Battalion (*Btaillon d\'Intervention Rapide*, BIR)
- The Rapid Response Brigade (Cameroon) (*Brigade d\'Intervention Rapide*, or also BIR), (which currently has no general staff) and is made up of three rapid response battalions, stationed in Douala, Tiko and Koutaba. These three battalions are respectively the Special Amphibious Battalion (Bataillon Spécial Amphibie; BSA), the Bataillon des Troupes Aéroportées (BTAP), and the Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (Bataillon Blindé de Reconnaissance; BBR) equipped with Type 07P infantry fighting vehicle and PTL-02 tank destroyer bought recently from China. The BSA is inspired by the French Special Forces. This brigade is a tactical battle unit under the authority of the Chief of Staff of the armed forces. For this to be engaged, the President\'s agreement is necessary.
- Five motorised infantry brigades, supposed to be stationed in one military sector but which can then be engaged without any regard to the territorial division of the country. These brigades currently do not have a general staff. In theory, they consist of 11 motorised infantry battalions; 5 support battalions and 3 backing battalions; however, the motorised battalions are in reality not operational due to a lack of staff, equipment and vehicles.
### Organization
The territory is divided into 5 combined arms military regions (RMIA):
- RMIA1 (Yaoundé)
- RMIA2 (Douala)
- RMIA3 (Garoua)
- RMIA4 (Maroua)
- RMIA5 (Bamenda)
### 1st Military Region {#st_military_region}
- 11th Ebolowa Brigade:
- 11th BCS (command and support battalion) in Ebolowa
- 12th BIM (motorized infantry battalion) in Ebolowa
- 12th BIM at Djoum
- 13th BIM at Ambam
- 11th BA (support battalion) at Sangmélima
- 12th Bertoua brigade
- 12th BCS in Bertoua
- 14th BIM in Bertoua
- 15th BIM to Yokadouma
- 16th BIM at Garoua-Boulaï
- 12th BA in Bertoua
### 2nd Military Region {#nd_military_region}
- Rapid Intervention Brigade
- Headquarters at Bafoussam
- Special Amphibious Battalion (BSA) at Tiko
- Airborne Battalion (BTAP) in Koutaba
- Armored Reconnaissance Battalion (BBR) in Douala
- 21st Motorized infantry brigade of Buéa
- 21st BCS in Buéa
- 21 BIM in Buéa
- 22nd BIM at Mamfé
- 23rd BIM at Loum
- 24th BIM at Akwaya
- 21st BA in Kumba
- 201st Douala Air Base
- 21st Air Transport Squadron
- 211st Transport and Assault Transport Squadron
- 212nd Transport and Assault Transport Squadron
- 22nd Air Squadron
- 221st Transport and Assault Transport Squadron
- 222nd Reconnaissance Squadron
### Army equipment {#army_equipment}
## Cameroonian Air Force {#cameroonian_air_force}
The air force has bases in Garoua, Koutaba, Yaoundé, Douala, and Bamenda. The Cameroonian Air Force was founded in 1960, the year of independence from France. There are under 400 troops in the air force. Cameroon\'s Air Force has 9 combat-capable aircraft.
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# Cameroon Armed Forces
## Cameroon Navy {#cameroon_navy}
There are about 1,300 troops in the navy including naval infantry.
### History
Around May 1999, Philip Njaru wrote a newspaper article where he alleged ill-treatment of civilians conducted by the 21st Navy Battalion based in Ekondo-Titi. In late May Njaru was approached by the local captain who asked Njaru \"to stop writing such articles and to disclose his sources\". Refusing to do this, Njaru five days later found his house encircled by armed soldiers, and escaped to Kumba. Here, he was assaulted by police in June 2001, with no particular reason stated. Njaru complained to the local authorities, but later learned that \"his complaint had not been received\".
Cameroon\'s Marine Nationale République modernised and increased its capabilities during 2000 with the acquisition of a number of small Rodman patrol craft and the retirement of some small older craft. A number of small patrol boats have been acquired or ordered from France. Latest estimates indicate naval strength consists of two combat patrol vessels, three coastal patrol vessels and approximately 30 smaller inshore and river patrol craft allocated to both the navy and the local gendarmerie. These include two 135 tonne Yunnan-class landing craft, which are able to carry and launch smaller craft for troop insertions. Some effort has been made to assess equipment needs to bring L\'Audacieux P103 and Bakassi P104 to an effective combat status. This has resulted in weapons capabilities being reduced in favour of an increase in serviceability and the service is now effectively without missile attack capabilities. Bakassi (a Type P 48S missile patrol craft) completed a major refit at Lorient, France in August 1999. This included removing the Exocet missile system and EW equipment, and fitting a funnel aft of the mainmast to replace the waterline exhausts. New radars were also installed. Bakassi is now armed only with 40 mm cannon. Although the Bizerte (P48 large patrol craft) class L\'Audacieux is fitted for SS-12M missiles these are not embarked and its operational status is in some doubt, having not been reported at sea since 1995. The Quartier-Maître Alfred Moto patrol boat was listed as out of service in 1991 but has since been reactivated.
### Ships
List of active ships.
- 1: DIPIKAR patrol boat (former French navy \"Grèbe\", upgraded with LYNCEA PATROL CMS) (Gun)
- 2: FRA P-48 (Gun)
- 6: Rodman 101/46 (Gun)
- 1: Quartier class (Gun)
- 3: Boston Whaler patrol boats
- 1: Bakassi class patrol boat (P48S type)
- 1: L'Audacieux class missile FAC (P48 type)
- 1: Alfred Motto class patrol craft
- 20: Swiftships type river boats
- 2: Yunnan landing craft utility
- 8: Simoneau
- 2: Aresa 2400 CPV Defender patrol boats
- 1: Aresa 2300 landing craft
- 6: Aresa 750 Commandos RIBs
- 5: 1200 Stealth RIBs
- 1: 1200 Defcon RIB
- 2: P108 and P109 patrol boats
## Gendarmerie
The Gendarmerie is a paramilitary force composed of about 9,000 soldiers as of 2016. It performs both law enforcement and national security responsibilities across the country. (See [Gendarmerie](https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/africa/cm-gendarmerie.htm))
## Military education {#military_education}
After an initial period of development, training requirements were formalized in an April 1967 per government decree. There was a shortage of Cameroonian instructors at that time. The two educational institutions of the nation are the following:
- Combined Services Military Academy (Ecole Militaire Interarmes Camerounaises---EMIAC): It is the interforce academy for officers, being the educational center for future officers of the armed forces and the National Gendarmerie. It was established in 1959 and inaugurated on 18 January 1961. No officers were graduated until 1970. Every graduation of cadets takes place on 18 January.
- Non-Commissioned Officer Training School (*Ecole des sous officiers du cameroun*)
Both commissioned and noncommissioned officers were sent to various military schools in France, Greece, and the Soviet Union. The total number of Cameroonian military cadets with a Russian educational background were few
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# Demographics of Cape Verde
Demographic features of the population of Cape Verde include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Cape Verde has about 540,000 inhabitants. A large proportion (236,000) of Cape Verdeans live on the main island, Santiago. Many more live abroad in the Cape Verdean diaspora in mainland Africa, Europe, U.S., Brazil, et cetera.
The archipelago of Cape Verde was first discovered and claimed by Portuguese sailors working for the Portuguese Crown in 1456. Cape Verdeans are West African. Many foreigners from other parts of the world settled in Cape Verde as their permanent country.
The difficulty of survival in a country with few natural resources has historically induced Cape Verdeans to emigrate. In fact, of the more than 1 million people of Cape Verdean ancestry in the world, only a little more than one-third actually live on the islands. Some 500,000 people of Cape Verdean ancestry live in the United States, mainly in New England. Many people of Cape Verdean ancestry also live in Portugal, Netherlands, France, Italy and Senegal. Cape Verdean populations also settled Spain, Germany, Canada, and other CPLP countries (Angola, Brazil and Guinea-Bissau). Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Cape Verdean students have continued to be admitted every year to Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese and Cape Verdean governments.
Portuguese functions as a state language. Virtually all formal documents and official declarations are in Portuguese. But it is not the first language. Cape Verdean, commonly called Kriolu, is spoken as a mother tongue by virtually all Cape Verdeans, irrespective of social status or religious affiliation. Moreover, historical linguists often attribute Cape Verdean Creole as the oldest \"New World\" contact language. It is a \"contact\" language in the sense that it was born and evolved between linguistically different groups who, by necessity, had to create a common language to communicate with each other. There is a rich repertoire of literature and songs in Cape Verdean Creole. In religion, the majority of Cape Verdeans follow Catholic Christianity. There are some Protestants, Baháʼís and Muslims.
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# Demographics of Cape Verde
## Population
`{{Historical populations
|title=Census population
|percentages=pagr
|1940|181,740
|1950|149,984
|1960|199,902
|1970|270,999
|1980|295,703
|1990|341,491
|2000|431,989
|2010|491,875
|2021|491,233
|source = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://ine.cv/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/evolucao-da-populacao-residente-em-cabo-verde-1900-2010.pdf|title=Evolução da população residente em Cabo Verde por Ilha Concelho|website=ine.cv}}</ref>
}}`{=mediawiki} According to `{{UN_Population|source}}`{=mediawiki} the total population was `{{UN_Population|Cabo Verde}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, compared to only 178,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 31.8%, 62.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 5.9% was 65 years or older.
Year Total Ages 0--14 (%) Ages 15--64 (%) Ages 65+ (%)
------ --------- ---------------- ----------------- --------------
1950 178,000 32.6 59.8 7.6
1955 195,000 35.8 57.9 6.2
1960 211,000 42.1 53.2 4.8
1965 240,000 48.5 47.3 4.2
1970 274,000 48.2 47.8 4
1975 311,000 45.8 49.6 4.6
1980 300,000 46.0 48.7 5.3
1985 328,000 44.5 50.5 5
1990 348,000 45.4 49.8 4.8
1995 395,000 44.5 50.5 5
2000 437,000 41.7 52.9 5.3
2005 473,000 37.0 57.2 5.8
2010 496,000 31.8 62.3 5.9
: Progression of the population
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 243 403 248 280 491 683 100
0--4 25 131 25 069 50 200 10.21
5--9 25 168 25 040 50 208 10.21
10--14 27 864 27 361 55 225 11.23
15--19 29 655 29 405 59 060 12.01
20--24 27 327 25 578 52 905 10.76
25--29 23 336 21 005 44 341 9.02
30--34 18 165 16 339 34 504 7.02
35--39 14 106 13 130 27 236 5.54
40--44 12 988 13 303 26 291 5.35
45--49 11 347 12 165 23 512 4.78
50--54 8 162 9 999 18 161 3.69
55--59 4 947 7 196 12 143 2.47
60--64 2 613 3 580 6 193 1.26
65--69 2 499 3 716 6 215 1.26
70--74 3 437 5 229 8 666 1.76
75--79 2 980 4 453 7 433 1.51
80--84 2 092 3 185 5 277 1.07
85--89 827 1 358 2 185 0.44
90--94 377 696 1 073 0.22
95+ 172 325 497 0.10
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 78 163 77 470 155 633 31.65
15--64 152 646 151 700 304 346 61.90
65+ 12 384 18 962 31 346 6.38
Unknown 210 148 358 0.07
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 281 533 275 324 556 857 100
0--4 26 739 25 524 52 264 9.39
5--9 26 162 24 973 51 135 9.18
10--14 25 262 25 389 50 651 9.10
15--19 23 734 23 483 47 218 8.48
20--24 23 955 22 461 46 416 8.34
25--29 28 159 26 015 54 173 9.73
30--34 28 603 24 995 53 597 9.62
35--39 24 111 20 484 44 595 8.01
40--44 18 738 15 923 34 660 6.22
45--49 14 043 12 780 26 822 4.82
50--54 12 282 12 693 24 974 4.48
55--59 10 437 11 557 21 994 3.95
60--64 7 125 9 226 16 351 2.94
65--69 4 080 6 402 10 482 1.88
70--74 2 050 2 955 5 006 0.90
75--79 1 722 2 772 4 494 0.81
80--84 2 037 3 496 5 533 0.99
85--89 1 443 2 389 3 833 0.69
90--94 682 1 249 1 931 0.35
95+ 170 560 730 0.13
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 78 163 75 886 154 049 27.66
15--64 191 186 179 615 370 801 66.59
65+ 12 184 19 823 32 007 5.75
Age Group Male Female Total \%
----------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total 246 363 244 870 491 233 100
0--4 23 111 22 429 45 540 9.27
5--9 23 533 23 086 46 619 9.49
10--14 23 809 22 771 46 580 9.48
15--19 21 903 20 401 42 304 8.61
20--24 20 391 18 159 38 550 7.85
25--29 22 481 21 665 44 146 8.99
30--34 22 552 21 681 44 233 9.00
35--39 19 217 18 105 37 322 7.60
40--44 15 820 14 259 30 079 6.12
45--49 12 269 11 347 23 616 4.81
50--54 11 257 11 224 22 481 4.58
55--59 10 001 10 682 20 683 4.21
60--64 7 536 8 765 16 301 3.32
65--69 4 496 6 510 11 006 2.24
70--74 2 347 3 279 5 626 1.15
75--79 1 685 2 842 4 527 0.92
80--84 1 839 3 404 5 243 1.07
85--89 1 257 2 473 3 730 0.76
90--94 648 1 316 1 964 0.40
95+ 211 472 683 1.39
Age group Male Female Total Percent
0--14 70 453 68 286 138 739 28.24
15--64 163 427 156 288 319 715 65.08
65+ 12 483 20 296 32 779 6.67
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# Demographics of Cape Verde
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Vital events of Cape Verde are not (yet) available for recent years. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Period Live births per year Deaths per year Natural change per year CBR\* CDR\* NC\* TFR\* IMR\*
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------- ----------------- ------------------------- ------- ------- ------ ------- -------
1950--1955 9 000 4 000 5 000 49.0 22.6 26.3 6.57 139
1955--1960 10 000 4 000 5 000 48.0 21.1 26.9 6.76 132
1960--1965 10 000 4 000 6 000 45.0 18.7 26.3 6.97 125
1965--1970 11 000 4 000 6 000 41.4 16.4 25.0 6.97 117
1970--1975 12 000 4 000 8 000 41.1 13.4 27.7 6.86 96
1975--1980 13 000 4 000 9 000 41.6 11.6 30.0 6.62 78
1980--1985 13 000 3 000 10 000 41.3 10.3 31.0 6.10 65
1985--1990 14 000 3 000 11 000 40.9 9.2 31.7 5.63 54
1990--1995 14 000 3 000 11 000 36.5 7.9 28.6 4.93 44
1995--2000 13 000 3 000 10 000 31.6 6.7 24.9 4.15 37
2000--2005 12 000 3 000 9 000 26.2 5.8 20.5 3.28 28
2005--2010 11 000 3 000 8 000 21.9 5.2 16.7 2.60 21
\* CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)
### Registered births and deaths {#registered_births_and_deaths}
Year Population Live births Deaths Natural increase Crude birth rate Crude death rate Rate of natural increase TFR
------ ------------ ------------- -------- ------------------ ------------------ ------------------ -------------------------- -------
1948 3,756
1949 3,904 3,641 263
1950 5,322 2,562 2,760
1951 7,367 2,377 4,990
1952 7,647 2,455 5,192
1953 7,597 2,866 4,731
1954 8,697 3,305 5,392
1955 8,547 2,220 6,327
1956 8,377 2,200 6,177
1957 8,237 2,790 5,447
1958 9,026 2,552 6,474
1959 9,609 2,382 7,227
1960 8,954 3,127 5,827
1961 8,319 2,543 5,776
1962 8,952 2,452 6,500
1963 9,671 2,996 6,675
1964 9,783 2,315 7,468
1965 9,638 2,377 7,261
1966 9,621 2,167 7,454
1967 10,190 2,593 7,597
1968 10,131 2,397 7,734
1969 9,671 3,452 6,219
1970 9,379 2,883 6,496
1971 9,493 4,147 5,346
1972 8,966 2,779 6,187
1973 8,418 3,513 4,905
1974 8,492 2,576 5,916
1975 8,210 2,796 5,414
1976 9,863 2,869 6,994
1977 9,965 2,564 7,401
1978 10,060 3,207 6,853
1979 8,289 2,469 5,820
1980 9,650 2,080 7,570
1981 8,580
1982 11,066 2,169 8,897
1983 11,438 2,649 8,789
1984 11,696 2,863 8,833
1985 11,282 2,735 8,547
1986 12,636
1987 12,771
1988 12,443
1989
1990 9,669 2,505 7,164
1991 12,289 2,616 9,673
1992 9,671 2,843 6,828
1993 2,821
1994
1995 386,813 3,520 9.1
1996 393,478 2,715 6.9
1997 406,267 3,047 7.5
1998 413,382 15,460 2,811 12,649 6.8
1999 426,061 2,812 6.6
2000 436,821 12,746 2,433 10,313 29.2 5.6 23.6 4.00
2001 445,035 12,550 2,396 10,154 28.2 5.4 22.8
2002 452,198 12,345 2,395 9,950 27.3 5.3 22.0
2003 460,837 12,120 2,600 9,520 26.3 5.6 20.7
2004 468,854 11,862 2,522 9,340 25.3 5.4 19.9
2005 478,163 11,554 2,423 9,131 24.3 5.1 19.2
2006 487,121 9,765 2,612 7,153 20.7 5.4 15.3 2.443
2007 491,419 10,421 2,484 7,937 21.8 5.2 16.6 2.575
2008 499,796 10,165 2,683 7,482 21.0 5.5 15.5 2.429
2009 485,677 9,962 2,583 7,379 20.4 5.3 15.1 2.334
2010 477,859 10,568 2,352 8,216 22.1 4.9 17.2 2.535
2011 480,577 10,777 2,488 8,289 22.4 5.2 17.2 2.589
2012 483,285 10,050 2,610 7,440 20.8 5.4 15.4 2.419
2013 485,996 9,845 2,518 7,327 20.3 5.2 15.1 2.358
2014 488,719 9,868 2,528 7,340 20.2 5.2 15.0 2.356
2015 491,436 9,794 2,761 7,033 19.9 5.6 14.3 2.330
2016 493,465 9,980 2,591 7,389 20.2 5.3 14.9 2.389
2017 495,522 9,943 2,497 7,446 20.1 5.0 15.1 2.401
2018 497,558 9,551 2,836 6,715 19.2 5.7 13.5 2.327
2019 499,609 9,284 2,771 6,513 18.6 5.5 13.1 2.286
2020 501,657 9,211 2,959 6,252 18.4 5.9 12.5 2.280
2021 504,125 8,607 3,178 5,429 17.1 6.3 10.8 2.147
2022 506,595 7,981 3,032 4,949 15.8 6.0 9.8 2.008
2023 509,078
2024 511,534
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total fertility rate (TFR) (wanted fertility rate) and crude birth rate (CBR):
Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural)
------ ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
2005 22 2,9 (2,8) 23 2,7 (2,7) 22 3,1 (3,0)
Fertility data from 2005 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40--49
---------------- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
Santo Antão 2.9 3.8 6.0
São Vicente 2.0 3.4 4.0
São Nicolau 3.3 4.4 4.2
Sal 3.2 7.0 3.9
Boa Vista 2.4 10.0 4.4
Maio 2.6 1.7 4.3
Santiago 3.1 5.4 4.5
Praia Urbano 3.2 5.1 4.5
Santiago Norte 2.7 6.2 4.3
Resto Santiago 3.3 4.6 4.8
Fogo 3.1 6.3 5.6
Brava 2.8 7.0 5.0
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years |
+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 48.08 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 48.77 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 49.45 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 52.43 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 55.25 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 60.52 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 62.37 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1985--1990 | 64.10 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1990--1995 | 65.73 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1995--2000 | 67.94 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2000--2005 | 71.27 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2005--2010 | 71.77 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2010--2015 | 72.14 |
+------------+---------------------+
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# Demographics of Cape Verde
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
### Genetics
E1b1a, R1b
: The predominance of West African mitochondrial DNA haplotypes in their maternal gene pool, the major West African Y-chromosome lineage E3a was observed only at a frequency of 15.9%. Overall, these results indicate that gene flow from multiple sources and sex-specific patterns have been important in the formation of the genomic diversity in the Cabo Verde islands.
## Languages
: Portuguese (official), Kriolu
According to results from 2016, 72.8% of the population aged 12 or above could speak a language besides Kriolu, and the vast majority of them spoke Portuguese, the official language of the country and the language from colonial time. Ability to speak non-Kriolu languages also varied greatly by age, with younger generations being substantially more likely to speak a non-creole language.
Any non-creole languages Portuguese English French Spanish Italian
--------------- -------------------------- ------------ ---------- ---------- --------- ---------
**Total 12+** **72.8** **72.2** **16.5** **13.5** **3.0** **0.9**
12-14 84.8 84.7 8.5 7.0 0.0 0.1
15-24 88.6 88.1 25.0 19.5 1.2 0.3
25-44 79.8 78.8 20.5 15.8 4.3 1.6
45-64 54.6 54.4 7.2 7.8 4.6 0.6
65 + 26.4 26.3 2.6 4.5 1.8 1.1
: Percentage of population aged 12 or above by ability to speak various languages
## Religion
: Catholic 77.3%, Protestant 3.7% (includes Church of the Nazarene 1.7%, Adventist 1.5%, Universal Kingdom of God 0.4%, and God and Love 0.1%), other Christian 4.3% (includes Christian Rationalism 1.9%, Jehovah\'s Witness 1%, Assembly of God 0.9%, and New Apostolic 0.5%), Islam 1.8%, Other 1.3%, None 10.8%, Unspecified 0
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# Transport in Cape Verde
Most transportation in Cape Verde is done by air. There are regular flights between the major islands (Santiago, Sal and São Vicente), with less frequent flights to the other islands. Boat transportation is available, though not widely used nor dependable. In the major cities, public bus transport runs periodically, and taxis are common. In smaller towns, there are mostly hiaces and/or taxis.
## Types of transport {#types_of_transport}
**Railways:** 0 km - There are no railways in Cape Verde. There was a short overhead conveyor system for salt from the open salt lake on Sal to the port at Pedra de Lume, and a short rail track to the pier at Santa Maria for similar purposes. Both are now disused.
**Roadways:**\
*total:* 10,000 km including unpaved tracks accessible only to four wheel drive vehicles\
*asphalt:* 360 km\
*cobbled:* 5,000 km (2007 estimates)
The majority of Cape Verdean roads are paved with cobblestones cut from local basalt. Recent international aid has allowed the asphalting of many roads including all of the highway between Praia and Tarrafal, all of the highway between Praia and Cidade Velha, and all of the highway between Praia, Pedra Badejo, and Calheta de São Miguel on Santiago, and the dual carriageway between Santa Maria and Espargos on Sal. A new ring road has been built from Praia International Airport around the city of Praia. The primary method of intercity and inter-village transport for Cape Verdeans is by aluguer shared taxis, commonly called *Yasi*, which is derived from the name HiAce, because the Toyota HiAce is the most common shared taxi model. Few Cape Verdeans own cars, but ownership is rising rapidly with increasing prosperity, particularly on Santiago Island.
**Ports and harbours:** Mindelo on São Vicente is the main port for cruise liners and the terminus for the ferry service to Santo Antão. A marina for yachts is undergoing enlargement (2007). Praia on Santiago is a main hub for ferry service to other islands. Palmeira on Sal supplies fuel for the main airport on the island, Amílcar Cabral International Airport, and is important for hotel construction on the island. Porto Novo on Santo Antão is the only source for imports and exports of produce from the island as well as passenger traffic since the closure of the airstrip at Ponta do Sol. There are smaller harbours, essentially single jetties at Tarrafal on São Nicolau, Sal Rei on Boa Vista, Vila do Maio (Porto Inglês) on Maio, São Filipe on Fogo and Furna on Brava. These are terminals for inter island ferry service carrying freight and passengers. There are small harbours, with protective breakwaters, used by fishing boats at Tarrafal on Santiago, Pedra de Lume on Sal and Ponta do Sol on Santo Antão. Some offer suitable protection for small yachts. The pier at Santa Maria on Sal used by both fishing and dive boats has been rehabilitated.
**Merchant marine:**\
*total:* 10\
*ships by type:* chemical tanker 1, trawler/cargo ship 5, passenger/cargo 5\
*foreign owned:* 2 (Spain 1, UK 1) (2008)
**Airports**
- 7 operational in 2014 - 4 international and 3 domestic.
- 2 non-operational, one on Brava and the other on Santo Antão, closed for safety reasons.
- Over 3,047 m: 1
- 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
- 914 to 1,400 m: 3
**International Airports:**
- Amílcar Cabral International Airport, Sal Island. Opened and began operating international flights from 1939. Named Sal International Airport until 1975.
- Nelson Mandela International Airport, Santiago Island. Opened and began operating international flights from 2005. Named Praia International Airport from 2005 until 2013. Replaced the Francisco Mendes International Airport which served the island from 1961 to 2005, and is now closed.
- Aristides Pereira International Airport, Boa Vista Island. Airport paved and began operating international traffic in 2007. Named Rabil Airport until 2011.
- Cesária Évora Airport, Sao Vicente Island. Opened in 1960 and became an international airport in 2009. Named Sao Pedro Airport until 2011.
International passenger traffic is forecast to exceed 250,000 passengers for 2007. Annual growth, mostly of tourists from Europe is anticipated to continue at just under 20%. (Source ASA Cape Verde airport authority)
**Main Airlines serving the country:**
- *TACV Cabo Verde Airlines*
- *Cabo Verde Express Cape Verde Express*
- *Halcyonair Cabo Verde Airways* - dissolved in 2013
- *TAP Portugal*
TACV flies daily international flights from Lisbon to Sal or Praia and once a week from Amsterdam, Munich, Paris, Las Palmas, Fortaleza and Boston to one or other of the international airports. It operates on a frequency varying from daily to thrice weekly on inter-island flights to each of the seven islands with operational airports and also to Dakar. It has a fleet of two Boeing 757s and three ATR42s have been replaced by ATR72s. It is currently (2010) undergoing privatization at the insistence of the World Bank.
## Road network {#road_network}
The road network of Cape Verde is managed by the national government (*Instituto de Estradas*) and by the municipalities. The total length of the road network is 1,650 km, of which 1,113 km national roads and 537 km municipal roads. Of the national roads, 36% is asphalted.
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# Transport in Cape Verde
## Air Services {#air_services}
TACV Cabo Verde Airlines, the national airline, flies weekly from Boston Logan International Airport to Praia International Airport at Praia Santiago island. Currently (2007) these flights are on Wednesdays, but schedules vary and are subject to change. It also has flights four times weekly from Lisbon to Francisco Mendes (the recently opened airport at Praia on Santiago island) and four times weekly from Lisbon to Amílcar Cabral International Airport on Sal island. There is a flight on Mondays from Paris-Charles de Gaulle Airport to Sal and on Thursdays from Amsterdam Schiphol Airport via Munich-Riem Airport to Sal. Return flights are just after midnight on the same day.
From Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, Spain there are night flights on Mondays and Thursdays, with departures just after midnight. Return flights are the previous day. There is a service from Praia to Fortaleza, Brazil on Mondays and Thursdays departing early evening and returning at night. All international flights are operated by Boeing 757 aircraft. Most international flights are subject to delay and sometimes cancellation.
