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# Communications in Colombia
Since being liberalized in 1991, the **Colombian telecommunications sector** has added new services, expanded coverage, improved efficiency, and lowered costs. The sector has had the second largest (after energy) investment in infrastructure (54 percent) since 1997. However, the economic downturn between 1999 and 2002 adversely affected telecommunications. During this period, Colombia\'s telecommunications industry lost US\$2 billion despite a profit of US\$1 billion in local service. In June 2003, the government liquidated the state-owned and heavily indebted National Telecommunications Company (Empresa Nacional de Telecomunicaciones---Telecom) and replaced it with Colombia Telecomunicaciones (Colombia Telecom). The measure enabled the industry to expand rapidly, and in 2004 it constituted 2.8 percent of gross domestic product (GDP). Telefónica of Spain acquired 50 percent plus one share of the company in 2006.
As a result of increasing competition, Colombia has a relatively modern telecommunications infrastructure that primarily serves larger towns and cities. Colombia\'s telecommunication system includes access to 8 different international Submarine cable systems, Intelsat, 11 domestic satellite Earth stations, and a nationwide microwave radio relay system.
## Telephones
The country\'s teledensity (the density of telephone lines in a community) is relatively high for Latin America (17 percent in 2006). However, there is a steep imbalance between rural and urban areas, with some regions below 10 percent and the big cities exceeding 30 percent. Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali account for about 50 percent of telephone lines in use. By the end of 2005, the number of telephone main lines in use totaled 7,851,649. Colombia Telecom accounted for only about 31 percent of these lines; 27 other operators accounted for the rest.
Colombia\'s mobile market is one of the fastest-growing businesses in the country. In 1993, the first mobile phone call was made. In mid-2004 mobile telephones overtook fixed lines in service for the first time. By 2005 Colombia had the highest mobile phone density (90 percent) in Latin America, as compared with the region\'s average density of 70 percent. The number of mobile telephone subscribers totaled an estimated 31 million in 2007, as compared to 21.8 million in 2005 and 6.8 million in 2001.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
In late 2004, Radio Televisión Nacional de Colombia (RTVC) replaced the liquidated Inravisión (Instituto Nacional de Radio y Televisión) as the government-run radio and television broadcasting service, which oversees three national television stations and five radio companies (which operate about a dozen principal networks). Colombia has about 60 television stations, including seven low-power stations. In 2000 the population had about 11.9 million television receivers in use. Of the approximately 515 radio stations, 454 are AM; 34, FM; and 27, shortwave.
## Undersea Cables {#undersea_cables}
As of 2016, Colombia has access to the following international Submarine cable systems: SAC/LAN, Maya-1, AMX-1, Pan Am, SAm-1, ARCOS-1, CFX-1, and PCCS. These cables land at 4 locations in the Caribbean: Barranquilla, Cartagena, Riohacha, and Tolu. One cable lands on the Pacific Ocean coast at Buenaventura, Valle del Cauca.
## Internet
Colombia is still far behind Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina in terms of online usage. It had an estimated total of 900,000 Internet subscribers by the end of 2005, a figure that equated to 4,739,000 Internet users, or 11.5 percent of the 2005 population (10.9 per 100 inhabitants). By late 2009 39% of households had internet access Colombia had 581,877 Internet hosts in 2006. Although as many as 70 percent of Colombians accessed the Internet over their ordinary telephone lines, dial-up access is losing ground to broadband. In 2005 Colombia had 345,000 broadband subscriber lines, or one per 100 inhabitants. In 2006 the number of personal computers per 1,000 people increased to an estimated 87 per 1,000 inhabitants, a rate still below that in other large Latin American economies. The internet country code is .co
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# Transport in Colombia
**Transport in Colombia** is regulated by the Ministry of Transport.
Road travel is the main means of transport; 69 percent of cargo is transported by road, as compared with 27 percent by railroad, 3 percent by internal waterways, and 1 percent by air.
## History
### Indigenous peoples influence {#indigenous_peoples_influence}
The indigenous peoples in Colombia used and some continue to use the waterways as the way of transportation using rafts and canoes.
### Spanish influence {#spanish_influence}
With the arrival of the Europeans the Spaniards brought the horses, mules and donkey (which developed into the *Paso Fino*) used by them in ranching duties later in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Horses contributed greatly to the transport of the Spanish conquerors and colonizers. They also introduced the wheel, and brought wooden carts and carriages to facilitate their transport. The Spaniards also developed the first roads, rudimentary and most of these in the Caribbean region. Due to the rough terrain of Colombia communications between regions was difficult and affected the effectiveness of the central government creating isolation in some regions. Maritime navigation developed locally after Spain lifted its restrictions on ports within the Spanish Empire inducing mercantilism. Spanish also transported African slaves and forcedly migrated many indigenous tribes throughout Colombia.
### Post-independence {#post_independence}
With the independence and the influences of the European Industrial Revolution the main way of transport in Colombia became the navigation mainly through the Magdalena River which connected Honda in inland Colombia, with Barranquilla by the Caribbean Sea to the trade with the United States and Europe. This also brought a large wave of immigrants from European and Middle Eastern countries. The industrialization process and transportation in Colombia were affected by the internal civil wars that surged after the independence from Spain and that continued throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
### Standardization
During the late 19th century European and American companies introduced railways to carry to the ports the local production of raw materials intended for exports and also imports from Europe. Steam ships began carrying Colombians, immigrants and goods from Europe and the United States over the Magdalena River.
The Ministry of Transport was created in 1905 during the presidency of Rafael Reyes under the name of *Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte* or Ministry of Public Works and Transport with the main function of taking care of national assets issues, including mines, oil (fuel), patents and trade marks, railways, roads, bridges, national buildings and land without landowners.
In the early 20th century roads and highways maintenance and construction regulations were established. Rivers were cleaned, dragged and channeled and the navigational industry was organized. The Public works districts were created, as well as the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Colombia (National Railways of Colombia). Among other major projects developed were the aqueduct of Bogotá, La Regadera Dam and the Vitelma Water Treatment Plant. The Ministry also created the National Institute of Transit (from the Spanish *Instituto Nacional de Tránsito*), (INTRA) under the Transport and tariffs Directorate and was in charge of designing the first National roads plan with the support of many foreign multinational construction companies.
Aviation was born in Barranquilla with the creation of SCADTA in 1919 a joint venture between Colombians and Germans that delivered mail to the main cities of Colombia which later merged with SACO to form Avianca.
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# Transport in Colombia
## Infrastructure
### Railways
Colombia has 3,034 km of rail lines, 150 km of which are `{{RailGauge|1435mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge and 3,154 km of which are `{{RailGauge|914mm}}`{=mediawiki} gauge. However, only 2,611 km of lines are still in use. Rail transport in Colombia remains underdeveloped. The national railroad system, once the country\'s main mode of transport for freight, has been neglected in favor of road development and now accounts for only about a quarter of freight transport. Passenger-rail use was suspended in 1992 resumed at the end of the 1990s, and as of 2017 it is considered abandoned (at least for long distances). Fewer than 165,000 passenger journeys were made in 1999, as compared with more than 5 million in 1972, and the figure was only 160,130 in 2005. The two still-functioning passenger trains are: one between Puerto Berrío and García Cadena, and another one between Bogotá and Zipaquirá. Short sections of railroad, mainly the Bogotá-Atlantic rim, are used to haul goods, mostly coal, to the Caribbean and Pacific ports. In 2005 a total of 27.5 million metric tons of cargo were transported by rail. Although the nation\'s rail network links seven of the country\'s 10 major cities, very little of it has been used regularly because of security concerns, lack of maintenance, and the power of the road transport union. During 2004--6, approximately 2,000 kilometers of the country\'s rail lines underwent refurbishment. This upgrade involved two main projects: the 1,484-kilometer line linking Bogotá to the Caribbean Coast and the 499-kilometer Pacific coastal network that links the industrial city of Cali and the surrounding coffee-growing region to the port of Buenaventura.
### Roads
The three main north--south highways are the Caribbean, Eastern, and Central Trunk Highways (troncales). Estimates of the length of Colombia\'s road system in 2004 ranged from 115,000 kilometers to 145,000 kilometers, of which fewer than 15 percent were paved. However, according to 2005 data reported by the Colombian government, the road network totaled 163,000 kilometers, 68 percent of which were paved and in good condition. The increase may reflect some newly built roads. President Uribe has vowed to pave more than 2,500 kilometers of roads during his administration, and about 5,000 kilometers of new secondary roads were being built in the 2003--6 period. Despite serious terrain obstacles, almost three-quarters of all cross-border dry cargo is now transported by road, 105,251 metric tons in 2005.
Highways are managed by the Colombian Ministry of Transport through the National Roads Institute. The security of the highways in Colombia is managed by the Highway Police unit of the Colombian National Police. Colombia is crossed by the Panamerican Highway.
### Ports, waterways, and merchant marine {#ports_waterways_and_merchant_marine}
Seaports handle around 80 percent of international cargo. In 2005 a total of 105,251 metric tons of cargo were transported by water. Colombia\'s most important ocean terminals are Barranquilla, Cartagena, and Santa Marta on the Caribbean Coast and Buenaventura and Tumaco on the Pacific Coast. Exports mostly pass through the Caribbean ports of Cartagena and Santa Marta, while 65 percent of imports arrive at the port of Buenaventura. Other important ports and harbors are Bahía de Portete, Leticia, Puerto Bolívar, San Andrés, Santa Marta, and Turbo. Since privatization was implemented in 1993, the efficiency of port handling has increased greatly. Privatization, however, has had negative impacts as well. In Buenaventura, for example, privatization of the harbor has increased unemployment and social issues. There are plans to construct a deep-water port at Bahía Solano.
The main inland waterways total about 18,200 kilometers, 11,000 kilometers of which are navigable by riverboats. A well-developed and important form of transport for both cargo and passengers, inland waterways transport approximately 3.8 million metric tons of freight and more than 5.5 million passengers annually. Main inland waterways are the Magdalena--Cauca River system, which is navigable for 1,500 kilometers; the Atrato, which is navigable for 687 kilometers; the Orinoco system of more than five navigable rivers, which total more than 4,000 kilometers of potential navigation (mainly through Venezuela); and the Amazonas system, which has four main rivers totaling 3,000 navigable kilometers (mainly through Brazil). The government is planning an ambitious program to more fully utilize the main rivers for transport. In addition, the navy\'s riverine brigade has been patrolling waterways more aggressively in order to establish safer river transport in the more remote areas in the south and east of the country.
The merchant marine totals 17 ships (1,000 gross registered tons or more), including four bulk, 13 cargo, one container, one liquefied gas, and three petroleum tanker ships. Colombia also has seven ships registered in other countries (Antigua and Barbuda, two; Panama, five).
### Civil Aviation {#civil_aviation}
180px\|thumb\|Vehicles on the El Dorado Airport platform The Special Administrative Unit of Civil Aeronautics is responsible of regulating and controlling the use of air space by civil aviation. The customs/immigration issues are controlled by the Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS).
Colombia has well-developed air routes and an estimated total of 984 airports, 100 of which have paved runways, plus two heliports. Of the 74 main airports, 20 can accommodate jet aircraft. Two airports are more than 3,047 meters in length, nine are 2,438--3,047 meters, 39 are 1,524--2,437 meters, 38 are 914--1,523 meters, 12 are shorter than 914 meters, and 880 have unpaved runways. The government has been selling its stake in local airports in order to allow their privatization. The country has 40 regional airports, and the cities of Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cartagena, Cúcuta, Leticia, Pereira, Armenia, San Andrés, and Santa Marta have international airports. Bogotá\'s El Dorado International Airport handles 550 million metric tons of cargo and 22 million passengers a year, making it the largest airport in Latin America in terms of cargo and the third largest in passenger numbers.
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# Transport in Colombia
## Infrastructure
### Urban transport {#urban_transport}
Urban transport systems have been developed in Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cali, and Medellín. Traffic congestion in Bogotá had been greatly exacerbated by a lack of rail transport; however, this problem was alleviated, to a degree, by the formation of one of the world\'s most expansive and highest-capacity bus rapid transit (BRT) systems---known as the TransMilenio (opened 2000)---and the restriction of vehicles through a daily, rotating ban on private cars (depending on plate numbers). Bogotá\'s BRT consists of bus and minibus services managed by both private- and public-sector enterprises.
Since 1995, Medellín has had a modern urban railway, the Metro de Medellín, utilizing two train lines with 27 stations. The Metro also connects with the cities of Itagüí, Envigado, and Bello. An elevated gondola-cablecar system, the *Metrocable*, opened in 2004 to improve Metro accessibility for some of the city\'s more isolated, dense *barrios*. The gondola design was specifically chosen due to the mountainous geography of the city, with most of the neighborhoods served being reasonably higher in elevation from the city center. A BRT line called Transmetro began operating in 2011, with a second line added in 2013.
Other Colombian cities have also installed BRT systems, such as Cali, with a six-line system (opened 2008), Barranquilla with two lines (opened 2010), Bucaramanga with one line (opened 2010), Cartagena with one line (opened 2015) and Pereira, with three lines (opened 2006). A future light rail line in Barranquilla is planned.
### Pipelines
Colombia has 4,350 kilometers of gas pipelines, 6,134 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 3,140 kilometers of refined-products pipelines. The country has five major oil pipelines, four of which connect with the Caribbean export terminal at Puerto Coveñas. Until at least September 2005, the United States funded efforts to help protect a major pipeline, the 769-kilometer-long Caño Limón--Puerto Coveñas pipeline, which carries about 20 percent of Colombia\'s oil production to Puerto Coveñas from the guerrilla-infested Arauca region in the eastern Andean foothills and Amazonian jungle. The number of attacks against pipelines began declining substantially in 2002. In 2004 there were only 17 attacks against the Caño Limón--Puerto Coveñas pipeline, down from 170 in 2001. However, a bombing in February 2005 shut the pipeline for several weeks, and attacks against the electrical gird system that provides energy to the Caño Limón oilfield have continued. New oil pipeline projects with Brazil and Venezuela are underway. In addition, the already strong cross-border trade links between Colombia and Venezuela were solidified in July 2004 with an agreement to build a US\$320 million natural gas pipeline between the two countries, to be completed in 2008
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# History of Colombia
The **history of Colombia** includes its settlement by indigenous peoples and the establishment of agrarian societies, notably the Muisca Confederation, Quimbaya Civilization, and Tairona Chiefdoms. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of annexation and colonization, ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, with its capital at Bogotá. Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the resulting \"Gran Colombia\" Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858) and then the United States of Colombia (1863) before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. A period of constant political violence ensued, and Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict which escalated in the 1990s but decreased from 2005 onward. The legacy of Colombia\'s history has resulted in a rich cultural heritage, and Colombia\'s geographic and climatic variations have contributed to the development of strong regional identities.
## Pre-Colombian {#pre_colombian}
From approximately 12,000 years BP onwards, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at El Abra and Tequendama), and they traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River valley. Due to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and the Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza archaeological site and El Totumo archaeological site in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18.000--8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga archaeological site and other sites, traces from the Archaic period in South America (\~8000--2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at the San Jacinto archaeological site, dates to 5000--4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 10.500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley.
Serranía de la Lindosa, a mountainous region of Guaviare Department, is known for an extensive prehistoric rock art site which stretches for nearly eight miles. Some authors have argued that the site depicts now extinct animals such as horses, gomphotheres and ground sloths and that it was painted around 12,600 years ago, but other authors have argued that the drawings depict modern (including domestic) animals and were created in the last 500 years after European contact.
Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, Tairona, Calima, Zenú, Tierradentro, San Agustín, Tolima and Urabá became skilled in farming, mining and metalcraft; and some developed the political system of *cacicazgos* with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (*Altiplano Cundiboyacense*) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. The Muisca had one of the most developed political systems (Muisca Confederation) in South America, surpassed only by the Incas. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated Andes mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges. The Incas expanded their empire on the southwest part of the country. During the 1200s, Malayo-Polynesians and Native Americans in Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands.
Muisca raft Legend of El Dorado Offerings of gold.jpg\|The *zipa* used to cover his body in gold, and. from his Muisca raft. He offered treasures to the *Guatavita* goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of the *El Dorado* legend. Museo del Oro Zenú Bogota mod.jpg\|A lowland Zenú cast-gold bird ornament that served as a staff head. dated 490 CE. This culture used alloys with a high gold content. The crest of the bird consists of the typical Zenú semi-filigree. Regular filigree is braided wire, but the Zenú cast theirs. Taironapendants metropolitan 2006.jpg\|Tairona figure pendants in gold Cacique Quimbaya de oro (M. América, Madrid) 01.jpg\|Golden statuette of a Quimbaya *cacique* Parque Arqueológico de San Agustín - tomb of a deity with supporting warriors.jpg\|San Agustín Archaeological Park (UNESCO World Heritage Site) contains the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in Latin America, and is considered the world\'s largest necropolis. Lost City Ruins.jpg\|Ciudad Perdida is a major settlement believed to have been founded around 800 CE. It consists of a series of 169 terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several small circular plazas. The entrance can only be accessed by a climb up some 1,200 stone steps through dense jungle. Villa de Leyva el infiernito.jpg\|El Infiernito, a pre-Columbian archaeoastronomical site located on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the outskirts of Villa de Leyva
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# History of Colombia
## Colonial Period {#colonial_period}
### Pre-Columbian history {#pre_columbian_history}
*Main article: Spanish conquest of New Granada, Spanish conquest of the Muisca*
Europeans first visited the territory that became Colombia in 1499 when the first expedition of Alonso de Ojeda arrived at the Cabo de la Vela. The Spanish made several attempts to settle along the north coast of today\'s Colombia in the early 16th century, but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, dates from 1525. The Spanish commander Pedro de Heredia founded Cartagena on June 1, 1533, in the former location of the indigenous Caribbean Calamarí village. Cartagena grew rapidly, fueled first by the gold in the tombs of the Sinú culture, and later by trade. The thirst for gold and land lured Spanish explorers to visit Chibchan-speaking areas; resulting in the Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations - the conquest by the Spanish monarchy of the Chibcha language-speaking nations, mainly the Muisca and Tairona who inhabited present-day Colombia, beginning the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
The Spanish advance inland from the Caribbean coast began independently from three different directions, under Jimenéz de Quesáda, Sebastián de Benalcázar (known in Colombia as Belalcázar), and Nikolaus Federmann. Although the Indian treasures drew all three, none intended to reach the Muisca territory where they finally met. In August 1538, Quesáda founded Santa Fe de Bogotá on the site of Muisca village of Bacatá.
In 1549, the institution of the Spanish Royal Audiencia in Bogotá gave that city the status of capital of New Granada, which comprised in large part what is now the territory of Colombia. As early as the 1500s, however, secret anti-Spanish discontentment was already brewing for Colombians since Spain prohibited direct trade between the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included Colombia, and the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which included the Philippines, the source of Asian products like silk and porcelain which was in demand in the Americas. Illegal trade between Peruvians, Filipinos, and Mexicans continued in secret, as smuggled Asian goods ended up in Córdoba, Colombia, the distribution center for illegal Asian imports, due to the collusion between these peoples against the authorities in Spain. They settled and traded with each other while disobeying the forced Spanish monopoly in more expensive silks and porcelain made in homeland Spain. In 1717, the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. Felipe Salonga a rebel Filipino who mixed Christianity with Islam and was from the formerly Muslim kingdom Manila and who was implicated in the Tondo Conspiracy, was presumably exiled to the location of what is now the Viceroyalty of New Granada (Named after a formerly Islamic kingdom in Spain) in the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada he fomented opposition against Spain among the oppressed Native Americas. The viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today\'s Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City.
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# History of Colombia
## Gran Colombia: independence re-claimed {#gran_colombia_independence_re_claimed}
From then on, the long independence struggle was led mainly by Bolívar and Francisco de Paula Santander in neighboring Venezuela. Bolívar returned to New Granada only in 1819 after establishing himself as leader of the pro-independence forces in the Venezuelan *llanos*. From there he led an army over the Andes and captured New Granada after a quick campaign that ended at the Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819. (*For more information. see Military career of Simón Bolívar*.)
That year, the Congress of Angostura established the Republic of Gran Colombia, which included all territories under the jurisdiction of the former Viceroyalty of New Granada. Bolívar was elected the first president of Gran Colombia and Santander, vice president.
As the Federation of Gran Colombia was dissolved in 1830, the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada.
Colombia was the first nation in the Andean area to believe that racial inferiority was the cause of many of its initial problems. Creoles in the country believed that non-white citizens, mainly Indians and Africans, were lazy and holding the nation back. This led to an attempt to make a homogenous society that reflected the so-called good qualities of white people. These ideals led to a long-lasting racial and geographical segregation.