TAP Air Portugal the Portuguese national carrier operates a daily service from Lisbon to Sal with late evening departures returning after midnight and reaching Lisbon in the early morning. Most flights are delayed and onward connections from Lisbon can be missed as a result. TAP and other European carriers provide connections with most European capitals, enabling same day through flights.
From the UK, direct routes by Astraeus from London Gatwick and Manchester to Sal ceased in April 2008; their website has not taken reservations since May 2008. TACV Cabo Verde Airlines opened a route from London Stansted in October 2008 though it was rumoured that flights were being cancelled due to minimum take up though with effect from May 2008, TACV have ceased flights from London Gatwick. There is a Fly TACV website, and you can book from their website. Reservations should be made via the UK TACV office on 0870 774 7338.
Thomson Airways have opened additional routes from London Gatwick and Manchester on Mondays and Fridays. Various options and bookings can be made via Thomsonfly to both Sal and Boa Vista.
Hamburg International provides a charter service from Hamburg via Düsseldorf on Thursdays and Condor operates from Frankfurt Rhein Main on Tuesdays returning on Wednesday.
Neos operates charter flights from Milan Malpensa, Rome-Fiumicino and Bologna on Wednesdays.
TACV Cabo Verde Airlines, the national airline has been a monopoly carrier within the island archipelago (2007). It operates services from the main hub airports at Sal and Santiago to Boa Vista, Fogo, Maio, São Nicolau and São Vicente at frequencies ranging from thrice weekly to thrice daily. Air strips on the other islands of Brava and Santo Antão are closed (2007) and can only be reached by ferry services from other islands.
TACV does not publish timetables; flight times are listed on departure boards. Tickets can be bought at the TACV shop at each airport by queuing and paying in cash (euros or escudos). Flights are often delayed and sometimes cancelled due to weather or operational conditions. Services are operated by ATR 42 turboprop aircraft, which are being replaced (2007) by the enlarged ATR 72 aircraft. Inter island tariffs vary depending on the distance but are generally around €180 return. Air passes are obtainable for multiple flights, when buying an international ticket on TACV.
Halcyonair a private carrier with Portuguese and Cape Verdean shareholders is commenced operations on inter-island flights during 2007. It has obtained the necessary licensing from the Cape Verde Government.
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# Transport in Cape Verde
## Travel within the islands {#travel_within_the_islands}
The frequency and regularity of publicly-accessible ground transportation services vary between the islands and municipalities. There are some common features that can be found throughout Cape Verde. The primary mode of transportation between municipalities is via shared minibuses commonly referred to as a \"yasi\", because of the Toyota HiAce which makeup the majority of the minibuses in service. While 12-14 passenger \"yasi\" class minibuses connect the major municipalities at their end points, modified pickup trucks with partially covered cabs and benches installed in the back transport passengers along shorter distances through minor municipalities and the rural areas in between. These modified pickup trucks are referred to as \"hilux\" after the Toyota Hilux, the common model adapted. Notably, both \"yasi\" and \"hilux\" transportation will stop and pickup any passenger that hails them, as well as drop off any passenger that requests to disembark at any point. intermuncipality transportation licenses are granted on an individual basis to each vehicle in the name of the owner by the Direcção Geral dos Transportes e Rodoviários (General Directorate of Transport and Roads). With the exception of the Praia ⇄ Assomada route on Santiago, all yasi and hilux class vehicles licensed to carry passengers act as individual freelancers, not collectively. As such, they do not adhere to scheduling, and have no obligation to provide service. This includes many vehicles running the same route, owned by the same person.
**Brava**
Hiluxes and yasis connect Furna and Nova Sintra mostly when boats arrive. Other parts of the island are connected by these vehicles.
**Fogo**
Fogo has many yasis running the routes between São Filipe and Mosteiros, São Filipe and Chã das Calderas. Unlike many other islands, these buses depart at roughly the same time every day, and despite the presence of multiple vehicles running each route, passengers can find themselves stranded if they do not board a vehicle during the limited departure window. Yasis tend to depart Mosteiros headed to São Filipe around 6am, and tend to Depart São Filipe headed to Chã around noon.
**São Vicente**
Mindelo has a municipal bus service run by the company Transcor. Yasi and hilux transportation connects Mindelo with other parts of the island. Other transportation companies especially minibuses include Transporte Morabeza, Transporte Alegría, Amizade, Sotral y Automindelo.
**Santiago**
Maura Company and Sol Atlántico are the only two companies that have been granted municipal bus service licenses. Over the past decade, Maura Company, which had previously been the dominant bus company, has retired the majority of its buses, while many that continue to run are in a state of disrepair due to financial difficulties. Sol Atlántico, in contrast, has greatly increased its fleet of buses, adding several new high capacity buses in 2015. Municipal bus prices are regulated at 44 escudos per ride. Transfers are not allowed. Bus schedules do not exist, but buses start running around 6am and stop around 9pm. Bus stops exist, and are frequently infiltrated by minibus vehicles (also called \"yasis\") and both (taxi) licensed and unlicensed \"clan\" taxis illegally running municipal bus routes without a municipal license. No other city on Santiago has a municipal bus service. The government of Assomada has solicited requests for a bus service but so far none has been approved, and there are no short-term plans for any bus company to enter the municipal market.
Transportation between the municipalities and rural areas is handled predominantly by yasi and hilux transportation. Rates are not fixed and range from 20 escudos for short trips between rural areas up to 500 escudos for Praia ⇄ Tarrafal. Some commonly accepted prices charged between municipalities are 100 escudos for Praia ⇄ São Domingos, 150 escudos for Praia ⇄ Orgãos, and 250 escudos for Praia ⇄ Assomada. Some of the yasis start collecting passengers before dawn to transport between Praia and Assomada and Praia and Pedra Badejo, and the last departures usually occur between 7 and 8pm. These vehicles do not maintain a schedule (with the exception of two early morning vehicles departing Assomada at 5:40 and 6:20 headed to Praia), instead choosing to drive around in circles within the urban centers of Praia, Assomada, and Pedra Badejo to pick up passengers until they are full, or over capacity (14 passengers is the legal limit for an actual Toyota HiAce), at which point they depart. Yasi drivers employ helpers to hawk out the window the destination of the yasi, as well as the obligatory \"cheio\", meaning full, with little regard for the number of people aboard. Helpers and drivers sometimes use shills (fake passengers) to overcome the common chicken and egg problem wherein passengers will not board an empty (or low passenger) minibus in an urban center because they know it will not depart until it is full. They will board a nearly-full (or over capacity) bus because they know it is likely to depart soon. In 2015 a project called EcobusCV started running a fleet of dual fuel waste vegetable oil / diesel modified Toyota HiACE minibuses using a scheduled service model between Praia and Assomada. Buses depart one per hour, on the hour, from designated bus stops in Praia, at Igreja Nova Apostólica in Fazenda, and Assomada, in front of the court house. The current departure schedule as of September 15 is one departure per hour, every hour starting at 7am, with the last departure at 6pm. EcobusCV plans to expand to departures in 30 minute intervals before the end of 2015. EcobusCV has instituted aggressive, transparent pricing undercutting the informal generally accepted prices between municipalities, which has started to cause freelance yasis to alter their pricing.
Taxis are common in Praia and Assomada. Taxis with a base in Praia are painted beige, while taxis with a base in Assomada are painted white. They can carry passengers between municipalities, but they are prohibited from circulating and picking up passengers outside of their base city, though they will usually pickup passengers if they get hailed on their way back to their home city. Taximeters are installed in most legal taxis, but many are not functional and they are almost never used because the generally accepted rates are cheaper than what the taximeter would usually count. In Praia there is a large number of \"clan\" or clandestine taxis that operate without paying for a license. Most people identify Toyota Corolla hatchbacks as clans and they are frequently hailed. While the minimum taximeter price is officially 80, in practice 100 is the minimum a person pays if they board a taxi. Taxi rates in Praia generally go up to 250 escudos from the furthest points of the city to Plateau, and cross town taxis cap out at 400 during the day. Rates generally go up by 50 escudos after 10pm, though for longer distances some will try to charge an extra 100. An exception to this rule is the airport. Airport rates generally range from 500 to 1000 depending on the starting place or destination, and can go up by several hundred at night.
**Sal**
Sal has unscheduled yasi service between Espargos and Santa Maria, with frequent departures in the morning from Espargos, where most locals live, to Santa Maria, where most locals work, and vice versa in the afternoon.
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# Transport in Cape Verde
## Inter-Island ferries in Cape Verde {#inter_island_ferries_in_cape_verde}
Several ferries operate between the islands with much lower fares than the airlines. These are provided by various independent shipping companies and their conditions and seaworthiness vary. Many services depart from Praia at about midnight, arriving in outlying islands at breakfast time. Return trips often depart around mid-day. Service schedules are approximate and delays or cancellations of service are common. Conditions can be very crowded it is advisable to pre-book a cabin for all but the shortest of trips. Passages can be very rough in winter.
Departure days vary according to the season and are frequently altered. Enquire at the shipping offices in Praia and other Cape Verdean ports.
In early 2011, the Kriola, the first of a proposed fleet of ferryboats belonging to the company Cabo Verde Fast Ferry (CVFF) arrived in Praia directly from Singapore. It was custom-built there by the Dutch shipbuilding company, Damen Group. The Kriola operates regular service among the Sotavento islands of Brava, Fogo, and Santiago
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# History of the Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory located in the Caribbean that have been under various governments since their discovery by Europeans. Christopher Columbus sighted the Cayman Islands on May 10, 1503, and named them *Las Tortugas* after the numerous sea turtles seen swimming in the surrounding waters. Columbus had found the two smaller sister islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) and it was these two islands that he named \"Las Tortugas\".
The 1523 \"Turin map\" of the islands was the first to refer to them as *Los Lagartos*, meaning alligators or large lizards, By 1530 they were known as the Caymanes after the Carib word *caimán* for the marine crocodile, either the American or the Cuban crocodile, *Crocodylus acutus* or *C. rhombifer*, which also lived there. Recent sub-fossil findings suggest that *C. rhombifer*, a freshwater species, were prevalent until the 20th century.
## Settlement
Archaeological studies of Grand Cayman have found no evidence that humans occupied the islands prior to the sixteenth century.
The first recorded English visitor was Sir Francis Drake in 1586, who reported that the *caymanas* were edible, but it was the turtles which attracted ships in search of fresh meat for their crews. Overfishing nearly extinguished the turtles from the local waters. Turtles were the main source for an economy on the islands. In 1787, Captain Hull of HMS Camilla estimated between 1,200 and 1,400 turtles were captured and sold at seaports in Jamaica per year. According to historian Edward Long the inhabitants on Grand Cayman had the principal occupation of turtle-fishery. Once Caymanian turtlers greatly reduced the turtle population around the islands they journeyed to the waters of other islands in order to maintain their livelihood.
Caymanian folklore explains that the island\'s first inhabitants were men with the surnames Bodden and Watler, who first arrived in Cayman in 1658 after serving in Oliver Cromwell\'s army in Jamaica. The first recorded permanent inhabitant of the Cayman Islands, Isaac Bodden, was born on Grand Cayman around 1700. He was the grandson of the original settler named Bodden.
Most, if not all, early settlers were people who came from outside of the Cayman Islands and were on the fringes of society. Due to this, the Cayman Islands have often been described as \"a total colonial frontier society\": effectively lawless during the early settlement years. The Cayman Islands remained a frontier society until well into the twentieth century. The year 1734 marked the rough beginning period of permanent settlement in Grand Cayman. Cayman Brac and Little Cayman were not permanently settled until 1833. A variety of people settled on the islands: pirates, refugees from the Spanish Inquisition, shipwrecked sailors, and slaves. The majority of Caymanians are of African, Welsh, Scottish or English descent, with considerable interracial mixing.
During the early years, settlements on the north and west sides of Grand Cayman were often subject to raids by Spanish forces coming from Cuba. On 14 April 1669, the Spanish Privateer Rivero Pardal completed a successful raid on the village of Little Cayman. In the process of the raid, the forces burned twenty dwellings to the ground.
Those living on the islands often partook in what is called \"wrecking\". Caymanians enticed passing ships by creating objects that piqued sailors\' interests. Often these objects did not look like other vessels. Caymanians made mules or donkeys with lanterns tied to their bodies to walk along the beaches or lit a large bonfire to attract sailors. Having very little knowledge of the area, sailors often became stuck on the reefs in the process of reaching a distance to where they could communicate with those on the island. Once the ships were stuck on the reefs, islanders took canoes to plunder and salvage the ships under the false pretense of providing assistance.
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# History of the Cayman Islands
## British control {#british_control}
England took formal control of Cayman, along with Jamaica, under the Treaty of Madrid in 1670 after the first settlers came from Jamaica in 1661--71 to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. These first settlements were abandoned after attacks by Spanish privateers, but English privateers often used the Cayman Islands as a base and in the 18th century they became an increasingly popular hideout for pirates, even after the end of legitimate privateering in 1713. Following several unsuccessful attempts, permanent settlement of the islands began in the 1730s. In the early morning hours of February 8, 1794, ten vessels which were part of a convoy escorted by HMS Convert, were wrecked on the reef in Gun Bay, on the East end of Grand Cayman. Despite the darkness and pounding surf on the reef, local settlers braved the conditions attempting to rescue the passengers and crew of the fledgling fleet. There are conflicting reports, but it is believed that between six, and eight people died that night, among them, the Captain of the Britannia. However, the overwhelming majority, more than 450 people, were successfully rescued. The incident is now remembered as The Wreck of the Ten Sail. Legend has it that among the fleet, there was a member of the British Royal Family on board. Most believe it to be a nephew of King George III. To reward the bravery of the island\'s local inhabitants, King George III reportedly issued a decreed that Caymanians should never be conscripted for war service, and shall never be subject to taxation. However, no official documentation of this decree has been found. All evidence for this being the origin of their tax-free status is purely anecdotal. Regardless, the Cayman Islands\' status as a tax-free British overseas territory remains to this day.
From 1670, the Cayman Islands were effective dependencies of Jamaica, although there was considerable self-government. In 1831, a legislative assembly was established by local consent at a meeting of principal inhabitants held at Pedro St. James Castle on December 5 of that year. Elections were held on December 10 and the fledgling legislature passed its first local legislation on December 31, 1831. Subsequently, the Jamaican governor ratified a legislature consisting of eight magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica and 10 (later increased to 27) elected representatives.
The collapse of the Federation of the West Indies created a period of decolonization in the English-speaking Caribbean. In regards to independence, of the six dependent territories, the Cayman Islands were the most opposed because it lacked the natural resources needed. This opposition came from the fear that independence might prevent any special United States visas that aided Caymanian sailors working on American ships and elsewhere in the United States. The people had concerns about their economic viability if the country was to become independent. The Cayman Islands were not the only smaller British territory that was reluctant in regards to gaining independence. The United Kingdom authorities established a new governing constitution framework for the reluctant territories. In place of the Federation of the West Indies, a constitution was created that allowed for the continuation of formal ties with London. In the Cayman Islands, the Governor\'s only obligation to the British Crown is that of keeping the Executive Council informed.
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# History of the Cayman Islands
## Slavery
Grand Cayman was the only island of the three that had institutionalized slavery. Although slavery was instituted, Grand Cayman did not have violent slave revolts. While scholars tend to agree that to an extent a slave society existed on at least Grand Cayman, there are debates among them on how important slavery was to the society as a whole. The slave period for the Cayman Islands lasted between 1734 and 1834. In 1774, George Gauld estimated that approximately four hundred people lived on Grand Cayman; half of the inhabitants were free while the other half were constituted slaves. By 1802, of 933 inhabitants, 545 people were owned by slave owners. An April 1834 census recorded a population of 1,800 with roughly 46 percent considered free Caymanians. By the time of emancipation, enslaved people outnumbered that of slave owners or non-enslaved people on Grand Cayman. In 1835, Governor Sligo arrived in Cayman from Jamaica to declare all enslaved people free in accordance with the British Slavery Abolition Act 1833.
Caymanian settlers resented their administrative association with Jamaica, which caused them to seize every opportunity to undermine the authorities. This problematic relationship reached its peak during the period leading up to emancipation in 1835. Caymanian slave owners who did not want to give up the free labour they extracted from their human chattel refused to obey changes in British legislation outlawing slavery. In response to the Slave Trade Act 1807, the Slave Trade Felony Act 1811, and the Emancipation Act 1834, slave owners organized resistance efforts against the authorities in Jamaica.
Local White residents of the Cayman Islands also resisted the stationing of troops of the West India Regiment. This animosity stemmed from the fact that the West India Regiment enlisted Black men, which the White establishment opposed because they were \'insulted\' at the idea of Black soldiers defending their settlements.
## Dependency of Jamaica {#dependency_of_jamaica}
The Cayman Islands were officially declared and administered as a dependency of Jamaica from 1863 but were rather like a parish of Jamaica with the nominated justices of the peace and elected vestrymen in their Legislature. From 1750 to 1898 the Chief Magistrate was the administrating official for the dependency, appointed by the Jamaican governor. In 1898 the Governor of Jamaica began appointing a Commissioner for the Islands. The first Commissioner was Frederick Sanguinetti. In 1959, upon the formation of the Federation of the West Indies the dependency status with regards to Jamaica ceased officially although the Governor of Jamaica remained the Governor of the Cayman Islands and had reserve powers over the islands. Starting in 1959 the chief official overseeing the day-to-day affairs of the islands (for the Governor) was the Administrator. Upon Jamaica\'s independence in 1962, the Cayman Islands broke its administrative links with Jamaica and opted to become a direct dependency of the British Crown, with the chief official of the islands being the Administrator.
In 1953 the first airfield in the Cayman Islands was opened as well as the George Town Public hospital. Barclays ushered in the age of formalised commerce by opening the first commercial bank.
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# History of the Cayman Islands
## Governmental changes {#governmental_changes}
Following a two-year campaign by women to change their circumstances, in 1959 Cayman received its first written constitution which, for the first time, allowed women to vote. Cayman ceased to be a dependency of Jamaica.
During 1966, legislation was passed to enable and encourage the banking industry in Cayman.
In 1971, the governmental structure of the islands was again changed, with a governor now running the Cayman Islands. Athel Long CMG, CBE was the last administrator and the first governor of the Cayman Islands.
In 1991, a review of the 1972 constitution recommended several constitutional changes to be debated by the Legislative Assembly. The post of chief secretary was reinstated in 1992 after having been abolished in 1986. The establishment of the post of chief minister was also proposed. However, in November 1992 elections were held for an enlarged Legislative Assembly and the Government was soundly defeated, casting doubt on constitutional reform. The \"National Team\" of government critics won 12 (later reduced to 11) of the 15 seats, and independents won the other three, after a campaign opposing the appointment of chief minister and advocating spending cuts. The unofficial leader of the team, Thomas Jefferson, had been the appointed financial secretary until March 1992, when he resigned over public spending disputes to fight the election. After the elections, Mr. Jefferson was appointed minister and leader of government business; he also held the portfolios of Tourism, Aviation and Commerce in the executive council. Three teams with a total of 44 candidates contested the general election held on November 20, 1996: the governing National Team, Team Cayman and the Democratic Alliance Group. The National Team were returned to office but with a reduced majority, winning 9 seats. The Democratic Alliance won 2 seats in George Town, Team Cayman won one in Bodden Town and independents won seats in George Town, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman.
Although all administrative links with Jamaica were broken in 1962, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica continue to share many links, including a common united church (the United Church in Jamaica and the Cayman Islands) and Anglican diocese (although there is debate about this). They also shared a common currency until 1972. In 1999, 38--40% of the expat population of the Cayman Islands was of Jamaican origin and in 2004/2005 little over 50% of the expatriates working in the Cayman Islands (i.e. 8,000) were Jamaicans (with the next largest expatriate communities coming from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada).
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# History of the Cayman Islands
## Hurricane Ivan {#hurricane_ivan}
`{{See also|:Category:Natural disasters in the Cayman Islands|l1=Natural disasters in the Cayman Islands}}`{=mediawiki}
In September 2004, The Cayman Islands were hit by Hurricane Ivan, causing mass devastation, loss of animal life (both wild and domestic/livestock) and flooding; however, there was no loss of human life. Some accounts reported that the majority of Grand Cayman had been underwater and with the lower floors of some buildings being completely flooded in excess of 8 ft. An Ivan Flood Map is available from the Lands & Survey Dept. of The Cayman Islands indicating afflicted areas and their corresponding flood levels. This natural disaster also led to the bankruptcy of a heavily invested insurance company called Doyle. The company had re-leased estimates covering 20% damage to be re-insured at minimal fees when in fact the damage was over 65% and every claim was in the millions. The company simply could not keep paying out and the adjusters could not help lower the payments due to the high building code the Islands adhere to.
Much suspense was built around the devastation that Hurricane Ivan had caused as the leader of Government business Mr. Mckeeva Bush decided to close the Islands to any and all reporters, aid and denied permissions to land any aircraft except for Cayman Airways. The line of people wishing to leave, but unable to do so, extended from the airport to the post office each day, as thousands who were left stranded with no shelter, food, or fresh water hoped for a chance to evacuate. As a result, most evacuations and the mass exodus which ensued in the aftermath was done so by private charter through personal expense, with or without official permission. It was also a collective decision within the government at that time to turn away two British warships that had arrived the day after the storm with supplies. This decision was met by outrage from the Islanders who thought that it should have been their decision to make. Power and water was cut off due to damaged pipes and destroyed utility poles, with all utilities restored to various areas over the course of the next three months. Fortis Inc., a Canadian-owned utility company, sent a team down to Grand Cayman to assist the local power company, CUC, with restoration. The official report, extent of damage, duration and recovery efforts in the words of Mr. Bush himself are first recorded a month following to the Select Committee on Foreign Affairs Written Evidence, Letter from the Cayman Islands Government Office in the United Kingdom, 8 October 2004.
\"Hurricane Ivan weakened to a category four hurricane as it moved over Grand Cayman. It is the most powerful hurricane ever to hit the cayman islands. The eye of the storm passed within eight to 15 miles of Grand Cayman. It struck on Sunday 12 September, bringing with it sustained winds of 155 miles per hour, gusts of up to 217 mph, and a storm surge of sea water of eight to 10 feet, which covered most of the Island. A quarter of Grand Cayman remained submerged by flood waters two days later. Both Cayman Brac and Little Cayman suffered damage, although not to the same extent as Grand Cayman.
Damage on Grand Cayman has been extensive. \"I include with this letter, for your reference, a detailed briefing about the damage and the recovery effort, and some photographs of the devastation. 95% of our housing stock has sustained damage, with around 25% destroyed or damaged beyond repair. We currently have 6,000 homes that are uninhabitable-these are homes that house teachers, nurses, manual and other workers. Thankfully, loss of life in Cayman has been limited, relative to the impact of the storm.\"- Honourable McKeeva Bush, OBE, JP.
While there still remains visible signs of damage, in the vegetation and destruction to buildings particularly along the southern and eastern coastal regions, the Island took considerable time to become suitable as a bustling financial & tourism destination again. There remain housing issues for many of the residents as of late 2005, with some buildings still lying derelict due to insurance claims as of 2013, feasibility, new regulations and building codes. Many residents simply were unable to rebuild, and abandoned the damaged structures
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# Geography of the Cayman Islands
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# Demographics of the Cayman Islands
This is a demography of the population of the Cayman Islands including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## Population
With its success in the tourism and financial service industries, the Cayman Islands have attracted many international businesses and citizens to relocate. The largest numbers of expatriates living in the Cayman Islands hail from Jamaica (11,703), the United Kingdom (1,708), the Philippines (4,119), and India (1,218). Approximately 8,139 more residents are citizens of various other countries. While the government does not restrict foreign land ownership, it does strongly enforce its immigration laws. Businesses are required to grant access to job openings to Caymanian citizens first; if none of them are suitable, the business may then seek employees from other countries. In order to work in the Cayman Islands, foreigners must have a job offer before immigrating. The Cayman Islands population is expected to reach 100,000 people before 2030, as an explosion in immigration after COVID-19 lockdowns continues to increase the population significantly.