However, Colombia demonstrated a notable commitment to civil rights during the nineteenth century. The Colombian Constitution of 1863 made liberal promises for a broad range of civil rights, reflecting principles similar to those found in the United States Constitution, such as freedom of association, press, speech, religion, and due process. Colombia also abolished the death penalty during this time. Lastly, Colombian society embraced inclusivity, emphasizing that rights should be granted \"universally without notice of sex nor differences of color nor unjust preferences of fortune, nor distinctions of age\".
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# History of Colombia
## The Republic: Liberal and Conservative conflict {#the_republic_liberal_and_conservative_conflict}
In 1863 the name of the republic was changed officially to \"United States of Colombia,\" and in 1886 the country adopted its present name: \"Republic of Colombia\".
Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolívar and Santander and their political visions---the Conservatives and the Liberals -- and have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolívar\'s supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the Roman Catholic Church, and a limited franchise. Santander\'s followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage. During the mid-19th century, Colombia embraced a vision of \"American republican modernity,\" which emphasized democratic republicanism, universal male suffrage, and civil rights as markers of progress, positioning the country as a leader in the Atlantic World. This period saw Colombia enact significant political reforms, such as the 1853 Constitution, which eliminated property and literacy requirements for voting, making it one of the most democratic nations of its time. However, by the 1880s, Colombia shifted toward Western industrial modernity, prioritizing economic development and state centralization over the earlier focus on political rights, leading to the adoption of the 1886 Constitution and the end of its republican experiment.
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia\'s history: in 1830, after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in 1854 (by General José María Melo); and from 1953 to 1957 (under General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla). Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances.
Notwithstanding the country\'s commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia\'s history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. The Thousand Days\' War (1899--1902) cost an estimated 100.000 lives, and up to 300.000 people died during \"La Violencia\" of the late 1940s and 1950s, a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán. United States activity to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to a military uprising in the Isthmus Department in 1903, which resulted in the separation and independence of Panama.
A military coup in 1953 toppled the right-wing government of Conservative Laureano Gómez and brought General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing \"La Violencia.\" When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed.
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# History of Colombia
## The National Front regime (1958--1974) {#the_national_front_regime_19581974}
In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gómez (1950--1953) and former Liberal President Alberto Lleras (1945--1946. 1958--1962) issued the \"Declaration of Sitges,\" in which they proposed a \"National Front,\" whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.
The National Front ended \"La Violencia,\" and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In particular, the Liberal president Alberto Lleras Camargo (1958--1962) created the Colombian Institute for Agrarian Reform (INCORA), and Carlos Lleras Restrepo (1966--1970) further developed land entitlement. In 1968 and 1969 alone, the INCORA issued more than 60.000 land titles to farmers and workers.
In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued.
The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, and many protesters were victimized during this period. Especially after what was later confirmed as the fraudulent election of Conservative candidate Misael Pastrana in 1970, which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate and former president (dictator) Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. The M-19 guerrilla movement, \"Movimiento 19 de Abril\" (19 April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event. The FARC was formed in 1964 by Manuel Marulanda Vélez and other Marxist--Leninist supporters after a military attack on the community of Marquetalia.
Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by 1974, the 1886 Colombian constitution --- in effect until 1991---required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government, which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties.
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# History of Colombia
## Post-National Front {#post_national_front}
From 1974 until 1982, different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent insurgencies that sought to undermine Colombia\'s traditional political system. Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demanding the completion of true land and political reform from an openly Communist perspective.
By 1974, another challenge to the state\'s authority and legitimacy had come from 19th of April Movement (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded in response to an alleged electoral fraud during the final National Front election of Misael Pastrana Borrero (1970--1974) and the defeat of former dictator Gustavo Rojas Pinilla. Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and National Liberation Army (ELN) had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belonged to Colombia\'s Independence hero Simon Bolívar. At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state\'s counterinsurgency efforts.
The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of Alfonso López Michelsen (1974--1978) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group.
By 1982, the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government\'s efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party\'s Julio César Turbay (1978--1982) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years. Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military human rights abuses against suspects and captured guerrillas.
Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict\'s newfound intensity led to the election of president Belisario Betancur (1982--1986), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a 1984 cease-fire with the FARC and M-19 after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them. The ELN rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin.
As these events were developing, the growing illegal drug trade and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict. Guerrillas and newly wealthy drug lords had mutually uneven relations, and thus numerous incidents occurred between them. Eventually, the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the 1981 *Muerte a Secuestradores* (MAS) death squad (\"Death to Kidnappers\"). Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the Medellín Cartel and its hitmen bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of extradition of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister Rodrigo Lara, whose assassination in 1984 made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the drug lords.
The first negotiated cease-fire with the M-19 ended when the guerrillas resumed fighting in 1985, claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government\'s real willingness to implement any accords. The Betancur administration, in turn, questioned the M-19\'s actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high-profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the Patriotic Union (Colombia) (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization.
On November 6, 1985, the M-19 stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial. In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military\'s reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives. Both sides blamed each other for the outcome.
Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla\'s chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time. Tension soon significantly increased as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire. Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate Jaime Pardo) was blamed on drug lords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration). Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas. as well as kidnapping, extorting and politically intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics.
The Virgilio Barco (1986--1990) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the drug lords, who were engaged in a campaign of terrorism and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas. The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate Bernardo Jaramillo), which stemmed both from private proto-paramilitary organizations, increasingly powerful drug lords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces.
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# History of Colombia
## Post-1990 {#post_1990}
Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before César Gaviria was elected in 1990. Since the death of Medellín cartel leader Pablo Escobar in a police shootout in December 1993, indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the \"cartels\" have broken up into multiple smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest government policies, including extradition.
The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 1990s began, which culminated in the elections for a Constituent Assembly of Colombia that would write a new constitution, which took effect in 1991. The new Constitution brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those in the 1886 constitution. Practical results were mixed and mingled emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before.
Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized de facto interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in 1990 under the presidency of César Gaviria (1990--1994). The Colombian Army\'s assault on the FARC\'s *Casa Verde* sanctuary at La Uribe, Meta, followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade.
President Ernesto Samper assumed office in August 1994. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper\'s presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation\'s domestic reform agenda. The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas when several of its rural bases began to be overrun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more \"conventional\" style of warfare. seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field).
On August 7, 1998, Andrés Pastrana was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turnout and little political unrest. The new president\'s program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia\'s longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.
While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN. and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) has made it difficult to solve the country\'s problems.
Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict. The FARC suspended talks in November 2000, to protest what it called \"paramilitary terrorism\" but returned to the negotiating table in February 2001 following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda. The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process.
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# History of Colombia
## From 2004 and on {#from_2004_and_on}
By 2004, the security situation of Colombia had shown improvement, and the economy, while still fragile, had also shown some positive signs. On the other hand, relatively little had been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country\'s other grave problems, in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial 2006 project to give President Álvaro Uribe the right to be re-elected), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits. In October 2006, Uribe was re-elected by a landslide.
Some critical observers consider in retrospect that Uribe\'s policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, were too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia\'s internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent. They hoped that Uribe\'s government would make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces.
Uribe\'s supporters in turn believed that increased military action was a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation would help the government, in the long term, to focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries. In short, these supporters maintained that the security situation needed to be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns could take precedence. In February 2010, the constitutional court blocked President Alvaro Uribe from seeking re-election again. Uribe left the presidency in 2010.
In 2010, Juan Manuel Santos was elected president; he was supported by ex-president Uribe, and he owed his election mainly through having won over former Uribe supporters. But two years after winning the presidential election, Santos (to widespread surprise) began peace talks with FARC. which took place in Havana. Re-elected in 2014, Santos revived an important infrastructure program, which had been planned during the Uribe administration. Focused mainly on the provision of national highways, the program was led by former vice-president Germán Vargas Lleras.
In 2015, Colombia\'s Congress limited presidency to single term, preventing the president from seeking re-election.
Talks between the government and the guerrillas resulted in the announcement of a peace agreement. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia under President Santos showed some progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction of Peace was created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims\' right to justice. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.
In May 2018, Ivan Duque, the candidate of the conservative Centro Democrático (Democratic Centre), won the presidential election. On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new president of Colombia.
Colombia\'s relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to the ideological differences between both governments. Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela. Colombia\'s Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela\'s crisis should be peaceful. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations. In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaido as the country\'s legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro\'s proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations.
The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% of right-wing Rodolfo Hernández. The single-term limit for the country\'s presidency prevented president Iván Duque from seeking re-election. Petro became the country\'s first leftist president-elect. On 7 August 2022, he was sworn in
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# Geography of the Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the north. It consists mostly of low hills and plateaus surrounded along the borders by low mountains. Two areas of lowlands follow the Elbe river and the Morava river. About a third of the area of the Czech Republic is covered by forests.
The Czech Republic also possesses Moldauhafen, a 30,000 m^2^ enclave in the middle of Hamburg docks in Germany, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships. This territory reverts to Germany in 2028.
## Physical geography {#physical_geography}
### Climate
*Main article: Climate of the Czech Republic*
The Czech Republic\'s climate is temperate, transitional between an oceanic climate and a continental climate. The summers are rather cool and dry, with average temperatures in most areas around 20 °C, the winters are fairly mild and wet with temperatures averaging around 0 °C in most areas. The relative humidity varies between 60% and 80%.
#### Examples
### Geology
Most of the area of the Czech Republic belongs to the geographically stable Bohemian Massif. Only an area of the Western Carpathians in the east of the country is younger, lifted during the Tertiary. Igneous rocks make up the base of the Bohemian Massif. Sedimentary rocks are mostly found in the north-eastern part of Bohemia with significant areas of sandstone. Among the metamorphic rocks, the most commonly found is Gneiss.
### Mountains
The most notable mountain ranges in the Czech Republic are all found along the borders of the country. In Bohemia it is the Bohemian Forest and Ore Mountains, both bordering Germany. Then the long region of Sudetes with several mountains ranges, including Giant Mountains with Sněžka -- the highest peak of the Czech Republic. The last major mountain range is the Moravian-Silesian Beskids in the east.
### Rivers
*Main article: Rivers of the Czech Republic*
There are four major rivers in the Czech Republic. The Elbe (locally \"Labe\") flows from the Giant Mountains in the north east of Bohemia to the west and then through northern Germany all the way to the North Sea. The Morava River drains most of Moravia and flows to the south into the Danube and ultimately to the Black Sea. The Oder starts in the Moravian Silesia and flows north through Poland into the Baltic Sea. The fourth major river is the Vltava, which is the longest river of the Czech Republic and drains the southern part of Bohemia before flowing into the Elbe at Mělník.
### Bodies of water {#bodies_of_water}
Natural occurring bodies of water are rather scarce; most of the significant bodies of water are man-made ponds and reservoirs. The largest pond is the Rožmberk Pond, which is one of the system of fish ponds built in the 16th century around Třeboň. The largest reservoir by area covered is the Lipno Reservoir (4,870 ha), built in the 1950s and the largest reservoir by volume is Orlík Reservoir (716 million m^3^), built around the same time. The largest and deepest natural lake is Černé jezero (18.4 ha).
## Human geography {#human_geography}
### Population geography {#population_geography}
*Main article: Demographics of the Czech Republic*
The population of the Czech Republic is estimated to be around 10.6 million. The highest population density is in the larger metropolitan area of Ostrava and of course in the area around the capital of Prague. The lowest population density is in the Czech-German and Czech-Austrian borderlands, mostly as a lasting result of the expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia after the World War II.
### Political geography {#political_geography}
The Czech Republic is divided into thirteen regions and one capital city with regional status. The older administrative units of seventy-six districts are still recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration. Historically, the Czech Republic can be split into three regions: Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the east and Czech Silesia in the north east.
### Industry and agriculture {#industry_and_agriculture}
Areas affected the most by heavy industry are the Sokolov Basin and the Most Basin in the north-west of the Czech Republic. The extensive deposits of brown coal in those areas are mostly used for electricity production. It is estimated, that almost 40% of all electric power produced in the Czech Republic comes from burning brown coal mined in these areas. Plant agriculture is focused around the lowlands surrounding the Elbe and the Morava. Around 34% of the country is covered by forests and approximately 37% of land is arable. The estimated area of irrigated land is 385 km^2^, and freshwater withdrawal per capita is around 164 m^3^ every year
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# Politics of the Czech Republic
The Czech Republic is a unitary parliamentary republic, in which the president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Government of the Czech Republic, which reports to the Chamber of Deputies. The legislature is exercised by the Parliament. The Czech Parliament is bicameral: the upper house of the Parliament is the Senate, and the lower house is the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of 81 members who are elected for six years. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 200 members who are elected for four years. The judiciary system is topped by the trio of the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and Supreme Administrative Court.
The highest legal document is the Constitution of the Czech Republic, complemented by constitutional laws and the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. The current constitution went in effect on 1 January 1993, after the dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
The Czech Republic has a multi-party system. Between 1993 and 2013, the two largest political parties were the centre-left Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and centre-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS). This changed in early 2014, with the rise of a new major political party ANO 2011, which has since led two cabinets.
According to the V-Dem Democracy indices the Czech Republic was 2023 the 16th most electoral democratic country in the world.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. The majority of executive power is given to the Cabinet, which consists of the prime minister, deputy prime ministers and ministers (usually heads of the ministries). `{{office-table}}`{=mediawiki} \|President \|Petr Pavel \|Independent \|9 March 2023 \|- \|Prime Minister \|Petr Fiala \|Civic Democratic Party \|28 November 2021 \|}
### President
The president of the Czech Republic is elected by a direct vote for five years. They can only serve for two terms. The president is a formal head of state with limited executive powers specified in the articles 54 to 66 of the Constitution:
- to appoint or dismiss the prime minister and other members of the Cabinet
- to appoint or dismiss the entire Cabinet
- to confirm or decline a resignation of the prime minister and other members of the Cabinet
- to summon a session of the Chamber of Deputies
- to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies when specific conditions described in the Constitution are met
- to pardon and mitigate penalties imposed by the court, order not to initiate criminal proceedings, suspend them if they are already initiated and to wipe previous criminal records
- to declare the date of elections to the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate
- to bestow state honors
- to appoint and promote generals
- to appoint judges
- to appoint the president and vice-president of the Supreme Audit Office
- to appoint members of the Board of the Czech National Bank
- to appoint or dismiss heads of diplomatic missions
The president is also the commander in chief of the Armed Forces and ratifies all domestic laws and international agreements.
### Cabinet
The Cabinet is the supreme executive body in the Czech Republic. It makes its decisions as a body. It is held responsible by the Chamber of Deputies. The president appoints every new prime minister, who then chooses the ministers. All ministers of the Cabinet need to be approved by the president and within thirty days after the presidential approval they must ask the Chamber of Deputies for a vote of confidence.
#### Prime minister {#prime_minister}
The prime minister is the head of government. The prime minister organizes the work of the Cabinet, presides over it and acts in its name. The prime minister sets the agenda for most foreign and domestic policies but has to obtain the president\'s approval to hire or dismiss any other member of the Cabinet.
#### Ministers
Ministers are any member of the Cabinet who are not the prime minister. They are usually the head of a ministry, but this is not required. A ministry -- sometimes called government department -- is a governmental organisation that manages a specific sector of public administration. The number of ministries varies depending on the particular Cabinet and is managed by the Competence Law. As of 2021, the Czech Republic had 13 ministers and 14 ministries.`{{Huh?|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Politics of the Czech Republic
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
The Parliament (*Parlament* in Czech) consists of two houses. The lower house is the Chamber of Deputies, and the upper house is the Senate.
\|President of the Chamber of Deputies \|Markéta Pekarová Adamová \|TOP 09 \|10 November 2021 \|- \|President of the Senate \|Miloš Vystrčil \|Civic Democratic Party \|19 February 2020 \|}
### Chamber of Deputies {#chamber_of_deputies}
The Chamber of Deputies (*Poslanecká sněmovna* in Czech) has 200 members, elected for four-year terms by proportional representation with a 5% election threshold. The Chamber of Deputies elections happen every four years, unless the reigning Cabinet prematurely loses the Chamber of Deputies\' support. Candidates for every political party participating in the elections are split among 14 electoral districts, which are identical to the country\'s administrative regions. A citizen must be at least 21 years old to be eligible for candidacy.
The Chamber of Deputies was formerly known as the Czech National Council. It has the same powers and responsibilities as the now-defunct Federal Assembly of the Czechoslovakia.
### Senate
The Senate (*Senát* in Czech) has 81 members, each elected for a six-year term. Senate elections happen every two years and only a third of the seats is contested each time. All of the 81 Senate electoral districts are designed to contain roughly the same number of voters. The Senate elections use a two-round system, when the two most successful candidates from the first round face each other again in the second round usually a week later. Only citizens who have reached the age of 40 are eligible for candidacy. The senate\'s function is to be a stabilizing force and its influence is significantly lower than that of the Chamber of Deputies.
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# Politics of the Czech Republic
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
The Czech court system recognizes four categories of courts and the Constitutional Court, which stands outside of the court system.
### Constitutional Court {#constitutional_court}
The Constitutional Court\'s main purpose is to protect people\'s constitutional rights and freedoms. The decisions of the court are final, cannot be overturned and are considered a source of law. The court is composed of 15 justices who are named for a renewable period of 10 years by the president and approved by the Senate. Its functionality is similar to that of the Supreme Court of the United States.
### Supreme courts {#supreme_courts}
There are two supreme courts in the court system of the Czech Republic -- the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court. Both reside in Brno.
#### Supreme Court {#supreme_court}
The Supreme Court of the Czech Republic is the court of highest appeal for almost all legal cases heard in the Czech Republic. The justices of the Supreme Court analyze and evaluate legally effective decisions of lower courts. They unify the Czech judicature.
#### Supreme Administrative Court {#supreme_administrative_court}
The Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic protects people from unlawful decisions and procedures of the state authorities. It examines objections to elections and has the authority to ban or suspend the activity of political parties. It resolves competence disputes between governmental organizations and also serves as disciplinary court for other members of the judiciary.
### High courts {#high_courts}
There are two high courts in the Czech Republic -- one in Prague and one in Olomouc . They serve as courts of appeal to Regional Courts in cases, where the Regional Court acted as a court of first instance. Presidents of the high courts are appointed by the president for seven years. The vice-presidents are appointed by the minister of justice and also serve a seven-year term. A justice is required by the law to have at least eight years of experience before becoming a member of a High Court.
### Regional courts {#regional_courts}
Regional courts serve mainly as the courts of appeal to district courts and also as the only instance of administrative courts besides the Supreme Administrative Court. However, they can also act as courts of first instance in cases of more severe criminal charges, disputes between corporations or disputes over intellectual property. There are eight regional courts in the Czech Republic: in Brno, Ostrava, Hradec Králové, Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, České Budějovice and two in Prague.
### District courts {#district_courts}
District courts serve as the courts of first instance in almost all civil or criminal proceedings. There is a total of 86 district courts in the Czech Republic. Notaries and executors are appointed by the minister of justice to their jurisdictions.
## Regional government {#regional_government}
The Czech Republic is divided in 14 administrative regions, including one for the capital of Prague. The older system of 73 administrative districts (*okresy* in Czech) and 4 municipalities was abandoned in 1999 in an administrative reform. Each of the regions has a regional council with a varied number of regional councilors and a president of the regional cabinet (*hejtman* in Czech) as its formal head. The capital of Prague is the only exception to this, as the City Council acts both as regional and municipal governing body and is led by a mayor. Regional councilors are elected for four-year terms similarly to deputies in the Chamber of Deputies. All adults eligible to vote are also eligible to be a candidate to a regional council.
## Composition of the Senate {#composition_of_the_senate}
For the current composition of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic, see List of MPs elected in the 2017 Czech legislative election. `{{Composition of the Senate of the Czech Republic}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Politics of the Czech Republic
## Recent political developments {#recent_political_developments}
From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995, the OECD. The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area.
Until 2017, either the Czech Social Democratic Party or the Civic Democratic Party led the governments of the Czech Republic. In October 2017, populist movement ANO 2011, led by the country\'s second-richest man, Andrej Babiš, won the elections with three times more votes than its closest rival, the centre-right Civic Democrats. In December 2017, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed Andrej Babiš as the new prime minister.
On 28 November 2021, Czech President Miloš Zeman appointed opposition leader Petr Fiala as the country\'s new prime minister. The centre-right coalition Spolu (meaning Together) won tightly contested legislative elections in October 2021 against Prime Minister Andrej Babiš and his right-wing populist ANO party. Babiš had sought re-election after four years in power. In January 2023, Former NATO general Petr Pavel won the election runoff over Andrej Babiš to succeed Miloš Zeman as the fourth president of the Czech Republic
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# Telecommunications in the Czech Republic
There are telecommunications in the Czech Republic.