### Structure of the population {#structure_of_the_population}
Age group Male Female Total \%
----------- -------- -------- -------- -------
Total 27 106 28 585 55 691 100
0--14 4 512 4 831 9 343 16.78
15--24 2 873 2 916 5 789 10.39
25--34 4 727 5 043 9 771 17.55
35--44 5 746 5 955 11 701 21.01
45--54 4 836 5 070 9 907 17.79
55--64 2 530 2 744 5 274 9.47
65+ 1 881 2 025 3 907 7.02
Age Group Total \%
----------- -------- ---------
Total 71 105 100
0--4 3 683 5.18
5--9 3 700 5.20
10--14 3 931 5.53
15--19 3 254 4.58
20--24 3 552 5.00
25--29 5 445 7.66
30--34 6 776 9.53
35--39 7 086 9.97
40--44 6 870 9.66
45--49 6 559 9.22
50--54 5 939 8.35
55--59 4 833 6.80
60--64 3 358 4.72
65+ 5 602 7.88
Age group Total Percent
0--14 11 314 15.91
15--64 53 674 75.49
65+ 5 602 7.88
unknown 515 0.72
### District populations {#district_populations}
The vast majority of its residents live on the island of Grand Cayman, at 67,493. According to the 2021 census, only 2,163 people lived on Cayman Brac or Little Cayman, bringing the total population to 69,656, broken down as follows:
- George Town: 34,399
- West Bay: 14,931
- Bodden Town: 14,268
- North Side: 1,840
- East End: 1,749
- Cayman Brac and Little Cayman (Sister Islands): 2,163
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# Demographics of the Cayman Islands
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Average population (x 1000) Live births Deaths Natural change Crude birth rate (per 1000) Crude death rate (per 1000) Natural change (per 1000) Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births)
------ ----------------------------- ------------- -------- ---------------- ----------------------------- ----------------------------- --------------------------- ----------------------------------------------
1950 6.4 198 58 140 30.9 9.0 21.8
1951 6.3 213 42 171 34.0 6.7 27.3
1952 6.2 197 46 151 31.5 7.4 24.2
1953 6.3 244 32 212 38.6 5.1 33.5
1954 6.5 237 48 189 36.6 7.4 29.2
1955 6.7 226 52 174 33.9 7.8 26.1
1956 6.9 235 62 173 34.0 9.0 25.0
1957 7.2 248 60 188 34.6 8.4 26.2
1958 7.4 207 66 141 27.9 8.9 19.0
1959 7.7 272 50 222 35.5 6.5 29.0
1960 7.9 264 54 210 33.6 6.9 26.7
1961 8.0 277 68 209 34.5 8.5 26.0
1962 8.1 290 51 239 35.6 6.3 29.4
1963 8.2 303 61 242 36.8 7.4 29.4
1964 8.3 270 73 197 32.5 8.8 23.7
1965 8.4 241 63 178 28.8 7.5 21.3
1966 8.4 267 67 200 31.6 7.9 23.7
1967 8.5 269 60 209 31.6 7.0 24.5
1968 8.6 282 54 228 32.7 6.3 26.4
1969 8.8 272 46 226 30.8 5.2 25.6
1970 9.1 313 71 242 34.2 7.8 26.5
1971 9.6 287 65 222 29.9 6.8 23.2
1972 10.1 351 68 283 34.6 6.7 27.9
1973 10.8 319 83 236 29.6 7.7 21.9
1974 11.5 281 84 197 24.4 7.3 17.1
1975 12.2 327 77 250 26.7 6.3 20.4
1976 13.3 282 81 201 21.7 6.2 15.4
1977 13.8 270 84 186 19.5 6.1 13.4
1978 14.7 273 78 195 18.6 5.3 13.3
1979 15.4 289 98 191 18.7 6.3 12.4
1980 16.2 326 105 221 20.2 6.5 13.7
1981 16.8 347 106 241 20.7 6.3 14.3
1982 17.4 339 107 232 19.5 6.2 13.4
1983 17.9 387 105 282 21.6 5.9 15.7
1984 18.5 414 114 300 22.3 6.1 16.2
1985 19.3 367 126 241 19.0 6.5 12.5
1986 20.3 360 141 219 17.8 7.0 10.8
1987 21.3 359 118 241 16.8 5.5 11.3
1988 22.5 380 124 256 16.9 5.5 11.4
1989 23.8 438 122 316 18.4 5.1 13.3
1990 25.0 490 120 370 19.6 4.8 14.8
1991 26.2 500 127 373 19.1 4.8 14.2
1992 27.4 520 128 392 19.0 4.7 14.3
1993 28.7 528 133 395 18.4 4.6 13.8
1994 30.1 531 149 382 17.7 5.0 12.7
1995 31.7 485 110 375 15.3 3.5 11.8
1996 33.5 560 125 435 16.7 3.7 13.0
1997 35.6 572 123 449 16.1 3.5 12.6
1998 37.7 545 117 428 14.4 3.1 11.3
1999 39.8 604 128 476 15.2 3.2 12.0
2000 41.7 619 137 482 14.8 3.3 11.6
2001 43.3 622 132 490 14.4 3.0 11.3
2002 44.7 583 120 463 13.0 2.7 10.3 13.7
2003 46.0 623 153 470 13.5 3.3 10.2 4.8
2004 47.3 611 165 446 12.9 3.5 9.4 6.4
2005 48.6 699 170 529 14.4 3.5 10.9 7.0
2006 52.229 710 182 528 13.4 3.4 10.0 8.7
2007 52.939 744 160 584 13.8 3.0 10.8 8.3
2008 55.448 793 166 627 14.2 3.0 11.2 2.5
2009 56.507 824 177 647 14.6 3.1 11.4 3.7
2010 55.521 821 164 657 14.8 3.0 11.8 2.5
2011 55.277 800 176 624 14.5 3.2 11.3 6.3
2012 56.124 759 172 587 13.6 3.3 10.3 4.0
2013 56.239 705 182 523 12.5 3.2 9.3 2.9
2014 56.993 711 163 548 12.5 2.9 9.6
2015 59.054 649 170 479 11.0 2.9 8.1
2016 61.331 660 193 467 10.8 3.1 7.7
2017 63.115 625 216 409 9.9 3.4 6.5
2018 64.420 640 214 426 9.9 3.3 6.6
2019 69.914 646 250 396 9.2 3.7 5.5
2020 65.786 817 215 602 12.4 3.3 9.1
2021 67.721 818 341 477 12.4 4.0 8.4
2022 78.554 798 310 488 10.2 3.9 6.3
2023 83.671 760 308 452 9.1 3.7 5.4
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
Although many Caribbean islands were initially populated by Amerindian groups such as the Taíno and Kalinago, no evidence of this has been found in the Cayman Islands. Therefore, native Caymanians do not have any Amerindian heritage from their own islands; however, a significant number of Jamaicans have settled in the Cayman Islands over the years, so they and their descendants may have some Amerindian blood via Jamaica. Slavery was less common on the Cayman Islands than in many other parts of the Caribbean, resulting in a more even division of African and European ancestry. Those of mixed race make up 41.3% of the population, with white Caymanians and immigrants of European ancestry making up 24.1%, and black Caymanians and immigrants of African ancestry following at 23.9%. South Asians, mainly Filipinos and Indians, as well as Caymanians of South Asian descent, make up 8.1%, and the remaining 2.6% belong to various ethnic groups.
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# Demographics of the Cayman Islands
## Language
The official language of the Cayman Islands is English. The Caymanian accent retains elements passed down from English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers (among others) in a language variety known as Cayman Creole. Young Caymanians often borrow terms from Jamaican patois due to the popularity of Jamaican pop culture and influences from Jamaican immigrants in the islands. It is also quite commonplace to hear some residents converse in Spanish as many citizens have relocated from Latin America to work and live on Grand Cayman. The Latin American nations with greatest representation are Honduras, Cuba, Colombia, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. Spanish speakers comprise almost 10% of the population and is predominantly of the Caribbean dialect. Tagalog is spoken by about 8% of inhabitants most of whom are Filipino residents on work permits. The remainder of the population converse in various languages, with some including Hindi, Afrikaans and Portuguese.
## Religion
The predominant religion on the Cayman Islands, as of 2021, is Christianity at 66.9%; this is down from over 80% in 2010. Denominations practiced include; Church of God, United Church, Anglican Church, Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Pentecostal Church. Roman Catholic churches are St. Ignatius Church, George Town and Stella Maris Church, Cayman Brac. Many citizens are deeply religious, regularly going to church, however, the number of Caymanians who identify as non-religious has skyrocketed since the 2010 census, with around 25% professing no religion or a denomination not widespread. This is up from 9.3% during the last census. Ports are closed on Sundays and Christian holidays. There are places of worship in George Town for Jehovah\'s Witnesses and followers of the Baháʼí Faith. The Cayman Islands also hosts a growing Jewish community.
Year Percent of Hindus Increase
------ ------------------- ----------
2000 0.25%
2008 1% +0.75%
2011 0.8% −0.2%
2021 2.4% +2.6%
Hinduism is a minority religion in the Cayman Islands and is one of the smallest religions. Although it is unknown as to when Hinduism was introduced to the Cayman Islands. There is no Hindu temple located in the Cayman Islands, but there is at least one home which is set aside for the purpose of worship. There were only 98 Hindus in Cayman according to the 2000 census (about 0.25% of the population). In the 2008 census, the number of Hindus increased to 510 (1% of the total population). The 2010 Census showed the number of Hindus decreasing to 454 (0.8% of the total Cayman Islands population)
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# Politics of the Cayman Islands
The **politics of the Cayman Islands** takes place within a framework of parliamentary democracy, within the confines of the Government of the Cayman Islands.
## Constitutional Modernisation {#constitutional_modernisation}
Constitutional Modernisation has come to the forefront of politics recently with the collapse of the now defunct Euro Bank Corporation in 2003. The prosecution in the trial was forced to reveal that the British Government had planted moles (and used wire taps) throughout the banking industry using MI6, with the consent of the Governor. This caused the trial\'s collapse, and subsequent release of those charged with wrongdoing. Along with this, the only mole that was known at the time was allowed to leave the country, never to answer for what he (or the United Kingdom) was doing. This infuriated the elected members of the Legislative Assembly as they maintained that the Governor and the United Kingdom had put into question the Cayman Islands\' reputation as a tightly regulated offshore jurisdiction. Some saw this as the United Kingdom meddling in the territory\'s affairs to benefit itself (and the EU), at the expense of the islands\' economy.
Constitutional talks however went on hold following Hurricane Ivan in 2004. Subsequently, in May 2005 the ruling UDP was ousted by the PPM, which restarted the process of constitutional modernisation. The new constitution took effect on 6 November 2009
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# Economy of the Cayman Islands
The **economy of the Cayman Islands**, a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, is mainly fueled by the tourism sector and by the financial services sector, together representing 50--60 percent of the country\'s gross domestic product (GDP). The Cayman Islands Investment Bureau, a government agency, has been established with the mandate of promoting investment and economic development in the territory. Because of the territory\'s strong economy and it being a popular banking destination for wealthy individuals and businesses, it is often dubbed the 'financial capital' of the Caribbean. The Cayman Islands enjoys the strongest and one of the most stable economies in the Caribbean.
The emergence of what is now considered the Cayman Islands\' \"twin pillars of economic development\" (tourism and international finance) started in the 1950s with the introduction of modern transportation and telecommunications.
## History
From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base. The harvesting of sea turtles to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s. Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of arable land. Fishing, shipbuilding, and cotton production boosted the economy during the early days of settlement. In addition, settlers scavenged shipwreck remains from the surrounding coral reefs.
The boom in the Cayman Islands\' international finance industry can also be at least partly attributed to the British overseas territory having no direct taxation. A popular legend attributes the tax-free status to the heroic acts of the inhabitants during a maritime tragedy in 1794, often referred to as \"Wreck of the Ten Sails\". The wreck involved nine British merchant vessels and their naval escort, the frigate HMS Convert, that ran aground on the reefs off Grand Cayman. Due to the rescue efforts by the Caymanians using canoes, the loss of life was limited to eight. However, records from the colonial era indicate that Cayman Islands, then a dependency of Jamaica, was not tax-exempt during the period that followed. In 1803, the inhabitants signed a petition addressed to the Jamaican governor asking him to grant them a tax exemption from the \"Transient Tax on Wreck Goods\".
Sir Vassel Johnson, the second Caymanian to be knighted, was a pioneer of Cayman\'s financial services industry. Cayman Islands Past Governor Stuart Jack said. \"As one of the architects of modern Cayman, especially the financial industry, Sir Vassel guided the steady growth of these Islands as the first financial secretary. His remarkable vision set the foundation for the prosperity and economic stability of these islands. Without his input, Cayman might well have remained the islands that time forgot.\"
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# Economy of the Cayman Islands
## International finance {#international_finance}
The Cayman Islands\' tax-free status has attracted numerous banks and other companies to its shores. More than 92,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 2014, including almost 600 banks and trust companies, with banking assets exceeding \$500 billion. Numerous large corporations are based in the Cayman Islands, including, for example, Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC). The Cayman Islands Stock Exchange was opened in 1997.
### Financial services industry {#financial_services_industry}
The Cayman Islands is a major international financial centre. The largest sectors are \"banking, hedge fund formation and investment, structured finance and securitisation, captive insurance, and general corporate activities\". Regulation and supervision of the financial services industry is the responsibility of the Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (CIMA). Sir Vassel Johnson was a pioneer of Cayman\'s financial services industry.
Sir Vassel, who became the only Caymanian ever knighted in 1994, served as the Cayman Islands financial secretary from 1965 through 1982 and then as an Executive Council member from 1984 through 1988. In his government roles, Sir Vassel was a driving force in shaping the Cayman Islands financial services industry.
The Cayman Islands is the fifth-largest banking centre in the world, with \$1.5 trillion in banking liabilities `{{as of|lc=y|June 2007}}`{=mediawiki}. In March 2017 there were 158 banks, 11 of which were licensed to conduct banking activities with domestic (Cayman-based) and international clients, and the remaining 147 were licensed to operate on an international basis with only limited domestic activity. Financial services generated KYD\$1.2 billion of GDP in 2007 (55% of the total economy), 36% of all employment and 40% of all government revenue. In 2010, the country ranked fifth internationally in terms of value of liabilities booked and sixth in terms of assets booked. It has branches of 40 of the world\'s 50 largest banks. The Cayman Islands is the second largest captive domicile (Bermuda is largest) in the world with more than 700 captives, writing more than US\$7.7 billion of premiums and with US\$36.8 billion of assets under management.
There are a number of service providers. These include global financial institutions including HSBC, Deutsche Bank, UBS, and Goldman Sachs; over 80 administrators, leading accountancy practices (incl. the Big Four auditors), and offshore law practices including Maples & Calder. They also include wealth management such as Rothschilds private banking and financial advice.
Since the introduction of the Mutual Funds Law in 1993, which has been copied by jurisdictions around the world, the Cayman Islands has grown to be the world\'s leading offshore hedge fund jurisdiction. In June 2008, it passed 10,000 hedge fund registrations, and over the year ending June 2008 CIMA reported a net growth rate of 12% for hedge funds.
Starting in the mid-late 1990s, offshore financial centres, such as the Cayman Islands, came under increasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedly harmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low-tax regimes from having an advantage in the global marketplace. The OECD threatened to place the Cayman Islands and other financial centres on a \"black list\" and impose sanctions against them. However, the Cayman Islands successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list in 2000 by committing to regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchange with OECD member countries about their citizens.
In 2004, under pressure from the UK, the Cayman Islands agreed in principle to implement the European Union Savings Directive (EUSD), but only after securing some important benefits for the financial services industry in the Cayman Islands. As the Cayman Islands is not subject to EU laws, the implementation of the EUSD is by way of bilateral agreements between each EU member state and the Cayman Islands. The government of the Cayman Islands agreed on a model agreement, which set out how the EUSD would be implemented with the Cayman Islands.
A report published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in March 2005, assessing supervision and regulation in the Cayman Islands\' banking, insurance and securities industries, as well as its money laundering regime, recognised the jurisdiction\'s comprehensive regulatory and compliance frameworks. \"An extensive program of legislative, rule and guideline development has introduced an increasingly effective system of regulation, both formalizing earlier practices and introducing enhanced procedures\", noted IMF assessors. The report further stated that \"the supervisory system benefits from a well-developed banking infrastructure with an internationally experienced and qualified workforce as well as experienced lawyers, accountants and auditors\", adding that, \"the overall compliance culture within Cayman is very strong, including the compliance culture related to AML (anti-money laundering) obligations\".
On 4 May 2009, the United States President, Barack Obama, declared his intentions to curb the use of financial centres by multinational corporations. In his speech, he singled out the Cayman Islands as a tax shelter. The next day, the Cayman Island Financial Services Association submitted an open letter to the president detailing the Cayman Islands\' role in international finance and its value to the US financial system.
The Cayman Islands was ranked as the world\'s second most significant tax haven on the Tax Justice Network\'s \"Financial Secrecy Index\" from 2011, scoring slightly higher than Luxembourg and falling behind only Switzerland. In 2013, the Cayman Islands was ranked by the Financial Secrecy Index as the fourth safest tax haven in the world, behind Hong Kong but ahead of Singapore. In the first conviction of a non-Swiss financial institution for US tax evasion conspiracy, two Cayman Islands financial institutions pleaded guilty in Manhattan Federal Court in 2016 to conspiring to hide more than \$130 million in Cayman Islands bank accounts. The companies admitted to helping US clients hide assets in offshore accounts, and agreed to produce account files of non-compliant US taxpayers.
#### Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act {#foreign_account_tax_compliance_act}
On 30 June 2014, the tax jurisdiction of the Cayman Islands was deemed to have an inter-governmental agreement (IGA) with the United States of America with respect to the \"Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act\" of the United States of America.
The Model 1 Agreement recognizes:
- The Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA) between the United States of America and The Cayman Islands which was signed in London, United Kingdom on 29 November 2013. Page 1 -- Clause 2 of the FATCA Agreement.
- The Government of Great Britain and Northern Ireland provided a copy of the Letter of Entrustment which was sent to the Government of the Cayman Islands, to the Government of the United States of America \"via diplomatic note of October 16, 2013\".
- The Letter of Entrustment dated 20 October 2013, The Govt of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, authorized the Govt of the Cayman Islands to sign an agreement on information exchange to facilitate the Implementation of the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act -- Page 1 -- Clause 10.
On 26 March 2017, the US Treasury site disclosed that the Model 1 agreement and related agreement were \"In Force\" on 1 July 2014.
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# Economy of the Cayman Islands
## International finance {#international_finance}
### Financial services industry {#financial_services_industry}
#### Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act {#sanctions_and_anti_money_laundering_act}
Under the UK Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2018, beneficial ownership of companies in British overseas territories such as the Cayman Islands must be publicly registered for disclosure by 31 December 2020. The Government of the Cayman Islands plans to challenge this law, arguing that it violates the Constitutional sovereignty granted to the islands. The British National Crime Agency said in September 2018 that the authorities in the Cayman Islands were not supplying information about the beneficial ownership of firms registered in the Cayman Islands.
## Tourism
Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Unspoiled beaches, duty-free shopping, scuba diving, and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year. Due to the well-developed tourist industry, many citizens work in service jobs in that sector.
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# Economy of the Cayman Islands
## Diversification
The Cayman Islands is seeking to diversify beyond its two traditional industries, and invest in health care and technology. Health City Cayman Islands, opened in 2014, is a medical tourism hospital in East End, led by surgeon Devi Shetty. Cayman Enterprise City is a special economic zone that was opened in 2011 for technology, finance, and education investment. Cayman Sea Salt (producing gourmet sea salt) and Cayman Logwood products are now made in the Cayman Islands.
## Standard of living {#standard_of_living}
Because the islands cannot produce enough goods to support the population, about 100% of their food and consumer goods must be imported. In addition, the islands have few natural fresh water resources. Desalination of sea water is used to solve this. Despite those challenges, the Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children. Most schools follow the British educational system. Ten primary, one special education and two high schools (\'junior high and senior high\') are operated by the government, along with eight private high schools. In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school.
Poverty relief is provided by the Needs Assessment Unit, a government agency established by the Poor Persons (Relief) Law in January 1964.
The Cayman Islands enjoys the lowest rates of poverty in the Caribbean, with the percentage of the population living below the poverty line being below 1%
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# Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands
**Communications in the Cayman Islands**
## Telephone
**Telephones -- main lines in use:** 37,400 (2009)
**Telephones -- mobile cellular:** 99,900 (2004)
**Telephone system:**
: *Domestic:* Reasonably good overall telephone system with a high fixed-line teledensity. Liberalization of telecom market in 2003; introduction of competition in the mobile-cellular market in 2004. FLOW Cayman, [Digicel](http://www.digicelcayman.com)
: *International:* The Cayman Islands have landing points for the MAYA-1, and the Cayman-Jamaica Fiber System submarine cables that provide links to the US and parts of Central and South America. Service on both of these cables are controlled by [Liberty Latin America.](https://lla.com/)
Satellite earth station -- 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2007) Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
## Radio
**Radio broadcast stations:** AM 0, FM 17, shortwave 0 (2006)
- List of radio stations in Cayman Islands
**Radios:** 36,000 (1997)
## Television
**Television broadcast stations:** `{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20010301173705/http://www.cayman27.com.ky/ Cayman27]}}`{=mediawiki}
## Internet
**Internet Service Providers (ISPs):**Four companies offer internet service in the islands with in fixed configurations or mobile or both:
- [Liberty Latin America d/b/a FLOW](https://lla.com)
- [Digicel](https://www.digicelgroup.com/ky)
- [Logic](https://www.logic.ky) - Fibre based service. Founded in 2004 as WestTel when it was granted a telecommunications license. Purchased TeleCayman in 2013
- [C3](https://www.c3.ky/)
**Country code (Top-level domain):**
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# Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands
The **foreign relations of the Cayman Islands** are largely managed from the United Kingdom, as the islands remains one of 14 overseas territories under British jurisdiction and sovereignty. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands have autonomy and often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands\' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the United States and Canada.
Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.
Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the United Nations, or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the Central Development Bank and International Olympic Committee, an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a subbureau of Interpol
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# Geography of the Central African Republic
The Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent. It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, about 1640 ft above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in the southwestern part of the country. To the northwest is the Karre Mountains (also known as Yade Massif), a granite plateau with an altitude of 3750 ft.
At 622984 km2, the Central African Republic is the world\'s 45th-largest country (after Somalia). It is comparable in size to Ukraine.
Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River, with the Mbomou River in the east merging with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River. In the west, the Sangha River flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the Congo-Nile watershed.
In the Central African Republic forest cover is around 36% of the total land area, equivalent to 22,303,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 23,203,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 22,301,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 2,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 9% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 91% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 9% private ownership. In 2021, the rate of deforestation in the Central African Republic increased by 71%. The forest is highly diverse and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapele and Sipo.
## Climate
The climate of the Central African Republic is generally a tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*), although there are areas with a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen *Am*) and in the north there is also a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen *BSh*). There is a wet season and a dry season, and the temperature is hot throughout the year. The northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The tip of the northern regions have been subject to desertification. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers. About one third of the Central African Republic\'s population do not have access to clean water.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of the Central African Republic, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location
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# Demographics of the Central African Republic
Demographic features of the population of the Central African Republic include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
There are more than 80 ethnic groups in the Central African Republic (CAR), each with its own language. The largest ethnic groups are Gbaya (Baya) 28.8%, Banda 22.9%, Mandjia 9.9%, Sara 7.9%, M\'Baka-Bantu 7.9%, Arab-Fulani (Peuhl) 6%, Mbum 6%, Ngbanki 5.5%, Zande-Nzakara 3%, other Central African Republic ethnic groups 2%, non-Central African Republic ethnic groups .1%, as of 2003. Sangho, the language of a small group along the Oubangui River, is the national language spoken by the majority of Central Africans. Only a small part of the population has more than an elemental knowledge of French, the official language.
More than 55% of the population of the CAR lives in rural areas. The chief agricultural areas are around the Bossangoa and Bambari. Bangui, Berberati, Bangassou, and Bossangoa are the most densely populated urban centers.
## Population
According to `{{UN_Population|source}}`{=mediawiki} the total population was `{{UN_Population|Central African Republic}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{UN_Population|Year}}`{=mediawiki}, compared to only 1 327 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.4%, 55.6% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4% were 65 years or older.