## Office
There is a Czech Telecommunication Office (Czech: Český Telekomunikační Úřad) called CTU.
## Companies
Telecom companies have included České Radiokomunikace, O2 Czech Republic (formerly Telefonica O2 Czech Republic), Vodafone Czech Republic (formerly Oskar Mobil a.s.), CETIN, CS Link, Eurotel, Skylink and Telekom Austria Czech Republic.
## Telephones
The number of main line telephones in use was 3,741,492 in 1998, 3.869 million in 2000, 3.626 million in 2003, 2.888 million in 2006, and 1,294,806 in 2021. The number of mobile cellular phones was 965,476 in 1998, 4.346 million in 2000, 9.708 million in 2003, and 13.075 million in 2007.
Copper subscriber systems have been improved with Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) equipment to accommodate Internet and other digital signals. Trunk systems include fibre-optic cable and microwave radio relay.
## Television
There were 3,428,817 televisions in December 1999 and 3,405,834 televisions in December 2000. There were 150 television broadcast stations and 1,434 repeaters in 2000.
## Radio
There were 3,173,856 radios in December 1999, and 3,159,134 radios in December 2000. In 2000, the radio broadcast stations were AM 31, FM 304 and shortwave 17. In 1999, they were AM 21, FM 199 and shortwave 1.
## Internet
The number of internet users was 2.69 million in 2001, 5.1 million in 2005, 4.4 million in 2007 and 7.6 million in 2012. There were 35 Internet Service Providers in 1999, and more than three hundred in 2000.
The internet country code is .cz
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# Transport in the Czech Republic
**Transport in the Czech Republic** relies on several main modes, including transport by road, rail, water and air.
## Railways
The Czech Republic has a total railway length of 9435 km which makes it a country with the second highest rail density in the world. The vast majority (9341 km) is standard gauge. Electrified railways generally have voltages of 3 kV DC or 25 kV AC. 94 km of track is narrow gauge. The most prominent Czech railway company is the state-owned České dráhy (ČD) (English: *Czech Railways*). Prague has an underground rapid transit system, the Prague Metro. In addition, the cities of Brno, Liberec, Most, Olomouc, Ostrava, Plzeň, and Prague have tram systems.
In April 2025, Czechia introduced Europe\'s first driverless passenger train on the 24-kilometer Kopidlno to Dolní Bousov line in the Mladá Boleslav District. Developed by AŽD Praha, the train features a modified 811 series engine named Edita, equipped with sensors and computing systems to autonomously monitor surroundings and adjust speed. Despite its autonomous capabilities, a driver remains on board during this testing phase due to legal requirements and to handle unforeseen situations. Fully autonomous operation without onboard staff is anticipated by 2031, pending technological advancements and legislative changes.
## Roads
The Czech Republic has, in total, 55653 km of roads. It has 1247 km of motorways. In the 1980s and 1990s there was a significant increase in passenger transport on the roads in the Czech Republic, which was associated with a sharp increase in the accident rate. Between 2007 and 2013, the death rate fell in every year, with a record low of 583 deaths in 2013, compared with the 1994 high of 1,473 casualties. Despite this however, the fatality rate per head of population is moderately high, comparable to the United States.
### Highways
There are 2 main categories of roads forming the main network: Motorways and Highways. These roads are managed by the state-owned Directorate of Highways and Motorways of the Czech Republic -- ŘSD, established in 1997. Among the first modern motorways in the Czech Republic was the motorway from Prague to the Slovak border through Brno whose construction was started on May 2, 1939.
Motorways are dual carriageways with tolls and a speed limit of 130 km/h. Highways can be single and dual carriageway with a speed limit of 90 km/h (dual carriageways are commonly signposted as Roads for motorcars with a speed limit of 110 km/h).
ŘSD currently manages and maintains 1,369 km of motorways (*dálnice*).
## Waterways
The Vltava is the country\'s longest river, at 430 km. 358 km of the Elbe (Labe), which totals 1154 km, is also present in the country. An artificial waterway, nowadays used for recreation, is the Baťa Canal.
## Ports and harbours {#ports_and_harbours}
Děčín, Mělník, Prague, Ústí nad Labem, Moldauhafen in Hamburg (no longer operational, will be handed over to Germany in 2028)
## Airports
`{{see also|List of airports in the Czech Republic}}`{=mediawiki} In 2006, the Czech Republic had a total 121 airports. 46 of these airports had paved runways while 75 had unpaved runways. The largest and busiest airport in the Czech Republic is Václav Havel Airport Prague, opened in 1937. Other international airports include Brno-Tuřany Airport, Karlovy Vary Airport, Ostrava Leoš Janáček Airport, Pardubice Airport, Kunovice Airport and Public domestic and private international airport is for example Hradec Králové Airport
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# Continuity Irish Republican Army
The **Continuity Irish Republican Army** (**Continuity IRA** or **CIRA**), styling itself as the **Irish Republican Army** (*\[\[Óglaigh na hÉireann\]\]*), is an Irish republican paramilitary group that aims to bring about a united Ireland. It claims to be a direct continuation of the original Irish Republican Army and the national army of the Irish Republic that was proclaimed in 1916. It emerged from a split in the Provisional IRA in 1986 but did not become active until the Provisional IRA ceasefire of 1994. It is an illegal organisation in the Republic of Ireland and is designated a terrorist organisation in the United Kingdom, New Zealand and the United States. It has links with the political party Republican Sinn Féin (RSF).
Since 1994, the CIRA has waged a campaign in Northern Ireland against the British Army and the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI), formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary. This is part of a wider campaign against the British security forces by dissident republican paramilitaries. It has targeted the security forces in gun attacks and bombings, as well as with grenades, mortars and rockets. The CIRA has also carried out bombings with the goal of causing economic harm and/or disruption, as well as many punishment attacks on alleged criminals.
To date, it has been responsible for the death of one PSNI officer. The CIRA was smaller and less active than the now-defunct Real IRA, and there have been a number of splits within the organisation since the mid-2000s.
## Origins
The Continuity IRA has its origins in a split in the Provisional IRA. In September 1986, the Provisional IRA held a General Army Convention (GAC), the organisation\'s supreme decision-making body. It was the first GAC in 16 years. The meeting, which like all such meetings was secret, was convened to discuss among other resolutions, the articles of the Provisional IRA constitution which dealt with abstentionism, specifically its opposition to the taking of seats in Dáil Éireann (the parliament of the Republic of Ireland). The GAC passed motions (by the necessary two-thirds majority) allowing members of the Provisional IRA to discuss and debate the taking of parliamentary seats, and the removal of the ban on members of the organisation from supporting any successful republican candidate who took their seat in Dáil Éireann.
The Provisional IRA convention delegates opposed to the change in the constitution claimed that the convention was gerrymandered \"by the creation of new IRA organisational structures for the convention, including the combinations of Sligo-Roscommon-Longford and Wicklow-Wexford-Waterford.\" The only IRA body that supported this viewpoint was the outgoing IRA Executive. Those members of the outgoing Executive who opposed the change comprised a quorum. They met, dismissed those in favour of the change, and set up a new Executive. They contacted Tom Maguire, who was a commander in the old IRA and had supported the Provisionals against the Official IRA (see Irish republican legitimatism), and asked him for support. Maguire had also been contacted by supporters of Gerry Adams, then president of Sinn Féin, and a supporter of the change in the Provisional IRA constitution.
Maguire rejected Adams\' supporters, supported the IRA Executive members opposed to the change, and named the new organisers the Continuity Army Council. In a 1986 statement, he rejected \"the legitimacy of an Army Council styling itself the Council of the Irish Republican Army which lends support to any person or organisation styling itself as Sinn Féin and prepared to enter the partition parliament of Leinster House.\" In 1987, Maguire described the \"Continuity Executive\" as the \"lawful Executive of the Irish Republican Army.\"
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# Continuity Irish Republican Army
## Campaign
Initially, the Continuity IRA did not reveal its existence, either in the form of press statements or paramilitary activity. Although the Garda Síochána had suspicions that the organisation existed, they were unsure of its name, labelling it the \"Irish National Republican Army\". On 21 January 1994, on the 75th anniversary of the First Dáil Éireann, a group of men in paramilitary dress offered a \"final salute\" to Tom Maguire by firing over his grave. A public statement headed \"Irish Republican Publicity Bureau\" signed \"B Ó Ruairc, *Rúnaí* \[Secretary\]\" identifying the firing party as \"Volunteers of Óglaigh na hÉireann-the Irish Republican Army\", and two accompanying photos were published in *Saoirse Irish Freedom*. Garda Special Branch detectives raided the headquarters of Republican Sinn Féin at Arran Quay, Dublin, two days after the graveside volley, seizing files and questioning staff. In February 1994 it was reported that in previous months Gardaí had found arms dumps along the Cooley Peninsula in County Louth that did not belong to the Provisional IRA, and forensics tests determined had been used for firing practice recently.
It was only after the Provisional IRA declared a ceasefire in 1994 that the Continuity IRA became active, announcing its intention to continue the campaign against British rule. The CIRA continues to oppose the Good Friday Agreement and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the Real IRA in 1998), the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning---nor is there any evidence that it will. In the 18th Independent Monitoring Commission\'s report, the RIRA, the CIRA and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) were deemed a potential future threat. The CIRA was labelled \"active, dangerous and committed and\... capable of a greater level of violent and other crime\". Like the RIRA and RIRA splinter group Óglaigh na hÉireann, it too sought funds for expansion. It is also known to have worked with the INLA.
The CIRA has been involved in a number of bombing and shooting incidents. Targets of the CIRA have included the British military, the Northern Ireland police (both the Royal Ulster Constabulary and its successor the Police Service of Northern Ireland). Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 the CIRA, along with other paramilitaries opposing the ceasefire, have been involved with a countless number of punishment shootings and beatings. By 2005 the CIRA was believed to be an established presence on the island of Great Britain with the capability of launching attacks. A bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed to have been the work of the CIRA. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission (IMC) blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings. The IMC also blamed the CIRA for the killings of two former CIRA members in Belfast, who had stolen CIRA weapons and established a rival organisation. The CIRA continued to be active in both planning and undertaking attacks on the PSNI. The IMC said they tried to lure police into ambushes, while they have also taken to stoning and using petrol bombs. In addition, other assaults, robbery, tiger kidnapping, extortion, fuel laundering and smuggling were undertaken by the group. The CIRA also actively took part in recruiting and training members, including disgruntled former Provisional IRA members. As a result of this continued activity the IMC said the group remained \"a very serious threat\".
On 10 March 2009 the CIRA claimed responsibility for the fatal shooting of a PSNI officer in Craigavon, County Armagh---the first police fatality in Northern Ireland since 1998. The officer was fatally shot by a sniper as he and a colleague investigated \"suspicious activity\" at a house nearby when a window was smashed by youths causing the occupant to phone the police. The PSNI officers responded to the emergency call, giving a CIRA sniper the chance to shoot and kill officer Stephen Carroll. Carroll was killed two days after the Real IRA\'s 2009 Massereene Barracks shooting at Massereene Barracks in Antrim. In a press interview with Republican Sinn Féin some days later, regarded by some to be the political wing of the Continuity IRA, Richard Walsh described the attacks as \"acts of war\".
In 2013, the Continuity IRA\'s \'South Down Brigade\' threatened a Traveller family in Newry and published a statement in the local newspaper. There were negotiations with community representatives and the CIRA announced the threat was lifted. It was believed the threat was issued after a Traveller feud which resulted in a pipe bomb attack in Bessbrook, near Newry. The Continuity IRA is believed to be strongest in the County Fermanagh -- North County Armagh area (Craigavon, Armagh and Lurgan). It is believed to be behind a number of attacks such as pipe bombings, rocket attacks, gun attacks, and the PSNI claimed it orchestrated riots a number of times to lure police officers into areas such as Kilwilkie in Lurgan and Drumbeg in Craigavon in order to attack them. It also claimed the group orchestrated a riot during a security alert in Lurgan. The alert turned out to be a hoax.`{{failed verification|date=December 2019}}`{=mediawiki}
On Easter 2016, the Continuity IRA marched in paramilitary uniforms through North Lurgan, Co Armagh, without any hindrance from the PSNI who monitored the parade from a police helicopter.
In July and August 2019 the CIRA carried out attempted bomb attacks on the PSNI in Craigavon, County Armagh and Wattlebridge, County Fermanagh.
On 5 February 2020, a bomb planted by the CIRA was found by the PSNI in a lorry in Lurgan. The CIRA believed the lorry was going to be put on a North Channel ferry to Scotland in January 2020.
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# Continuity Irish Republican Army
## Claim to legitimacy {#claim_to_legitimacy}
Similar to the claim put forward by the Provisional IRA after its split from the Official IRA in 1969, the Continuity IRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the original Irish Republican Army or *Óglaigh na hÉireann*. This argument is based on the view that the surviving anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil delegated their \"authority\" to the IRA Army Council in 1938. As further justification for this claim, Tom Maguire, one of those anti-Treaty members of the Second Dáil, issued a statement in favour of the Continuity IRA, just as he had done in 1969 in favour of the Provisionals. J. Bowyer Bell, in his *The Irish Troubles*, describes Maguire\'s opinion in 1986: \"abstentionism was a basic tenet of republicanism, a moral issue of principle. Abstentionism gave the movement legitimacy, the right to wage war, to speak for a Republic all but established in the hearts of the people\". Maguire\'s stature was such that a delegation from Gerry Adams sought his support in 1986, but was rejected.
## Relationship to other organisations {#relationship_to_other_organisations}
These changes within the IRA were accompanied by changes on the political side and at the 1986 Sinn Féin Ard Fheis (party conference), which followed the IRA Convention, the party\'s policy of abstentionism, which forbade Sinn Féin elected representatives from taking seats in the Oireachtas, the parliament of the Republic, was dropped. On 2 November, the 628 delegates present cast their votes, the result being 429 to 161. The traditionalists, having lost at both conventions, walked out of the Mansion House, met that evening at the West County Hotel, and reformed as Republican Sinn Féin (RSF).
According to a report in the *Cork Examiner*, the Continuity IRA\'s first chief of staff was Dáithí Ó Conaill, who also served as the first chairman of RSF from 1986 to 1987. The Continuity IRA and RSF perceive themselves as forming a \"true\" Republican Movement.
## Structure and status {#structure_and_status}
The leadership of the Continuity IRA is believed to be based in the provinces of Munster and Ulster. It was alleged that its chief of staff was a Limerick man and that a number of other key members were from that county, until their expulsion. Dáithí Ó Conaill was the first chief of staff until 1991. In 2004 the United States (US) government believed the Continuity IRA consisted of fewer than fifty hardcore activists. In 2005, Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform Michael McDowell told Dáil Éireann that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members.
The CIRA is an illegal organisation under UK (section 11(1) of the Terrorism Act 2000) and ROI law due to the use of \'IRA\' in the group\'s name, in a situation analogous to that of the Real Irish Republican Army (RIRA). Membership of the organisation is punishable by a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment under UK law. On 31 May 2001 Dermot Gannon became the first person to be convicted of membership of the CIRA solely on the word of a Garda Síochána chief superintendent. On 13 July 2004, the US government designated the CIRA as a \'Foreign Terrorist Organization\'. This made it illegal for Americans to provide material support to the CIRA, requires US financial institutions to block the group\'s assets and denies alleged CIRA members visas into the US.
## External aid and arsenal {#external_aid_and_arsenal}
The US government suspects the Continuity IRA of having received funds and arms from supporters in the United States. Security sources in Ireland have expressed the suspicion that, in co-operation with the RIRA, the Continuity IRA may have acquired arms and materiel from the Balkans. They also suspect that the Continuity IRA arsenal contains some weapons that were taken from Provisional IRA arms dumps, including a few dozen rifles, machine guns, and pistols; a small amount of the explosive Semtex; and a few dozen detonators.
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# Continuity Irish Republican Army
## Internal tension and splits {#internal_tension_and_splits}
In 2005, several members of the CIRA, who were serving prison sentences in Portlaoise Prison for paramilitary activity, left the organisation. Some transferred to the INLA landing of the prison, but the majority of those who left are now independent and on E4 landing. The remaining CIRA prisoners have moved to D Wing. Supporters of the Continuity IRA leadership claim that this resulted from an internal disagreement, which although brought to a conclusion, was followed by some people leaving the organisation anyway. Supporters of the disaffected members established the Concerned Group for Republican Prisoners. Most of those who had left went back to the CIRA, or dissociated themselves from the CGRP, which is now defunct.
In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission claimed in a report on paramilitary activity that two groups, styling themselves as \"Óglaigh na hÉireann\" and \"Saoirse na hÉireann\", had been formed after a split in the Continuity IRA either in early 2006 or late 2005. The Óglaigh na hÉireann group was responsible for a number of pipe bomb attacks on the PSNI, bomb hoaxes, and robberies, the IMC also claimed the organisation was responsible for the killing of Andrew Burns on 12 February 2008 and was seeking to recruit former members of the RIRA. The Saoirse na hÉireann (SNH) group was composed of \"disaffected and largely young republicans\" and was responsible for a number of bomb hoaxes, two of which took place in September 2006. It was thought to have operated largely in republican areas of Belfast . The groups had apparently ceased operations by early 2009.
In 2007, the Continuity IRA was responsible for shooting dead two of its members who had left and attempted to create their own organisation. Upon leaving the CIRA, they had allegedly taken a number of guns with them. The Continuity IRA is believed by Gardaí to have been involved in a number of gangland killings in Dublin and Limerick.
In July 2010, members of a \"militant Northern-based faction within the CIRA\" claimed to have overthrown the leadership of the organisation. They also claimed that an Army Convention representing \"95 per cent of volunteers\" had unanimously elected a new 12-member Army Executive, which in turn appointed a new seven-member Army Council. The moves came as a result of dissatisfaction with the southern-based leadership and the apparent winding-down of military operations. A senior source from RSF said: \"We would see them \[the purported new leadership\] as just another splinter group that has broken away.\" This organisation is referred to as the Real CIRA.
In June 2011 CIRA member Liam Kenny was murdered, allegedly by drug dealers, at his home in Clondalkin, West Dublin. On 28 November 2011 an innocent man was mistakenly shot dead in retaliation for the murder of Liam Kenny. Limerick Real IRA volunteer Rose Lynch pleaded guilty to this murder at the Special Criminal Court and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
In July 2012 the CIRA announced it had a new leadership after expelling members who had been working against the organisation.
In April 2014 a former leading member of the Belfast Continuity IRA who had been expelled from the organisation, Tommy Crossan, was shot dead.
## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture}
The CIRA are depicted in RTÉ\'s TV series crime drama *Love/Hate*
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# Century
A **century** is a period of 100 years or 10 decades. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word *century* comes from the Latin *centum*, meaning *one hundred*. *Century* is sometimes abbreviated as **c.**
A centennial or centenary is a hundredth anniversary, or a celebration of this, typically the remembrance of an event which took place a hundred years earlier.
## Start and end of centuries {#start_and_end_of_centuries}
Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perception.
According to the strict construction, the 1st century AD, which began with AD 1, ended with AD 100, and the 2nd century with AD 200;`{{NoteTag|[[AD]] and [[Common Era|CE]] year numbering, which are numerically equivalent, are now commonly used to number years, including those which occurred before these notations were invented; AD did not become widespread in Europe until early in the 2nd millennium.}}`{=mediawiki} in this model, the *n*-th century starts with a year that follows a year with a multiple of 100 (except the first century as it began after the year 1 BC) and ends with the next coming year with a multiple of 100 (*100n*), i.e. the 20th century comprises the years **1901** to **2000**, and the 21st century comprises the years **2001** to **2100** in strict usage.
In common perception and practice, centuries are structured by grouping years based on sharing the \'hundreds\' digit(s). In this model, the *n*-th century starts with the year that ends in \"00\" and ends with the year ending in \"99\"; for example, in popular culture, the years **1900** to **1999** constitute the 20th century, and the years **2000** to **2099** constitute the 21st century. (This is similar to the grouping of \"0-to-9 decades\" which share the \'tens\' digit.)
To facilitate calendrical calculations by computer, the astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, with the astronomical year 0 corresponding to the year 1 BC, the astronomical year -1 corresponding to 2 BC, and so on.
Year 2 BC 1 BC 1 2 \... 99 100 101 102 \... 199 200 201 202 \... 1899 1900 1901 1902 \... 1999 2000 2001 2002 \... 2025 \... 2099 2100 2101 2102 \...