Year Total 0--14 (%) 15--64 (%) 65+ (%)
------ ----------- ----------- ------------ ---------
1950 1 327 000 36.2 58.7 5.1
1955 1 399 000 37.0 58.3 4.7
1960 1 504 000 38.2 57.5 4.3
1965 1 649 000 39.6 56.2 4.2
1970 1 829 000 40.6 55.3 4.1
1975 2 017 000 41.7 54.2 4.1
1980 2 274 000 42.2 53.6 4.1
1985 2 627 000 42.4 53.6 4.0
1990 2 935 000 43.2 52.8 4.0
1995 3 328 000 42.5 53.5 4.0
2000 3 702 000 42.0 54.0 3.9
2005 4 018 000 41.6 54.5 4.0
2010 4 401 000 40.4 55.6 4.0
2015 4 410 000 40.8 55.8 4.0
: Population by age group
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# Demographics of the Central African Republic
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Registration of vital events is not complete in the Central African Republic. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th></th>
<th><p>Population<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Live births<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Deaths<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Natural change<br />
(thousands)</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>CBR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>CDR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>NC</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>TFR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>IMR</p></th>
<th style="width:80pt;"><p>Life expectancy<br />
(years)</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1950</p></td>
<td><p>1 437</p></td>
<td><p> 63</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 20</p></td>
<td><p>43.6</p></td>
<td><p>29.5</p></td>
<td><p>14.0</p></td>
<td style="color:red"><p>5.74</p></td>
<td><p>190.7</p></td>
<td><p>35.39</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1951</p></td>
<td><p> 1 457</p></td>
<td><p> 63</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 21</p></td>
<td><p>43.5</p></td>
<td><p>29.4</p></td>
<td><p>14.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.75</p></td>
<td><p>189.7</p></td>
<td><p>35.59</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1952</p></td>
<td><p> 1 478</p></td>
<td><p> 64</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 21</p></td>
<td><p>43.5</p></td>
<td><p>29.0</p></td>
<td><p>14.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.76</p></td>
<td><p>187.5</p></td>
<td><p>36.00</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1953</p></td>
<td><p> 1 500</p></td>
<td><p> 65</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 22</p></td>
<td><p>43.4</p></td>
<td><p>28.6</p></td>
<td><p>14.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.76</p></td>
<td><p>185.4</p></td>
<td><p>36.40</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1954</p></td>
<td><p> 1 522</p></td>
<td><p> 66</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 23</p></td>
<td><p>43.3</p></td>
<td><p>28.2</p></td>
<td><p>15.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.77</p></td>
<td><p>183.3</p></td>
<td><p>36.80</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1955</p></td>
<td><p> 1 546</p></td>
<td><p> 67</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 24</p></td>
<td><p>43.3</p></td>
<td><p>27.7</p></td>
<td><p>15.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.78</p></td>
<td><p>181.3</p></td>
<td><p>37.19</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1956</p></td>
<td><p> 1 570</p></td>
<td><p> 68</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 25</p></td>
<td><p>43.2</p></td>
<td><p>27.3</p></td>
<td><p>15.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.78</p></td>
<td><p>179.3</p></td>
<td><p>37.58</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1957</p></td>
<td><p> 1 596</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 26</p></td>
<td><p>43.2</p></td>
<td><p>26.8</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.79</p></td>
<td><p>177.3</p></td>
<td><p>37.97</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1958</p></td>
<td><p> 1 623</p></td>
<td><p> 70</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 27</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>26.4</p></td>
<td><p>16.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.80</p></td>
<td><p>175.3</p></td>
<td><p>38.35</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1959</p></td>
<td><p> 1 650</p></td>
<td><p> 71</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 28</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>25.9</p></td>
<td><p>17.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.81</p></td>
<td><p>173.3</p></td>
<td><p>38.74</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1960</p></td>
<td><p> 1 680</p></td>
<td><p> 72</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 29</p></td>
<td><p>42.9</p></td>
<td><p>25.4</p></td>
<td><p>17.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.81</p></td>
<td><p>170.5</p></td>
<td><p>39.24</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1961</p></td>
<td><p> 1 710</p></td>
<td><p> 73</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 31</p></td>
<td><p>42.9</p></td>
<td><p>24.9</p></td>
<td><p>18.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.83</p></td>
<td><p>167.8</p></td>
<td><p>39.74</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1962</p></td>
<td><p> 1 743</p></td>
<td><p> 75</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 32</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>24.4</p></td>
<td><p>18.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.85</p></td>
<td><p>164.9</p></td>
<td><p>40.26</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1963</p></td>
<td><p> 1 776</p></td>
<td><p> 76</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 34</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>23.9</p></td>
<td><p>19.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.87</p></td>
<td><p>162.0</p></td>
<td><p>40.78</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1964</p></td>
<td><p> 1 812</p></td>
<td><p> 78</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 36</p></td>
<td><p>43.3</p></td>
<td><p>23.4</p></td>
<td><p>19.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.91</p></td>
<td><p>158.9</p></td>
<td><p>41.35</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1965</p></td>
<td><p> 1 849</p></td>
<td><p> 80</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 38</p></td>
<td><p>43.4</p></td>
<td><p>22.9</p></td>
<td><p>20.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.94</p></td>
<td><p>155.8</p></td>
<td><p>41.93</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1966</p></td>
<td><p> 1 889</p></td>
<td><p> 83</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 40</p></td>
<td><p>43.8</p></td>
<td><p>22.4</p></td>
<td><p>21.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.98</p></td>
<td><p>152.6</p></td>
<td><p>42.53</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1967</p></td>
<td><p> 1 931</p></td>
<td><p> 85</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p>44.0</p></td>
<td><p>21.9</p></td>
<td><p>22.1</p></td>
<td><p>6.02</p></td>
<td><p>149.4</p></td>
<td><p>43.16</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1968</p></td>
<td><p> 1 975</p></td>
<td><p> 87</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 45</p></td>
<td><p>44.3</p></td>
<td><p>21.4</p></td>
<td><p>22.9</p></td>
<td><p>6.06</p></td>
<td><p>146.2</p></td>
<td><p>43.80</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1969</p></td>
<td><p> 2 022</p></td>
<td><p> 89</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 47</p></td>
<td><p>44.1</p></td>
<td><p>20.9</p></td>
<td><p>23.2</p></td>
<td><p>6.04</p></td>
<td><p>143.2</p></td>
<td><p>44.44</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1970</p></td>
<td><p> 2 067</p></td>
<td><p> 90</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 48</p></td>
<td><p>43.7</p></td>
<td><p>20.3</p></td>
<td><p>23.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.00</p></td>
<td><p>140.3</p></td>
<td><p>45.07</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1971</p></td>
<td><p> 2 111</p></td>
<td><p> 92</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 50</p></td>
<td><p>43.5</p></td>
<td><p>19.8</p></td>
<td><p>23.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.99</p></td>
<td><p>137.6</p></td>
<td><p>45.69</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1972</p></td>
<td><p> 2 154</p></td>
<td><p> 93</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 51</p></td>
<td><p>43.1</p></td>
<td><p>19.2</p></td>
<td><p>23.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.96</p></td>
<td><p>135.1</p></td>
<td><p>46.29</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1973</p></td>
<td><p> 2 196</p></td>
<td><p> 94</p></td>
<td style="color:blue"><p>41</p></td>
<td><p> 53</p></td>
<td><p>42.6</p></td>
<td><p>18.7</p></td>
<td><p>23.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.93</p></td>
<td><p>132.8</p></td>
<td><p>46.85</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1974</p></td>
<td><p> 2 239</p></td>
<td><p> 95</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 54</p></td>
<td><p>42.3</p></td>
<td><p>18.3</p></td>
<td><p>24.0</p></td>
<td><p>5.91</p></td>
<td><p>130.6</p></td>
<td><p>47.40</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1975</p></td>
<td><p> 2 284</p></td>
<td><p> 96</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 55</p></td>
<td><p>41.9</p></td>
<td><p>17.8</p></td>
<td><p>24.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.89</p></td>
<td><p>128.5</p></td>
<td><p>47.91</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1976</p></td>
<td><p> 2 318</p></td>
<td><p> 98</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 57</p></td>
<td><p>42.0</p></td>
<td><p>17.5</p></td>
<td><p>24.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.93</p></td>
<td><p>126.6</p></td>
<td><p>48.40</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1977</p></td>
<td><p> 2 342</p></td>
<td><p> 100</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 60</p></td>
<td><p>42.4</p></td>
<td><p>17.2</p></td>
<td><p>25.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.97</p></td>
<td><p>124.8</p></td>
<td><p>48.84</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1978</p></td>
<td><p> 2 366</p></td>
<td><p> 103</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 62</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>17.0</p></td>
<td><p>26.0</p></td>
<td><p>6.02</p></td>
<td><p>123.0</p></td>
<td><p>49.24</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1979</p></td>
<td><p> 2 390</p></td>
<td><p> 105</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 65</p></td>
<td><p>43.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p></td>
<td><p>26.8</p></td>
<td><p>6.07</p></td>
<td><p>121.4</p></td>
<td><p>49.60</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1980</p></td>
<td><p> 2 415</p></td>
<td><p> 107</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 67</p></td>
<td><p>44.1</p></td>
<td><p>16.7</p></td>
<td><p>27.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.11</p></td>
<td><p>120.0</p></td>
<td><p>49.89</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1981</p></td>
<td><p> 2 441</p></td>
<td><p> 110</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p>44.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.5</p></td>
<td><p>28.1</p></td>
<td><p>6.14</p></td>
<td><p>118.8</p></td>
<td><p>50.16</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1982</p></td>
<td><p> 2 468</p></td>
<td><p> 112</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 71</p></td>
<td><p>44.9</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>28.5</p></td>
<td style="color:blue"><p>6.14</p></td>
<td><p>117.8</p></td>
<td><p>50.30</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1983</p></td>
<td><p> 2 495</p></td>
<td><p> 114</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 73</p></td>
<td><p>45.2</p></td>
<td><p>16.3</p></td>
<td><p>28.9</p></td>
<td><p>6.12</p></td>
<td><p>117.0</p></td>
<td><p>50.42</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1984</p></td>
<td><p> 2 524</p></td>
<td><p> 116</p></td>
<td><p> 41</p></td>
<td><p> 75</p></td>
<td><p>45.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.3</p></td>
<td><p>29.3</p></td>
<td><p>6.11</p></td>
<td><p>116.3</p></td>
<td><p>50.48</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1985</p></td>
<td><p> 2 553</p></td>
<td><p> 118</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 77</p></td>
<td><p>45.9</p></td>
<td><p>16.2</p></td>
<td><p>29.7</p></td>
<td><p>6.11</p></td>
<td><p>115.7</p></td>
<td><p>50.52</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1986</p></td>
<td><p> 2 584</p></td>
<td><p> 120</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 78</p></td>
<td><p>46.2</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>30.0</p></td>
<td><p>6.09</p></td>
<td><p>115.1</p></td>
<td><p>50.49</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1987</p></td>
<td><p> 2 616</p></td>
<td><p> 123</p></td>
<td><p> 42</p></td>
<td><p> 80</p></td>
<td><p>46.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>30.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.10</p></td>
<td><p>114.7</p></td>
<td><p>50.41</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1988</p></td>
<td><p> 2 657</p></td>
<td><p> 124</p></td>
<td><p> 43</p></td>
<td><p> 81</p></td>
<td><p>46.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>30.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.08</p></td>
<td><p>114.5</p></td>
<td><p>50.24</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1989</p></td>
<td><p> 2 724</p></td>
<td><p> 127</p></td>
<td><p> 44</p></td>
<td><p> 83</p></td>
<td><p>style="color:blue|46.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>30.5</p></td>
<td><p>6.06</p></td>
<td><p>114.7</p></td>
<td><p>49.99</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1990</p></td>
<td><p> 2 809</p></td>
<td><p> 130</p></td>
<td><p> 45</p></td>
<td><p> 85</p></td>
<td><p>46.3</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>30.2</p></td>
<td><p>6.05</p></td>
<td><p>115.0</p></td>
<td><p>49.64</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1991</p></td>
<td><p> 2 898</p></td>
<td><p> 133</p></td>
<td><p> 47</p></td>
<td><p> 86</p></td>
<td><p>46.0</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>29.8</p></td>
<td><p>6.03</p></td>
<td><p>115.2</p></td>
<td><p>49.25</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1992</p></td>
<td><p> 2 992</p></td>
<td><p> 136</p></td>
<td><p> 48</p></td>
<td><p> 87</p></td>
<td><p>45.4</p></td>
<td><p>16.2</p></td>
<td><p>29.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.98</p></td>
<td><p>115.1</p></td>
<td><p>48.79</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1993</p></td>
<td><p> 3 089</p></td>
<td><p> 139</p></td>
<td><p> 50</p></td>
<td><p> 88</p></td>
<td><p>44.9</p></td>
<td><p>16.3</p></td>
<td><p>28.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.94</p></td>
<td><p>114.7</p></td>
<td><p>48.35</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1994</p></td>
<td><p> 3 188</p></td>
<td><p> 142</p></td>
<td><p> 52</p></td>
<td><p> 90</p></td>
<td><p>44.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>28.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.93</p></td>
<td><p>114.3</p></td>
<td><p>47.85</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1995</p></td>
<td><p> 3 277</p></td>
<td><p> 146</p></td>
<td><p> 54</p></td>
<td><p> 92</p></td>
<td><p>44.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.6</p></td>
<td><p>27.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.97</p></td>
<td><p>113.8</p></td>
<td><p>47.35</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1996</p></td>
<td><p> 3 364</p></td>
<td><p> 149</p></td>
<td><p> 56</p></td>
<td><p> 92</p></td>
<td><p>44.3</p></td>
<td><p>16.8</p></td>
<td><p>27.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.99</p></td>
<td><p>113.4</p></td>
<td><p>46.83</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1997</p></td>
<td><p> 3 458</p></td>
<td><p> 151</p></td>
<td><p> 59</p></td>
<td><p> 93</p></td>
<td><p>43.8</p></td>
<td><p>17.0</p></td>
<td><p>26.8</p></td>
<td><p>5.96</p></td>
<td><p>112.8</p></td>
<td><p>46.32</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1998</p></td>
<td><p> 3 555</p></td>
<td><p> 155</p></td>
<td><p> 61</p></td>
<td><p> 94</p></td>
<td><p>43.5</p></td>
<td><p>17.1</p></td>
<td><p>26.4</p></td>
<td><p>5.93</p></td>
<td><p>112.2</p></td>
<td><p>46.03</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1999</p></td>
<td><p> 3 655</p></td>
<td><p> 159</p></td>
<td><p> 63</p></td>
<td><p> 96</p></td>
<td><p>43.4</p></td>
<td><p>17.2</p></td>
<td><p>26.2</p></td>
<td><p>5.93</p></td>
<td><p>111.4</p></td>
<td><p>45.75</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2000</p></td>
<td><p> 3 759</p></td>
<td><p> 162</p></td>
<td><p> 65</p></td>
<td><p> 97</p></td>
<td><p>43.3</p></td>
<td><p>17.3</p></td>
<td><p>25.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.92</p></td>
<td><p>111.0</p></td>
<td><p>45.41</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2001</p></td>
<td><p> 3 845</p></td>
<td><p> 165</p></td>
<td><p> 67</p></td>
<td><p> 99</p></td>
<td><p>42.8</p></td>
<td><p>17.2</p></td>
<td><p>25.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.85</p></td>
<td><p>110.1</p></td>
<td><p>45.39</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2002</p></td>
<td><p> 3 931</p></td>
<td><p> 167</p></td>
<td><p> 67</p></td>
<td><p> 100</p></td>
<td><p>42.6</p></td>
<td><p>17.2</p></td>
<td><p>25.5</p></td>
<td><p>5.84</p></td>
<td><p>109.1</p></td>
<td><p>45.41</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2003</p></td>
<td><p> 4 027</p></td>
<td><p> 173</p></td>
<td><p> 68</p></td>
<td><p> 104</p></td>
<td><p>42.8</p></td>
<td><p>16.9</p></td>
<td><p>25.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.85</p></td>
<td><p>108.1</p></td>
<td><p>45.76</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2004</p></td>
<td><p> 4 115</p></td>
<td><p> 175</p></td>
<td style="color:red"><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 107</p></td>
<td><p>42.5</p></td>
<td><p>16.7</p></td>
<td><p>25.9</p></td>
<td><p>5.83</p></td>
<td><p>107.2</p></td>
<td><p>46.04</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2005</p></td>
<td><p> 4 209</p></td>
<td><p> 180</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 111</p></td>
<td><p>42.6</p></td>
<td><p>16.4</p></td>
<td><p>26.3</p></td>
<td><p>5.85</p></td>
<td><p>106.2</p></td>
<td><p>46.43</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2006</p></td>
<td><p> 4 294</p></td>
<td><p> 185</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 115</p></td>
<td><p>42.8</p></td>
<td><p>16.1</p></td>
<td><p>26.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.87</p></td>
<td><p>104.8</p></td>
<td><p>46.85</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2007</p></td>
<td><p> 4 376</p></td>
<td><p> 188</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 119</p></td>
<td><p>42.8</p></td>
<td><p>15.7</p></td>
<td><p>27.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.89</p></td>
<td><p>103.4</p></td>
<td><p>47.43</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2008</p></td>
<td><p> 4 467</p></td>
<td><p> 192</p></td>
<td><p> 69</p></td>
<td><p> 124</p></td>
<td><p>42.9</p></td>
<td><p>15.3</p></td>
<td><p>27.6</p></td>
<td><p>5.91</p></td>
<td><p>101.7</p></td>
<td><p>48.02</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2009</p></td>
<td><p> 4 565</p></td>
<td><p> 197</p></td>
<td><p> 68</p></td>
<td><p> 129</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>14.9</p></td>
<td><p>28.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.92</p></td>
<td><p>99.5</p></td>
<td><p>48.65</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2010</p></td>
<td><p> 4 660</p></td>
<td><p> 202</p></td>
<td><p> 68</p></td>
<td><p> 134</p></td>
<td><p>43.2</p></td>
<td><p>14.5</p></td>
<td><p>28.7</p></td>
<td><p>5.94</p></td>
<td><p>97.3</p></td>
<td><p>49.26</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2011</p></td>
<td><p> 4 732</p></td>
<td><p> 206</p></td>
<td><p> 67</p></td>
<td><p> 139</p></td>
<td><p>43.2</p></td>
<td><p>14.1</p></td>
<td><p>29.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.96</p></td>
<td><p>94.7</p></td>
<td><p>49.95</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2012</p></td>
<td><p> 4 773</p></td>
<td><p> 208</p></td>
<td><p> 66</p></td>
<td><p> 142</p></td>
<td><p>43.0</p></td>
<td><p>13.6</p></td>
<td><p>29.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.01</p></td>
<td><p>92.1</p></td>
<td><p>50.69</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2013</p></td>
<td><p> 4 802</p></td>
<td><p> 206</p></td>
<td><p> 65</p></td>
<td><p> 141</p></td>
<td><p>42.4</p></td>
<td><p>13.4</p></td>
<td><p>29.0</p></td>
<td><p>6.02</p></td>
<td><p>89.9</p></td>
<td><p>50.90</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2014</p></td>
<td><p> 4 799</p></td>
<td><p> 205</p></td>
<td><p> 66</p></td>
<td><p> 139</p></td>
<td><p>41.9</p></td>
<td><p>13.5</p></td>
<td><p>28.4</p></td>
<td><p>6.02</p></td>
<td><p>89.1</p></td>
<td><p>50.57</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2015</p></td>
<td><p> 4 819</p></td>
<td><p> 199</p></td>
<td><p> 59</p></td>
<td><p> 140</p></td>
<td style="color:red"><p>41.0</p></td>
<td><p>12.2</p></td>
<td><p>28.9</p></td>
<td><p>6.04</p></td>
<td><p>84.7</p></td>
<td><p>52.79</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2016</p></td>
<td><p> 4 904</p></td>
<td><p> 203</p></td>
<td><p> 58</p></td>
<td><p> 145</p></td>
<td><p>41.2</p></td>
<td><p>11.7</p></td>
<td><p>29.5</p></td>
<td><p>6.04</p></td>
<td><p>81.6</p></td>
<td><p>53.46</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2017</p></td>
<td><p> 4 997</p></td>
<td><p> 209</p></td>
<td><p> 58</p></td>
<td><p> 151</p></td>
<td><p>41.6</p></td>
<td><p>11.5</p></td>
<td><p>30.1</p></td>
<td><p>6.05</p></td>
<td><p>79.3</p></td>
<td><p>53.72</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2018</p></td>
<td><p> 5 095</p></td>
<td><p> 214</p></td>
<td><p> 58</p></td>
<td><p> 157</p></td>
<td><p>41.8</p></td>
<td><p>11.2</p></td>
<td><p>30.6</p></td>
<td><p>6.04</p></td>
<td><p>77.4</p></td>
<td><p>54.37</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2019</p></td>
<td><p> 5 209</p></td>
<td><p> 219</p></td>
<td><p> 57</p></td>
<td><p> 162</p></td>
<td><p>41.9</p></td>
<td style="color:blue"><p>10.9</p></td>
<td><p>31.0</p></td>
<td><p>6.01</p></td>
<td><p>74.6</p></td>
<td><p>55.03</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2020</p></td>
<td><p> 5 343</p></td>
<td><p> 226</p></td>
<td><p> 59</p></td>
<td><p> 167</p></td>
<td><p>42.2</p></td>
<td><p>11.0</p></td>
<td><p>31.1</p></td>
<td><p>5.99</p></td>
<td><p>72.4</p></td>
<td><p>54.60</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2021</p></td>
<td><p> 5 457</p></td>
<td><p> 235</p></td>
<td><p> 63</p></td>
<td><p> 172</p></td>
<td><p>42.7</p></td>
<td><p>11.4</p></td>
<td style="color:blue"><p>31.3</p></td>
<td><p>5.98</p></td>
<td><p>71.4</p></td>
<td><p>53.90</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td colspan="11" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:left"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022 `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=year
| yAxisTitle= million
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
| 1,514 |
Demographics of the Central African Republic
| 1 |
5,481 |
# Demographics of the Central African Republic
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
| y1= 1.44,1.46,1.48,1.5,1.52,1.55,1.57,1.6,1.62,1.65,1.68,1.71,1.74,1.78,1.81,1.85,1.89,1.93,1.98,2.02,2.07,2.11,2.15,2.2,2.24,2.28,2.32,2.34,2.37,2.39,2.42,2.44,2.47,2.5,2.52,2.55,2.58,2.62,2.66,2.72,2.81,2.9,2.99,3.09,3.19,3.28,3.36,3.46,3.56,3.66,3.76,3.85,3.93,4.03,4.12,4.21,4.29,4.38,4.47,4.57,4.66,4.73,4.77,4.8,4.8,4.82,4.9,5,5.09,5.21,5.34,5.46
| y1Title= population (million)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= ‰
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
| y1= 14.0,14.1,14.5,14.8,15.2,15.6,15.9,16.4,16.7,17.0,17.5,18.0,18.6,19.1,19.9,20.6,21.4,22.1,22.9,23.2,23.4,23.7,23.8,23.9,24.0,24.1,24.5,25.2,26.0,26.8,27.4,28.1,28.5,28.9,29.3,29.7,30.0,30.4,30.4,30.5,30.2,29.8,29.2,28.7,28.1,27.9,27.5,26.8,26.4,26.2,25.9,25.6,25.5,25.9,25.9,26.3,26.7,27.1,27.6,28.1,28.7,29.1,29.4,29.0,28.4,28.9,29.5,30.1,30.6,31.0,31.1,31.3
| y1Title=Natural change (per 1000)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= ‰
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
| y1= 190.7,189.7,187.5,185.4,183.3,181.3,179.3,177.3,175.3,173.3,170.5,167.8,164.9,162.0,158.9,155.8,152.6,149.4,146.2,143.2,140.3,137.6,135.1,132.8,130.6,128.5,
126.6,124.8,123.0,121.4,120.0,118.8,117.8,117.0,116.3,115.7,115.1,114.7,114.5,114.7,115.0,115.2,115.1,114.7,114.3,113.8,113.4,112.8,112.2,111.4,111.0,110.1,109.1,108.1,107.2,106.2,104.8,103.4,101.7,99.5,97.3,94.7,92.1,89.9,89.1,84.7,81.6,79.3,77.4,74.6,72.4,71.4
| y1Title=Infant Mortality (per 1000 live births)
}}`{=mediawiki} `{{GraphChart
| width = 450
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= TFR
| yAxisMin=
| yGrid= 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=
| hAnnotatonsLabel=
| legend=
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
| y1= 5.74,5.75,5.76,5.76,5.77,5.78,5.78,5.79,5.80,5.81,5.81,5.83,5.85,5.87,5.91,5.94,5.98,6.02,6.06,6.04,6.00,5.99,5.96,5.93,5.91,5.89,5.93,5.97,6.02,6.07,6.11,6.14,6.14,6.12,6.11,6.11,6.09,6.10,6.08,6.06,6.05,6.03,5.98,5.94,5.93,5.97,5.99,5.96,5.93,5.93,5.92,5.85,5.84,5.85,5.83,5.85,5.87,5.89,5.91,5.92,5.94,5.96,6.01,6.02,6.02,6.04,6.04,6.05,6.04,6.01,5.99,5.98
| y1Title=Total Fertility Rate
}}`{=mediawiki}
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural)
---------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- ------------- -------------
1994--95 38,0 5,07 (4,7) 37,9 4,86 (4,3) 37,9 5,23 (5,0)
| 261 |
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# Demographics of the Central African Republic
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
### Life expectancy {#life_expectancy}
+------------+---------------------+
| Period | Life expectancy in\ |
| | Years |
+============+=====================+
| 1950--1955 | 33.44 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1955--1960 | 35.50 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1960--1965 | 37.57 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1965--1970 | 40.16 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1970--1975 | 43.90 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1975--1980 | 47.62 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1980--1985 | 49.56 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1985--1990 | 49.49 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1990--1995 | 47.65 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 1995--2000 | 44.96 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2000--2005 | 43.68 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2005--2010 | 45.99 |
+------------+---------------------+
| 2010--2015 | 49.40 |
+------------+---------------------+
## Ethnic groups {#ethnic_groups}
An approximate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the chart below:
Ethnic group Percentage Population
--------------- ------------ ------------
Baggara Arabs 2.4% 107,000
Baka 0.5% 20,000
Banda 27% 1,190,700
Bayaka ? ?
Fula 4.5% 250,000
Gbaya 33% 1,300,000
Kara 2.3% 100,000
Kresh ? ?
Mbaka 4% 176,400
Mandja 13% 573,300
Ngbandi ? ?
Sara 10% 441,000
Vidiri ? ?
Wodaabe 2.3% 100,000
Yakoma 4% 176,400
Yulu ? ?
Zande 1.4% 62,000
Others ? ?
: Ethnic groups in Central African Republic
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# Demographics of the Central African Republic
## Languages
: Sango (lingua franca and official language), French (official), tribal languages
## Religion
: Christian 89%, Muslim 9%, folk religionist 1%, unaffiliated 1% (2020 est
| 34 |
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# Politics of the Central African Republic
The **politics of the Central African Republic** formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections. Both François Bozizé and Michel Djotodia assumed the Presidency through takeover by violent means; however, elections were held in March 2005 and promised in 2013. A ceasefire agreement in January 2013 called for a multipartisan unity government.
The government was deposed on 13 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up on 1 April 2003. Elections were held on 13 March 2005.
On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire was signed by the Séléka rebel coalition, which had aimed to bring down the government of President Bozizé. According to this agreement, a new unity government would be formed. The President would appoint a new prime minister from the opposition parties, and the National Assembly of the Central African Republic would be dissolved and new legislative elections would be held within twelve months.
However, two months later, the Séléka rebels felt their terms were not being met, and at the culmination of the Central African Civil War, they attacked and took the capital, Bangui. The president, Bozizé, fled to neighboring Cameroon via the Democratic Republic of Congo on 24 March 2013.
On 14 December 2015, a new constitution by referendum and ratified on 27 March 2016. Since 30 March 2016, Faustin-Archange Touadéra is the president of the Central African Republic.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Faustin-Archange Touadéra \|Independent \|30 March 2016 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Félix Moloua \|Independent \|7 February 2022 \|- \|} The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president. The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Since 27 March 2016, the Parliament of the Central African Republic is composed of two bodies: the National Assembly and the Senate.
The National Assembly (*Assemblée Nationale*) has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system.
The Senate (*Sénat*) will have members, elected for a five-year term using an indirect vote.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The Supreme Court, or *Cour Supreme*, is made up of judges appointed by the president. There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president.
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures), 2 economic prefectures\* (prefectures economiques), and 1 commune\*\*; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui\*\*, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui\*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha\*, Vakaga
| 495 |
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# Telecommunications in the Central African Republic
**Telecommunications in the Central African Republic** includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet as well as the postal system.
Persistent conflict has hampered telecommunication and media development in the Central African Republic. There are active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers. Radio is the most-popular communications medium.
Socatel is the leading provider for both Internet and mobile phone access throughout the country. The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the *Ministère des Postes* (Ministry of Posts), and *Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies* (Telecommunications and New Technologies). Support is received from the ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve telecommunications infrastructure.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
- Radio stations: the State-owned radio network, Radio Centrafrique, is supplemented by a small number of privately owned broadcast stations as well as a few community radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007).
- The BBC World Service (90.2 FM), Radio France Internationale, and the Voice of America are available via local relays in the capital, Bangui.
- Radios: 283,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|24}}`{=mediawiki}
- Television stations: Government-owned network, *Télévision Centrafricaine* (TCF), provides domestic TV broadcasting; licenses for 2 private TV stations were pending (2007).
- Television sets: 18,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|1|24}}`{=mediawiki}
In Bangui, UN-sponsored Radio *Ndeke Luka* (\"bird of luck\") provides balanced output, and rebroadcasts international news programming. Other radio and TV stations are run by the state-run *Radiodiffusion-Television Centrafricaine* and provide little coverage of the political opposition. There are about two dozen privately owned radio stations. Many, such as Radio Notre Dame, run by religious organisations.
Starting 24 November 2011 *La Radio et la Télévision nationale centrafricaine (TVCA)* (Central African Radio (CAR) and National Television) are available via satellite. This move brought state-run national radio and television coverage to the entire country.
## Telephones
- Calling code: +236
- International call prefix: 00
- Main lines: 5,600 lines in use, 209th in the world (2012).
- Mobile cellular: 1.1 million lines, 157th in the world (2012).
- Telephone system: The network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication; limited telephone service with less than one fixed-line connection per 100 persons; spurred by the presence of multiple mobile-cellular service providers, cellular usage is increasing from a low base; most fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone services are concentrated in the capital, Bangui (2011).
- Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
GSM coverage was for a long time limited to the capital area. But in June 2006 coverage was expanded at least to Berberati in the western part of the country. There are currently two GSM-900 mobile operators, Telecel CAR and NationLink Telecom RCA. A third network, Centrafrique Telecom Plus closed down in late 2005 after failing to attract more than 5,000 subscribers and failing to renew its license, in accordance with the then new Bozize government policies.
## Internet
- Top-level domain: .cf
- Internet users:
- 151,716 users, 160th in the world; 3.0% of the population, 195th in the world (2012).
- 22,600 users, 192nd in the world (2009).
- Internet hosts: 20 hosts, 221st in the world (2012).
- IPv4: 4,352 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.9 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
- Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Moov, Orange, Socatel, and Telecel.
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.
More than five million websites (except for Spotify was not available in that country) are available/accessible in the Central African Republic.
Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, authorities occasionally arrest journalists critical of the government and in some cases the government impedes individuals' right to free speech. Imprisonment for defamation and censorship were abolished in 2005; however, journalists found guilty of libel or slander face fines of 100,000 to eight million CFA francs (\$200 to US\$16,000). The law provides for imprisonment and fines of as much as one million CFA francs (US\$2,000) for journalists who use the media to incite disobedience among security forces or incite persons to violence, hatred, or discrimination. Similar fines and imprisonment of six months to two years may be imposed for the publication or broadcast of false or fabricated information that \"would disturb the peace.\"
## Postal system {#postal_system}
L\'Office National de la Poste et de l\'Épargne (ONPE) is the government organization responsible for the postal service
| 760 |
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| 0 |
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# Transport in the Central African Republic
Modes of transport in the Central African Republic include road, water, and air. Most of the country is connected to the road network, but not all of it. Some roads in the country do not connect to the rest of the national road network and may become impassable, especially during heavy monsoon rain. Many remote areas that not connected to the country\'s road network, especially in the eastern part of the country outside of the major cities and towns, can only be reached by light aircraft, boat (via river) or on foot. Most roads are unpaved, and which centres on the *routes nationales* identified as RN1 to RN11. Bangui serves as a seaport, and 900 km of inland waterways are navigable, the main route being the Oubangui river. There is one international airport at Bangui-Mpoko, two other paved airports, and over 40 with unpaved runways.
## Railways
There are presently no railways in the Central African Republic.
A line from `{{flagicon|Cameroon}}`{=mediawiki} Cameroon port of Kribi to Bangui was proposed in 2002.
## Highways
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through the Central African Republic: the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway and the Lagos-Mombasa Highway.
- Total: 23,810 km
- Paved: 643 km
- Unpaved: 23,167 km (1999 est.)
Major roads include:
- RN1 (Route Nationale 1) north from Bangui. 482 km via Bossangoa to Moundou, Chad.
- RN2 east from Bangui. 1202 km via Bambari and Bangassou to the South Sudanese border at Bambouti.
- RN3 west from RN1 at Bossembélé. 453 km via Bouar and Baboua to Boulai on the Cameroon border as part of the east-west Trans-African Highway 8 Lagos-Mombasa.
- RN4 from RN2 at Damara, 76 km north of Bangui, north 554 km via Bouca and Batangafo to Sarh, Chad.