--------- ---------------- ------ ------------- --- ------ ---- ------------- ------------- ----- ------ ----- ------------- ------------- ----- ------ -------------- -------------- -------------- ------ ------ ------ -------------- -------------- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -------------- -------------- ------ ------
Strict 1st century BC 1st century 2nd century 3rd century \... 19th century 20th century 21st century 22nd century \...
Popular 1st century BC 1st century 2nd century 3rd century \... 19th century 20th century 21st century 22nd century \...
: Strict vs Popular usage
## Alternative naming systems {#alternative_naming_systems}
Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900--1999 are referred to as the *nineteen hundreds* (*1900s*). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Finnish and Hungarian. The Swedish *nittonhundratalet* (or *1900-talet*), Danish *nittenhundredetallet* (or *nittenhundredetallet*), Norwegian *nittenhundretallet* (or *1900-tallet*), Finnish *tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku* (or *1900-luku*) and Hungarian *ezerkilencszázas évek* (or *1900-as évek*) refer unambiguously to the years 1900--1999. In Swedish, however, a century is in more rare cases referred to as *det n-te seklet/århundradet* (\"the n-th century\") rather than *n-hundratalet*, i.e. the 17th century is (in rare cases) referred to as *17:(d)e/sjuttonde århundradet/seklet* rather than *1600-talet* and mainly also referring to the years 1601--1700 rather than 1600--1699; according to *Svenska Akademiens ordbok*, *16:(d)e/sextonde århundradet* may refer to either the years 1501--1600 or 1500--1599.
## Similar dating units in other calendar systems {#similar_dating_units_in_other_calendar_systems}
While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner. The Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52
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# Cultural movement
A **cultural movement** is a shared effort by loosely affiliated individuals to change the way others in society think by disseminating ideas through various art forms and making intentional choices in daily life. By definition, cultural movements are intertwined with other phenomena such as social movements and political movements, and can be difficult to distinguish from broader cultural change or transformation.
Historically, different nations or regions of the world have gone through their own independent sequence of movements in culture; but as world communications have accelerated, this geographical distinction has become less distinct.
When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade.: These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect -- sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with \"neo-\").
There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods as one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. Even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective. This is because the movements did not spring out of the blue and into existence then come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term \"period\" is somewhat deceptive. \"Period\" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad \"movements\" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the \"height\" or accepted time span of the movement.
This list covers Western, notably European and American cultural movements. They have, however, been paralleled by cultural movements in East Asia and elsewhere. In the late 20th and early 21st century in Thailand, for example, there has been a cultural shift away from Western social and political values and more toward Japanese and Chinese. As well, Thai culture has reinvigorated monarchical concepts to accommodate state shifts away from Western ideology regarding democracy and monarchies.
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# Cultural movement
## Cultural movements {#cultural_movements}
- Graeco-Roman
- The Greek culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The Romans adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Western Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the Classical Age by some. Others might divide it into the Hellenistic period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions.
:
: See: Classical architecture --- Classical sculpture --- Greek architecture --- Hellenistic architecture --- Ionic --- Doric --- Corinthian --- Stoicism --- Cynicism --- Epicurean --- Roman architecture --- Early Christian --- Neoplatonism
- Romanesque (11th century & 12th centuries)
- A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent.
:
: See: Romanesque architecture --- Ottonian Art
- Gothic (mid 12th century until mid 15th century)
:
: See: Gothic architecture --- Gregorian chant --- Neoplatonism
- Nominalism
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- - Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms.
- Humanism (16th century)
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- Renaissance
- The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the \"Golden Age\". In reality it was less an \"Age\" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: Italian Renaissance 1450--1550. Spanish Renaissance 1550--1587. English Renaissance 1588--1629.
- Protestant Reformation
- The Protestant Reformation, often referred to simply as the Reformation, was a schism from the Roman Catholic Church initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli and other early Protestant Reformers in the 16th century Europe.
- Mannerism
- Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself.
- See: Mannerism/Art
- Baroque
- Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the \"disturbing angst\" of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity.
- See: Baroque art --- Baroque music
- Rococo
- Neoclassical (17th--19th centuries)
- Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek (\"classical\") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. It also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the 19th century. Beginning in the early 17th century with Cartesian thought (see René Descartes), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In Renaissance Classicism attempts are made to recreate the classic art forms --- tragedy, comedy, and farce.
- See also: Weimar Classicism
- Age of Enlightenment (1688--1789): Reason (rationalism) seen as the ideal.
- Romanticism (1770--1830)
- Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction against Neoclassicism and against the Age of Enlightenment.. The notion of \"folk genius\", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works.
- See: Symbolism
- Realism (1830--1905)
- Ushered in by the Industrial Revolution and growing Nationalism in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by Ibsen are an example. Naturalism evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theatre, film, and literature. Impressionism, based on \'scientific\' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively.
- See: Post-Impressionism --- Neo-impressionism --- Pointillism --- Pre-Raphaelite
- Art Nouveau (1880--1905)
- Decorative, symbolic art
- See: Transcendentalism
- Modernism (1880--1965)
- Also known as the Avant-garde movement. Originating in the 19th century with Symbolism, the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of \'isms\' that ran in contrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days.
- See: Fauvism --- Cubism --- Futurism --- Suprematism --- Dada --- Constructivism --- Surrealism --- Expressionism --- Existentialism --- Op art --- Art Deco --- Bauhaus --- Neo-Plasticism --- Precisionism --- Abstract expressionism --- New Realism --- Color field painting --- Happening --- Fluxus --- Hard-edge painting --- Pop art --- Photorealism --- Minimalism --- Postminimalism --- Lyrical abstraction --- Situationism
- Postmodernism (since c.1965)
- A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist -- or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as deconstructivism, conceptual art, *etc.*
- See: Postmodern philosophy --- Postmodern music --- Postmodern art
- Post-postmodernism (since c
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# Counterpoint
In music theory, **counterpoint** is the relationship of two or more simultaneous musical lines (also called voices) that are harmonically dependent on each other, yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. The term originates from the Latin *punctus contra punctum* meaning \"point against point\", i.e. \"note against note\". John Rahn describes counterpoint as follows:
Counterpoint has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, especially in the Baroque period. In Western pedagogy, counterpoint is taught through a system of species (see below).
There are several different forms of counterpoint, including imitative counterpoint and free counterpoint. Imitative counterpoint involves the repetition of a main melodic idea across different vocal parts, with or without variation. Compositions written in free counterpoint often incorporate non-traditional harmonies and chords, chromaticism and dissonance.
## General principles {#general_principles}
The term \"counterpoint\" has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction---only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction.
Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation. In particular, Mazzola\'s model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended the model to microtonal contexts. Another theorist who has tried to incorporate mathematical principles in his study of counterpoint is Sergei Taneyev (1856--1915). Inspired by Spinoza, Taneyev developed a theory which covers and generalizes a wide range of advanced contrapuntal phenomena, including what is known to the English-speaking theorists as invertible counterpoint (although he describes them mainly using his own, custom-built terminology), by means of linking them to simple algebraic procedures.
In counterpoint, the *functional independence* of voices is the prime concern. The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint. In organ registers, certain interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one and the parallel chords are perceived as single tones with a new timbre. In counterpoint, parallel voices are prohibited because they violate the heterogeneity of musical texture when independent voices occasionally disappear turning into a new timbre quality and vice versa.
## Development
Some examples of related compositional techniques include: the round (familiar in folk traditions), the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention: the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint.
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# Counterpoint
## Examples from the repertoire {#examples_from_the_repertoire}
There are many examples of song melodies that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. For example, \"Frère Jacques\" and \"Three Blind Mice\" combine euphoniously when sung together. A number of popular songs that share the same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint. A well-known pair of examples is \"My Way\" combined with \"Life on Mars\".
Johann Sebastian Bach is revered as one of the greatest masters of counterpoint. For example, the harmony implied in the opening subject of the Fugue in G-sharp minor from Book II of *the Well-Tempered Clavier* is heard anew in a subtle way when a second voice is added. \"The counterpoint in bars 5-8\... sheds an unexpected light on the tonality of the Subject.\":
Bach\'s 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies:
According to pianist András Schiff, Bach\'s counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven. In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven\'s Piano Sonata in E minor, Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding \"a wonderful counterpoint\" to one of the main themes.
A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the \"Ode to Joy\" theme in the last movement of Beethoven\'s Symphony No. 9, bars 116--123. The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos, while \"the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised. Meantime a solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality.\"
In the Prelude to Richard Wagner\'s opera *Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg*, three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously. According to Gordon Jacob, \"This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity.\" However, Donald Tovey points out that here \"the combination of themes \... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony.\"
One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in the finale to Mozart\'s Symphony No 41 (\"Jupiter\" Symphony). Here five tunes combine simultaneously in \"a rich tapestry of dialogue\": See also Invertible counterpoint.
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# Counterpoint
## Species counterpoint {#species_counterpoint}
Species counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several \"species\" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for \"fixed melody\"). Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a \"strict\" counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to write *free* counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his *Scintille di musica* (Brescia, 1533). The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on the idea in his influential *Le institutioni harmoniche*, and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his *Prattica di musica*. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint. In 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published *Gradus ad Parnassum* (Steps to Parnassus), in which he described five species:
1. Note against note;
2. Two notes against one;
3. Four notes against one;
4. Notes offset against each other (as suspensions);
5. All the first four species together, as \"florid\" counterpoint.
A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux\'s seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. Many of Fux\'s rules concerning the purely linear construction of melodies have their origin in solfeggio. Concerning the common practice era, alterations to the melodic rules were introduced to enable the function of certain harmonic forms. The combination of these melodies produced the basic harmonic structure, the figured bass.
### Considerations for all species {#considerations_for_all_species}
The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part:
1. The final note must be approached by step. If the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key (Dorian, Hypodorian, Aeolian, Hypoaeolian), but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C`{{music|sharp}}`{=mediawiki} is necessary at the cadence.
2. Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect unison, fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be immediately followed by motion downwards.
3. If writing two skips in the same direction---something that must be only rarely done---the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant. The three notes should be from the same triad; if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction.
4. If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with step-wise motion in the other direction.
5. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided (for example, an ascending melodic motion F--A--B`{{music|natural}}`{=mediawiki}) as is the interval of a seventh in three notes.
6. There must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat.
7. An outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction.
And, in all species, the following rules govern the combination of the parts:
1. The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance.
2. Contrary motion should dominate.
3. Perfect consonances must be approached by oblique or contrary motion.
4. Imperfect consonances may be approached by any type of motion.
5. The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between two adjacent parts unless by necessity.
6. Build from the bass, upward.
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# Counterpoint
## Species counterpoint {#species_counterpoint}
### First species {#first_species}
In *first species* counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as *lines* or *voices*) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence is not available.
In the present context, a \"step\" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A \"skip\" is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips.) An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a \"leap\".
A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. `{{Image frame|width=392|content=<score sound="1">
\relative c'' {
<<
\new Staff { \clef "treble" d1 a b d cis d }
\new Staff { \clef "treble" d,1 f g f e d }
>>
}
</score>|caption=Short example of "first species" counterpoint}}`{=mediawiki}
1. Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave.
2. Use no unisons except at the beginning or end.
3. Avoid parallel fifths or octaves between any two parts; and avoid \"hidden\" parallel fifths or octaves: that is, movement by similar motion to a perfect fifth or octave, unless one part (sometimes restricted to the *higher* of the parts) moves by step.
4. Avoid moving in parallel fourths. (In practice Palestrina and others frequently allowed themselves such progressions, especially if they do not involve the lowest of the parts.)
5. Do not use an interval more than three times in a row.
6. Attempt to use up to three parallel thirds or sixths in a row.
7. Attempt to keep any two adjacent parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written by moving outside that range.
8. Avoid having any two parts move in the same direction by skip.
9. Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible.
10. Avoid dissonant intervals between any two parts: major or minor second, major or minor seventh, any augmented or diminished interval, and perfect fourth (in many contexts).
In the adjacent example in two parts, the cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode.)
### Second species {#second_species}
In *second species* counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part. `{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1"> {
# (set-global-staff-size 15)
\relative c' {
<< \new Staff {
r2 a' d c b e d a b cis d1
\bar "|." }
\new Staff {
d,1 f g f e d} >>
}
}
</score>
<br />Short example of "second species" counterpoint
}}`{=mediawiki}
Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species:
1. It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice.
2. The accented beat may be consonant (perfect or imperfect), the unaccented beat may then have dissonance, in the form of three kinds of melodic embellishment: Passing Note (scalic movement between two consonances), Neighbour Note (a step away from a consonance and back to the same consonance) or an Escape Tone (a step in one direction to a dissonance followed by a leap in the opposite direction to a consonance).
The accented beat may have dissonance as well, but the unaccented beat that follows it must be consonant. This is known as Accented Dissonance, and takes the form of either a Neighbour note or a Passing note, which must resolve down to a consonance on the offbeat.
1. Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar.
2. Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves. They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern. The example shown is weak due to similar motion in the second measure in both voices. A good rule to follow: if one voice skips or jumps try to use step-wise motion in the other voice or at the very least contrary motion.
### Third species {#third_species}
In *third species* counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer note in the given part.
Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth species, and ultimately outside the restrictions of *species writing*. There are three figures to consider: The *nota cambiata*, *double neighbor tones*, and *double passing tones*.
Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows special dissonances. The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and resolved on beat 4. The fifth note or downbeat of the next measure should move by step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure. Lastly a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row. The figure would consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step. The two notes that allow dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4. The dissonant interval of a fourth would proceed into a diminished fifth and the next note would resolve at the interval of a sixth.
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# Counterpoint
## Species counterpoint {#species_counterpoint}
### Fourth species {#fourth_species}
In *fourth species* counterpoint, some notes are sustained or *suspended* in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and \"catching up\") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint is called *expanded* when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation. A dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of the syncopation created by the suspension. While it is not incorrect to start with a half note, it is also common to start 4th species with a half rest. \\relative c\' { \\new PianoStaff \<\< \\new Staff { \\set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible a\'2 d\~ d c\~ c bes\~ \\key d \\minor bes a b cis d1 \\bar \"\|.\" } \\new Staff { d, f g f e d \\bar \"\|.\" } \>\> } Short example of \"fourth species\" counterpoint
### Fifth species (florid counterpoint) {#fifth_species_florid_counterpoint}
In *fifth species* counterpoint, sometimes called *florid counterpoint*, the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first species. In florid counterpoint it is important that no one species dominates the composition. \\relative c\' { \\new PianoStaff \<\< \\new Staff { r2 a\' d c b4 c d e f e d2\~ d4 cis8 b cis2 d1 \\bar \"\|.\" } \\new Staff { d, f g f e d \\bar \"\|.\" } \>\> } Short example of \"Florid\" counterpoint
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# Counterpoint
## Contrapuntal derivations {#contrapuntal_derivations}
Since the Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The fantasia, the ricercar, and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form *par excellence*) all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals. Imitative counterpoint spawned a number of devices, including:
Melodic inversion: The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down---so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see interval), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third, etc. (Compare, in twelve-tone technique, the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.) (Note: in *invertible counterpoint*, including *double* and *triple counterpoint*, the term *inversion* is used in a different sense altogether. At least one pair of parts is switched, so that the one that was higher becomes lower. See Inversion in counterpoint; it is not a kind of imitation, but a rearrangement of the parts.)\
Retrograde: Whereby an imitative voice sounds the melody backwards in relation to the leading voice.\
Retrograde inversion: Where the imitative voice sounds the melody backwards and upside-down at once.\
Augmentation: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.\
Diminution: When in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the note values are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.
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# Counterpoint
## Free counterpoint {#free_counterpoint}
Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony, from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the style of free counterpoint. This means that the general focus of the composer had shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a *cantus firmus*, and more toward how they related to each other.
Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan: \"\....actual teaching in that fashion (free counterpoint) did not become widespread until the late nineteenth century.\" Young composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such as Mozart, Beethoven, and Schumann, were still educated in the style of \"strict\" counterpoint, but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of the subject.
Main features of free counterpoint:
1. All forbidden chords, such as second-inversion, seventh, ninth etc., can be used freely as long as they resolve to a consonant triad
2. Chromaticism is allowed
3. The restrictions about rhythmic-placement of dissonance are removed. It is possible to use passing tones on the accented beat
4. Appoggiatura is available: dissonance tones can be approached by leaps.
## Linear counterpoint {#linear_counterpoint}
**Linear counterpoint** is \"a purely horizontal technique in which the integrity of the individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations. \"Its distinctive feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the adherents of the \'new objectivity\' when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-type to the Romantic harmony.\" The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the effects their combined motions may create.\" In other words, either \"the domination of the horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical\" is featured or the \"harmonic control of lines is rejected.\"
Associated with neoclassicism, the technique was first used in Igor Stravinsky\'s *Octet* (1923), inspired by J. S. Bach and Giovanni Palestrina. However, according to Knud Jeppesen: \"Bach\'s and Palestrina\'s points of departure are antipodal. Palestrina starts out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach\'s music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which the voices develop with a bold independence that is often breath-taking.\"
According to Cunningham, linear harmony is \"a frequent approach in the 20th century\...\[in which lines\] are combined with almost careless abandon in the hopes that new \'chords\' and \'progressions\'\...will result.\" It is possible with \"any kind of line, diatonic or duodecuple\".
## Dissonant counterpoint {#dissonant_counterpoint}
**Dissonant counterpoint** was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as \"at first purely a school-room discipline,\" consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint must be all dissonances, establishing \"dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule,\" and consonances are \"resolved\" through a skip, not step. He wrote that \"the effect of this discipline\" was \"one of purification\". Other aspects of composition, such as rhythm, could be \"dissonated\" by applying the same principle.
Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Johanna Beyer, John Cage, Ruth Crawford-Seeger, Vivian Fine, Carl Ruggles, Henry Cowell, Carlos Chávez, John J. Becker, Henry Brant, Lou Harrison, Wallingford Riegger, and Frank Wigglesworth
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# Carbonate
A **carbonate** is a salt of carbonic acid, (`{{chem2|H2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}), characterized by the presence of the **carbonate ion**, a polyatomic ion with the formula `{{chem2|CO3(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}. The word \"carbonate\" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the **carbonate group** `{{chem2|O\dC(\sO\s)2}}`{=mediawiki}.
The term is also used as a verb, to describe carbonation: the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverages`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}either by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.
In geology and mineralogy, the term \"carbonate\" can refer both to carbonate minerals and carbonate rock (which is made of chiefly carbonate minerals), and both are dominated by the carbonate ion, `{{chem2|CO3(2-)}}`{=mediawiki}. Carbonate minerals are extremely varied and ubiquitous in chemically precipitated sedimentary rock. The most common are calcite or calcium carbonate, `{{chem2|CaCO3}}`{=mediawiki}, the chief constituent of limestone (as well as the main component of mollusc shells and coral skeletons); dolomite, a calcium-magnesium carbonate `{{chem2|CaMg(CO3)2}}`{=mediawiki}; and siderite, or iron(II) carbonate, `{{chem2|FeCO3}}`{=mediawiki}, an important iron ore. Sodium carbonate (\"soda\" or \"natron\"), `{{chem2|Na2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}, and potassium carbonate (\"potash\"), `{{chem2|K2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}, have been used since antiquity for cleaning and preservation, as well as for the manufacture of glass. Carbonates are widely used in industry, such as in iron smelting, as a raw material for Portland cement and lime manufacture, in the composition of ceramic glazes, and more. New applications of alkali metal carbonates include: thermal energy storage, catalysis and electrolyte both in fuel cell technology as well as in electrosynthesis of `{{chem2|H2O2}}`{=mediawiki} in aqueous media.
## Structure and bonding {#structure_and_bonding}
The carbonate ion is the simplest oxocarbon anion. It consists of one carbon atom surrounded by three oxygen atoms, in a trigonal planar arrangement, with *D*~3h~ molecular symmetry. It has a molecular mass of 60.01 g/mol and carries a total formal charge of −2. It is the conjugate base of the hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate) ion, `{{chem2|HCO3-}}`{=mediawiki}, which is the conjugate base of `{{chem2|H2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}, carbonic acid.
The Lewis structure of the carbonate ion has two (long) single bonds to negative oxygen atoms, and one short double bond to a neutral oxygen atom.
:
This structure is incompatible with the observed symmetry of the ion, which implies that the three bonds are the same length and that the three oxygen atoms are equivalent. As in the case of the isoelectronic nitrate ion, the symmetry can be achieved by a resonance among three structures:
:
This resonance can be summarized by a model with fractional bonds and delocalized charges:
:
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# Carbonate
## Chemical properties {#chemical_properties}
right\|thumb\|190px\|Stalactites and stalagmites are carbonate minerals. Metal carbonates generally decompose on heating, liberating carbon dioxide leaving behind an oxide of the metal. This process is called calcination, after *calx*, the Latin name of quicklime or calcium oxide, CaO, which is obtained by roasting limestone in a lime kiln:
:
As illustrated by its affinity for `{{chem2|Ca(2+)}}`{=mediawiki}, carbonate is a ligand for many metal cations. Transition metal carbonate and bicarbonate complexes feature metal ions covalently bonded to carbonate in a variety of bonding modes.
Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and ammonium carbonates are water-soluble salts, but carbonates of 2+ and 3+ ions are often poorly soluble in water. Of the insoluble metal carbonates, `{{chem2|CaCO3}}`{=mediawiki} is important because, in the form of scale, it accumulates in and impedes flow through pipes. Hard water is rich in this material, giving rise to the need for infrastructural water softening.
Acidification of carbonates generally liberates carbon dioxide:
:
Thus, scale can be removed with acid.
In solution the equilibrium between carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide and carbonic acid is sensitive to pH, temperature, and pressure. Although di- and trivalent carbonates have low solubility, bicarbonate salts are far more soluble. This difference is related to the disparate lattice energies of solids composed of mono- vs dianions, as well as mono- vs dications.
In aqueous solution, carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid participate in a dynamic equilibrium. In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion predominates, while in weakly basic conditions, the bicarbonate ion is prevalent. In more acid conditions, aqueous carbon dioxide, `{{chem2|CO2(aq)}}`{=mediawiki}, is the main form, which, with water, `{{chem2|H2O}}`{=mediawiki}, is in equilibrium with carbonic acid`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}the equilibrium lies strongly towards carbon dioxide. Thus sodium carbonate is basic, sodium bicarbonate is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid.
## Organic carbonates {#organic_carbonates}
In organic chemistry a carbonate can also refer to a functional group within a larger molecule that contains a carbon atom bound to three oxygen atoms, one of which is double bonded. These compounds are also known as organocarbonates or carbonate esters, and have the general formula `{{chem2|R\sO\sC(\dO)\sO\sR′}}`{=mediawiki}, or `{{chem2|RR′CO3}}`{=mediawiki}. Important organocarbonates include dimethyl carbonate, the cyclic compounds ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate, and the phosgene replacement, triphosgene.
## Buffer
Three reversible reactions control the pH balance of blood and act as a buffer to stabilise it in the range 7.37--7.43:
1.
2.
3.
Exhaled `{{chem2|CO2(g)}}`{=mediawiki} depletes `{{chem2|CO2(aq)}}`{=mediawiki}, which in turn consumes `{{chem2|H2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}, causing the equilibrium of the first reaction to try to restore the level of carbonic acid by reacting bicarbonate with a hydrogen ion, an example of Le Châtelier\'s principle. The result is to make the blood more alkaline (raise pH). By the same principle, when the pH is too high, the kidneys excrete bicarbonate (`{{chem2|HCO3-}}`{=mediawiki}) into urine as urea via the urea cycle (or Krebs--Henseleit ornithine cycle). By removing the bicarbonate, more `{{chem2|H+}}`{=mediawiki} is generated from carbonic acid (`{{chem2|H2CO3}}`{=mediawiki}), which comes from `{{chem2|CO2(g)}}`{=mediawiki} produced by cellular respiration.
Crucially, a similar buffer operates in the oceans. It is a major factor in climate change and the long-term carbon cycle, due to the large number of marine organisms (especially coral) which are made of calcium carbonate. Increased solubility of carbonate through increased temperatures results in lower production of marine calcite and increased concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. This, in turn, increases Earth temperature. The amount of `{{chem2|CO3(2-)}}`{=mediawiki} available is on a geological scale and substantial quantities may eventually be redissolved into the sea and released to the atmosphere, increasing `{{chem2|CO2}}`{=mediawiki} levels even more.
## Carbonate salts {#carbonate_salts}
- Carbonate overview:
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# Carbonate
## Presence outside Earth {#presence_outside_earth}
It is generally thought that the presence of carbonates in rock is strong evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of the planetary nebula NGC 6302 show evidence for carbonates in space, where aqueous alteration similar to that on Earth is unlikely. Other minerals have been proposed which would fit the observations.
Small amounts of carbonate deposits have been found on Mars via spectral imaging and Martian meteorites also contain small amounts. Groundwater may have existed at Gusev and Meridiani Planum
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# Circumference
`{{General geometry}}`{=mediawiki}
In geometry, the **circumference** (`{{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|circumferēns}}|carrying around, circling}}`{=mediawiki}) is the perimeter of a circle or ellipse. The circumference is the arc length of the circle, as if it were opened up and straightened out to a line segment. More generally, the perimeter is the curve length around any closed figure. Circumference may also refer to the circle itself, that is, the locus corresponding to the edge of a disk. The `{{em|{{visible anchor|circumference of a sphere}}}}`{=mediawiki} is the circumference, or length, of any one of its great circles.
## Circle
2πR (*Person of Interest*)}} The circumference of a circle is the distance around it, but if, as in many elementary treatments, distance is defined in terms of straight lines, this cannot be used as a definition. Under these circumstances, the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeters of inscribed regular polygons as the number of sides increases without bound. The term circumference is used when measuring physical objects, as well as when considering abstract geometric forms.
### Relationship with `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} {#relationship_with}
The circumference of a circle is related to one of the most important mathematical constants. This constant, pi, is represented by the Greek letter $\pi.$ Its first few decimal digits are 3.141592653589793\... Pi is defined as the ratio of a circle\'s circumference $C$ to its diameter $d:$ $\pi = \frac{C}{d}.$
Or, equivalently, as the ratio of the circumference to twice the radius. The above formula can be rearranged to solve for the circumference: ${C} = \pi \cdot{d} = 2\pi \cdot{r}.\!$
The ratio of the circle\'s circumference to its radius is equivalent to $2\pi$. This is also the number of radians in one turn. The use of the mathematical constant `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} is ubiquitous in mathematics, engineering, and science.
In *Measurement of a Circle* written circa 250 BCE, Archimedes showed that this ratio (written as $C/d,$ since he did not use the name `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki}) was greater than 3`{{sfrac|10|71}}`{=mediawiki} but less than 3`{{sfrac|1|7}}`{=mediawiki} by calculating the perimeters of an inscribed and a circumscribed regular polygon of 96 sides. This method for approximating `{{pi}}`{=mediawiki} was used for centuries, obtaining more accuracy by using polygons of larger and larger number of sides. The last such calculation was performed in 1630 by Christoph Grienberger who used polygons with 10^40^ sides.
## Ellipse
*Main article: Ellipse#Circumference* Some authors use circumference to denote the perimeter of an ellipse. There is no general formula for the circumference of an ellipse in terms of the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse that uses only elementary functions. However, there are approximate formulas in terms of these parameters. One such approximation, due to Euler (1773), for the canonical ellipse, $\frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1,$ is $C_{\rm{ellipse}} \sim \pi \sqrt{2\left(a^2 + b^2\right)}.$ Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse with $a\geq b$ are: $2\pi b \leq C \leq 2\pi a,$ $\pi (a+b) \leq C \leq 4(a+b),$ $4\sqrt{a^2+b^2} \leq C \leq \pi \sqrt{2\left(a^2+b^2\right)}.$
Here the upper bound $2\pi a$ is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse\'s major axis, and the lower bound $4\sqrt{a^2+b^2}$ is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and minor axes.
The circumference of an ellipse can be expressed exactly in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind. More precisely, $C_{\rm{ellipse}} = 4a \int_0^{\pi/2} \sqrt{1 - e^2 \sin^2\theta}\ d\theta,$ where $a$ is the length of the semi-major axis and $e$ is the eccentricity $\sqrt{1 - b^2/a^2}
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# Coffea
***Coffea*** is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. *Coffea* species are shrubs or small trees native to tropical and southern Africa and tropical Asia. The seeds of some species, called coffee beans, are used to flavor various beverages and products. The fruits, like the seeds, contain a large amount of caffeine, and have a distinct sweet taste.
The plant ranks as one of the world\'s most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export product of several countries, including those in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Africa. The coffee trade relies heavily on two of the over 120 species, *Coffea arabica* (commonly known simply as \"Arabica\"), which accounts for 60--80% of the world\'s coffee production, and *Coffea canephora* (known as \"Robusta\"), which accounts for about 20--40%.
Both coffee species are vulnerable to shifts, caused by climate change, in their growing zones, which are likely to result in a decline in production in some of the most important growing regions.
## Cultivation and use {#cultivation_and_use}
There are over 130 species of *Coffea*, which is grown from seed. The two most popular are *Coffea arabica* (commonly known simply as \"Arabica\"), which accounts for 60--80% of the world\'s coffee production, and *Coffea canephora* (known as \"Robusta\"), which accounts for about 20--40%. *C. arabica* is preferred for its sweeter taste, while *C. canephora* has a higher caffeine content. *C. arabica* has its origins in the highlands of Ethiopia and the Boma Plateau of Sudan, and came about as the result of a hybrid between *C. canephora* and *C. eugenioides*.
The trees produce edible red or purple fruits that are either epigynous berries or indehiscent drupes. The fruit is often referred to as a \"coffee cherry\", and it contains two seeds, called \"coffee beans\". Despite these terms, coffee is neither a true cherry (the fruit of certain species in the genus *Prunus*) nor a true bean (seeds from plants in the family *Fabaceae*).
In any coffee crop, about 5--10% of fruits contain only a single bean. Called a peaberry, it is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean.
When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree that usually grows to a height of 3 -. Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations, but do not tolerate freezing temperatures.
The *Coffea arabica* tree grows fruit after three to five years, producing for an average of 50 to 60 years, though up to 100 years is possible. The white flowers are highly scented. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen.
## Ecology
The caffeine in coffee beans serves as a toxic substance that protects against insects and other pests, a form of natural plant defense against herbivory. Caffeine simultaneously attracts pollinators, specifically honeybees, by creating an olfactory memory that signals bees to return to the plant\'s flowers. Not all *Coffea* species contain caffeine, and the earliest species had little or no caffeine content. Caffeine has evolved independently in multiple lineages of *Coffea* in Africa, perhaps in response to high pest predation in the humid environments of West-Central Africa.
Caffeine has also evolved independently in the more distantly related genera *Theobroma* (cacao) and *Camellia* (tea). This suggests that caffeine production is an adaptive trait in coffee and plant evolution. The fruit and leaves also contain caffeine, and can be used to make coffee cherry tea and coffee-leaf tea. The fruit is also used in many brands of soft drink as well as pre-packaged teas.
Several insect pests affect coffee production, including the coffee borer beetle (*Hypothenemus hampei*) and the coffee leafminer (*Leucoptera caffeina*).
Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, *Dalcera abrasa*, turnip moth and some members of the genus *Endoclita*, including *E. damor* and *E. malabaricus*.
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# Coffea
## Research
New species of *Coffea* are still being identified in the 2000s. In 2008 and 2009, researchers from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, named seven from the mountains of northern Madagascar, including *C. ambongensis*, *C. boinensis*, *C. labatii*, *C. pterocarpa*, *C. bissetiae*, and *C. namorokensis*.
In 2008, two new species were discovered in Cameroon: *Coffea charrieriana*, which is caffeine-free, and *Coffea anthonyi*. By crossing the new species with other known coffees, two new features might be introduced to cultivated coffee plants: beans without caffeine and self-pollination.
In 2011, *Coffea* absorbed the twenty species of the former genus *Psilanthus* due to the morphological and genetic similarities between the two genera. Historically, the two have been considered distinct genera due to differences in the length of the corolla tube and the anther arrangement: *Coffea* with a short corolla tube and exserted style and anthers; *Psilanthus* with a long corolla tube and included anthers. However, these characteristics were not present in all species of either respective genus, making the two genera overwhelmingly similar in both morphology and genetic sequence. This transfer expanded *Coffea* from 104 species to 124, and extended its native distribution to tropical Asia and Australasia.
The coffee genome was published in 2014, with more than 25,000 genes identified. This revealed that coffee plants make caffeine using a different set of genes from those found in tea, cacao and other such plants.
A robust and almost fully resolved phylogeny of the entire genus was published in 2017. In addition to resolving the relationships of *Coffea* species, this study\'s results suggest Africa or Asia as the likely ancestral origin of Coffea and point to several independent radiations across Africa, Asia, and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.
In 2020, a technique of DNA fingerprinting, or genetic authentication of plant material, was proven effective for coffee. For the study, scientists used DNA extraction and SSR marker analysis. This technique or similar ones may allow for several improvements to coffee production such as improved information for farmers as to the susceptibility of their coffee plants to pests and disease, a professionalized coffee seed system, and transparency and traceability for buyers of green, un-roasted coffee.
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# Coffea
## Species
As of May 2024, Plants of the World Online includes: `{{div col|colwidth=20em}}`{=mediawiki}
1. *Coffea abbayesii* J.-F. Leroy
2. *Coffea affinis* De Wild.
3. *Coffea alleizettii* Dubard
4. *Coffea ambanjensis* J.-F. Leroy
5. *Coffea ambongenis* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
6. *Coffea andrambovatensis* J.-F. Leroy
7. *Coffea ankaranensis* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
8. *Coffea anthonyi* Stoff. & F. Anthony
9. *Coffea arabica* L.
10. *Coffea arenesiana* J.-F. Leroy
11. *Coffea augagneurii* Dubard
12. *Coffea bakossii* Cheek & Bridson
13. *Coffea benghalensis* B. Heyne ex Schult.
14. *Coffea bertrandii* A. Chev.
15. *Coffea betamponensis* Portères & J.-F. Leroy
16. *Coffea bissetiae* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
17. *Coffea boinensis* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
18. *Coffea boiviniana* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
19. *Coffea bonnieri* Dubard
20. *Coffea brassii* (J.-F. Leroy) A. P. Davis
21. *Coffea brevipes* Hiern
22. *Coffea bridsoniae* A. P. Davis & Mvungi
23. *Coffea buxifolia* A. Chev.
24. *Coffea callmanderi* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
25. *Coffea canephora* (*\"Coffea robusta\"*) Pierre ex A. Froehner
26. *Coffea carrissoi* A. Chev.
27. *Coffea charrieriana* Stoff. & F. Anthony
28. *Coffea cochinchinensis* Pierre ex Pit.
29. *Coffea commersoniana* (Baill.) A. Chev.
30. *Coffea congensis* A. Froehner
31. *Coffea costatifructa* Bridson
32. *Coffea coursiana* J.-F. Leroy
33. *Coffea dactylifera* Robbr. & Stoff.
34. *Coffea darainensis* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
35. *Coffea decaryana* J.-F. Leroy
36. *Coffea dubardii* Jum.
37. *Coffea ebracteolata* (Hiern) Brenan
38. *Coffea eugenioides* S. Moore
39. *Coffea fadenii* Bridson
40. *Coffea farafanganensis* J.-F. Leroy
41. *Coffea floresiana* Boerl.
42. *Coffea fotsoana* Stoff. & Sonké
43. *Coffea fragilis* J.-F. Leroy
44. *Coffea fragrans* Wall. ex Hook. f.
45. *Coffea gallienii* Dubard
46. *Coffea grevei* Drake ex A. Chev.
47. *Coffea heimii* J.-F. Leroy
48. *Coffea × heterocalyx* `{{Au|Stoff.}}`{=mediawiki}
49. *Coffea homollei* J.-F. Leroy
50. *Coffea horsfieldiana* Miq.
51. *Coffea humbertii* J.-F. Leroy
52. *Coffea humblotiana* Baill.
53. *Coffea humilis* A. Chev.
54. *Coffea jumellei* J.-F. Leroy
55. *Coffea kalobinonensis* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
56. *Coffea kapakata* (A. Chev.) Bridson
57. *Coffea kianjavatensis* J.-F. Leroy
58. *Coffea kihansiensis* A. P. Davis & Mvungi
59. *Coffea kimbozensis* Bridson
60. *Coffea kivuensis* Lebrun
61. *Coffea labatii* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
62. *Coffea lancifolia* A. Chev.
63. *Coffea lebruniana* Germ. & Kester
64. *Coffea leonimontana* Stoff.
65. *Coffea leroyi* A. P. Davis
66. *Coffea liaudii* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis
67. *Coffea liberica* Hiern
68. *Coffea ligustroides* S. Moore
69. *Coffea littoralis* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
70. *Coffea lulandoensis* Bridson
71. *Coffea mabesae* (Elmer) J.-F. Leroy
72. *Coffea macrocarpa* A. Rich.
73. *Coffea madurensis* Teijsm. & Binn. ex Koord.
74. *Coffea magnistipula* Stoff. & Robbr.
75. *Coffea malabarica* (Sivar., Biju & P. Mathew) A.P.Davis
76. *Coffea mangoroensis* Portères
77. *Coffea mannii* (Hook. f.) A. P. Davis
78. *Coffea manombensis* A. P. Davis
79. *Coffea mapiana* Sonké, Nguembou & A P. Davis
80. *Coffea mauritiana* Lam.
81. *Coffea mayombensis* A. Chev.
82. *Coffea mcphersonii* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
83. *Coffea melanocarpa* Welw. ex Hiern
84. *Coffea merguensis* Ridl.
85. *Coffea microdubardii* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
86. *Coffea millotii* J.-F. Leroy
87. *Coffea minutiflora* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
88. *Coffea mogenetii* Dubard
89. *Coffea mongensis* Bridson
90. *Coffea montekupensis* Stoff.
91. *Coffea montis-sacri* A. P. Davis
92. *Coffea moratii* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
93. *Coffea mufindiensis* Hutch. ex Bridson
94. *Coffea myrtifolia* (A.Rich. ex DC.) J.-F. Leroy
95. *Coffea namorokensis* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
96. *Coffea neobridsoniae* A. P. Davis
97. *Coffea neoleroyi* A. P. Davis
98. *Coffea perrieri* Drake ex Jum. & H. Perrier
99. *Coffea pervilleana* (Baill.) Drake
100. *Coffea pocsii* Bridson
101. *Coffea pseudozanguebariae* Bridson
102. *Coffea pterocarpa* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
103. *Coffea pustulata* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
104. *Coffea racemosa* Lour.
105. *Coffea rakotonasoloi* A. P. Davis
106. *Coffea ratsimamangae* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
107. *Coffea resinosa* (Hook. f.) Radlk.
108. *Coffea rhamnifolia* (Chiov.) Bridson
109. *Coffea richardii* J.-F. Leroy
110. *Coffea rizetiana* `{{Au|Stoff. & Noirot}}`{=mediawiki}
111. *Coffea rupicola* `{{Au|A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.}}`{=mediawiki}
112. *Coffea sahafaryensis* J.-F. Leroy
113. *Coffea sakarahae* J.-F. Leroy
114. *Coffea salvatrix* Swynn. & Philipson
115. *Coffea sambavensis* J.-F. Leroy ex A. P Davis & Rakotonas.
116. *Coffea sapinii* (De Wild.) A. P. Davis
117. *Coffea schliebenii* Bridson
118. *Coffea semsei* (Bridson) A. P. Davis
119. *Coffea sessiliflora* Bridson
120. *Coffea stenophylla* G. Don
121. *Coffea tetragona* Jum. & H. Perrier
122. *Coffea togoensis* A. Chev.
123. *Coffea toshii* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
124. *Coffea travancorensis* Wight & Arn.
125. *Coffea tricalysioides* J.-F. Leroy
126. *Coffea tsirananae* J.-F. Leroy
127. *Coffea vatovavyensis* J.-F. Leroy
128. *Coffea vavateninensis* J.-F. Leroy
129. *Coffea vianneyi* J.-F. Leroy
130. *Coffea vohemarensis* A. P. Davis & Rakotonas.
131. *Coffea wightiana* Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
132. *Coffea zanguebariae* Lour
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# Chemical thermodynamics
**Chemical thermodynamics** is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties, but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the *spontaneity* of processes.
The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the \"fundamental equations of Gibbs\" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics.
## History
In 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, in his *Mechanical Theory of Heat*, suggested that the principles of thermochemistry, e.g. the heat evolved in combustion reactions, could be applied to the principles of thermodynamics. Building on the work of Clausius, between the years 1873-76 the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous one being the paper *On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances*. In these papers, Gibbs showed how the first two laws of thermodynamics could be measured graphically and mathematically to determine both the thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical reactions as well as their tendencies to occur or proceed. Gibbs\' collection of papers provided the first unified body of thermodynamic theorems from the principles developed by others, such as Clausius and Sadi Carnot.