- RN6 south and west from Bangui, 605 km via Mbaïki, Carnot and Berbérati to Gamboula on the border with Cameroon.
- RN8 north-east from RN2 at Sibut, 023 km via Kaga Bandoro, Ndéle, and Birao to the Sudanese border.
- RN10 south from RN6 at Berbérati, 136 km via Bania to Nola.
- RN11 from Baoro on RN3 south, 104 km to Carnot on RN6.
The roads east to Sudan and north to Chad are poorly maintained.
## Waterways
900 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river, navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing as much as 1.8 m.
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
There is only one river port. It is at the city of Bangui.
## Airports
`{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Djemah Airfield.jpeg
| width1 = 250
| alt1 =
| caption1 =
| image2 = Obo Mission Airfield, Central Africa Republic.JPG
| width2 = 250
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| footer = Dirt runways in [[Djemah]] and [[Obo]], respectively
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# Central African Armed Forces
The **Central African Armed Forces** (*Forces armées centrafricaines*; FACA) are the armed forces of the Central African Republic and have been barely functional since the outbreak of the civil war in 2012. Today they are among the world\'s weakest armed forces, dependent on international support to provide security in the country. In recent years the government has struggled to form a unified national army. It consists of the Ground Force (which includes the air service), the gendarmerie, and the National Police.
Its disloyalty to the president came to the fore during the mutinies in 1996--1997, and since then has faced internal problems. It has been strongly criticised by human rights organisations due to terrorism, including killings, torture and sexual violence. In 2013 when militants of the Séléka rebel coalition seized power and overthrew President Bozizé they executed many FACA troops.
## History
### Role of military in domestic politics {#role_of_military_in_domestic_politics}
The military has played an important role in the history of Central African Republic. The immediate former president, General François Bozizé was a former army chief-of-staff and his government included several high-level military officers. Among the country\'s five presidents since independence in 1960, three have been former army chiefs-of-staff, who have taken power through coups d\'état. No president with a military background has, however, ever been succeeded by a new military president.
The country\'s first president, David Dacko was overthrown by his army chief-of-staff, Jean-Bédel Bokassa in 1966. Following the ousting of Bokassa in 1979, David Dacko was restored to power, only to be overthrown once again in 1981 by his new army chief of staff, General André Kolingba.
In 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé became the Central African Republic\'s first elected president. He soon became unpopular within the army, resulting in violent mutinies in 1996--1997. In May 2001, there was an unsuccessful coup attempt by Kolingba and once again Patassé had to turn to friends abroad for support, this time Libya and DR Congo. Some months later, at the end of October, Patassé sacked his army chief-of-staff, François Bozizé, and attempted to arrest him. Bozizé then fled to Chad and gathered a group of rebels. In 2002, he seized Bangui for a short period, and in March 2003 took power in a coup d\'état.
### Importance of ethnicity {#importance_of_ethnicity}
When General Kolingba became president in 1981, he implemented an ethnicity-based recruitment policy for the administration. Kolingba was a member of the Yakoma people from the south of the country, which made up approximately 5% of the total population. During his rule, members of Yakoma were granted all key positions in the administration and made up a majority of the military. This later had disastrous consequences when Kolingba was replaced by a member of a northerner tribe, Ange-Félix Patassé.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## History
### Army mutinies of 1996--1997 {#army_mutinies_of_19961997}
Soon after the election 1993, Patassé became unpopular within the army, not least because of his inability to pay their wages (partly due to economic mismanagement and partly because France suddenly ended its economic support for the soldiers\' wages). Another reason for the irritation was that most of FACA consisted of soldiers from Kolingba\'s ethnic group, the Yakoma. During Patassé\'s rule they had become increasingly marginalised, while he created militias favouring his own Gbaya tribe, as well as neighbouring Sara and Kaba. This resulted in army mutinies in 1996--1997, where fractions of the military clashed with the presidential guard, the *Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP)* and militias loyal to Patassé.
- On April 18, 1996, between 200 and 300 soldiers mutinied, claiming that they had not received their wages since 1992--1993. The confrontations between the soldiers and the presidential guard resulted in 9 dead and 40 wounded. French forces provided support (Operation Almandin I) and acted as negotiators. The unrest ended when the soldiers were finally paid their wages by France and the President agreed not to start legal proceedings against them.
- On May 18, 1996, a second mutiny was led by 500 soldiers who refused to be disarmed, denouncing the agreement reached in April. French forces were once again called to Bangui (Operation Almadin II), supported by the militaries of Chad and Gabon. 3,500 foreigners were evacuated during the unrest, which left 43 persons dead and 238 wounded.
- On May 26, a peace agreement was signed between France and the mutineers. The latter were promised amnesty, and were allowed to retain their weapons. Their security was ensured by the French military.
- On November 15, 1996, a third mutiny took place, and 1,500 French soldiers were flown in to ensure the safety of foreigners. The mutineers demanded the discharge of the president.
On 6 December, a negotiation process started, facilitated by Gabon, Burkina-Faso, Chad and Mali. The military --- supported by the opposition parties --- insisted that Patassé had to resign. In January, 1997, however, the Bangui Agreements were signed and the French EFAO troop were replaced by the 1,350 soldiers of the *Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB)*. In March, all mutineers were granted amnesty. The fighting between MISAB and the mutineers continued with a large offensive in June, resulting in up to 200 casualties. After this final clash, the mutineers calmed.
After the mutinies, President Patassé suffered from a typical \"dictator\'s paranoia\", resulting in a period of cruel terror executed by the presidential guard and various militias within the FACA loyal to the president, such as the Karako. The violence was directed against the Yakoma tribe, of which it is estimated that 20,000 persons fled during this period. The oppression also targeted other parts of the society. The president accused his former ally France of supporting his enemies and sought new international ties. When he strengthened his presidential guard (creating the FORSIDIR, see below), Libya sent him 300 additional soldiers for his own personal safety. When former President Kolingba attempted a coup d\'état in 2001 (which was, according to Patassé, supported by France), the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo (MLC) of Jean-Pierre Bemba in DR Congo came to his rescue.
Crimes conducted by Patassé\'s militias and Congolese soldiers during this period are now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, who wrote that \"sexual violence appears to have been a central feature of the conflict\", having identified more than 600 rape victims.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Present situation {#present_situation}
The FACA has been dominated by soldiers from the Yakoma ethnic group since the time of Kolingba. It has hence been considered disloyal by the two northerner presidents Patassé and Bozizé, both of whom have equipped and run their own militias outside FACA. The military also proved its disloyalty during the mutinies in 1996--1997. Although Francois Bozizé had a background in FACA himself (being its chief-of-staff from 1997 to 2001), he was cautious by retaining the defence portfolio, as well as by appointing his son Jean-Francis Bozizé cabinet director in charge of running the Ministry of Defence. He kept his old friend General Antoine Gambi as Chief of Staff. Due to failure to curb deepening unrest in the northern part of the country, Gambi was in July 2006 replaced with Bozizé\'s old friend from the military academy, Jules Bernard Ouandé.
### Military\'s relations with the society {#militarys_relations_with_the_society}
The forces assisting Bozizé in seizing the power in 2003 were not paid what they were promised and started looting, terrorising and killing ordinary citizens. Summary executions took place with the implicit approval of the government. The situation has deteriorated since early 2006, and the regular army and the presidential guard regularly execute extortion, torture, killings and other human rights violations. There is no possibility for the national judicial system to investigate these cases. At the end of 2006, there were an estimated 150,000 internally displaced people in CAR. During a UN mission in the northern part of the country in November 2006, the mission had a meeting with a prefect who said that he could not maintain law and order over the military and the presidential guards. The FACA currently conducts summary executions and burns houses. On the route between Kaga-Bandoro and Ouandago some 2,000 houses have been burnt, leaving an estimated 10,000 persons homeless.
### Reform of the army {#reform_of_the_army}
Both the *Multinational Force in the Central African Republic* (FOMUC) and France are assisting in the current reform of the army. One of the key priorities of the reform of the military is make it more ethnically diversified. It should also integrate Bozizé\'s own rebel group (mainly consisting of members of his own Gbaya tribe). Many of the Yakoma soldiers who left the country after the mutinies in 1996--1997 have now returned and must also be reintegrated into the army. At the same time, BONUCA holds seminars in topics such as the relationship between military and civil parts of society. 2018 saw Russia send mercenaries to help train and equip the CAR military and by 2020 Russia has increased its influence in the region.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Army equipment {#army_equipment}
Most of the army\'s heavy weapons and equipment were destroyed or captured by Séléka militants during the 2012--2014 civil war. In the immediate aftermath of the war, the army was only in possession of 70 rifles. The majority of its arsenals were plundered during the fighting by the Séléka coalition and other armed groups. Thousands of the army\'s small arms were also distributed to civilian supporters of former President Bozizé in 2013. Prior to 2014, the army\'s stocks of arms and ammunition were primarily of French, Soviet, and Chinese origin.
In 2018, the army\'s equipment stockpiles were partly revitalized by a donation of 900 pistols, 5,200 rifles, and 270 unspecified rocket launchers from Russia.
### Small arms {#small_arms}
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Name | Image | Caliber | Type | Origin | Notes |
+=========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+==============+=============================+==============================+=============================================================+
| Pistols | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| MAC 50 | | 9×19mm | Semi-automatic pistol | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Walther PP | | .25 ACP | Semi-automatic pistol | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Manurhin MR 73 | | .357 Magnum | Revolver | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Submachine guns | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Uzi | | 9×19mm | Submachine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Carl Gustaf m/45 | | 9×19mm | Submachine gun | Sweden | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sten | | 9×19mm | Submachine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| MAS-38 | | 7.65×20mm | Submachine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| MAT-49 | | 9×19mm | Submachine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Rifles | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| SKS | | 7.62×39mm | Semi-automatic rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| AKM | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Zastava M70 | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| PM md. 63 | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Type 56 | | 7.62×39mm | Assault rifle | | Some captured or inherited from Séléka stockpiles. |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| IMI Galil | | 5.56×45mm | Assault rifle | | In service as of 2004; likely acquired from Zaire and Chad. |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Vektor R4 | | 5.56×45mm | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| M14 | | 7.62×51mm | Battle rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| M16 | | 5.56×45mm | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| FAMAS | | 5.56×45mm | Bullpup | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | Assault rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| FN FAL | | 7.62×51mm | Battle rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Heckler & Koch G3 | | 7.62×51mm | Battle rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| SIG SG 540 | | 7.62×51mm | Battle rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| MAS-36{{cite web\|title=The Central African Republic And Small Arms: A Regional Tinderbox\|last1=Berman\|first1=Eric\|last2=Lombard\|first2=Louisa\|url=<https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95111/Central-African-Republic-Small-Arms.pdf%7Clocation=Geneva> | publisher=Small Arms Survey\|date=2008\|access-date=24 March 2017\|archive-url=<https://web.archive.org/web/20170324194711/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/95111/Central-African-Republic-Small-Arms.pdf%7Carchive-date=24> March 2017}} | | 7.5×54mm | Bolt-action rifle | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Lee Enfield | | .303 British | Bolt-action rifle | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Sniper rifles | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| SVD\ | | 7.62×54mmR | Designated marksman rifle\ | \ | |
| Type 85 | | | Sniper rifle | `{{Flag|China}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Machine guns | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| SG-43 Goryunov | | 7.62×54mmR | Medium machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| RP-46 | | 7.62×54mmR | Light machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| RPD | | 7.62×39mm | Squad automatic weapon | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| RPK | | 7.62×39mm | Squad automatic weapon | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| PKM | | 7.62×54mmR | General-purpose machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| DShK | | 12.7×108mm | Heavy machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Type 67 | | \|7.62×54mmR | General-purpose machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| FM 24/29 | | 7.5×54mm | Light machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| AA-52 | | \|7.62×54mmR | General-purpose machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| FN MAG | | 7.62×51mm | General-purpose machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Browning M1919 | | 7.62×51mm | Medium machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Browning M2 | | .50 BMG | Heavy machine gun | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| Rocket propelled grenade launchers | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
| RPG-7 | | 40mm | Rocket-propelled grenade | | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------------------+
### Anti-tank weapons {#anti_tank_weapons}
+----------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Caliber | Notes |
+==========+==============+==================+========+=========+=================+
| M40A1 | | Recoilless rifle | | 106mm | 14 in service. |
+----------+--------------+------------------+--------+---------+-----------------+
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Army equipment {#army_equipment}
### Mortars
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+=========+=============+=========+========+==========+========+================+
| PM-43 | | Mortar | | 12 | | In store |
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Type 67 | | Mortar | | Unknown | | |
+---------+-------------+---------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
### Vehicles
#### Scout cars {#scout_cars}
+----------------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+================+=============+==============================+========+==========+========+================+
| BRDM-2 | | Amphibious armored scout car | | 21 | | |
+----------------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Daimler Ferret | | Armored car Scout car | | 8 | | |
+----------------+-------------+------------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Infantry fighting vehicles {#infantry_fighting_vehicles}
+----------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------------------------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+==========+=============+===========================+========+==========+========+=================================+
| Ratel-90 | | Infantry fighting vehicle | | 2 | | Original order for 18 canceled. |
+----------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------------------------------+
#### Armored personnel carriers {#armored_personnel_carriers}
+------------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+==================+=============+===========================+========+==========+========+================+
| ACMAT TPK 420 BL | | Armored personnel carrier | | 25 | | |
+------------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| VAB | | Armored personnel carrier | | 10 | | |
+------------------+-------------+---------------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
#### Utility vehicles {#utility_vehicles}
+--------------+-------------+-----------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| Name | Image | Type | Origin | Quantity | Status | Notes |
+==============+=============+=================+========+==========+========+================+
| Toyota Hilux | | Utility vehicle | | 57 | | |
+--------------+-------------+-----------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
| CSK-131 | | Utility vehicle | | 12 | | |
+--------------+-------------+-----------------+--------+----------+--------+----------------+
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Foreign military presence in support of the Government {#foreign_military_presence_in_support_of_the_government}
### Peacekeeping and peace enforcing forces {#peacekeeping_and_peace_enforcing_forces}
Since the mutinies, a number of peacekeeping and peace enforcing international missions have been present in Central African Republic. There has been discussion of the deployment of a regional United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force in both Chad and Central African Republic, in order to potentially shore up the ineffectual Darfur Peace Agreement. The missions deployed in the country during the last 10 years are the following:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Mission Name | Organisation | Dates | Greatest Strength | Tasks |
+===================================================================================+===========================================================+=================================+=================================================================================================================================================================================+========================================================================================================================================================================================================================================+
| **Inter-African Mission to Monitor the Implementation of the Bangui Agreements**\ | Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, Mali, Senegal and Togo | February 1997 to April 1998 | 820 | To monitor the fulfilling of the Bangui Agreements |
| (*Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui, MISAB*) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **UN Mission in the Central African Republic**\ | UN | April 1998 to February 2000 | 1,350 | Maintain peace and security; supervise disarmament; technical assistance during 1998 elections |
| (*Mission des Nations Unies en République centrafricaine, MINURCA*) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **United Nations Peace-building Office**\ | UN | February 2000 to 1 January 2010 | Five military and six civilian police advisers to follow up on security-related reforms and to assist in the implementation of the training programmes for the national police. | Consolidate peace and national reconciliation; strengthen democratic institutions; facilitate international mobilization for national reconstruction and economic recovery. Succeeded by UN Integrated Peace-building Office (BINUCA). |
| (*Bureau politique d\'observation des Nations Unies en Centrafrique, BONUCA*) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Community of Sahel-Saharan States**\ | CEN-SAD | December 2001 to January 2003 | 300 | Enforce and restore peace |
| (*CEN-SAD*) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Multinational Force in the Central African Republic**\ | Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) | January 2003 to July 2008 | 380 | Ensure security; restructure FACA; and fight rebels in north-east. Replaced by MICOPAX. |
| (*Force multinationale en Centrafrique, FOMUC*) | | | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
: International Peace Supporting Missions in Central African Republic
### Chad
In addition to the multilateral forces, CAR has received bilateral support from other African countries, such as the Libyan and Congolese assistance to Patassé mentioned above. Bozizé is in many ways dependent on Chad\'s support. Chad has an interest in CAR, since it needs to ensure calmness close to its oil fields and the pipeline leading to the Cameroonian coast, close to CAR\'s troubled northwest. Before seizing power, Bozizé built up his rebel force in Chad, trained and augmented by the Chadian military. Chadian President Déby assisted him actively in taking the power in March 2003 (his rebel forces included 100 Chadian soldiers). After the coup, Chad provided another 400 soldiers. Current direct support includes 150 non-FOMUC Chadian troops that patrol the border area near Goré, a contingent of soldiers in Bangui, and troops within the presidential lifeguard. The CEMAC Force includes 121 Chadian soldiers.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Foreign military presence in support of the Government {#foreign_military_presence_in_support_of_the_government}
### France
There has been an almost uninterrupted French military presence in Central African Republic since independence, regulated through agreements between the two Governments. French troops were allowed to be based in the country and to intervene in cases of destabilisation. This was particularly important during the cold war era, when Francophone Africa was regarded as a natural French sphere of influence.
Additionally, the strategic location of the country made it a more interesting location for military bases than its neighbours, and Bouar and Bangui were hence two of the most important French bases abroad.
However, in 1997, following Lionel Jospin\'s expression \"Neither interference nor indifference\", France came to adopt new strategic principles for its presence in Africa. This included a reduced permanent presence on the continent and increased support for multilateral interventions. In Central African Republic, the Bouar base and the Béal Camp (at that time home to 1,400 French soldiers) in Bangui were shut down, as the French concentrated its African presence to Abidjan, Dakar, Djibouti, Libreville and N\'Djamena and the deployment of a *Force d\'action rapide*, based in France.
However, due to the situation in the country, France has retained a military presence. During the mutinies, 2,400 French soldiers patrolled the streets of Bangui. Their official task was to evacuate foreign citizens, but this did not prevent direct confrontations with the mutineers (resulting in French and mutineer casualties). The level of French involvement resulted in protests among the Central African population, since many sided with the mutineers and accused France of defending a dictator against the people\'s will. Criticism was also heard in France, where some blamed their country for its protection of a discredited ruler, totally incapable of exerting power and managing the country. After the mutinies in 1997, the MISAB became a multilateral force, but it was armed, equipped, trained and managed by France. The Chadian, Gabonese and Congolese troops of the current *Force multinationale en Centrafrique (FOMUC)* mission in the country also enjoy logistical support from French soldiers.
A study carried out by the US Congressional Research Service revealed that France has again increased its arms sales to Africa, and that during the 1998--2005 period it was the leading supplier of arms to the continent.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Components and units {#components_and_units}
### Air Force {#air_force}
The Air Force is almost inoperable. Lack of funding has almost grounded the air force apart from an AS 350 Ecureuil delivered in 1987. Mirage F1 planes from the French Air Force regularly patrolled troubled regions of the country and also participated in direct confrontations until they were withdrawn and retired in 2014. According to some sources, Bozizé used the money he got from the mining concession in Bakouma to buy two old MI 8 helicopters from Ukraine and one Lockheed C-130 Hercules, built in the 1950s, from the US. In late 2019 Serbia offered two new Soko J-22 orao attack aircraft to the CAR Air Force but was it is unknown whether the orders were approved by the Air Force. The air force otherwise operates 7 light aircraft, including a single helicopter:
Aircraft Type Versions In service Notes
---------------------------------- ---------------------- -------------------- ------------ -------------------------------
Aermacchi AL-60 Utility AL-60C-5 Conestoga 6--10
Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil Utility helicopter AS 350B 1
Mil Mi-8 Hip Transport helicopter Mi-8 2 Unconfirmed
Lockheed C-130 Hercules Transport C-130 1 Unconfirmed
\[Avion chaser to entraitment L- 39 Albatros\]: 10 \- \[Avion chaser Soukhoï-25\]:8
### Garde républicaine (GR) {#garde_républicaine_gr}
The Presidential Guard (*garde présidentielle*) or Republican Guard is officially part of FACA but it is often regarded as a separate entity under the direct command of the President. Since 2010 the Guard has received training from South Africa and Sudan, with Belgium and Germany providing support. GR consists of so-called patriots that fought for Bozizé when he seized power in 2003 (mainly from the Gbaya tribe), together with soldiers from Chad. They are guilty of numerous assaults on the civil population, such as terror, aggression, sexual violence. Only a couple of months after Bozizé\'s seizure of power, in May 2003, taxi and truck drivers conducted a strike against these outrages. However, post-civil leaders have been cautious in attempting to significantly reform the Republican Guard.
### New amphibious force {#new_amphibious_force}
Bozizé has created an amphibious force. It is called the Second Battalion of the Ground Forces and it patrols the Ubangi river. The staff of the sixth region in Bouali (mainly made up of members of the former president\'s lifeguard) was transferred to the city of Mongoumba, located on the river. This city had previously been plundered by forces from the MLC, that had crossed the CAR/Congo border. The riverine patrol force has approximately one hundred personnel and operates seven patrol boats.
### Veteran soldiers {#veteran_soldiers}
A program for disarmament and reintegration of veteran soldiers is currently taking place. A national commission for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration was put in place in September 2004. The commission is in charge of implementing a program wherein approximately 7,500 veteran soldiers will be reintegrated in civil life and obtain education.
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# Central African Armed Forces
## Components and units {#components_and_units}
### Discontinued groups and units that are no longer part of FACA {#discontinued_groups_and_units_that_are_no_longer_part_of_faca}
- **Séléka rebels**: the French document *Spécial investigation: Centrafrique, au cœur du chaos* envisions Séléka rebels as mercenaries under the command of the president. In the documentary the Séléka fighters seem to use a large number of M16 rifles in their fight against the Anti-balaka forces.
- **FORSIDIR:** The presidential lifeguard, Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP), was in March 1998 transformed into the *Force spéciale de défense des institutions républicaines (FORSDIR)*. In contrary to the army -- which consisted mainly of southerner Yakoma members and which thereby was unreliable for the northerner president -- this unit consisted of northerners loyal to the president. Before eventually being dissolved in January 2000, this highly controversial group became feared for their terror and troubled Patassé\'s relations with important international partners, such as France. Of its 1,400 staff, 800 were subsequently reintegrated into FACA, under the command of the chief-of-staff. The remaining 400 recreated the USP (once again under the command of the chief-of-staff).
- **Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP):** USP was Patassé\'s presidential guard before and after FORSIDIR. When he was overthrown by Bozizé in 2003, the USP was dissolved and while some of the soldiers have been absorbed by FACA, others are believed to have joined the pro-Patassé Democratic Front of the Central African People rebel group that is fighting FACA in the north of the country.
- **The Patriots or Liberators:** Accompanied Bozizé when he seized power in March 2003. They are now a part of Bozizé\'s lifeguard, the Garde républicaine, together with soldiers from Chad.
- **Office central de répression du banditisme (OCRB):** OCRB was a special unit within the police created to fight the looting after the army mutinies in 1996 and 1997. OCRB has committed numerous summary executions and arbitrary detentions, for which it has never been put on trial.
- **MLPC Militia:** Le Mouvement de libération du peuple centrafricain (MLPC) was the armed component of former president Patassé\'s political party. The MPLC\'s militia was already active during the 1993 election, but was strengthened during the mutinies 1996 and 1997, particularly through its Karako contingent. Its core consisted of Sara people from Chad and Central African Republic, but during the mutinies it recruited many young people in Bangui.
- **DRC Militia:** Rassemblement démocratique centrafricain (RDC) is the militia of the party of General Kolingba, who led the country during the 1980s. The RDC\'s militia is said to have camps in Mobaye and to have bonds with former officials of Kolingba\'s \"cousin\" Mobutu Sese Seko in DR Congo
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# Politics of Chile
Chile\'s government is a representative democratic republic, in which the President of Chile serves as both head of state and head of government, within a formal multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and their cabinet. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Congress. The judiciary operates independently of both the executive and legislative branches.
The Constitution of Chile was approved in a national plebiscite in September 1980, during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, and came into effect in March 1981. After Pinochet was voted out of office in 1988, the Constitution was amended the following year to simplify the process for future amendments.
In September 2006, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These reforms included eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years, while also prohibiting immediate re-election.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices, Chile was the third most electorally democratic country in Latin America in 2023.
Statistical analysis suggests that Chilean politicians in Congress are not randomly drawn from the population but over-represent high-income communities. As a result, Chileans of Castilian-Basque, Palestinian, and Jewish ancestry are disproportionately represented.
## History
The autocratic and conservative republic (1831--1861) was replaced by the liberal republic (1861--1891), during which some political conquests were made, such as proportional representation (1871) and the abolition of the condition of ownership to have the right to vote (1885). During the period 1896--1924, Chile enjoyed continuous free and fair elections.
### Parliamentary Republic {#parliamentary_republic}
When the era of the parliamentary republic began in 1891, the struggle between liberals (pipiolos) and conservatives (pelucones) had already evolved due to the emergence of a multi-party system. In the 1880s, the Liberals split into two factions: the moderates, who did not want to impose secularism too quickly and were willing to compromise with the Conservatives, and the radical Liberals, who joined the Radical Party founded in 1863 or the new Democratic Party with more progressive, if not socialist, ideas.
European and particularly British companies having appropriated a large part of the country\'s economy (saltpeter, bank, railroad, trade), President José Balmaceda (1886--1891), leader of moderate liberals, decided to react by directing his policy in two directions: the nationalization of saltpeter mines and the intervention of the State in economic matters. Already facing the conservative aristocracy, he alienated the bankers. He was dismissed by a vote of Parliament and pressure from part of the army. He committed suicide by firearm at the end of the civil war that his supporters lost.
### Workers\' struggles and social reforms {#workers_struggles_and_social_reforms}
A new parliamentary regime emerged from the civil war; it was the government of Fronda aristocrática. From 1906 onwards, the Radical Party demanded social reforms and the establishment of a democratic regime. That same year, the leader of the Federation of Workers, Luis Emilio Recabarren, was elected to the House but his election was canceled by the House. In 1912 he founded the Socialist Workers Party.
Despite the country\'s good economic performance, life remains particularly hard for a large part of the population (12 or 14-hour working days for workers, very low wages, illiteracy of more than 50% in the years 1900--1910, etc.). Trade unionism was organized and fought; strikes and workers\' demonstrations multiplied, sometimes very harshly repressed: general strike in Santiago (1905), railroads and mines in Antofagasta (1906), a demonstration in Iquique (1907). From 1911 to 1920, there were 293 strikes. Some repressions kill hundreds of people. The workers\' movement was organized in the 1910s with the creation of the Chilean Regional Workers\' Federation in 1913 and the Chilean branch of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1919.
In 1920, the economic crisis worsened the standard of living of the middle classes, which were politically closer to the working classes. This new situation led to the election of Arturo Alessandri Palma. During his first term in office, he pursued a progressive policy: labor law, the establishment of the tax on property income, the establishment of the Central Bank, creation of social security funds, etc. However, it must constantly deal with the Senate, always under Conservative control, which systematically tries to block its reforms. Shortly before his withdrawal from power, he drew up a new Constitution that was considered to be the advent of true democracy in Chile. This Constitution enshrines the separation of Church and State and religious freedom, declares compulsory primary education, restores presidentialism by electing the president by universal suffrage, and above all proclaims that property must be regulated in such a way as to ensure its social function.
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# Politics of Chile
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The bicameral National Congress *(Congreso Nacional)* consists of the Senate *(Senado)* and the Chamber of Deputies (*Cámara de Diputados*). The Senate is made up of 50 members elected from regions or subregions. Senators serve approximately eight-year terms. The Chamber of Deputies has 155 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last congressional elections were held on November 21, 2021.