During the early 20th century, two major publications successfully applied the principles developed by Gibbs to chemical processes and thus established the foundation of the science of chemical thermodynamics. The first was the 1923 textbook *Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances* by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall. This book was responsible for supplanting the chemical affinity with the term free energy in the English-speaking world. The second was the 1933 book *Modern Thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs* written by E. A. Guggenheim. In this manner, Lewis, Randall, and Guggenheim are considered as the founders of modern chemical thermodynamics because of the major contribution of these two books in unifying the application of thermodynamics to chemistry.
## Overview
The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes:
1. Chemical reactions
2. Phase changes
3. The formation of solutions
The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics:
- Internal energy (*U*)
- Enthalpy (*H*)
- Entropy (*S*)
- Gibbs free energy (*G*)
Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions.
**The three laws of thermodynamics** (global, unspecific forms):
1. The energy of the universe is constant.
2. In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in entropy of the universe.
3. The entropy of a perfect crystal (well ordered) at 0 Kelvin is zero.
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# Chemical thermodynamics
## Chemical energy {#chemical_energy}
**Chemical energy** is the energy that can be released when chemical substances undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction. Breaking and making chemical bonds involves energy release or uptake, often as heat that may be either absorbed by or evolved from the chemical system.
Energy released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between chemical substances (\"reactants\") is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants. This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical system. It can be calculated from $\Delta_{\rm f}U^{\rm o}_{\mathrm {reactants}}$, the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules related to the bond energies of the molecules under consideration, and $\Delta_{\rm f}U^{\rm o}_{\mathrm {products}}$, the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The change in internal energy is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume (at STP condition), as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, at constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat is usually not equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the widely tabulated enthalpies of formation are used.)
A related term is the heat of combustion, which is the chemical energy released due to a combustion reaction and of interest in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its energy release is similar (though assessed differently than for a hydrocarbon fuel --- see food energy).
In chemical thermodynamics, the term used for the chemical potential energy is chemical potential, and sometimes the Gibbs-Duhem equation is used.
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# Chemical thermodynamics
## Chemical reactions {#chemical_reactions}
In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which create entropy in the universe unless they are at equilibrium or are maintained at a \"running equilibrium\" through \"quasi-static\" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work. Even for homogeneous \"bulk\" systems, the free-energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy. If the quantities { *N*~*i*~ }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes.
### Gibbs function or Gibbs Energy {#gibbs_function_or_gibbs_energy}
For an unstructured, homogeneous \"bulk\" system, there are still various *extensive* compositional variables { *N*~*i*~ } that *G* depends on, which specify the composition (the amounts of each chemical substance, expressed as the numbers of molecules present or the numbers of moles). Explicitly,
$G = G(T,P,\{N_i\})\,.$
For the case where only *PV* work is possible,
$\mathrm{d}G = -S\, \mathrm{d}T + V \, \mathrm{d}P + \sum_i \mu_i \, \mathrm{d}N_i \,$
a restatement of the fundamental thermodynamic relation, in which *μ~i~* is the chemical potential for the *i*-th component in the system
$\mu_i = \left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial N_i}\right)_{T,P,N_{j\ne i},etc. } \,.$
The expression for d*G* is especially useful at constant *T* and *P*, conditions, which are easy to achieve experimentally and which approximate the conditions in living creatures
$(\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = \sum_i \mu_i \, \mathrm{d}N_i\,.$
### Chemical affinity {#chemical_affinity}
While this formulation is mathematically defensible, it is not particularly transparent since one does not simply add or remove molecules from a system. There is always a *process* involved in changing the composition; e.g., a chemical reaction (or many), or movement of molecules from one phase (liquid) to another (gas or solid). We should find a notation which does not seem to imply that the amounts of the components ( *N*~*i*~ ) can be changed independently. All real processes obey conservation of mass, and in addition, conservation of the numbers of atoms of each kind.
Consequently, we introduce an explicit variable to represent the degree of advancement of a process, a progress variable *ξ* for the *extent of reaction* (Prigogine & Defay, p. 18; Prigogine, pp. 4--7; Guggenheim, p. 37.62), and to the use of the partial derivative ∂*G*/∂*ξ* (in place of the widely used \"Δ*G*\", since the quantity at issue is not a finite change). The result is an understandable expression for the dependence of d*G* on chemical reactions (or other processes). If there is just one reaction $(\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = \left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi}\right)_{T,P} \, \mathrm{d}\xi.\,$
If we introduce the *stoichiometric coefficient* for the *i*-th component in the reaction
$\nu_i = \partial N_i / \partial \xi \,$
(negative for reactants), which tells how many molecules of *i* are produced or consumed, we obtain an algebraic expression for the partial derivative
$\left( \frac{\partial G}{\partial \xi} \right)_{T,P} = \sum_i \mu_i \nu_i = -\mathbb{A}\,$
where we introduce a concise and historical name for this quantity, the \"affinity\", symbolized by **A**, as introduced by Théophile de Donder in 1923.(De Donder; Progogine & Defay, p. 69; Guggenheim, pp. 37, 240) The minus sign ensures that in a spontaneous change, when the change in the Gibbs free energy of the process is negative, the chemical species have a positive affinity for each other. The differential of *G* takes on a simple form that displays its dependence on composition change
$(\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = -\mathbb{A}\, d\xi \,.$
If there are a number of chemical reactions going on simultaneously, as is usually the case,
$(\mathrm{d}G)_{T,P} = -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, d\xi_k \,.$
with a set of reaction coordinates { ξ~*j*~ }, avoiding the notion that the amounts of the components ( *N*~*i*~ ) can be changed independently. The expressions above are equal to zero at thermodynamic equilibrium, while they are negative when chemical reactions proceed at a finite rate, producing entropy. This can be made even more explicit by introducing the reaction *rates* d*ξ*~*j*~/d*t*. For every *physically independent* *process* (Prigogine & Defay, p. 38; Prigogine, p. 24)
$\mathbb{A}\ \dot{\xi} \le 0 \,.$
This is a remarkable result since the chemical potentials are intensive system variables, depending only on the local molecular milieu. They cannot \"know\" whether temperature and pressure (or any other system variables) are going to be held constant over time. It is a purely local criterion and must hold regardless of any such constraints. Of course, it could have been obtained by taking partial derivatives of any of the other fundamental state functions, but nonetheless is a general criterion for (−*T* times) the entropy production from that spontaneous process; or at least any part of it that is not captured as external work. (See *Constraints* below.)
We now relax the requirement of a homogeneous \"bulk\" system by letting the chemical potentials and the affinity apply to any locality in which a chemical reaction (or any other process) is occurring. By accounting for the entropy production due to irreversible processes, the equality for d*G* is now replaced by
$\mathrm{d}G = - S \, \mathrm{d}T + V \, \mathrm{d}P -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, \mathrm{d}\xi_k + \mathrm{\delta} W'\,$
or
$\mathrm{d}G_{T,P} = -\sum_k\mathbb{A}_k\, \mathrm{d}\xi_k + \mathrm{\delta} W'.\,$
Any decrease in the Gibbs function of a system is the upper limit for any isothermal, isobaric work that can be captured in the surroundings, or it may simply be dissipated, appearing as *T* times a corresponding increase in the entropy of the system and its surrounding. Or it may go partly toward doing external work and partly toward creating entropy. The important point is that the *extent of reaction* for a chemical reaction may be coupled to the displacement of some external mechanical or electrical quantity in such a way that one can advance only if the other also does. The coupling may occasionally be *rigid*, but it is often flexible and variable.
### Solutions
In solution chemistry and biochemistry, the Gibbs free energy decrease (∂*G*/∂*ξ*, in molar units, denoted cryptically by Δ*G*) is commonly used as a surrogate for (−*T* times) the global entropy produced by spontaneous chemical reactions in situations where no work is being done; or at least no \"useful\" work; i.e., other than perhaps ± *P* d*V*. The assertion that all *spontaneous reactions have a negative ΔG* is merely a restatement of the second law of thermodynamics, giving it the physical dimensions of energy and somewhat obscuring its significance in terms of entropy. When no useful work is being done, it would be less misleading to use the Legendre transforms of the entropy appropriate for constant *T*, or for constant *T* and *P*, the Massieu functions −*F*/*T* and −*G*/*T*, respectively.
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# Chemical thermodynamics
## Non-equilibrium {#non_equilibrium}
Generally the systems treated with the conventional chemical thermodynamics are either at equilibrium or near equilibrium. Ilya Prigogine developed the thermodynamic treatment of open systems that are far from equilibrium. In doing so he has discovered phenomena and structures of completely new and completely unexpected types. His generalized, nonlinear and irreversible thermodynamics has found surprising applications in a wide variety of fields.
The non-equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how ordered structures e.g. the biological systems, can develop from disorder. Even if Onsager\'s relations are utilized, the classical principles of equilibrium in thermodynamics still show that linear systems close to equilibrium always develop into states of disorder which are stable to perturbations and cannot explain the occurrence of ordered structures.
Prigogine called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes which take place because of the exchange of energy between the system and its environment and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. They may be said to live in symbiosis with their environment.
The method which Prigogine used to study the stability of the dissipative structures to perturbations is of very great general interest. It makes it possible to study the most varied problems, such as city traffic problems, the stability of insect communities, the development of ordered biological structures and the growth of cancer cells to mention but a few examples.
### System constraints {#system_constraints}
In this regard, it is crucial to understand the role of walls and other *constraints*, and the distinction between *independent* processes and *coupling*. Contrary to the clear implications of many reference sources, the previous analysis is not restricted to homogeneous, isotropic bulk systems which can deliver only *P*d*V* work to the outside world, but applies even to the most structured systems. There are complex systems with many chemical \"reactions\" going on at the same time, some of which are really only parts of the same, overall process. An *independent* process is one that *could* proceed even if all others were unaccountably stopped in their tracks. Understanding this is perhaps a \"thought experiment\" in chemical kinetics, but actual examples exist.
A gas-phase reaction at constant temperature and pressure which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume. Inside a cylinder closed with a piston, it can proceed only by doing work on the piston. The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves out, and conversely if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards.
Similarly, a redox reaction might occur in an electrochemical cell with the passage of current through a wire connecting the electrodes. The half-cell reactions at the electrodes are constrained if no current is allowed to flow. The current might be dissipated as Joule heating, or it might in turn run an electrical device like a motor doing mechanical work. An automobile lead-acid battery can be recharged, driving the chemical reaction backwards. In this case as well, the reaction is not an independent process. Some, perhaps most, of the Gibbs free energy of reaction may be delivered as external work.
The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate can drive the force-times-distance work delivered by living muscles, and synthesis of ATP is in turn driven by a redox chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which involves the transport of ions across the membranes of these cellular organelles. The coupling of processes here, and in the previous examples, is often not complete. Gas can leak slowly past a piston, just as it can slowly leak out of a rubber balloon. Some reaction may occur in a battery even if no external current is flowing. There is usually a coupling coefficient, which may depend on relative rates, which determines what percentage of the driving free energy is turned into external work, or captured as \"chemical work\", a misnomer for the free energy of another chemical process
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# Standard works
The **Standard Works** of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church, the largest in the Latter Day Saint movement) are the four books that currently constitute its open scriptural canon. The four books of the standard works are:
- The Authorized King James Version (KJV) as the official scriptural text of the Bible (other versions of the Bible are used in non-English-speaking countries)
- The Book of Mormon, subtitled since 1981 *\"Another Testament of Jesus Christ\"*
- The Doctrine and Covenants (D&C)
- The Pearl of Great Price (containing the Book of Moses, the Book of Abraham, Joseph Smith--Matthew, Joseph Smith--History, and the Articles of Faith)
The *Standard Works* are printed and distributed by the LDS Church both in a single binding called a *quadruple combination* and as a set of two books, with the Bible in one binding, and the other three books in a second binding called a *triple combination*. Current editions of the *Standard Works* include a number of non-canonical study aids, including a Bible dictionary, photographs, maps and gazetteer, topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, and excerpts from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.
The scriptural canon is \"open\" due to the Latter-day Saint belief in continuous revelation. Additions can be made to the scriptural canon with the \"common consent\" of the church\'s membership. Other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement reject some of the *Standard Works* or add other scriptures, such as the Book of the Law of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel.
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## Differences in canonicity across sects {#differences_in_canonicity_across_sects}
Canons of various Latter Day Saint denominations reject some of the *Standard Works* canonized by the LDS Church or have included additional works. For instance, the Bickertonite sect does not consider the Pearl of Great Price or D&C to be scriptural. Rather, they believe that the New Testament scriptures contain a true description of the church as established by Jesus Christ, and that both the King James Version of the Bible and the Book of Mormon are the inspired word of God. Some Latter Day Saint denominations accept earlier versions of the *Standard Works* or work to develop corrected translations. Others have purportedly received additional revelations.
The Community of Christ points to Jesus Christ as the living Word of God, and it affirms the Bible, along with the Book of Mormon, as well as its own regularly appended version of D&C as scripture for the church. While it publishes a version of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible---which includes material from the Book of Moses---Community of Christ also accepts the use of other English translations of the Bible, such as the standard King James Version and the New Revised Standard Version.
Like the Bickertonites, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) rejects the D&C and the Pearl of Great Price, as well as the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible, preferring to use only the King James Bible and the Book of Mormon as doctrinal standards. The Book of Commandments is accepted as being superior to the D&Cs as a compendium of Smith\'s early revelations but is not accorded the same status as the Bible or the Book of Mormon.
The Word of the Lord and The Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel are two related books considered to be scriptural by Fettingite factions that separated from the Temple Lot church. Both books contain revelations said to be given to former Church of Christ (Temple Lot) apostle Otto Fetting by an angelic being who said he was John the Baptist. The latter title (120 messages) contains the entirety of the former\'s material (30 message) with additional revelations (90 messages) said to be given to William A. Draves by this same being, after Fetting\'s death. Neither are accepted by the larger Temple Lot body of believers.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) considers the Bible (when correctly translated), the Book of Mormon, and editions of the D&C published prior to Joseph Smith\'s death (which contained the Lectures on Faith) to be inspired scripture. They also hold the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible to be inspired, but do not believe modern publications of the text are accurate. Other portions of the Pearl of Great Price, however, are not considered to be scriptural---though are not necessarily fully rejected either. The Book of Jasher was consistently used by both Joseph Smith and James Strang, but as with other Latter Day Saint denominations and sects, there is no official stance on its authenticity, and it is not considered canonical. This sect likewise holds as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the *Revelations of James J. Strang*.
An additional work, called The Book of the Law of the Lord, is also accepted as inspired scripture by the Strangites. They likewise hold as scriptural several prophecies, visions, revelations, and translations printed by James Strang, and published in the *Revelations of James J. Strang*. Among other things, this text contains his purported \"Letter of Appointment\" from Joseph Smith and his translation of the Voree plates.
The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the following as scripture: the Inspired Version of the Bible (including the Book of Moses and Joseph Smith--Matthew), the Book of Mormon, and the 1844 edition of the D&C (including the Lectures on Faith). However, the revelation on tithing (section 107 in the 1844 edition; 119 in modern LDS Church editions) is emphatically rejected by members of this church, as it is not believed to be given by Joseph Smith. The Book of Abraham is rejected as scripture, as are the other portions of the Pearl of Great Price that do not appear in the Inspired Version of the Bible.
Many Latter Day Saint denominations have also either adopted the Articles of Faith or at least view them as a statement of basic theology. (They are considered scriptural by the LDS Church and are included in the Pearl of Great Price.) At times, the Articles of Faith have been adapted to fit the respective belief systems of various faith communities.
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# Standard works
## Process of addition or alteration {#process_of_addition_or_alteration}
The D&C teaches that \"all things must be done in order, and by common consent in the church\". This applies to adding new scripture. LDS Church president Harold B. Lee taught \"The only one authorized to bring forth any new doctrine is the President of the Church, who, when he does, will declare it as revelation from God, and it will be so accepted by the Council of the Twelve and sustained by the body of the Church.\" There are several instances of this happening in the LDS Church:
- June 9, 1830: First conference of the church, The Articles and Covenants of the Church of Christ, now known as D&C 20. If the Bible and Book of Mormon were not sustained on April 6 then they were by default when the Articles and Covenants were sustained. (see D&C 20:8-11)
- August 17, 1835: Select revelations from Joseph Smith were unanimously accepted as scripture. These were later printed in the D&C.
- October 10, 1880: The Pearl of Great Price was unanimously accepted as scripture. Also at that time, other revelations in the Doctrine and Covenants -- which had not been accepted as scripture in 1835 because they were received after that date -- were unanimously accepted as scripture.
- October 6, 1890: Official Declaration 1 was accepted unanimously as scripture. It later began to be published in the Doctrine and Covenants.
- April 3, 1976: Two visions (one received by Joseph Smith and the other by Joseph F. Smith) were accepted as scripture and added to the Pearl of Great Price. (The two visions were later moved to the D&C as sections 137 and 138.)
- September 30, 1978: Official Declaration 2 was accepted unanimously as scripture. It immediately was added to the Doctrine and Covenants.
When a doctrine undergoes this procedure, the LDS Church treats it as the word of God, and it is used as a standard to compare other doctrines. Lee taught:
> It is not to be thought that every word spoken by the General Authorities is inspired, or that they are moved upon by the Holy Ghost in everything they speak and write. Now you keep that in mind. I don\'t care what his position is, if he writes something or speaks something that goes beyond anything that you can find in the standard works, unless that one be the prophet, seer, and revelator---please note that one exception---you may immediately say, \"Well, that is his own idea!\" And if he says something that contradicts what is found in the standard works (I think that is why we call them \"standard\"---it is the standard measure of all that men teach), you may know by that same token that it is false; regardless of the position of the man who says it.
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# Standard works
## The Bible {#the_bible}
English-speaking Latter-day Saints typically study a custom edition of the KJV, which includes custom chapter headings, footnotes referencing books in the Standard Works, and select passages from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.
Though the KJV was always commonly used, it was officially adopted in the 1950s when J. Reuben Clark, of the church\'s First Presidency, argued extensively that newer translations, such as Revised Standard Version (RSV) of 1952, were of lower quality and less compatible with LDS Church tradition. After publishing its own KJV edition in 1979, the First Presidency announced in 1992 that the KJV was the church\'s official English Bible, stating: \"\[w\]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations.\" In 2010, this statement was written into the church\'s *Handbook*, which directs official church policy and programs.
A Spanish version, with a similar format and using a slightly revised version of the 1909 Reina-Valera translation, was published in 2009. Latter-day Saints in other non-English speaking areas may use other versions of the Bible.
Though the Bible is part of the LDS Church\'s canon and members believe it to be the word of God, they believe that errors, omissions, and mistranslations are present in even the earliest known Biblical manuscripts. They state that the errors in the Bible have led to incorrect interpretations of certain passages. Thus, as Joseph Smith explained, the church believes the Bible to be the word of God \"as far as it is translated correctly\". The LDS Church teaches that \"\[t\]he most reliable way to measure the accuracy of any biblical passage is not by comparing different texts, but by comparison with the Book of Mormon and modern-day revelations\".
The manuscripts of the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible state that \"the Songs of Solomon are not inspired scripture,\" and therefore it is not included in the LDS Church\'s canon and is rarely studied by its members. However, it is still printed in every version of the KJV published by the church.
### The Apocrypha {#the_apocrypha}
Although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV, the LDS Church does not currently use the Apocrypha as part of its canon. Joseph Smith taught that while the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha was not to be relied on for doctrine, it was potentially useful when read with a spirit of discernment.
### Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible {#joseph_smith_translation_of_the_bible}
Joseph Smith translated selected verses of the Bible, working by subject. His complete work is known as the *Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible*, or the *Inspired Version*. Although this selected translation is not generally quoted by church members, the English Bible issued by the church and commonly used by Latter-day Saints contains cross-references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing longer excerpts from it. Excerpts that were too long to include in the Bible appendix are included in the Pearl of Great Price as the Book of Moses (for Genesis 1:1-6:13) and Joseph Smith-Matthew (for Matthew 23:39-24:51 and Mark 13).