For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups. The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions.
Elections are very labor-intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day. One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry. Each table is staffed by five people (*vocales de mesa*) from the same registry. Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up. A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry. Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers.
The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:
**Government**:
- (*Approve Dignity*) is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election. After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner. It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (*Broad Font*) and the coalition Chile Digno (*Worthy Chile*) formed by the Communist Party of Chile and others left-wing parties.
- Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity, and this of the Concertation -which supported the \"NO\" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010-. This pact is formed by the parties Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal.
**Opposition:**
- Chile Vamos (*Let\'s go Chile*) is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (*National Renewal*), Unión Demócrata Independiente (*Independent Democratic Union*) and Evópoli. It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the \"YES\" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then. It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010--2014) and (2018--2022).
In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators. Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators. The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies), and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).
Since 1987, the Congress operates in the port city of Valparaíso, about 110 km northwest of the capital, Santiago. However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago. Congressional members have repeatedly tried to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the 1973 Chilean coup d\'état, but have not been successful. The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President.
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# Politics of Chile
## Legal system {#legal_system}
thumb\|The Palacio de los Tribunales de Justicia de Santiago. Chile\'s legal system is civil law based. It is primarily based on the Civil code of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the 19th Century. It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.
From the year 2000 onwards, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 9, 2001.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
## Pressure groups {#pressure_groups}
Pressure groups according to the CIA World Factbook:
- Student federations at all major universities
- Roman Catholic Church
- Workers\' United Center of Chile trade unionists from Chile\'s five largest labor confederations.
### Advocacy for public policy change {#advocacy_for_public_policy_change}
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play an important role in advocating for public policy change in Chile. Certain NGOs, such as those working with migrants, have increased in Chile in the past decades. For example, one prominent NGO, Servicio Jesuita a Migrantes (SJM), conducts research in order to influence public policy. SJM has published dozens of papers with findings that ultimately influence public policy in Chile---ranging from educational access for immigrants to labor laws for immigrants. In December 2024, SJM and UNICEF hosted a joint seminar on the legal regularization of migrant children in Chile.
Other avenues of public policy advocacy include citizenship advocacy, union advocacy, and government advocacy. Unions have been especially successful at impacting public policy through strikes, collective bargaining, and legal mobilization. Student groups also have a strong history of impacting public policy, with perhaps the most prominent example being the 2011 student protests against neoliberal educational policies called the \"Chilean Winter.\" The United Chilean Student Confederation (CONFECH), an organization composed of various student unions, including the Student Federation of the University of Chile (FECH) and the Student Federation of Catholic University (FEUC), led this movement.
Student groups, NGOs, and other advocacy organizations all face challenges to change-making within the Chilean political system. For example, many NGOs who help migrants receive limited funding and work amongst insufficient legislation, leading them to focus primarily on the individual, care-related needs of migrants rather than focusing on fulfilling the role of advocating for the advancement of migrant rights. Student groups have faced similar obstacles, such as legal barriers, in the fight for public policy change in Chile. These barriers do not completely overshadow political advocates\' strengths, and it is not to dismantle the successful work they have done.
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# Politics of Chile
## Central-local government relations {#central_local_government_relations}
Chile has an enduring unitary and centralised state power structure. The national government has substantial political, administrative and particularly fiscal control (see Table 1 below). For example, despite the establishment of regional governors in 2017 (covered further below), the executive positions of Presidential Delegates remain at regional and provincial levels (see Figure 1 below), with their appointment and dismissal at the President\'s discretion. The regional governor and regional presidential delegate constitutionally share functions, compromising good practice regional governance and the intended levels of political decentralisation. Chile\'s unitary structure has persisted due to:
1. Colonial rule centralising decision-making with national government, which persisted after independence.
2. Chile\'s long, narrow geography and enduring population concentration in the Central Valley (including the nation\'s capital, Santiago), meaning that unitary governance is perceived as more practical.
3. Lack of empowered demand for an alternative (e.g. federal) structure due to a historical lack of strong and autonomous subnational movements.
4. A desire to build a unified nation and avoid the regional conflicts or independence movements in other Latin American nations attempting federalism (e.g. Argentina).
5. A desire to preserve the performance of Chile\'s economy through unified national control, and avoid the negative economic impacts of how decentralisation efforts were designed and implemented in other Latin American countries (e.g. Argentina).
6. The Pinochet regime (1973--1990), which enacted martial law, overthrew and banned democratic institutions and established the 1980s constitution. This constitution cemented military power, neoliberalism and established a deconcentration approach, where underfunded municipalities controlled by appointed officials were required to implement national policies.
Municipalities are the only self-government entities in Chile, with constitutionally-guaranteed autonomy, including for their:
- institution;
- interests and competences;
- election of their governing bodies;
- powers to set local regulations withstanding national equivalents.
Despite their partial political and administrative autonomy, municipalities have very low fiscal autonomy, with proportionally small and mostly pre-allocated funding (see Table 1 below). Chile is the only OECD country not to allow municipalities to borrow.
**Table 1: Local and total government expenditure in Chile vs OECD average**
----------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------
**Aspect** **Chile** **OECD average**
Local government expenditure (% of GDP) 3% 17%
Total public expenditure (% of GDP) 13% 40%
----------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------
Chile has very large disparities between municipalities, including in the concentration of population (almost twice the OECD average) and GDP (second highest in the OECD). One cause of these disparities is the dominance of very substantial copper and other mining activities in specific areas, without similar economic drivers in other areas.
Chile\'s centralised structure, and strong comparative disadvantage of many municipalities, creates incentives for municipal leadership to directly lobby national, rather than regional, government for local policy decisions or funded interventions which need significant executive power. For example, facing resource constraints and a fragmented Congress, municipalities approached the national government for support responding to escalating crime rates (particularly violent crime).
The President and Ministers may also engage directly with municipalities affected by their policies or interventions. These informal bilateral exchanges (see Figure 2 below) bypass the intended governance structure, undermine provincial and regional authorities, and create inefficiencies and inequity in forming and implementing policies and interventions. Where regions and municipalities coordinate or collaborate, this often depends on the autonomous power of the presidential delegate or head of the public service, or on the relationships or other capacities of the mayor or municipality to influence national institutions' decisions.
The 2017 Constitutional Reforms established the role of publicly elected regional governors. These governors, first-elected in 2021 to represent regional constituents, share responsibility with presidentially-appointed regional delegates/intendants, who represent national ministries. Their election was a turning point in decentralization efforts, introducing a new dynamic in national-regional relations and providing regions with a stronger voice in governance. However, Navarrete Yáñez argues that introducing this system, typical of federal structures, tends to fragment authority and create overlapping jurisdictions to promote coordination relations, which in practice is generating conflict. The current President of Chile, Gabriel Boric (2022--2026), stated that before his term ends, the presidential delegate position will disappear.
The decentralisation agenda in Chile recently received impetus, with:
1. a presidential advisory commission for decentralisation defining a decentralisation agenda
2. 2018 laws introducing direct election of regional governors, rather than the previous presidential appointment only. These laws also defined the powers and responsibilities of regional authorities and encouraged citizen participation. The first election of regional governors occurred in 2021.
3. A 2020 referendum, in which 78% of voters supported the creation of a new constitution and the establishment of a Constitutional Convention. Two subsequent referendums (September 2022 and December 2023) proposed replacements of the existing Pinochet-era constitution, including:
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1. 1. reducing the dominance of central government and strengthening regional governance
2. establishing 'regional states' comprising autonomous regions, communes, indigenous territorial autonomies and special territories.
Despite the strong impetus for a new constitution, both new constitutional proposals were rejected by voters. Particularly given the substantial social upheaval in 2019 related to inequality, and majority support for a constitutional re-write, these rejections are significant. By comparison, from 1789 to 2016, 94% of 179 referendums for new constitutions were ratified, making Chile\'s twin rejections rare exceptions.
**Unclear sector responsibilities, siloed work**
There are many unclear sector responsibilities at national level. Significant work occurs in silos, with poor integration across both policy and investment areas. For example, responsibilities for the intercity network, for the urban transport utilising that network and for investment in urban roads lie with three different national ministries. Inadequate inter-sector coordination and consultation about local conditions leads to poor quality decisions -- for example, decisions on types of transport infrastructure, routes and frequencies which don\'t suit local needs or represent good value for taxpayers. Chilean citizens feel affected by the lack of national sector coordination. **Poor central-regional-local coordination and subnational consultation**
Local policies, planning instruments and priorities are centrally defined by national ministries but with weak subnational consultation and coordination. For example, the Government response to COVID reinforced a need to formalise *how* coordination between national, regional and local government occurs, particularly during emergency situations involving constitutional exceptions. There are positive developments in subnational consultation. In January 2023, an agreement was signed with the Association of Regional Governors of Chile (AGORECHI) to advance political decentralisation, particularly intra-government coordination and local participation, administrative decentralization, fiscal decentralization and the development of a National Decentralization Policy.
**Social inequity and intra-government structure and relations** One study shows that 91%-95% of Chileans perceive that access to income is inequitable (Figure 3); that access to healthcare, justice and education is inequitable (Figure 4); and that Chile is governed in the interests of a powerful few (Figure 5).
Chile\'s centralized governance system contributes to limiting equitable resource distribution and effective local solutions. Recent initiatives, for example, Carolina Gainza\'s work with universities as Undersecretary of Science, Technology, Knowledge, and Innovation (2022-2024) have helped focus on equity and equality
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# Telecommunications in Chile
The technical regulator of **communications in Chile** is the Ministry of Transportation and Telecommunications, through the Undersecretariat of Telecommunications (Subtel).
## Telephone
### History
Telephone and telegraph services started in Chile in 1879, three years after Alexander Graham Bell, presented his patent for a telephonic system. José Dottin Husbands, an associate of Thomas Edison, arrived into the port of Valparaíso carrying the first set of switching equipment and telephones. By 1880 the first telephone company of the country is born (Compañía Chilena de Teléfonos de Edison), while in 1893, after a rapid expansion in the northern regions of Chile, telephone services started operating in the south, thanks to the founding of Telefónica del Sur (current day Grupo GTD), a company created by a group of German immigrants that had previously settled in the area of Valdivia, Región de los Ríos.
- Main lines in use: 2,567,938 (2020 est.)
- Mobile cellular: 25,068,249 (2020 est.)
- Pre-paid: 17,283,257
- Post-paid: 6,847,497
- System: privatization began in 1988; advanced telecommunications infrastructure; modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities; fixed-line connections have dropped in recent years as mobile-cellular usage continues to increase, reaching a level of 85 telephones per 100 persons
- Domestic: extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations
- international: country code - 56; submarine cables provide links to the US and to Central and South America; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2007)
## Radio
- Broadcast stations: 1,490 (175 AM; 1,315 FM) (2006)
## Television
- Broadcast stations: 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
- Broadcast television system: NTSC
- Pay television: 4,158,874 (2012)
## Internet
- Internet hosts: 847,215 (2008)
- Internet users: 16,822,264 (2020 est.)
- Internet mobile users: 4,921,587
- Internet country code:
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# Demographics of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Demographic features of the population of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
## CIA World Factbook demographic statistics {#cia_world_factbook_demographic_statistics}
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated
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# Coral Sea Islands
The **Coral Sea Islands Territory** is an external territory of Australia which comprises a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, north-east of Queensland, Australia. The only inhabited island is Willis Island. The territory covers 780000 km², most of which is ocean, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef and includes Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group and fifteen other reef/island groups. Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory.
## History and status {#history_and_status}
The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803. In the 1870s and 1880s the islands were mined for guano but the absence of a reliable supply of fresh water prevented long-term habitation. The Coral Sea Islands became an Australian external territory in 1969 by the *Coral Sea Islands Act* and extended in 1997 to include Elizabeth Reef and Middleton Reef nearly 800 km further south.
The two latter reefs are much closer to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales, (about 150 km) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island. The islands, cays and reefs of the Great Barrier Reef are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead. The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory.
The territory is a possession or external territory of Australia, administered from Canberra. Previously it was administered by the Attorney-General\'s Department and the Department of Transport and Regional Services. It is the only external territory not created by transfer from the United Kingdom or by the mandate of the United Nations. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy.
Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a 200 nmi exclusive fishing zone. There is no economic activity (except for a significant but as yet unquantified charter fishing and diving industry), and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on Willis Island (South Islet), established in 1921. In November 2011, the Australian government announced that a 989842 km2 protected area was planned in the Coral Sea.
The Supreme Court of Norfolk Island has jurisdiction over the islands; however, the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply. The territory\'s FIPS 10-4 code is CR, whereas ISO 3166 includes it in Australia (AU).
In June 2004, a symbolic political protest run by gay rights activists based in Australia, declared the Coral Sea Islands to be a sovereign micronation. On 17 November 2017 the same group declared the kingdom to be \'dissolved\', following the results of the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey.
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# Coral Sea Islands
## Geography
There are about 30 separate reefs and atolls, twelve being wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and cays (18 alone on the atoll Lihou Reef), some of which are vegetated. The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including lagoon): **Lihou Reef**, with a lagoon size of 100 x and an area of 2500 km2, which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only 0.91 km2. The islands are all very low.
The Willis Islets are important nesting areas for birds and turtles but contain negligible natural resources. They comprise less than 3 km2 of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage.
Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while **Mellish Reef** to the east, and **Middleton Reef** and **Elizabeth Reef** to the south are grouped separately:
### Northwestern Group {#northwestern_group}
1. Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring 25 by, covering around 195 km2, with lagoon up to 30 m deep)
2. Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef 15 km south of Osprey Reef, with a minimum depth of 7.8 m)
3. Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, 2.5 by, area 8 km2 with lagoon, dries at half tide)
4. East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about 14 by, area 125 km2 with lagoon)
5. West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll 6 km east of East Holmes Reef, about 18 by, area 125 km2 with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays)
6. Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about 12 km2)
7. Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or 1300 km2, along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high)
8. North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area 8 km2 including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side)
9. South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef)
10. Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than 500 km2, 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high)
11. Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about 1500 km2), 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately 0.2 km2) and South East Cay (area 0.37 km2); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km^2^), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km^2^)
12. Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km^2^, land area 0.34 km^2^)
13. Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km^2^, land area 0.188 km^2^)
14. Lihou Reef and Cays (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km^2^, land area 0.91 km^2^)
15. Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km^2^, with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim)
16. North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km^2^, with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m)
17. South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km^2^)
18. Herald\'s Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km)
19. Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km^2^ including small lagoon that is open to the North)
20. Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see)
21. Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km^2^)
22. Marion Reef (Large circular atoll formation that is composed of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the **Marion Plateau** which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the **Townsville Trough**. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef.)
The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the north, and Marion Reef in the south, are located on the **Coral Sea Plateau** (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.
- **Flinders Reefs** (North and South), **Herald\'s Surprise** and **Dart Reef** form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.
- **Magdelaine Cays**, **Coringa Islets** and **Herald Cays** are part of the 8856 km^2^ Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, created on 16 August 1982 and located around 400 km east of Cairns and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km^2^, for a total of 1.24 km^2^.
- **Lihou Reef** was declared a Nature Reserve on 16 August 1982, with an area of 8440 km^2^.
The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory; together they form the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site.
### Mellish Reef {#mellish_reef}
1. Mellish Reef, being about 300 km to the east of the **Northwestern Group**, thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km^2^. The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m2, only rising a few ms above the high-water mark. The reef was discovered and named by Captain Alexander Bristow in the whaling ship `{{ship||Thames|1805 ship|2}}`{=mediawiki} on 5 April 1812. The `{{ship|French aviso|Duroc|852|6}}`{=mediawiki} wrecked on the reef on 16 August 1856. `{{HMS|Herald|1824|6}}`{=mediawiki} erected the first beacon on the cay, using wreckage from *Duroc*.
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# Coral Sea Islands
## Geography
### Southeasterly Group {#southeasterly_group}
1. Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km^2^. On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide.
2. Kenn Reefs, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km^2^, islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high
3. Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km^2^. There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay.
4. Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km^2^, open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay.
5. Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km^2^ of depths less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km^2^ including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 0.15 km^2^, 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over. **Cato Island** is the highest point in the Territory.
### Extreme South {#extreme_south}
Elizabeth and Middleton reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species. These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the Lord Howe Rise. Already on 23 December 1987, they were protected as the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve, which has an area of 1,880 km^2^.
1. Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 km by 5.5 km, area 51 km^2^ including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth Island (Elizabeth Cay), no vegetation, 600 m by 400 m (area 0.2 km^2^), highest point 0.8 m. At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.
2. Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 km by 6.3 km, area 37 km^2^ including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 m by 70 m (area 5,000 m^2^), highest point 1.5 m (close to the northern end). At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.
### Overview of islets and cays {#overview_of_islets_and_cays}
Complex Type Islets/cays West Holmes Reef Atoll 2 Diane Bank Atoll (mostly sunken) Diane Bank Cay Willis Group Atoll (partially sunken) South Islet (Willis Island), Mid Islet, North Cay Magdelaine Cays and Coringa Islets Atoll (partially sunken) Northwest Islet, Southeast Cay, Southwest, Chilcott Islets Herald Cays (North) Reef Northwest Cay Herald Cays (South) Reef Southeast Cay Lihou Reef and Cays Atoll 18 Diamond Islands and Tregosse Reefs Atoll (partially sunken) West Diamond, Central Diamond, East Diamond, Southwest Diamond Islets Flinders Reefs (North) Atoll Flinders, Main, Victoria Cays Marion Reef Atoll Paget, Carola, Brodie Cays Mellish Reef Atoll Heralds-Beacon Islet Frederick Reefs Atoll Observatory Cay Kenn Reef Atoll Observatory Cay Saumarez Reef Atoll Northeast, Southwest Cays Wreck Reef Atoll Bird, West Islets, Porpoise Cay Cato Reef Atoll Cato Island Middleton Reef Atoll The Sound Elizabeth Reef Atoll Elizabeth Island *Total number of islands/cays*
--------- ------ ------------- ------------------ ------- --- ------------ ----------------------- ---------------- -------------- -------------------------- --------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ -------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------- ------ --------------- --------------------- ------ --------------- --------------------- ------- ---- ------------------------------------ -------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------ ------- ------------------------------- ------------- ------- ---------------------------- -------------- ------- ---------------------- ----------------- ------- ----------------- ----------- ------- ----------------- --------------- ------- --------------------------- ------------ ------- --------------------------------- ----------- ------- ------------- ---------------- ------- ----------- ---------------- ------- ------------------ -------------------------------- --
## Man-made structures {#man_made_structures}
Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on the following reefs or atolls:
- Bougainville Reef
- Cato Island
- Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay)
- Frederick Reef
- Holmes Reef
- Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet)
- Marion Reef
- Moore Reef
Lighthouses are located on following reefs or islands:
- Bougainville Reef
- East Diamond Islet
- Frederick Reefs
- Lihou Reef
- Saumarez Reef
Willis Island, the only inhabited island, has a number of structures
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# Geography of Costa Rica
**Costa Rica** is located on the Central American Isthmus, surrounding the point 10° north of the equator and 84° west of the prime meridian. It has 212 km of Caribbean Sea coastline and 1,016 on the North Pacific Ocean.
The area is 51,100 km^2^ of which 40 km^2^ is water. It is slightly smaller than Bosnia and Herzegovina.
## Geology
Costa Rica is located on the Caribbean Plate. It borders the Cocos Plate in the Pacific Ocean which is being subducted beneath it. This forms the volcanoes in Costa Rica, also known as the Central America Volcanic Arc.
The Caribbean Plate began its eastward migration during the Late Cretaceous. During the Late Paleocene, a local sea-level low-stand assisted by the continental uplift of the western margin of South America, resulted in a land bridge over which several groups of mammals apparently took part in an interchange.
Many earthquakes in Costa Rica have occurred.
## Political and human geography {#political_and_human_geography}
Costa Rica shares a 313 km border with Nicaragua to the north, and a 348-km border with Panama to the south.
Costa Rica claims an exclusive economic zone of 574,725 km2 with 200 nmi and a territorial sea of 12 nmi.
Land use: Arable land: 4.8%. Permanent crops: 6.66%. Other: 88.54%.
Administrative divisions of Costa Rica include 7 provinces, 82 cantons, and 478 districts. There are also 24 indigenous territories.
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
### Islands
There are about 79 islands of Costa Rica, the most remote being Cocos Island and the largest being Isla Calero.
### Mountain ranges {#mountain_ranges}
The nation\'s coastal plain is separated by the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca, which form the spine of the country and separate the Pacific and Caribbean drainage divides.
The Cordillera de Guanacaste is in the north near the border with Nicaragua and forms part of the Continental Divide of the Americas.
Much of the Cordillera de Talamanca is included in the La Amistad International Park, which is shared between Costa Rica and Panama. It contains the country\'s highest peaks: the Cerro Chirripó and the Cerro Kamuk. Much of the region is covered by the Talamancan montane forests. It also includes the Cerros de Escazú which borders the Costa Rican Central Valley to the south.
### Hydrology
Interrogate land covers 1,031 km^2^.
Rivers of Costa Rica all drain into the Caribbean or the Pacific.
### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
Cocos Island is the southwestern extreme of the country. Otherwise to the north it\'s Peñas Blancas, to the south and east one of manyPanama border, and to the west the Santa Elena Peninsula.
The lowest point is sea level, and the tallest is Colero Chillido: at 3810 m which is the biggest.
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# Geography of Costa Rica
## Climate
The climate is tropical. Hot season (December to April); rainy season (May to November); cooler in highlands.
Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round. However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.
Costa Rica\'s seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period. The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (*verano*), and the rainy season, known locally as winter (*invierno*). The \"summer\" or dry season goes from December to April, and \"winter\" or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.
The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over 5000 mm. Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side. The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around 27 °C, 20 °C in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below 10 °C on the summits of the highest mountains. `{{weather box
| location = Costa Rica
| source = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.costaricaguides.com/Climate.html |title=Costa Rica Weather |website=Costa Rica Guides}}</ref>
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan high C = 27
| Feb high C = 27
| Mar high C = 28
| Apr high C = 28
| May high C = 27
| Jun high C = 27
| Jul high C = 27
| Aug high C = 27
| Sep high C = 26
| Oct high C = 26
| Nov high C = 26
| Dec high C = 26
| Jan low C = 17
| Feb low C = 18
| Mar low C = 18
| Apr low C = 18
| May low C = 18
| Jun low C = 18
| Jul low C = 18
| Aug low C = 18
| Sep low C = 17
| Oct low C = 18
| Nov low C = 18
| Dec low C = 18
| Jan precipitation mm = 6.3
| Feb precipitation mm = 10.2
| Mar precipitation mm = 13.8
| Apr precipitation mm = 79.9
| May precipitation mm = 267.6
| Jun precipitation mm = 280.1
| Jul precipitation mm = 181.5
| Aug precipitation mm = 276.9
| Sep precipitation mm = 355.1
| Oct precipitation mm = 330.6
| Nov precipitation mm = 135.5
| Dec precipitation mm = 33.5
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan percentsun = 40
| Feb percentsun = 37
| Mar percentsun = 39
| Apr percentsun = 33
| May percentsun = 25
| Jun percentsun = 20
| Jul percentsun = 21
| Aug percentsun = 22
| Sep percentsun = 20
| Oct percentsun = 22
| Nov percentsun = 25
| Dec percentsun = 34
}}`{=mediawiki}
### Climate change {#climate_change}
Costa Rica is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events, which can be exacerbated by climate change. The majority of Costa Rica\'s population (78%) and economic activity (80% of GDP) are concentrated in regions highly vulnerable to various natural hazards, such as floods, landslides, cyclones, storm surges, and rising sea levels. Sea levels are rising along both of Costa Rica\'s coasts, increasing the vulnerability of low-lying areas to storm surges and erosion with consequences for fisheries, port infrastructure and tourism.
The country is facing increasing temperatures (especially at higher elevations), and changing rainfall patterns resulting in increased risk of drought along the Pacific slope and flooding in all regions of the country. Increasing temperatures and extreme heat will have major consequences for human health, agriculture (particularly coffee and banana cultivation), water security, tourism, and the country\'s distinctive biodiversity and ecosystems.
Costa Rica has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 9.11 MtCO2e by 2030 and net zero by 2050, announced in its National Decarbonisation Plan (NDP). According to Climate Action Tracker, Costa Rica has made good progress toward its climate goals.
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# Geography of Costa Rica
## Flora and fauna {#flora_and_fauna}
Costa Rica is a biodiversity hotspot. While the country has only about 0.03% of the world\'s landmass, it contains 5% of the world\'s biodiversity. It is home to about 12,119 species of plants, of which 950 are endemic. There are 117 native trees and more than 1,400 types of orchids; a third of them can be found in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve. Almost a half of the country\'s land is covered by forests, though only 3.5% is covered by primary forests. Deforestation in Costa Rica has been reduced from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005.
The diversity of wildlife in Costa Rica is very high; there are 441 species of amphibians and reptiles, 838 species of birds, 232 species of mammals and 181 species of fresh water fish. Costa Rica has high levels of endemism; 81 species of amphibians and reptiles, 17 species of birds and 7 species of mammals are endemic to the country. However, many species are endangered. According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 209 species of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and plants are endangered. Some of the country\'s most endangered species are the harpy eagle, the giant anteater, the golden toad and the jaguar. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports the golden toad as extinct.
Over 25% of Costa Rica\'s national territory is protected by the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC), which oversees all of the country\'s protected areas. There 29 national parks of Costa Rica many conservation areas of Costa Rica. Together protected areas comprise over one-fourth of Costa Rican territory. 9.3% of the country is protected under IUCN categories I-V. Around 25% of the country\'s land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%).
Tortuguero National Park is home to monkeys, sloths, birds, and a variety of reptiles.
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids. Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there.
Over 840 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. As is the case in much of Central America, the avian species in Costa Rica are a mix of North and South American species. The country\'s abundant fruit trees, many of which bear fruit year round, are hugely important to the birds, some of whom survive on diets that consist only of one or two types of fruit. Some of the country\'s most notable avian species include the resplendent quetzal, scarlet macaw, three-wattled bellbird, bare-necked umbrellabird, and the keel-billed toucan. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world\'s fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (*Ctenosaura similis*).
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# Geography of Costa Rica
## Gallery
<File:Costa> Rica map shaded relief.png\|Shaded relief map of Costa Rica <File:Costa> Rica map detail.PNG\|Map of Costa Rica <File:Costa> Rica Topography
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# Politics of Costa Rica
The **politics of Costa Rica** take place in a framework of a presidential, representative democratic republic, with a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and their cabinet, and the President of Costa Rica is both the head of state and head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Legislative Assembly. The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for four-year terms. The judiciary operates independently from the executive and the legislature, but is involved in the political process. Costa Rica has a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Voting is compulsory *de jure*, but this is not enforced.
The position of governor in the seven provinces was abolished in 1998. There are no provincial legislatures. In 2009, the state monopolies on insurance and telecommunications were opened to private-sector competition. Certain other state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence and autonomy; they include the electrical power company (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad), the nationalized commercial banks (which are open to competition from private banks), and the social security agency (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social). Costa Rica has no military but maintains a domestic police force and a Special Forces Unit as part of the Ministry of the President.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Costa Rica was in 2023 the most electoral democratic country in Latin America.
## Recent history {#recent_history}
The 1986 presidential election was won by Óscar Arias of the PLN. During his tenure he experienced some criticism from within his own party for abandoning its traditional social democratic teachings and promoting a neoliberal economic model. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars then raging in several Central American countries.
In the February 1998 national election, PUSC candidate Miguel Ángel Rodríguez won the presidency over PLN nominee José Miguel Corrales Bolaños. President Rodriguez assumed office May 8, 1998. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN got 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country\'s large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries.
The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was \"ungovernable\". In particular, an attempt by the Legislative Assembly to approve a law that opened up the electricity and telecommunication markets (controlled by a monopoly of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity - ICE) to market competition, known as the \"Combo\" law, was met with strong social opposition. The Combo law was supported by both major parties at the time (PLN and PUSC) as well as by President Rodriguez, but the first of three required legislative votes to approve it provoked the largest protest demonstrations the country had seen since 1970. The government quickly resolved to shelve the initiative. President Rodríguez\'s approval would reach an all-time low, and he was indicted by the Attorney General after leaving office on corruption charges.
In September 2000 the Constitutional Court rejected an argument by former president Arias that a 1969 constitutional amendment banning presidential reelection be rescinded. Arias thus remained barred from a second term as president; however, in April 2003--by which time two of the four judges who had voted against the change in 2000 had been replaced--the Court reconsidered the issue and, with the only dissenters being the two anti-reelection judges remaining from 2000, declared the 1969 amendment null and thus opened the way to reelection for former presidents--which in practice meant Arias.
In the 2002 national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister Ottón Solís captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country\'s history. Abel Pacheco was elected president, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez. This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever. The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.
During 2004, several high-profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC. Two former presidents from the party, Miguel Ángel Rodríguez and Rafael Ángel Calderón, were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin. Also involved in scandals has been José María Figueres, former president from PLN and former head of the World Economic Forum.
The 2006 national election was expected to be a landslide for former president (1986--1990) and PLN\'s candidate Óscar Arias, but it turned out to be the closest in modern history. Although polls just a week before the election gave Arias a comfortable lead of at least 12% (and up to 20%), preliminary election results gave him only a 0.4% lead over rival Ottón Solís and prompted a manual recount of all ballots. After a month-long recount and several appeals from different parties, Arias was declared the official winner with 40.9% of the votes against 39.8% for Solís.
When Óscar Arias returned to office, the political debate shifted to the ratification of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Main supporters of the approval included the President\'s PLN, which established a coalition with PUSC and ML in Congress to approve the implementation laws in Congress, as well as different business chambers. The main opposition to CAFTA came from PAC, labor unions, environmental organizations and public universities. In April 2007, former PLN Presidential candidate and CAFTA opponent José Miguel Corrales Bolaños won a legal battle at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, which authorized him to gather over 100,000 signatures to send CAFTA to a referendum and let the people decide the fate of the controversial agreement. As the February 28, 2008 deadline to approve or reject CAFTA loomed, Arias decided to call for the referendum himself, and it took take place on October 7, 2007. CAFTA was approved with 51.5% of voters supporting it, although the election faced criticism due to international, including US, involvement.
The Costa Rican general election, 2010 was won by Laura Chinchilla of centrist National Liberation Party, who had been vice-president in the previous Arias administration. In May 2010, she was sworn in as the first female President of Costa Rica.
In 2014, Luis Guillermo Solís, PAC\'s presidential candidate campaigning on a platform of economic reform and anti-corruption, surprised political observers by winning 30.95% of votes in the first round, while PLN candidate Johnny Araya gained the second most votes with 29.95%. Broad Front\'s José María Villalta Florez-Estrada won 17% of the votes. On March 6, 2014, Araya announced that he would abandon his presidential campaign after polls showed him far behind Luis Guillermo Solís. Elections were held on April 6, 2014, as required by election law, and Solís won with 77.81% of the votes. According to the BBC, the success of Solís and Villalta is another example of anti-neoliberal politics in Latin America.
In April 2018, Carlos Alvarado won the presidential election. He became the new President of Costa Rica, succeeding President Guillermo Solís. Both Solis and Alvarado represented centre-left Citizens\' Action Party.
In May 2022, Costa Rica\'s new president Rodrigo Chaves, right-wing former finance minister, was sworn in for a four-year presidential term. He had won the election runoff against former president Jose María Figueres.
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# Politics of Costa Rica
## Branches of government {#branches_of_government}
### Executive branch {#executive_branch}
Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is elected to a term of four years directly by the voters, not by the National Assembly as it would be in a parliamentary system. There also are two vice presidents and the president\'s cabinet composed of his ministers. A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as unconstitutional in April 2004, allowing Óscar Arias to run for president a second time in the 2006 Costa Rican presidential elections, which he won with approximately a 1% margin.
The President of Costa Rica has limited powers, particularly in comparison to other Latin American Presidents. For example, he cannot veto the legislative budget, and thus Congress is sovereign over the year\'s single most important piece of legislation. On the other hand, he can appoint anyone to his cabinet without approval from Congress. This provides the single most important power versus Congress that any Costa Rican President has.
\|President \|Rodrigo Chaves Robles \|Social Democratic Progress Party \|8 May 2022 \|- \| 1st Vice President \| Stephan Brunner \| Social Democratic Progress Party \| 8 May 2022 \|- \| 2nd Vice Presidents \| Mary Munive \| Social Democratic Progress Party \| 8 May 2022 \|}
#### Ministries
- Ministry of the Presidency
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship
- Ministry of Finance
- Ministry of Public Security
- Ministry of Justice and Peace
- Ministry of Public Education
- Ministry of Public Works and Transports
- Ministry of Economy, Industry and Commerce
- Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock
- Ministry of Health
- Ministry of Labour and Social Security
- Ministry of Culture and Youth
- Ministry of National Planning and Economical Policy
- Ministry of Environment and Energy
- Ministry of Housing and Human Settlements
- Ministry of Foreign Trade
- Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications
- Ministry of Communication
### Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Legislative powers are held by the Legislative Assembly. Legislators, called deputies, are elected to non-consecutive four-year terms by popular, direct vote, using proportional representation in each of the country\'s seven provinces. As a result, there are nine separate political parties serving in the Legislative Assembly, with National Liberation Party holding 18 seats, the Citizens\' Action Party holding 13, and Broad Front and the Social Christian Unity Party each holding 8. Other parties hold the remaining seats.
\|Legislative Assembly President \|Rodrigo Arias Sánchez \|National Liberation Party \|8 May 2022 \|}
### Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The main arm of the judiciary is the Supreme Court of Justice. Twenty-two magistrates are selected for the CSJ for 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and lower courts. Sala IV, also known as the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, reviews legislation, executive actions, and certain writs for constitutionality. Courts below the Sala IV deal with issues involving legal and criminal disputes. Additionally, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE for its Spanish initials) is an independent branch of the CSJ, responsible for democratic elections. While the judiciary is independent of the politically elected executive and legislative branches, it is often responsible for resolving political and legal conflicts.
### Institutional oversight {#institutional_oversight}
A Comptroller General, Procurator General, and an Ombudsman oversee the government and operate autonomously. These institutions have the right to scrutinize, investigate and prosecute government contracts. In addition, they may impose procedural requirements on most political and governmental agencies. The actions of politicians and political parties are frequently researched by these institutions.
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# Politics of Costa Rica
## Elections
On the national level, the president, two vice-presidents and a legislature are elected for a four-year term. The Legislative Assembly has 57 members, elected by proportional representation in each of the country\'s seven provinces.
The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE for its Spanish initials). The TSE is a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica. All elections are conducted by a secret ballot at local polling stations. Voting is mandatory for registered citizens under Article 93 of the Constitution of Costa Rica, but this is not enforced.
On election days, political parties often organize caravans and marches to get supporters to polling stations. In many areas, voting takes on a festive atmosphere with supporters of each party wearing traditional colors and decorating their cars, houses, and livestock with colored ribbons. Because the day of elections is a national holiday, most people have the day off.
## Political parties {#political_parties}
Currently, there are nine active political parties with representation in the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica. An additional twelve parties ran, but did not receive enough votes to earn a seat in the assembly, making the total number of active parties in Costa Rica twenty-one. Starting in the 2000s, disagreement about many of the neo-liberal policies promoted by the dominant PLN caused the traditional party system of alliances among a few parties to fracture. Although still a stable country, the shift toward many political parties and away from PUSC and PLN is a recent development. Various elected positions within the country, such as mayors and city council members, are held by many different national and local political parties.
**Political parties in the Legislative Assembly, 2014--2018**
---------------------------------------------------------------
Party name (English)
National Liberation Party
Citizens\' Action Party
Broad Front
Social Christian Unity Party
Libertarian Movement
Costa Rican Renewal Party
National Restoration Party (Costa Rica)
Accessibility without Exclusion
Christian Democratic Alliance
**Recent non-represented and defunct political parties**
----------------------------------------------------------
**Party name (English)**
National Union Party
National Rescue Party
Union for Change Party
Homeland First Party
National Democrat Alliance Party
National Integration Party
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# Politics of Costa Rica
## Strength of institutions {#strength_of_institutions}
Institutional strength is a critical factor in politics since it defines the ability of political institutions to enforce rules, settle conflicts, and sustain stability in society. Weak institutions can lead to instability, violence, and authoritarianism, while solid institutions are associated with more durable and sufficient democracies. This is especially applicable in countries with fragile institutional frameworks, where strengthening institutions is essential for advancing democracy and stability. Elements such as economic development, a record of state-building, and external actors can contribute to institutional strength; understanding these factors is essential for enabling effective governance. Therefore, lawmakers and scholars must pay close watch to institutional strength when analyzing and formulating political strategies to advance stable and effective democracies that serve the interests of their citizens.
### Rule of law {#rule_of_law}
The rule of law refers to the idea that all individuals and institutions, including the state, are subject to the same rules and limitations. In Costa Rica, the rule of law is generally considered robust, with a separate judiciary branch, effective law enforcement, and low indices of corruption. However, there are also concerns about the efficiency of the justice system and the slow pace of legal proceedings, which can sometimes hinder the effective enforcement of the law.
### Democratic institutions {#democratic_institutions}
Costa Rica is famous for its stable and well-functioning democracy, with periodic, accessible, and honest elections, a competitive party system, and a robust civil society. The country has a presidential system of government, with a unicameral legislature and a multi-party system. Nevertheless, there are also some obstacles to the country\'s democratic institutions, such as a lack of transparency and accountability in government and a high concentration of power among a small class of political elites.
### Public services {#public_services}
Costa Rica\'s government provides many public services, including health care, education, and social welfare programs. The \"Caja de Seguro Social\" in Costa Rica maneuvered through the COVID-19 Pandemic with extreme precaution, providing one of the best responses by public healthcare systems. Their public health care system attests to strong political institutions and its 70% of its citizens entirely depend on the services. These services are generally well-funded and accessible to the general public. However, there are also concerns about the quality and productivity of these services and the sustainability of the country\'s public spending
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# Transport in Costa Rica
There are many modes of **transport in Costa Rica** but the country\'s infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. There is an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair; this also applies to ports, railways and water delivery systems. According to a 2016 U.S. government report, investment from China that attempted to improve the infrastructure found the \"projects stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns\".
Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country\'s Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the north and to the south. Costa Rica\'s ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn\'t function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation. An August 2016 OECD report provided this summary: \"The road network is extensive but of poor quality, railways are in disrepair and only slowly being reactivated after having been shut down in the 1990s. Seaports' quality and capacity are deficient. Internal transportation overly relies on private road vehicles as the public transport system, especially railways, is inadequate.\"
## Railways
- *total:* 278 km
- *narrow gauge:* 278 km of `{{RailGauge|3ft6in}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (260 km electrified)
## Road transportation {#road_transportation}
The road system in Costa Rica is not as developed as it might be expected for such a country. However, there are some two-lane trunk roads with restricted access under development.
- *Total:* 35330 km
- *Paved:* 8621 km
- *Unpaved:* 26709 km
### National road network {#national_road_network}
The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MOPT), along with the National Road Council (Conavi), are the government organizations in charge of national road nomenclature and maintenance.
There are three levels in the national road network:
- **Primary roads**: These are trunk roads devised to connect important cities, most of the national roads are connected to the capital city, San José. There are 19 national primary roads, numbered between 1 and 39.
- **Secondary roads**: These are roads that connect different cities, or primary routes, directly. There are 129 national secondary roads, numbered between 100 and 257.
- **Tertiary roads**: These roads connect main cities to villages or residential areas, there are 175 national tertiary roads, numbered between 301 and 935.
## Waterways
, seasonally navigable by small craft
## Pipelines
- refined products 242 km
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
In 2016, the government pledged ₡93 million (\$166,000) for a new cruise ship terminal for Puerto Limón.
### Atlantic Ocean {#atlantic_ocean}
- Port of Moín, operated by JAPDEVA.
- Port of Limón, operated by JAPDEVA.
- Moín Container Terminal, operated by APM Terminals
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# Geography of Ivory Coast
`{{MapLibrary|Côte d'Ivoire sat.png|Côte d'Ivoire}}`{=mediawiki}
**Ivory Coast** (Côte d\'Ivoire) is a sub-Saharan nation in southern West Africa located at 8° N, 5° W. The country is approximately square in shape.
## Area and borders {#area_and_borders}
Area
- Total: 322463 km2
- *Country rank in the world:* 68th
- Land: 318003 km2
- Water: 4460 km2
Area comparatives
- Australia comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|2|5}}`{=mediawiki} larger than Victoria
- Canada comparative: approximately half the size of Manitoba
- United Kingdom comparative: approximately `{{sfrac|1|3}}`{=mediawiki} larger than the United Kingdom
- United States comparative: slightly larger than New Mexico
- EU comparative: slightly larger than Poland
Land borders
- Bordering countries:
- Liberia to the southwest for 778 km
- Guinea to the northwest for 816 km
- Mali to the north-northwest for 599 km
- Burkina Faso to the north-northeast for 545 km
- Ghana to the east for 720 km
- Total: 3458 km
Coastline
- on Gulf of Guinea
## Maritime claims {#maritime_claims}
Ivory Coast makes maritime claims of 200 nmi as an exclusive economic zone, 12 nmi of territorial sea, and a 200 nmi continental shelf.
## Terrain and topography {#terrain_and_topography}
Ivory Coast\'s terrain can generally be described as a large plateau rising gradually from sea level in the south to almost 500 m elevation in the north. The nation\'s natural resources have made it a comparatively prosperous nation in the African economy. The southeastern region of Ivory Coast is marked by coastal inland lagoons that start at the Ghanaian border and stretch 300 km along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is covered with dense tropical moist forest. The Eastern Guinean forests extend from the Sassandra River across the south-central and southeast portion of Ivory Coast and east into Ghana, while the Western Guinean lowland forests extend west from the Sassandra River into Liberia and southeastern Guinea. The mountains of Dix-Huit Montagnes region, in the west of the country near the border with Guinea and Liberia, are home to the Guinean montane forests.
The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic belt extends across the middle of the country from east to west, and is the transition zone between the coastal forests and the interior savannas. The forest-savanna mosaic interlaces forest, savanna and grassland habitats. Northern Ivory Coast is part of the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. It is a zone of lateritic or sandy soils, with vegetation decreasing from south to north.
The terrain is mostly flat to undulating plain, with mountains in the northwest. The lowest elevation is at sea level on the coast. The highest elevation is Mount Nimba, at 1752 m in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia.
## Rivers
The Cavalla River drains the western border area of the Ivory Coast and eastern Liberia. It forms the southern two-thirds of the border between Liberia and Ivory Coast.
The Sassandra River forms in the Guinea highlands and drains much of the western part of the Ivory Coast east of the Cavalla River.
The Bandama River is the longest river in the Ivory Coast, with a length of some 800 km, draining the east central part of the country. In 1973 the Kossou Dam was constructed at Kossou on the Bandama, creating Lake Kossou. The capital, Yamoussoukro, is located near the river south of the lake.
The Komoé River originates on the Sikasso Plateau of Burkina Faso, and briefly forms the border between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast before entering Ivory Coast. It drains the northeastern and easternmost portions of the country before emptying into the eastern end of the Ébrié Lagoon and ultimately the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. Its waters contribute to the Comoé National Park.
## Climate
The climate of Ivory Coast is generally hot and humid. Most of the country has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*), although the Upper Guinean forest region bordering Liberia has a tropical monsoon climate (*Am*). In the north, there are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October), whilst in the south there are two rainy seasons between April and July, and between October and November, a longer dry season from December to February, and a shorter dry season in August. Temperatures average between 25 and and range from 10 to.
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# Geography of Ivory Coast
## Natural hazards {#natural_hazards}
Natural hazards include the heavy surf and the lack of natural harbors on the coast; during the rainy season torrential flooding is a danger.
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
Extreme points are the geographic points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location in the country
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# Politics of Ivory Coast
The **politics of Ivory Coast** takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Ivory Coast is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.
The capital since 1983 is Yamoussoukro; however, Abidjan remains the commercial center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan. A civil war was fought in Ivory Coast between 2002--2004 and a second civil war broke out in March 2011 following contested elections that saw president-elect Alassane Ouattara come into power in 2011 and reelected in 2015. It is located in Africa.
## Civil war {#civil_war}
Troops, mostly hailing from the north of the country, mutinied in the early hours of 19 September 2002. They soon after launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan. By lunchtime, they had control of the north of the country. Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Ivory Coast (and so who can stand for election as president), voting rights and their representation in government in Abidjan. The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship. Forces involved in the conflict include:
- Government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called *loyalists*, formed and equipped essentially since 2003
- The *Young Patriots*: nationalist groups aligned with President Laurent Gbagbo
- Mercenaries recruited by President Gbagbo:
- allegedly, Belarusians
- some former combatants of Liberia, including under-17 youths, forming the so-called \"Lima militia\" [1](https://web.archive.org/web/20050714110654/http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/03/30/cotedi10404.htm)
- *New Forces* (Forces Nouvelles, FN), ex-northern rebels, who hold 60% of the country; their political expression is the *Mouvement patriotique de Côte d\'Ivoire*, or MPCI
- French forces: troops sent within the framework of Opération Licorne and under UN mandate (United Nations Operation in Côte d\'Ivoire), 3000 men in February 2003 and 4600 in November 2004;
- Soldiers of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), *White helmets*, also under the UN.
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# Politics of Ivory Coast
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Alassane Ouattara \|Rally of the Republicans \|4 December 2011 \|- \|Vice-President \|Tiémoko Meyliet Koné \|Independent \|19 April 2022 \|- \|Prime Minister \|position vacant \|}
Ivory Coast\'s 1959 constitution provides for strong presidency within the framework of a separation of powers. The executive is personified in the president, elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the armed forces, may negotiate and ratify certain treaties, and may submit a bill to a national referendum or to the National Assembly. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president\'s term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the senate interim successor to the president.
Laurent Gbagbo took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. Robert Guéï who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on 25 December 1999, following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan Bédié. Gbagbo was elected president in 2000 in an election boycotted by many oppositional forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president. Alassane Ouattara is currently the president of Ivory Coast. He was reelected in the 2015 Ivorian presidential election.
After a new constitution was approved by referendum, it is expected President Alassane Ouattara would appoint a Vice-President before 2020. The President and Vice-President will run on a joint ticket from 2020. They will be both elected for a five-year term, with only one possible reelection. The Vice-President will replace the President in case of death, resignation and any other vacancy.
In November 2020, Alassane Ouattara won third term in office in elections boycotted by the opposition. His opponents argued it was illegal for president Ouattara to run for a third term.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
Parliament of Ivory Coast is a bicameral body composed by the National Assembly and the Senate of Ivory Coast. Prior to November 2016 and the future creation of the Senate, the Parliament of Ivory Coast was only composed of the National Assembly. The National Assembly (*Assemblée Nationale*) has 255 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation. The Senate of Ivory Coast (*Sénat*) will have two-thirds of the senators indirectly elected and one-third appointed by the president-elect, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies. Ivory Coast is a one party dominant state with the Rally of the Republicans in power.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The judicial system culminates in the Supreme Court of Ivory Coast. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses. The Supreme Court or Court Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2020 Ivorian presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
{{#section-h:2021 Ivorian parliamentary election\|Results}}
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# Politics of Ivory Coast
## Administrative divisions {#administrative_divisions}
For administrative purposes, Ivory Coast is divided into 58 departments, each headed by a prefect appointed by the central government. There are 196 communes, each headed by an elected mayor, plus the city of Abidjan with ten mayors.
The 58 departments (*départements*, singular - *département*) are listed in the article Departments of Ivory Coast
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# Transport in Ivory Coast
**Ivory Coast** invested remarkably in its **transport system.** Transport Infrastructures are much more developed than they are other West African countries despite a crisis that restrained their maintenance and development. Since its independence in 1960, Ivory Coast put an emphasis on increasing and modernizing the transport network for human as well as for goods. Major infrastructures of diverse nature were built including railways, roads, waterways, and airports. In spite of the crisis, neighbor countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Guinea) still strongly depend on the Ivorian transport network for importing, exporting, and transiting their immigrants to Ivory Coast.
## Rail transport {#rail_transport}
The nation\'s railway system is part of a 1 260 km long route that links the country to Burkina Faso and Niger. 1 156 km of railroad links Abidjan to Ouagadougou, capital of Burkina Faso. Built during colonial era by the firm Abidjan-Niger (RAN), this railroad freed several landlocked countries among which were ex-Upper-Volta (Burkina Faso), Niger, and Mali. This railroad, operated by Sitarail, plays a key role as regards to the carriage of the goods (livestock) and the transport of people between Ivory Coast and border countries: 1 million tons of goods have transited in 2006. In 2005, despite the negative impact the crisis had on the sector, benefits engendered by transporting the goods and people via RAN, are estimated respectively at 16 309 et3 837billionCFA.
As of 2004, the railway network consisted of a state-controlled 660 km section of a 1,146 km narrow gauge railroad that ran north from Abidjan through Bouaké and Ferkéssédougou to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Railway links with adjacent countries | Towns served by rail | Maps |
+============================================================================================================================================+======================+=============================================================================+
| Burkina Faso - yes - `{{RailGauge|1000mm}}`{=mediawiki} | Abidjan | [UN Map](https://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/cotedivoire.pdf) |
| | | |
| Ghana - no - break of gauge `{{RailGauge|1000mm}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{RailGauge|1067mm}}`{=mediawiki} | Agboville | |
| | | |
| Mali - no - same gauge | Bouaké | |
| | | |
| Guinea - no - same gauge | Katiola | |
| | | |
| Liberia - no - break of gauge `{{RailGauge|1000mm}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{RailGauge|1067mm}}`{=mediawiki} | Tafire | |
| | | |
| | Ouangolodougou | |
| | | |
| | Ferkessédougou | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------+
## Road transport {#road_transport}
Ivory Coast road network spreads over 85 000 km consisting of 75 000 unpaved, 65 000 km, and 224 km highways. It provides national and international traffic with neighbor countries.
The Trans--West African Coastal Highway provides a paved link to Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with paved highways to landlocked Mali and Burkina Faso feeding into the coastal highway. When construction of roads and bridges in Liberia and Sierra Leone is complete, the highway will link to another seven Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations to the west and north-west. At the national level, vehicles are estimated at 600 000, which includes 75% of used cars (second hand) due to the low purchasing power since the beginning of the economic crisis. 20 000 new cars are registered every year. Although maintenance and renovations works are being carried out since middle-2011, over 80% of the Ivorian network is older than 20 years and therefore damaged.
In addition, a significant traffic exists throughout Abidjan. This traffic is mainly composed of taxi, buses and mini-buses locally referred to as *Gbaka.*
The country counts with two 4-laned **motorways**, the first one running from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro for a length of 224 km., and the second joining Abidjan to Grand-Bassam, with a length of 30 km. Both are built with modern technologies and under international standards of security.
## Maritime transport {#maritime_transport}
Landscape view of the Autonomous Port of Abidjan
Ivory Coast greatly contributed to developing maritime transport by building two ports on its seaside namely, autonomous port of Abidjan, sometimes referred to as *\"lung of Ivorian economy\"*, and the San-Pedro port. The total traffic in 2005, by adding importation to exportation, was 18 661 784 tons for autonomous port of Abidjan and 1 001 991 tons for San-Pedro. The autonomous port of Abidjan cover a 770 hectares area and shelters 60% of the country industries. It is the first tuna fishing port in Africa. It contains 36 conventional berths spread over six kilometers of quays providing a capacity of sixty commercial ships with multiple special docks, a container terminal as well as several specialized and industrial berths. The other major port, the San-Pedro port, operates since 1971 and has two quays covering 18,727 m^2^ area. Apart from those two major ports, there are also small ports at Sassandra, Aboisso, and Dabou.
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# Transport in Ivory Coast
## Air transport {#air_transport}
Ivory Coast has three international airports located in Abidjan, Yamoussoukro, and Bouaké. Fourteen smaller cities also possess regional airports, the most important of which are Daloa, Korhogo, Man, Odiénné and San-pédro. Twenty-seven aerodromes exists and are operated by a public establishment, the Anam (National agency for civil aviation and meteorology), except the activities carried out by the Asecna (Agency for security of air freight in Africa and Madagascar).
Since the outbreak of the crisis, only five of these airports are available. These are Abidjan, San-Pédro, Yamoussoukro, Daloa, and Touba. Regarding the International Airport of Abidjan, official statistics from 2005, showed 14 257 commercial movements (departures and arrivals); 745 180 commercial passengers (arrivals, departures, and transit) and 12 552 tons of commercial fret. The Airport of Abidjan covers 90% of the air traffic of Côte d\'Ivoire and generate 95% of the overall profits of the sector.
The airport of Abidjan is operated by a private company, Aeria, created in association with the Commerce Chamber of Marseilles. Its traffic mainly encompasses European aeronautical companies (Air France, Brussels Airlines) and some African firms (South African Airways, Kenya Airways, Air Sénégal International)
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# Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast
The **Armed Forces of Côte d\'Ivoire** (*Forces Armées de Cote d\'Ivoire*; \"FACI\") are the armed forces of Ivory Coast, first formed after the country\'s independence in 1960.
## History
The Ivorian military has its roots in the colonial armed forces of French West Africa, which were headquartered in Dakar, Senegal but possessed bases in several distinct military regions. Most Ivorian recruits who joined the colonial army were assigned to Senegalese units during this period, such as the Senegalese Tirailleurs. They served with distinction during both world wars, with 20,000 Ivorian soldiers fighting for the French during World War I and another 30,000 during World War II. In 1950, the French government began the process of setting up a specific defence force for the colony, consisting of four infantry companies and a light armoured unit.
The Ivory Coast became independent on 7 August 1960. In April 1961, the new government signed the Franco-Ivorian Technical Military Assistance Accord with France, which compelled the latter to assist with the formation of a new national military. It also authorised the continued presence of French troops based in Port-Bouët, and permitted the government to call on French military assistance in the event of external aggression or major internal unrest. By the end of 1962, the fledgling Ivorian armed forces had expanded rapidly into 5,000 soldiers attached to four battalions. Most of the initial recruits were drawn from the defunct colonial military establishment and had served in various French units, particularly the marine regiments. They were armed with old equipment donated by France, including two Max Holste Broussard monoplanes, a single Douglas DC-3 cargo aircraft, fifteen M8 Greyhound armoured cars, and even a SC-497-class submarine chaser. Conscription was instituted, although the large number of volunteers and low manpower requirements ensured it was only applied selectively. Some of the senior positions in the officer corps and Ministry of Defence continued to be held by French nationals.