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# Standard works
## The Book of Mormon {#the_book_of_mormon}
LDS Church members, and others in the Latter Day Saint movement, consider the Book of Mormon a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible. It contains a record of God\'s dealings with the prophets and ancient inhabitants of the Americas. The introduction to the book asserts that it \"contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel. The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation. Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon.\"
Segments of the Book of Mormon provide an account of the culture, religious teachings, and civilizations of some of the groups who immigrated to the New World. One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C., and afterward separated into two nations, identified in the book as the Nephites and the Lamanites. Some years after their arrival, the Nephites met with a similar group, the Mulekites who left the Middle East during the same period. An older group arrived in America much earlier, when the Lord confounded the tongues at the Tower of Babel. This group is known as the Jaredites and their story is condensed in the Book of Ether. The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his resurrection. This account presents the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and offers men peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come. The latter segments of the Book of Mormon detail the destruction of these civilizations, as all were destroyed except the Lamanites. The book asserts that the Lamanites are among the ancestors of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas.
According to his record, Joseph Smith translated the Book of Mormon by gift and power of God through a set of interpreters, later referred to as the Urim and Thummim. Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon. The Three Witnesses testified to have seen an angel present the golden plates and to have heard God bear witness to its truth. Eight others stated that Joseph Smith showed them the golden plates and that they handled and examined them.
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# Standard works
## The Doctrine and Covenants {#the_doctrine_and_covenants}
The LDS Church\'s D&C is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements given to the modern church by past church presidents. This record contains points of church doctrine and direction on church government. The book has existed in numerous forms, with varying content, throughout the history of the church and has also been published in differing formats by the various Latter Day Saint denominations. When the church chooses to canonize new material, it is typically added to the D&C; the most recent changes were made in 1981.
## The Pearl of Great Price {#the_pearl_of_great_price}
The Pearl of Great Price is a selection of material produced by Joseph Smith and deals with many significant aspects of the faith and doctrine of the church. Many of these materials were initially published in church periodicals in the early days of the church.
The Pearl of Great Price contains five sections:
- Selections from the Book of Moses: portions of the Book of Genesis from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.
- The Book of Abraham: a translation from papyri acquired by Smith in 1835, dealing with Abraham\'s journeys in Egypt. The work contains many distinctive Mormon doctrines such as exaltation.
- Joseph Smith--Matthew: portions of the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Mark from the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible.
- Joseph Smith--History: a first-person narrative of Smith\'s life before the founding of the church. The material is taken from *Documentary History of the Church* and is based on a history written by Smith in 1838.
- The Articles of Faith: concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of Mormonism composed by Smith in 1842.
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# Standard works
## Table of canonicity {#table_of_canonicity}
All denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement listed below use the same canon of the Book of Mormon. Other uses and content vary among their respective canons.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Books | The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) | Community of Christ (RLDS) | Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) | Church of Christ (Temple Lot) | Church of Christ (Fettingite) | Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) | Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) |
+===============================================================================================================================================================================+==============================================================+============================+=======================================+===============================+===============================+=========================================================+====================================+
| Doctrine and Covenants | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Book of Commandments | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Moroni\'s visit to Joseph Smith | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Conferral of Aaronic priesthood by John the Baptist | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Three Witnesses | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Parley P. Pratt and Ziba Peterson | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Property division | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Location of Zion at Jackson County, Missouri | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Prayer of Joseph Smith; keys of the kingdom | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To William E. McLellin | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Testimony of the Book of Commandments | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Orson Hyde, Luke S. Johnson, Lyman E. Johnson, and William E. McLellin; bishops; parents | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Assignments for John Whitmer | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Stewardship; equality | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon called to preach | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Bishops | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Explanation of 1 Corinthians 7:14; salvation of children | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Missionary work; families of missionaries | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Jesus Christ; resurrection; degrees of glory; origin of Satan | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Explanation of certain verses in Revelation | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| United Order; equality | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Jared Carter | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Stephen Burnett and Eden Smith | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Jesse Gause; on 18 Mar 1833 its application was transferred to Frederick G. Williams | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Obedience; United Order; equality | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Husbands and fathers; widows and orphans | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Priesthood | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Letter from Joseph Smith to W. W. Phelps; United Order; One Mighty and Strong; equality | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Parable of the Tares explained | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Prophecy of war and calamity | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| The \"olive leaf\"; \"Lord\'s message of peace\" | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| A \"Word of Wisdom\" | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Keys of the kingdom; First Presidency | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| The Apocrypha | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Frederick G. Williams | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| John\'s record of Christ; intelligence; innocence of children | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Hyrum Smith, Reynolds Cahoon, and Jared Carter; construction of various buildings commanded | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Kirtland Temple to be built; purpose of temples | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Division of property | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Saints in Jackson County, Missouri; temple to be built in Jackson County | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Promises and warnings; martyrs; when war is justified; forgiving enemies | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To John Murdock | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to preach gospel; Rigdon to be Smith\'s spokesman; welfare of Orson Hyde and John Gould | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Redemption of Zion; parables; United States and the U.S. Constitution; Saints to seek redress | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Minutes for first high council meeting | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Redemption of Zion; organization of Zion\'s Camp | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| United Order | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Redemption of Zion; purpose of Kirtland Temple; peace | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Warren A. Cowdery; Second Coming | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Priesthood; quorums | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Lyman Sherman | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Dedicatory prayer for Kirtland Temple | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Visitation of Jesus Christ to accept Kirtland Temple; conferral of priesthood keys; coming of Moses, Elias, and Elijah | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| temporal needs of the church | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| To Thomas B. Marsh; Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; First Presidency | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Answers to questions on the Book of Isaiah | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Concerning David W. Patten | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Name of the church; stakes; temple to be built at Far West, Missouri | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Adam-ondi-Ahman | | | | | | | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------------------------------+-------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------+
| Concerning William Marks, Newel K
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The **history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints** (LDS Church) has three main periods, described generally as:
1. the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, which is in common with most Latter Day Saint movement churches;
2. the \"pioneer era\" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th-century successors;
3. the modern era beginning in the early 20th century as the practice of polygamy was discontinued and many members sought reintegration into U.S. society.
The LDS Church originated in the burned-over district within Western New York. Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in this region during the Second Great Awakening. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of inscriptions found on a set of golden plates buried near his home in Upstate New York by an Indigenous American prophet named Moroni.
On April 6, 1830, at the home of Peter Whitmer in Fayette, New York, Smith organized the religion\'s first legal church entity, the Church of Christ, which grew rapidly under Smith\'s leadership. The main body of the church moved first to Kirtland, Ohio, in the early 1830s, then to Missouri in 1838, where the 1838 Mormon War with other Missouri settlers ensued. On October 27, 1838, Lilburn W. Boggs, the Governor of Missouri, signed Missouri Executive Order 44, which called to expel adherents from the state. Approximately 15,000 Mormons fled to Illinois after their surrender at Far West on November 1, 1838.
After fleeing from Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, which grew rapidly. When Smith was killed, Nauvoo had a population of about 12,000 people, nearly all members of Smith\'s church. After his death, a succession crisis ensued and the majority voted to accept the Quorum of the Twelve, led by Brigham Young, as the church\'s leading body.
After suffering persecution in Illinois, Young left Nauvoo in 1846 and led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, to Salt Lake Valley. The Mormon pioneers then branched out to pioneer a large state called Deseret, establishing colonies that spanned from Canada to Mexico.
Young incorporated the LDS Church as a legal entity and governed his followers as a theocratic leader, assuming both political and religious positions. He also publicized the previously secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy. By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Latter-day Saints and other Americans, largely as a result of the teachings on polygamy and theocracy. During the Utah War, from 1857 to 1858, the United States Army conducted an invasion of Utah, after which Young agreed to be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial Governor, Alfred Cumming.
The church, however, still wielded significant political power in Utah Territory. Even after Young died in 1877, many members continued the practice of polygamy despite opposition by the United States Congress. When tensions with the U.S. government came to a head in 1890, the church officially abandoned the public practice of polygamy in the United States and eventually stopped performing official polygamous marriages altogether after a Second Manifesto in 1904. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating members who were found to be practicing polygamy, and today seeks to actively distance itself from polygamist fundamentalist groups.
During the 20th century, the church became an international organization. The church first began engaging with mainstream American culture, and then with international cultures. It engaged especially in Latin American countries by sending out thousands of missionaries. The church began publicly supporting monogamy and the nuclear family, and at times played a role in political matters. One of the official changes to the organization during the modern era was the participation of black members in temple ceremonies, which began in 1978, reversing a policy originally instituted by Young. The church has also gradually changed its temple ceremony. There continue to be periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## Early history (1820s to 1846) {#early_history_1820s_to_1846}
Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, was raised in Western New York during the Second Great Awakening. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon. He stated that the book was a translation of characters from an ancient script called reformed Egyptian that he stated was inscribed on gold plates which had been buried near his residence in western New York by an indigenous American prophet. Smith said he had been given the plates from the angel Moroni.
On April 6, 1830, in western New York, Smith organized the religion\'s first legal church entity, the Church of Christ. The church rapidly gained a following who viewed Smith as their prophet. In late 1830, Smith envisioned a \"City of Zion\", a utopian city in Native American lands near Independence, Missouri. In October 1830, he sent his Assistant President, Oliver Cowdery, and others on a mission to the area.`{{unreliable source?|date=September 2021}}`{=mediawiki} Passing through Kirtland, Ohio, the missionaries converted a congregation of Disciples of Christ led by Sidney Rigdon, and in 1831, Smith decided to temporarily move his followers to Kirtland until lands in the Missouri area could be purchased. In the meantime, the church\'s headquarters remained in Kirtland from 1831 to 1838 and there the church built its first temple and continued to grow in membership from 680 to 17,881 members.
While the main church body was in Kirtland, many of Smith\'s followers attempted to establish settlements in Missouri but were met with resistance from other Missourians who believed Mormons were abolitionists or who distrusted their political ambitions. After Smith and other Mormons in Kirtland emigrated to Missouri in 1838, hostilities escalated into the 1838 Mormon War, culminating in adherents being expelled from the state under an Extermination Order signed by Lilburn W. Boggs, the governor of Missouri.
After Missouri, Smith founded the city of Nauvoo, Illinois as the new church headquarters, and served as the city\'s mayor and leader of the Nauvoo Legion. As church leader, Smith also instituted the then-secret practice of plural marriage and taught a political system he called \"theodemocracy\", to be led by a Council of Fifty which had secretly and symbolically anointed him king of this millennial theodemocracy.
On June 7, 1844, a newspaper called the *Nauvoo Expositor*, edited by dissident Mormon William Law, issued a scathing criticism of polygamy and the Nauvoo theocratic government, including a call for church reform based on earlier Mormon principles. In response to the newspaper\'s publication, Smith and the Nauvoo City Council declared the paper a public nuisance, and ordered the press destroyed. The town marshal carried out the order during the evening of June 10. The destruction of the press led to charges of riot against Smith and other members of the council. After Smith surrendered on the charges, he was also charged with treason against Illinois. While in state custody, he and his brother Hyrum Smith, who was second in line to the church presidency, were killed in a firefight with an angry mob attacking the jail on June 27, 1844.
After Smith\'s death, a succession crisis ensued. In this crisis a number of church leaders campaigned to lead the church. Most adherents voted on August 8, 1844, to accept the leadership of Brigham Young, the senior apostle. Later, adherents bolstered their succession claims by referring to a March 1844 meeting in which Joseph committed the \"keys of the kingdom\" to a group of members within the Council of Fifty that included the apostles. In addition, by the end of the 1800s, several of Young\'s followers had published reminiscences recalling that during Young\'s August 8 speech, he looked or sounded similar to Joseph Smith, which they attributed to the power of God.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1900) {#pioneer_era_c._1846_to_c._1900}
### Migration to Utah and colonization of the West {#migration_to_utah_and_colonization_of_the_west}
*Main article: Mormon pioneers, History of Utah* Under the leadership of Brigham Young, church leaders planned to leave Nauvoo, Illinois in April 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February. They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City.
The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the Mormon pioneers and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the Mormon Trail. The arrival of the Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day.
Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather in Utah in the following decades. Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in many deaths. Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico. Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include San Bernardino, California, Las Vegas, Nevada, and Mesa, Arizona.
### Brigham Young\'s early theocratic leadership {#brigham_youngs_early_theocratic_leadership}
Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see succession crisis). Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Young was sustained as a member of the First Presidency on December 25, 1847, and then as President of the Church on October 8, 1848.
In the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded the area to the United States. As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to Washington, D.C. with a proposal to create a vast State of Deseret, of which Young would be the first governor. Instead, Congress created the much smaller Utah Territory in 1850, and Young was appointed governor in 1851. Because of his religious position, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time.
For most of the 19th century, the LDS Church maintained an ecclesiastical court system parallel to federal courts, and required Mormons to use the system exclusively for civil matters, or face church discipline.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1900) {#pioneer_era_c._1846_to_c._1900}
### Mormon Reformation {#mormon_reformation}
In 1856--1858, the church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation. In 1855, a drought struck the flourishing territory. Very little rain fell, and dependable mountain streams ran very low. An infestation of grasshoppers and crickets destroyed whatever crops the Mormons had managed to salvage. During the winter of 1855--56, flour and other basic necessities were very scarce and costly.
In September 1856, as the drought continued, the trials and difficulties led to an explosion of religious fervor. Jedediah M. Grant, a counselor in the First Presidency and a well-known conservative voice in the extended community, preached three days of fiery sermons to the people of Kaysville, Utah territory. He called for repentance and a general recommitment to moral living and religious teachings. 500 people presented themselves for \"re-baptism\"---a symbol of their determination to reform their lives. The message spread from Kaysville to surrounding Mormon communities. Church leaders traveled around the territory, expressing their concern about signs of spiritual decay and calling for repentance. Members were asked to seal their rededication with re-baptism.
Several sermons Willard Richards and George A. Smith had given earlier in the history of the church had touched on the concept of blood atonement, suggesting that apostates could become so enveloped in sin that the voluntary shedding of their own blood might increase their chances of eternal salvation. On September 21, 1856, while calling for sincere repentance, Brigham Young took the idea further, and stated:
This belief became ingrained in the church\'s public image during that period and drew widespread ridicule in Eastern newspapers, particularly in connection with the practice of polygamy. The notion faced consistent criticism from numerous Mormons and was ultimately disavowed as an official doctrine by the LDS Church in 1978. Nevertheless, in contemporary times, critics of the church and some popular writers continue to associate a formal doctrine of blood atonement with the Church.
Throughout the winter, special meetings were held and Mormons were urged to adhere to the commandments of God and the practices and precepts of the church. Preaching placed emphasis on the practice of plural marriage, adherence to the Word of Wisdom, attendance at church meetings, and personal prayer. On December 30, 1856, the entire all-Mormon territorial legislature was re-baptized for the remission of their sins, and confirmed under the hands of the Twelve Apostles. As time went on, however, the sermons became intolerant and hysterical.
### Utah War and Mountain Meadows massacre {#utah_war_and_mountain_meadows_massacre}
In 1857--1858, the church was involved in an armed conflict with the U.S. government, now known as the Utah War. The settlers and the United States government battled for hegemony over the culture and government of the territory. Tensions over the Utah War, the murder of Mormon apostle Parley P. Pratt in Arkansas, and threats of violence from the Baker-Fancher wagon train (and possibly other factors), resulted in rogue Mormon settlers in southern Utah massacring a wagon train from Arkansas, known as Mountain Meadows massacre. The result of the Utah War was the succeeding of the governorship of the Utah territory from Brigham Young to Alfred Cumming, an outsider appointed by President James Buchanan.
### Brigham Young\'s later years {#brigham_youngs_later_years}
The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the United Order numerous times, most recently during the Mormon Reformation. In 1874, Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he called the \"United Order of Enoch\" in at least 200 LDS Church-established communities, beginning in St. George, Utah on February 9, 1874.
In Young\'s Order, producers typically transferred ownership of their property to the Order itself. All members within the order would then collectively partake in the cooperative\'s net income, often distributed in proportion to the value of the property initially contributed. Occasionally, members received wages for their labor on the shared property. Much like Joseph Smith\'s United Order, Young\'s Order had a brief existence. By the time Young died, most of these Orders had faltered. As the 19th century drew to a close, these Orders had effectively become extinct.
Young died in August 1877, but the First Presidency was not reorganized until 1880, when he was succeeded by John Taylor, who in the interim had served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## Pioneer era (c. 1846 to c. 1900) {#pioneer_era_c._1846_to_c._1900}
### Polygamy and the United States \"Mormon question\" {#polygamy_and_the_united_states_mormon_question}
For several decades, polygamy was preached as God\'s law. Brigham Young, the church\'s second president, had 56 wives during his life; many other church leaders were also polygamists.
This early practice of polygamy caused conflict between church members and the broader American society. In 1854, the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and slavery as the \"twin relics of barbarism.\" In 1862, the U.S. Congress enacted the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, signed by Abraham Lincoln, which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by \$500 or five years in prison. The law also permitted the confiscation of church property without compensation. However, this law was not enforced by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts. Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place. In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the American Civil War.
In 1874, after the war, Congress passed the Poland Act, which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons. In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in 1878 by the United States Supreme Court in the case of *Reynolds v. United States*. After *Reynolds*, Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the Edmunds Act in 1882. The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place. The Act also vacated the Utah territorial government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist. Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial.
In 1887, Congress passed the Edmunds-Tucker Act, which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and confiscated the church\'s property. By this time, many church leaders had gone into hiding to avoid prosecution, and half the Utah prison population was composed of polygamists.
Church leadership officially ended the practice in the United States in 1890, based on a decree of church president Wilford Woodruff called the 1890 Manifesto.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
The church\'s modern era began soon after it renounced polygamy in 1890. Prior to the 1890 Manifesto, church leaders had been in hiding, many ecclesiastical matters had been neglected, and the church organization itself had been disincorporated. With the reduction in federal pressure afforded by the Manifesto, however, the church began to re-establish its institutions.
### World Wars {#world_wars}
Throughout both World Wars, the LDS Church maintained a stance of neutrality, focusing on supporting its members spiritually and materially without endorsing any political sides. The church\'s leaders guided members through these challenging times by bolstering welfare programs and emphasizing faith. The wars notably influenced the LDS Church\'s international expansion and its role as a global religious organization committed to humanitarian efforts.
#### LDS Church in World War I {#lds_church_in_world_war_i}
During World War I, the LDS Church was led by Joseph F. Smith, who navigated the church through the tumultuous period with a focus on neutrality and peace. Many members served in the military, and the church organized welfare and support efforts for those affected by the war.
#### LDS Church in World War II {#lds_church_in_world_war_ii}
In World War II, the LDS Church, under the leadership of Heber J. Grant, continued its tradition of non-partisanship in global conflicts, while still supporting its members' decisions to serve in their respective countries' military forces. The church\'s extensive welfare system was pivotal during this time, providing support for both members and non-members affected by the war.
### Post-Manifesto polygamy and the Second Manifesto {#post_manifesto_polygamy_and_the_second_manifesto}
The 1890 Manifesto did not, itself, eliminate the practice of new plural marriages, as they continued to occur clandestinely, mostly with church approval and authority. In addition, most Mormon polygamists and every polygamous general authority continued to cohabit with their polygamous wives. Mormon leaders, including Woodruff, maintained that the Manifesto was a temporary expediency designed to enable Utah to obtain statehood and that at some future date, the practice would soon resume. Nevertheless, the 1890 Manifesto provided the church breathing room to obtain Utah\'s statehood, which it received in 1896 after a campaign to convince the American public that Mormon leaders had abandoned polygamy and intended to stay out of politics.
Despite being admitted to the United States, Utah was initially unsuccessful in having its elected representatives and senators seated in the United States Congress. In 1898, Utah elected general authority B.H. Roberts to the United States House of Representatives as a Democrat. Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy. In 1903, the Utah legislature selected Reed Smoot, also an LDS Church general authority but also a monogamist, as its first senator. From 1904 to 1907, the United States Senate conducted a series of Congressional hearings on whether Smoot should be seated. Eventually, the Senate granted Smoot a seat and allowed him to vote. However, the hearings raised controversy as to whether polygamy had actually been abandoned as claimed in the 1890 Manifesto, and whether the LDS Church continued to exercise influence on Utah politics. In response to these hearings, church president Joseph F. Smith issued a Second Manifesto denying that any post-Manifesto marriages had the church\'s sanction, and announcing that those entering such marriages in the future would be excommunicated.
The Second Manifesto did not annul existing plural marriages within the church, and the church tolerated some degree of polygamy into at least the 1930s. However, eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from Mormon fundamentalist groups still practicing polygamy. In modern times, members of the Mormon religion do not practice polygamy.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Involvement in national politics {#involvement_in_national_politics}
#### Relationship to the women\'s suffrage movement {#relationship_to_the_womens_suffrage_movement}
In 1870, the Utah Territory had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote---a right which the U.S. Congress revoked in 1887 as part of the Edmunds-Tucker Act.