Since the Ivory Coast could ill afford to divert funds from its economic development programmes into the armed forces, and was already dependent on France for its external defence, the military establishment remained quite modest from 1961 to 1974. Defence spending increased between 1974 and 1987, and the armed forces increased to 14,920 men. During this period, the air force and navy embarked on a significant modernisation campaign. An international merchant marine training academy was built in Abidjan and trained personnel from several Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) governments.
In 1997, a collapse in civil-military relations became evident when President Henri Konan Bédié dismissed popular general Robert Guéï on suspicion of disloyalty. Two years later, an army mutiny led by disgruntled recruits and junior officers escalated into a major coup d\'état which ousted Bédié and installed Guéï in his place. Guéï subsequently stood for office during a subsequent presidential election, although he attempted to annul the election results when Laurent Gbagbo secured the popular vote. This triggered a civil revolt in Abidjan and two days of street battles between Gbagbo supporters and soldiers loyal to Guéï. Most of the armed forces remained neutral until the third day, when the army\'s elite units and the gendarmerie announced they would recognise Gbagbo as president of the republic. Guéï conceded defeat, going into exile on 29 October 2000.
In September 2002, the Ivory Coast endured a second army mutiny, this time by 750 Muslim soldiers who seized Bouaké, citing religious discrimination and grievances against the predominantly Christian government. The mutineers later took control of most of the northern administrative regions, carrying out a brutal campaign of ethnic cleansing and plunging the country into civil war. For a number of years, troops dispatched by France, ECOWAS, and a United Nations Operation in Côte d\'Ivoire (ONUCI) effort enforced a buffer zone between the south and the rebel-held north. President Gbagbo repeatedly demanded France assist him in crushing the rebel forces. France maintained it would not take sides in the civil war, but allowed Ivorian military aircraft to cross the buffer zone and attack rebel positions. In November 2004, an Ivorian pilot targeted a French base during an air strike on Bouaké, killing nine French soldiers. The French retaliated by launching a follow-up operation to destroy the Ivorian Air Force.
In March 2011, a rebel coalition, the *Forces Nouvelles de Côte d\'Ivoire*, launched a renewed offensive on the south with French support, sparking a second civil war. The Ivorian army was quickly overwhelmed, and Gbagbo deposed by the rebels. The *Forces Nouvelles* established a new national military, known as the Republican Forces of Ivory Coast (FRCI).
Integration problems arising from the incorporation of various rebel factions into the FRCI, as well as former Gbagbo loyalists, continue to persist. In 2014, some army units launched an abortive mutiny over wage disputes. The crisis ended when the Ivorian political leadership agreed to a new financial settlement with the FRCI. A second mutiny occurred on 7 January 2017, with troops in Bouaké demanding higher salaries and improved living conditions; this resulted in a second financial settlement.
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# Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast
## Army
### Organization
The Ivorian army had three infantry battalions, an armoured battalion, an artillery battery, and seven specialist companies in 1993. The effective strength of the army was about 3,000 troops for the first ten years of Ivorian independence, increasing to over 8,000 in the mid-1980s before declining steadily to about 5,500. It has always remained the largest branch of the armed forces.
In 1987, the army was responsible for the country\'s five military regions, each of which was supervised by a colonel. The First Military Region controlled the concentration of forces in and around Abidjan, its principal units there being a rapid intervention battalion (airborne), an infantry battalion, an armored battalion, and an air defense artillery battalion. The Second Military Region was located in Daloa and comprised one infantry battalion. The Third Military Region was headquartered in Bouaké and was home to an artillery, an infantry, and an engineer battalion. The Fourth Military Region maintained only a Territorial Defense Company headquartered in Korhogo The Fifth Military Region was formerly known as the Western Operational Zone, a temporary command created to respond to the security threat caused by the First Liberian Civil War.
By 2010, the system of military regions had been abolished.
As of July 2011, General Soumaïla Bakayoko is the chief of staff of the army, and colonel-major Gervais Kouakou Kouassi is the Chief of the Gendarmerie.
As of October 2011, previously active units around Abidjan reportedly included the:
- 1st Infantry Battalion -- (1er Bataillon d\'infanterie des forces armées terrestres ivoiriennes), at Akouédo (new camp)
- Armoured Battalion -- (Bataillon Blinde), at Akouédo (new camp). The new camp at Akouedo had reportedly been almost completely destroyed. `{{Interlanguage link|Akouedo|fr|vertical-align=sup}}`{=mediawiki} appears to be at 5\' 21*7 N, 3\' 26* 30 W.
- 1st Parachute Commando Battalion -- 1er Bataillon des Commandos Parachutistes (1er BCP), old camp at Akouedo, on the route to the village Ébrié.
The 2nd Infantry Battalion appears to have been based at Daloa for some time. A 2003 change of command ushered in the 16th commander of the unit, and there are also reports from 2009 and 2011.
Reported special forces units include:
- Group des Forces Speciales (GFS)
- Fusiliers Commandos d Air (FUSCOA)
- Détachement d\' Intervention Rapide
- Fusiliers Marins Commandos (FUMACO/ naval commandos)
### Current army equipment {#current_army_equipment}
The Ivorian army has traditionally been equipped with French weapons, most of which were delivered in the 1980s under military grants from French government. During Laurent Ghagbo\'s administration (2000--2011), large quantities of second-hand Soviet arms were acquired from Angola, Ukraine, and Belarus.
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# Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast
## Air Force {#air_force}
After achieving independence from France in 1960, Ivory Coast maintained strong links with France through bilateral defence agreements. French training and operating techniques have been used since the establishment of the air force. The first aircraft were supplied in 1961 and included three Douglas C-47s and seven MH.1521 Broussard STOL utility aircraft. The first jet aircraft entered service in October 1980 which were six Alpha Jet CI light attack and advanced training aircraft; six more were ordered, but this was subsequently cancelled. However, another was purchased in 1983.
The 1979 air force had only transport and liaison aircraft. In 1987, the Library of Congress Country Study said that the Air Force\'s official name, Ivoirian Air Transport and Liaison Group (*Groupement Aérien de Transport et de Liaison*---GATL), \"reflects an original mission focused more on logistics and transport rather than a combat force.\"
In 2004, following an air strikes on French peacekeepers by Ivorian forces, the French military destroyed all aircraft of the Air Force of Ivory Coast. President Gbagbo had previously ordered air strikes on Ivorian rebels as part of the civil war. On 6 November 2004, at least one Ivorian Sukhoi Su-25 bomber attacked a French peacekeeping position in the rebel town of Bouaké at 1 pm, killing nine French soldiers and wounding 31. An American development worker, reported to have been a missionary, was also killed. The Ivorian government claimed the attack on the French was unintentional, but the French insisted that the attack had been deliberate.
Several hours after the attack, French President Jacques Chirac ordered the destruction of the Ivorian air force and the seizure of Yamoussoukro airport. The French military performed an overland attack on the airport, destroying two Sukhoi Su-25 ground attack aircraft and three Mi-24 helicopter gunships. Two more military helicopters were destroyed during combat in the skies over Abidjan. France then flew in 300 troops and three Dassault Mirage F1 jet fighters based in nearby Gabon on standby.
Since then, the Air Force of Ivory Coast has been rebuilt. In 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology reported a total of six aircraft in service: one Antonov An-32 tactical transport, one Cessna 421 Golden Eagle utility aircraft, two Eurocopter SA 365 Dauphin helicopters, one Gulfstream IV VIP aircraft, and one Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter. It is unknown whether any of these aircraft were truly operational. In addition, Deagel.com reported two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 attack aircraft.
### Aircraft
Aircraft Origin Type Variant In service Notes
----------------- --------------- ------------------ --------- ------------ ----------------------
Attack
Sukhoi Su-25 Soviet Union Attack / Trainer 2 Utilised as trainers
Reconnaissance
King Air 90 United States Reconnaissance 90 1
Transport
Antonov An-26 Soviet Union Transport 2
Beechcraft 1900 United States Utility 1
CASA C-295 Spain Transport 1 1 on order
Helicopters
Mil Mi-8 Soviet Union Utility 1
Mil Mi-24 Soviet Union Attack 1
UAV
Delair DT26 France Surveillance 4
## Navy
Ivory Coast has a brown-water navy whose mission is coastal surveillance and security for the nation\'s 340-mile coastline. The operational capability of the navy was severely degraded due to the diversion of resources to the army and air force during the civil wars, and it remains incapable of conducting operations beyond the general vicinity of Abidjan. In 2014 they received three coastal defence vessels, and place an order for 30 inflatable boats and 10 patrol craft in 2018 from the Raidco Marine shipbuilders
Vessel name Origin Builder Type In service Notes
-------------- -------- ----------- --------------------------------- ------------ -------
L\'intrepide France Patra Large patrol craft 1978
L\'élephant France DCN Brest Batral-E Type LSM landing craft 1977
### Retired
Early vessels were a second hand submarine chaser (SC 1337) from the United States, and three former French Navy boats (one patrol craft, with two fast attack boats).
## International forces {#international_forces}
A mutual defence accord signed with France in April 1961 provided for the stationing of French Armed Forces troops in Ivory Coast. The 43rd Marine Infantry Battalion of the French Army\'s Troupes de Marine (`{{Interlanguage link|43e bataillon d'infanterie de marine|fr|vertical-align=sup}}`{=mediawiki}) was based in Port Bouet adjacent to the Abidjan Airport from 1979 and had more than 500 troops assigned until 2011, when it appears to have been disbanded. The French military also maintained a force as part of Opération Licorne.
From summer 2011, Operation Licorne, the French force, previously over 5,000 strong, was roughly 700, and consists of Licorne headquarters, Battalion Licorne (BATLIC), seemingly made up of elements of the 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment and the Régiment d\'infanterie-chars de marine, and a helicopter detachment.
The French military left the country at the Ivorian\'s request in 2025.
The United Nations has maintained the peacekeeping mission ONUCI in the country since 2004. On 28 February 2011 ONUCI consisted of 7,568 troops, 177 military observers, and numerous international civilians and Police; the mission had received helicopter and infantry reinforcement from UNMIL during the stand-off since the late 2010 elections which had been won by Alassane Ouattara.
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# Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast
## National Gendarmerie {#national_gendarmerie}
Since independence, the Ivory Coast has maintained a paramilitary gendarmerie force with a mandate to assist the police with law enforcement duties in the country\'s rural districts. However, it may also be deployed alongside the army to quell internal unrest. For a number of decades, the size of the Ivorian National Gendarmerie remained consistent at around 4,000 to 5,000 personnel, supervised by a commandant. It underwent a massive expansion following the outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War, increasing to about 12,000 personnel commanded by a major general. Gendarmes undergo training as cadets at a National Gendarmerie Academy.
The National Gendarmerie maintains an investigative branch, the *Brigades de Recherches*, which has been accused of various human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings and unlawful detention
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# Transport in Cuba
**Transportation in Cuba** is the system of railways, roads, airports, waterways, ports and harbours in Cuba:
## Railways
- *Total:* 8,285 km
- *Standard gauge:* 8,125 km `{{RailGauge|sg}}`{=mediawiki} gauge (105 km electrified)
- *Narrow gauge:* 160 km of `{{TrackGauge|2ft3.5in}}`{=mediawiki} gauge.
Cuba built the first railway system in the Spanish empire, before the 1848 start in the Iberian peninsula. While the rail infrastructure dates from colonial and early republican times, passenger service along the principal Havana to Santiago corridor is increasingly reliable and popular with tourists who can purchase tickets in Cuban convertible pesos. As with most public transport in Cuba, many of the vehicles used are second hand.
With the order of 12 new Chinese locomotives in 2006, built specifically for Cuban Railways at China Northern Locomotives and Rolling Stock Works, services have been improving in reliability. Those benefiting the most are long-distance freight services with the French train Havana-Santiago being the only passenger train using one of the new Chinese locomotives regularly.
In 2019, the Cuban railways received the first delivery of new Chinese-built coaches, and new services with these began in July 2019.
Metro systems are not present in the island, although a suburban rail network exists in Havana. Urban tramways were in operation between 1858 and 1954, initially as horse-drawn systems. In the early 20th century electric trolley or storage battery powered tramways were introduced in seven cities. Of these overhead wire systems were adopted in Havana, Guanabacoa, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Camagüey and Santiago de Cuba.
## Roads
The total length of Cuba\'s highways is 60,858 km, including
- *paved:* 29,820 km (including 915 km of expressways)
- *unpaved:* 31,038 km (1999 est.)
Expressways (autopistas) include:
- the Autopista Nacional (A1) from Havana to Santa Clara and Sancti Spiritus, with additional short sections near Santiago and Guantanamo
- the Autopista Este-Oeste (A4) from Havana to Pinar del Río
- the Autopista del Mediodia from Havana to San Antonio de los Baños
- an autopista from Havana to Melena del Sur
- an autopista from Havana to Mariel
- the Havana ring road (*links=no*), which starts at a tunnel under the entrance to Havana Harbor
- the section of the Via Blanca from Matanzas to Varadero (toll road)
- an autopista from Nueva Gerona to Santa Fe, in the Isla de la Juventud
Older roads include the Carretera Central, and the Via Blanca from Havana to Matanzas.
## Long-distance and inter-municipality buses in Cuba {#long_distance_and_inter_municipality_buses_in_cuba}
There are several national bus companies in Cuba. Viazul operates a fleet of modern and comfortable coaches on longer distance routes designed principally for tourists. Schedules, prices, and ticket booking can be done online, at any of the major international airports or National Terminals across Cuba. There are also other bus lines operated by tourism companies.
AstroBus, a bus service in Cuban National Pesos, designed to bring comfortable air-conditioned coaches to Cuban locals at an affordable price. The AstroBus lines operate with modern Chinese Yutong buses, and are accessible to Cuban Residents of Cuba with their ID Card, and is payable in Cuba Pesos. Routes that have benefited most so far are those from Havana to each of the 13 provincial capitals of the country.
## Urban buses {#urban_buses}
In Havana, urban transportation used to be provided by a colorful selection of buses imported from the Soviet Union or Canada. Many of these vehicles were second hand, such as the 1,500 decommissioned Dutch buses that the Netherlands donated to Cuba in the mid-1990s as well as GM fishbowl buses from Montreal. Despite the United States trade embargo, American-style yellow school buses (imported second-hand from Canada) are also increasingly common sights. Since 2008, service on seven key lines in and out of the city is provided by Chinese Zhengzhou Yutong Buses. These replaced the famous *camellos* (\"camels\" or \"dromedaries\", after their \"humps\") trailer buses that hauled as many as two hundred passengers in a passenger-carrying trailer.
After the upgrading of Seville\'s public bus fleet to CNG-powered vehicles, many of the decommissioned ones were donated to the city of Havana. These bright orange buses still display the name of *Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla, S.A.M.*, their former owner, and Seville\'s coat of arms as a sign of gratitude.
As of 2016, urban transport in Havana consists entirely of modern Yutong diesel buses. Seville and Ikarus buses are gone.
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# Transport in Cuba
## Automobiles
Since 2009, Cuba has imported sedans from Chinese automaker Geely to serve as police cars, taxis and rental vehicles. Previously, the Soviet Union supplied Volgas, Moskvichs, and Ladas, as well as heavy trucks like the ZIL and the KrAZ; and Cuba also bought cars from European and Asian companies. In 2004, it was estimated that there were some 173,000 cars in Cuba.
### Old American cars in Cuba {#old_american_cars_in_cuba}
Most new vehicles came to Cuba from the United States until the 1960 United States embargo against Cuba ended importation of both cars and their parts. As many as 60,000 American vehicles are in use, nearly all in private hands. Of Cuba\'s vintage American cars, many have been modified with newer engines, disc brakes and other parts, often scavenged from Soviet cars, and most bear the marks of decades of use. Pre-1960 vehicles remain the property of their original owners and descendants, and can be sold to other Cubans providing the proper *traspaso* certificate is in place.
However, the old American cars on the road today have \"relatively high inefficiencies\" due in large part to the lack of modern technology. This resulted in increased fuel consumption as well as adding to the economic plight of their owners. With these inefficiencies, noticeable drop in travel occurred from an \"average of nearly 3000 km/year in the mid-1980s to less than 800 km/year in 2000--2001\". As the Cuban people try to save as much money as possible, when traveling is done, the cars are usually loaded past the maximum allowable weight and travel on the decaying roads, resulting in even more abuse to the already under-maintained vehicles.
### Hitchhiking and carpooling {#hitchhiking_and_carpooling}
As a result of the \"Special Period\" in 1991 (a period of food and energy shortages caused by the loss of the Soviet Union as a trading partner), hitchhiking and carpooling became important parts of Cuba\'s transportation system and society in general. In 1999, an article in *Time* magazine claimed \"In Cuba\[\...\] hitchhiking is custom. Hitchhiking is essential. Hitchhiking is what makes Cuba move.\"
### Changes in the 2000s {#changes_in_the_2000s}
For many years, Cubans could only acquire new cars with special permission.
In 2011, the Cuban government legalized the purchase and sale of used post-1959 autos. In December 2013, Cubans were allowed to buy new cars from state-run dealerships - previously this had not been permitted.
In 2020, this was further extended with cars being sold in convertible currencies.
## Waterways
- Cauto River
- Sagua la Grande River
## Ports and harbors {#ports_and_harbors}
- Cienfuegos
- Havana
- Manzanillo
- Mariel
- Matanzas
- Nuevitas
- Santiago de Cuba
## Merchant marine {#merchant_marine}
: *Total:* 3 ships
### Ships by type {#ships_by_type}
- Cargo ships (1)
- Passenger ship (1)
- Refrigerated cargo ships (1)
: *Registered in other countries:* 5
## Airlines
Besides the state owned airline Cubana (Cubana de Aviación), only Aerogavitoa operates flights to and within Cuba.
## Airports
- **Total:** 133
### Airports with paved runways {#airports_with_paved_runways}
- *total:* 64
- *over 3,047 m:* 7
- *2,438 to 3,047 m:* 10
- *1,524 to 2,437 m:* 16
- *914 to 1,523 m:* 4
- *under 914 m:* 27
### Airports with unpaved runways {#airports_with_unpaved_runways}
- *total:* 69
- *914 to 1,523 m:* 11
- *under 914 m:* 58
## Gallery
Image:DirkvdM yank tank yellow.jpg\|1952 Chevrolet in Havana Image:DirkvdM yank tank blue-red.jpg\|1958 Plymouth Belvedere in Havana <File:Antique> Ford Truck, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg\|Antique Ford Truck, Jan 2014 <File:Antique> car, Havana, Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg\|Edsel Pacer in Havana, Jan 2014 <File:Pink> Chevvy, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg\|Pink Chevy, Jan 2014 <File:Cuba> yank tank.jpg\|1956 Ford in Trinidad, Cuba. <File:Varadero_-_Cuba_(40276279854).jpg%7C1959> Cadillac in Varadero <File:Wołga,_Kuba.jpg%7CPurple> Volga station wagon, May 2018 <File:Skoda> Fabia Cuba 4575.JPG\|Škoda Fabia I (left) and Moskvitch-2141 \"Aleko\" (right), Feb 2009 <File:Classic_cars_in_Cuba,_Varadero_-_Laslovarga003.JPG%7CA> Buick car in Varadero <File:Hotel_Parque_Central,_Havana.jpg>\|Audi car in Havana, May 2018 <File:Automobile> à La Havane (14).jpg\|Mercedes-Benz W120 in Havana, Jan 2015 <File:Alter> Opel Rekord P1 auf Cuba - Flickr - 02ide.jpg\|Opel Rekord in Pinar de Río, Nov 2008 <File:AutoLaHabanaCuba-04678.jpg%7CSuzuki> Grand Vitara in Havana, Jan 2017 <File:Fiat> 125 - Havana.jpg\|Fiat 125 in Havana, May 2018 <File:Lada,_Trinidad.jpg%7CLada-2103> in Trinidad <File:KrAZ_255,_Cuba.jpg%7CKrAZ-255> truck, Dec 2016 <File:ZiŁ,_Cienfuegos.jpg%7CZiL-130> water tank truck in Cienfuegos <File:B176286.jpg%7CEx-NHZ> Holland Den Oudsten bodied DAF MB230 bus in Havana <File:Transport_(3055159679).jpg>\|GMC school bus, Oct 2008 <File:B107835.jpg%7CViazul> Yutong ZK6120A coach, Feb 2020 <File:MAZ105.jpg>\|MAZ-105 bus in Havana <File:Havana,_Cuba_city_bus.jpg%7CYutong> ZK6180HGC articulated bus in Havana <File:Cienfuegos> train station2.jpg\|Cienfuegos railroad station, Feb 2019 <File:Siguaney> Ferkeltaxi.jpg\|Ex-DB VT 2
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# Transport in Cyprus
**Transport in Cyprus** consists of transport by land, water and air. Road transport is the primary mode of transport for most Cypriot citizens, and Cyprus\'s road transport systems are well-developed and extensively used across the island.
Because Cyprus no longer has a working railway system, various other methods of transport are needed to ensure the proper delivery of any cargo, be it human or freight. As the last passenger railway was dismantled in 1952, the only remaining modes of transport are by road, sea, and air.
## Roads
From the 12,118 km of roads in the areas controlled by the Republic of Cyprus in 2006, 7,850 km were paved, while 4,268 km were unpaved. In 1996, the Turkish Cypriot area showed a close, but smaller ratio of paved to unpaved with about 1,370 km out of 2,350 km paved and 980 km unpaved. As a legacy of British rule, Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left.
### Motorways
- A1 Nicosia to Limassol
- A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca
- A3 Larnaca Airport to Agia Napa, also serves as a circular road for Larnaca.
- A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca
- A6 Pafos to Limassol
- A7 Paphos to Polis (final plans)
- A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis
- A22 Dali industrial area to Anthoupolis, Lakatamia (Nicosia 3rd ring road, final plans)
## Public Transportation {#public_transportation}
Nicosia\'s residents rely on private cars to go around the city. With more than 658 automobiles per 1,000 people, Cyprus has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world and the country uses very little public transportation. Only 3% of journeys in the Greater Nicosia urban region are made by public transportation. Cycling is considerably less common at 2%. The government of Cyprus and authorities of Nicosia have developed a public transportation plan to ensure access to more areas and provide more options, apart from private cars.
### Public Transportation Companies {#public_transportation_companies}
In Cyprus, public transportation by bus is run by different companies based on the district.
**Nicosia and Larnaca:** NPT (Nicosia Public Transport) and LPT (Larnaca Public Transport), operated by Cyprus Public Transport (CPT)
**Limassol:** EMEL (Transport Company for Limassol Commuters)
**Paphos:** OSYPA (Paphos Transport Organisation)
**Famagusta:** OSEA (Famagusta District Transport Organisation)
**INTERCITY BUSES:** Services transport between all major cities
### Public Buses {#public_buses}
In 2006, extensive plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank. In 2010, the new revised and expanded bus network was implemented into the system.
In 2020, the transport companies for the districts of Nicosia and Larnaca were changed from OSEL (Nicosia District Transport Organisation) to NPT (Nicosia Public Transport) and from ZENON Larnaca Buses to LPT (Larnaca Public Transport) respectively.
In 2022, Cyprus Public Transport made new plans for Nicosia\'s Public Transport by changing route numbers, adding new bus hubs and modernising buses and the all-out feel of the transport system. The plan has been introduced in two phases and is currently completed.
### Rail
Cyprus currently has no functioning railway systems. The last of the narrow gauge systems in the country closed in 1974. There had been studies and preparatory work done to establish a modern system between the major cities, motivated by worsening traffic issues. Ιn October 2024, a company in England showed their interest to construct a new railway system in Cyprus.
In 2018, Nicosia municipal authorities requested an opinion on the construction of a tram network in the city to the European Investment Bank\'s JASPERS strategists, who concluded a need for a phased approach. Relevant studies were also carried out in the past, but no concrete plans has materialised.
## Licensed Vehicles {#licensed_vehicles}
Road transport is the dominant form of transport on the island. Figures released by the International Road Federation in 2007 show that Cyprus holds the highest car ownership rate in the world with 742 cars per 1,000 people.
Vehicle Category 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
------------------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ----------- ---------- ----------
**TOTAL OF CARS** 12,643.00 13,127.00 13,135.00 15,200.00 14,500.00 14,565.00 33,795.00 2,994.00 4,369.00
: Number of licensed vehicles
Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (except in Nicosia and Larnaca), taxis, and interurban \'shared\' taxi services (locally referred to as service taxis). Thus, private car ownership in the country is the fifth highest per capita in the world. However, in 2006 extensive plans were announced to expand and improve bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank
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# Transport in Cyprus
## Sea Harbours and Ports {#sea_harbours_and_ports}
The ports of Cyprus are operated and maintained by the Cyprus Ports Authority. Major harbours of the island are Limassol Harbour, and Larnaca Harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships. Limassol is the larger of the two, and handles a large volume of both cargo and cruise vessels. Larnaca is primarily a cargo port but played a big part in the evacuation of foreign nationals from Lebanon in 2006, and in the subsequent humanitarian aid effort. A smaller cargo dock also exists at Vasilikos, near Zygi (a small town between Larnaca and Limassol). Smaller vessels and private yachts can dock at Marinas in Cyprus.
## Public Bicycle Sharing System {#public_bicycle_sharing_system}
Nextbike is the latest transportation system in Cyprus, similar to programs employed successfully in various cities around the world. Bicycles can be found at stations in Nicosia and Limassol, as well as with 1 station in Larnaca.
## Merchant Marine {#merchant_marine}
: *See full article on Cyprus Merchant Marine*
**Total:** 1,414 ships (with a volume of `{{GT|1,000|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki} or over) totaling `{{GT|23,497,776}}`{=mediawiki}/`{{DWT|37,331,506|metric|disp=long}}`{=mediawiki}
***Ships by Type:*** barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 442, cargo ship 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container ship 144, Liquified Gas Carrier 6, passenger ship 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
## Airports
In 1999, Cyprus had 12 airports with paved runways. Of them, seven had runways of lengths between 2,438 and 3,047 metres, one had a length between 1,524 and 2,437 metres, three had lengths between 914 and 1524 metres, and one had a length less than 914 metres.
Of the three airports with unpaved runways, two had lengths less than 914 metres and one had a length between 914 and 1524 metres.
### International airports {#international_airports}
**Larnaca International Airport** is the island\'s main airport and flies to many locations worldwide.
**Paphos International Airport** is the 2nd largest airport and mostly flies to Europe, via Ryanair; with occasional flights to other continents.
**Nicosia International Airport** is an abandoned airport. It used to be the island\'s main airport until 1974. It remains closed to the public.
**Ercan International Airport** is the main airport in the de facto state of Northern Cyprus. The airport\'s only destination is Turkey, serviced only by a few flight companies from Turkey. Flights to and from Ercan Airport are embargoed
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# Chemist
`{{TopicTOC-Chemistry}}`{=mediawiki} A **chemist** (from Greek *chēm(ía)* alchemy; replacing *chymist* from Medieval Latin *alchemist*) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists.
Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products.
## History of chemistry {#history_of_chemistry}
The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning. Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses. After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the protoscience called alchemy. The word *chemist* is derived from the Neo-Latin noun *chimista*, an abbreviation of *alchimista* (alchemist). Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry.
Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783. The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century.
At the Washington Academy of Sciences during World War I, it was said that the side with the best chemists would win the war.
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