As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women\'s rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist Emmeline B. Wells, editor of the *Woman\'s Exponent*, a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a feminist and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman\'s role in the political process and public discourse. National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah\'s progressive stand on women\'s rights, and the church\'s stand on polygamy.
In 1890, after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah\'s feminism more directly, and in 1891, Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in Salt Lake City, attended by such national feminist leaders as Susan B. Anthony and Anna Howard Shaw. The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in 1889 as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in 1890 became the National American Woman Suffrage Association), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascent state of Utah should enfranchise women. In 1896, Utah became the third state in the U.S. to grant women the right to vote.
#### Debate over temperance and prohibition {#debate_over_temperance_and_prohibition}
The LDS Church was actively involved in support of the temperance movement in the 19th century, and later the prohibition movement under the presidency of Heber J. Grant.
#### Relationship with socialism and communism {#relationship_with_socialism_and_communism}
Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with socialism in its various forms. In the earliest days of Mormonism, Joseph Smith had established a form of Christian communalism, an idea made popular during the Second Great Awakening, combined with a move toward theocracy. Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communalism as the United Order, or the law of consecration. While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of Utah during the theocratic political leadership of Brigham Young. Some aspects of secular socialism also found a place in the political views of Joseph Smith. He ran for President of the United States on a platform that included a nationalized bank aimed at addressing the abuses of private banks.
As a secular political leader in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced collective farms to support those lacking property, ensuring sustenance for the poor and their families. Upon reaching Utah, Brigham Young guided the church leadership in advocating for collective industry ownership. In 1876, a circular issued by them emphasized the importance of wealth distribution for liberty, warning against tyranny, oppression, and the vices arising from unequal wealth distribution. The circular, signed by the Quorum of the Twelve and the First Presidency, cautioned that continuous wealth concentration among the rich and deepening poverty among the poor could lead the nation toward disaster.
In addition to religious socialism, many Mormons in Utah were interested in the secular socialist movement that began in America during the 1890s. During the 1890s to the 1920s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the Socialist Party of America in 1901, elected about 100 socialists to state offices in Utah. An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon. Many early socialists visited the Church\'s cooperative communities in Utah with great interest and were well received by the church leadership. Prominent early socialists such as Albert Brisbane, Victor Prosper Considerant, Plotino Rhodakanaty, Edward Bellamy, and Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman showed great interest in the successful cooperative communities of the church in Utah. For example, while doing research for what would become a best selling socialist novel, *Looking Backward*, Edward Bellamy toured the Church\'s cooperative communities in Utah and visited with Lorenzo Snow for a week. Ruth & Reginald Wright Kauffman also wrote a book, though this one non-fiction, after visiting the Church in Utah. Their book was titled *The Latter Day Saints: A Study of the Mormons in the Light of Economic Conditions*, which discussed the Church from a Marxist perspective. Socialist Plotino Rhodakanaty also became a prominent early church member in Mexico, after being baptized by a group of missionaries which included Moses Thatcher. Thatcher kept in touch with Rhodakanaty for years following and was himself perhaps the most prominent member of the church to have openly identified himself as a socialist supporter.
Albert Brisbane and Victor Prosper Considerant also visited the church in Utah during its early years, prompting Considerant to note that \"thanks to a certain dose of socialist solidarity, the Mormons have in a few years attained a state of unbelievable prosperity\". Attributing the peculiar socialist attitudes of the early Mormons to their success in the desert of the western United States was common even among those who were not themselves socialist. For instance, in his book History of Utah, 1540--1886, Hubert Howe Bancroft points out that the Mormons \"while not communists, the elements of socialism enter strongly into all their relations, public and private, social, commercial, and industrial, as well as religious and political. This tends to render them exclusive, independent of the gentiles and their government, and even in some respects antagonistic to them. They have assisted each other until nine out of ten own their farms, while commerce and manufacturing are to large extent cooperative. The rights of property are respected; but while a Mormon may sell his farm to a gentile, it would not be deemed good fellowship for him to do so.\"
While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the church was more circumspect about Marxist Communism because of its acceptance of violence as a means to achieve revolution. From the time of Joseph Smith, the church had taken a favorable view as to the American Revolution and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government, however the church viewed the revolutionary nature of Leninist Communism as a threat to the United States Constitution, which the church saw as divinely inspired to ensure the agency of man. In 1936, the First Presidency issued a statement which stated in part that "to support Communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a Communist or supporter of Communism. \... \[N\]o loyal American citizen and no faithful church member can be a Communist." The strident atheism of Marxist thought may have also been considered incompatible with the church\'s fundamentally religious worldview.
In later years, such leaders as Ezra Taft Benson would take a stronger anti-Communist position publicly, his anti-Communism often being anti-leftist in general. However, the stridency of Benson\'s views was strongly disliked by others in the church\'s leadership, and even considered a point of embarrassment for the church. Later, Benson would become church president and backed off of his political rhetoric. Toward the end of his presidency, the church even began to discipline church members who had taken Benson\'s earlier hardline right-wing speeches too much to heart, some of whom claimed that the church had excommunicated them for adhering too closely to Benson\'s right-wing ideology.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Institutional reforms {#institutional_reforms}
#### Developments in Church financing {#developments_in_church_financing}
Soon after the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church was in a dire financial condition. It was recovering from the U.S. crackdown on polygamy, and had difficulty reclaiming property that had been confiscated during polygamy raids. Meanwhile, there was a national recession beginning in 1893. By the late 1890s, the church was about \$2 million in debt, and near bankruptcy. In response, Lorenzo Snow, then President of the Church, conducted a campaign to raise the payment of tithing, of which less than 20% of LDS had been paying during the 1890s. After a visit to Saint George, Utah, which had a much higher-than-average percentage of full 10% tithe-payers, Snow felt that he had received a revelation. As a result of Snow\'s vigorous campaign, tithing payment increased dramatically from 18.4% in 1898 to an eventual peak of 59.3% in 1910. From that time, payment of tithing has been a requirement for temple worship within the faith.
During this timeframe, changes were made in stipends for bishops and general authorities. Bishops once received a 10% stipend from tithing funds, but are now purely volunteer. General authorities receive stipends, and formerly received loans from church funds.
#### Changes to meeting schedule {#changes_to_meeting_schedule}
In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings occurred every Sunday morning and evening, with additional gatherings throughout the week. This structure was convenient for Utah Saints, as they typically resided within walking distance of a church building. However, outside of Utah, this meeting schedule presented logistical challenges. In 1980, the church implemented the \"Consolidated Meeting Schedule,\" consolidating most church meetings into a three-hour block on Sundays.
In 2019, the meeting schedule was condensed into a two-hour block, with meetings during the second hour alternating between Sunday School and gendered (Relief Society / Priesthood) meetings.
#### Changes to missionary service {#changes_to_missionary_service}
In 1982, the First Presidency announced that the length of service of male full-time missionaries would be reduced to 18 months. In 1984, a little more than two years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months.
Starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations. Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own. The amount paid into the fund does not vary by location; therefore, missionaries serving in low-cost-of-living-areas effectively subsidize missionaries serving in areas with higher costs.
#### Changes to church hierarchy and structure {#changes_to_church_hierarchy_and_structure}
During the 1960s, the church pursued a Priesthood Correlation Program, which streamlined and centralized the structure of the church. It had begun earlier in 1908, as the Correlation Program. The program increased church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings.
During this time period, priesthood editorial oversight was established of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines.
In 1911, the church adopted the Scouting program for its male members of appropriate age.
The Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928--1937) re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as \"priesthood auxiliaries\" with reduced autonomy.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### LDS multiculturalism {#lds_multiculturalism}
As the church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture but were not essential to Mormonism. During and after the civil rights movement, the church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the Anglo-American mainstream, carried racist and neocolonialist connotations. The mid-20th century saw the church critiqued over its positions on Black and Native American matters, especially the institution\'s bias towards European standards or norms at the expense and disregard of other racial or ethnic backgrounds\' identity and humanity.
#### The church and black people {#the_church_and_black_people}
The cause of some of the church\'s most damaging publicity had to do with the church\'s policy of discrimination against black people. Black people were always officially welcome in the church, and Joseph Smith established an early precedent for it by ordaining black males to the Priesthood. Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as a candidate for the presidency of the United States. At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy for the belief that black people were the cursed descendants of Cain, a belief which was commonly held in his day. In 1849, church doctrine taught that while black people could be baptized, black men could not be ordained to the Priesthood and black people could not enter LDS temples. Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination.
By the late 1960s, the church had expanded into Brazil, the Caribbean, and the nations of Africa, but it was also being criticized for its policy of racial discrimination. In the case of Africa and the Caribbean, the church had not yet begun large-scale missionary efforts in most areas. There were large groups of people who desired to join the church in Ghana and Nigeria and there were also many faithful church members who were of African descent in Brazil. On June 9, 1978, under the administration of Spencer W. Kimball, the church\'s leadership changed the long-standing policy.
Today, there are many black members of the church, and there are also many predominantly black congregations. In the Salt Lake City area, black members organized branches of a monthly gathering and activity arm called the Genesis Group that provided group members with additional support.
#### The church and Native Americans {#the_church_and_native_americans}
During the post-World War II period, the church also began to focus on expansion into a number of Native American cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity. These peoples were called \"Lamanites\", because they were all believed to descend from the Lamanite group in the *Book of Mormon*. In 1947, the church began the Indian Placement Program, where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in Anglo Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture.
In 1955, the church began ordaining black Melanesians to the Priesthood.
The church\'s policy toward Native Americans also came under fire during the 1970s. In particular the Indian Placement Program was criticized as neocolonial. In 1977, the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the church was using its influence to push children into joining the program. However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs. One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture. By the late 1980s, the program had been in decline, and in 1996, it was discontinued. In 2016, three lawsuits against the LDS Church were filed in the Navajo Nation District Court, alleging that participants in the program were sexually abused in their foster homes. The church asked for the lawsuits to be dismissed on jurisdictional grounds, arguing that the alleged abuse took place outside the reservation.
In 1981, the church published a new LDS edition of the Standard Works that changed a passage in *The Book of Mormon* that Lamanites (considered by many Latter-day Saints to be Native Americans) will \"become white and delightsome\" after accepting the gospel of Jesus Christ. Instead of continuing the original reference to skin color, the new edition replaced the word \"white\" with the word \"pure\".
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Doctrinal reforms and influences {#doctrinal_reforms_and_influences}
In 1927, the church implemented its \"Good Neighbor policy\", whereby it removed any suggestion in church literature, sermons, and ordinances that its members should seek vengeance on US citizens or governments, particularly for the assassinations of its founder Joseph Smith and his brother, Hyrum. The church also reformed the temple ordinance around this time to remove such references.
#### Evolution
The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church. The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in 1909, which marked the centennial of Charles Darwin\'s birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, *On the Origin of Species*. In that year, the First Presidency, led by Joseph F. Smith as president, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of creationism, and calling human evolution one of the \"theories of men\", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil.
Soon after the 1909 statement, Joseph F. Smith professed in an editorial that \"the church itself has no philosophy about the *modus operandi* employed by the Lord in His creation of the world.\"
In 1925, as a result of publicity from the \"Scopes Monkey Trial\" concerning the right to teach evolution in Tennessee public schools, the First Presidency reiterated its 1909 stance, stating that \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity.\"
In the early 1930s there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and general authority B. H. Roberts and some members of the Council of the Twelve Apostles over attempts by B. H. Roberts to reconcile the fossil record with the scriptures by introducing a doctrine of pre-Adamite creation, and backing up this speculative doctrine using geology, biology, anthropology, and archeology. More conservative members of the Twelve Apostles, including Joseph Fielding Smith, rejected his speculation because it contradicted the idea that there was no death until after the fall of Adam. James E. Talmage published a book through the LDS Church that explicitly stated that organisms lived and died on this earth before the earth was fit for human habitation.
The debate over pre-Adamites has been interpreted by LDS proponents of evolution as a debate about organic evolution. This view, based on the belief that a dichotomy of thought on the subject of evolution existed between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, has become common among pro-evolution members of the church. As a result, the ensuing 1931 statement has been interpreted by some as official permission for members to believe in organic evolution.
Later, Joseph Fielding Smith published his book *Man: His Origin and Destiny*, which denounced evolution without qualification. Similar statements of denunciation were made by Bruce R. McConkie, who in 1980 denounced evolution as one of \"the seven deadly heresies.\" Evolution was also denounced by the conservative apostle Ezra Taft Benson, who in 1975 called on church members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a \"falsehood\" on a par with socialism, rationalism, and humanism.
A dichotomy of opinion exists among church members today. Largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of conservative church members. A minority accept evolution, supported in part by the debate between B. H. Roberts and Joseph Fielding Smith, in part by a large amount of scientific evidence, and in part by Joseph F. Smith\'s words that \"the church itself has no philosophy about the *modus operandi* employed by the Lord in His creation of the world.\" Meanwhile, Brigham Young University, the largest private university owned and operated by the church, not only teaches evolution to its biology majors, but has also done significant research in evolution. BYU-I, another church-run school, also teaches it.
A 2018 study in *PLOS One* researched the attitudes toward evolution of Latter-day Saint undergraduates. The study revealed that there has been a recent shift of attitude towards evolution among LDS undergraduates, from antagonistic to more accepting. The researchers cited examples of more acceptance of fossil and geological records, as well as an acceptance of the old age of the earth. The researchers attributed this attitude change to several factors including primary-school exposure to evolution and a reduction in the number of anti-evolution statements from the First Presidency.
#### Reacting to pluralism {#reacting_to_pluralism}
The church was opposed to the Equal Rights Amendment.
In 1995, the church issued The Family: A Proclamation to the World.
The church opposes same-sex marriage, but does not object to rights regarding hospitalization and medical care, fair housing and employment rights, or probate rights, so long as these do not infringe on the integrity of the family or the constitutional rights of churches and their adherents to administer and practice their religion free from government interference. The church supported a gay rights bill in Salt Lake City which bans discrimination against gay men and lesbians in housing and employment, calling them \"common-sense rights.\"
Some church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations, including Evergreen International, Affirmation: Gay & Lesbian Mormons, North Star, Disciples2, Wildflowers, Family Fellowship, GLYA (Gay LDS Young Adults), LDS Reconciliation, Gamofites and the Guardrail foundation. Church leaders have met with people from Evergreen International, Inc. and several gay rights leaders.
#### Challenges to fundamental church doctrine {#challenges_to_fundamental_church_doctrine}
In 1967, a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the Metropolitan Museum of Art that appear to be the manuscripts from which Joseph Smith said to have translated the Book of Abraham in 1835. These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871. Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified as *The Book of the Dead*, an ancient Egyptian funerary text. Moreover, the scholars\' translations of the scrolls disagreed with Smith\'s purported translation. This discovery forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith\'s translations were literal one-to-one translations.
In the early 1980s, the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript, which came to be known as the \"Salamander Letter\", received much publicity. This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named Mark Hofmann, alleged that the *Book of Mormon* was given to Joseph Smith by a being that changed itself into a salamander, not by an angel as the official church history recounted. The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still significantly publicized and even printed in the church\'s official magazine, the *Ensign*. The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in 1985, and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Doctrinal reforms and influences {#doctrinal_reforms_and_influences}
#### Mormon dissidents and scholars {#mormon_dissidents_and_scholars}
In 1989, George P. Lee, a Navajo member of the First Quorum of the Seventy who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated. The church action occurred not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the effect it had on Native American culture. In October 1994, Lee confessed to, and was convicted of, sexually molesting a 13-year-old girl in 1989. It is not known if church leaders had knowledge of this crime during the excommunication process.
In the late 1980s, the administration of Ezra Taft Benson formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings. The existence of this committee was first publicized by an anti-Mormon ministry in 1991, when it was referred to in a memo dated July 19, 1990 leaked from the office of the church\'s Presiding Bishopric.
At the 1992 Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar Lavina Fielding Anderson accused the Committee of being \"an internal espionage system,\" which prompted Brigham Young University professor and moderate Mormon scholar Eugene England to \"accuse that committee of undermining the Church,\" a charge for which he later publicly apologized. The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the committee. The Church explained that the Committee \"provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism.\"
Official concern about the work of dissident scholars within the church led to the excommunication or disfellowshipping of six such scholars, dubbed the September Six, in September 1993.
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 20th century {#th_century}
### Latter-day Saint public relations {#latter_day_saint_public_relations}
In the 1960s, the church formed the Church Information Service with the goal of being ready to respond to media inquiries and generate positive media coverage. The organization kept a photo file to provide photos to the media for such events as Temple dedications. It also worked to get stories covering Family Home Evening, the church welfare plan and the church\'s youth activities in various publications.
As part of the church\'s efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the church began to moderate its earlier anti--Roman Catholic rhetoric. In Bruce R. McConkie\'s 1958 edition of *Mormon Doctrine*, he had stated his unofficial opinion that the Catholic Church was part of \"the church of the devil\" and \"the great and abominable church\" because it was among organizations that misled people away from following God\'s laws. In his 1966 edition of the same book, the specific reference to the Catholic Church was removed.
According to Riess and Tickle, early Mormons rarely quoted from the Book of Mormon in their speeches and writings. It was not until the 1980s that it was cited regularly in speeches given by LDS Church leaders at the biannual general conferences. In 1982, the LDS Church subtitled the Book of Mormon \"Another Testament of Jesus Christ.\" Apostle Boyd K. Packer stated that the scripture now took its place \"beside the Old Testament and the New Testament. Riess and Tickle assert that the introduction of this subtitle was intended to emphasize the Christ-centered nature of the Book of Mormon. They assert that the LDS \"rediscovery of the Book of Mormon in the late twentieth century is strongly connected to their renewed emphasis on the person and nature of Jesus Christ.\"
In 1995, the church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words \"JESUS CHRIST\" in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words \"The Church of\" and \"of Latter-day Saints\".
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# History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
## 21st century {#st_century}
On January 1, 2000, the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles released a proclamation entitled \"The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles\". This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the church\'s official view regarding Christ.
The church has participated in several interfaith cooperation initiatives. The church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network. The church has also participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other churches. Lastly, the church has agreed not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy.
Beginning in 2001, the church also sponsors or sponsored a low-interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund, which provides or provided educational opportunities to students from developing nations.
In 2004, the church endorsed an amendment to the United States Constitution banning homosexual marriage. The church also announced its opposition to political measures that \"confer legal status on any other sexual relationship\" than a \"man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife.\"
On November 5, 2015, an update letter to LDS Church leaders for the Church Handbook was leaked. The policy banned a \"child of a parent living in a same-gender relationship\" from baby blessings, baptism, confirmation, priesthood ordination, and missionary service until the child was not living with their homosexual parent(s), was \"of legal age\", and \"disavow\[ed\] the practice of same-gender cohabitation and marriage\", in addition to receiving approval from the Office of the First Presidency. The policy update also added that entering a same-sex marriage as a type of \"apostasy\", mandating a disciplinary council. The next day, in a video interview, apostle D. Todd Christofferson clarified that the policy was \"about love\" and \"protect\[ing\] children\" from \"difficulties, challenges, conflicts\" where \"parents feel one way and the expectations of the Church are very different\". On November 13, the First Presidency released a letter clarifying that the policy applied \"only to those children whose primary residence is with a couple living in a same-gender marriage or similar relationship\" and that for children residing with parents in a same-sex relationship who had already received ordinances the policy would not require that \"privileges be curtailed or that further ordinances be withheld\". The next day around 1,500 members gathered across from the Church Office Building to submit their resignation letters in response to the policy change with thousands more resigning online in the weeks after Two months later, in a satellite broadcast, apostle Russell M. Nelson stated that the policy change was \"revealed to President Monson\" in a \"sacred moment\" when \"the Lord inspired \[him\] \... to declare \... the will of the Lord\". In April 2019, the church---then led by Nelson---reversed these policies, citing efforts to be more accepting to people of all kinds of backgrounds.
For over 100 years, the church was a major sponsor of Scouting programs for boys, particularly in the United States. The LDS Church was the largest chartered organization in the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), having joined the BSA as its first charter organization in 1913. In 2020, the church ended its relationship with the BSA and began an alternate, religion-centered youth program, which replaced all other youth programs. Prior to leaving the Scouting program, LDS Scouts made up nearly 20 percent of all enrolled Boy Scouts, more than any other church.
### Legal entities and merger {#legal_entities_and_merger}
In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in the United States by the Edmunds--Tucker Act because of the church\'s practice of polygamy. For more than the next hundred years, the church as a whole operated as an unincorporated entity. During that time, tax-exempt corporations of the LDS Church included the *Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*, which managed non-ecclesiastical real estate and other holdings; and the *Corporation of the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints*, which governed temples, other sacred buildings, and the church\'s employees. By 2021, the two had been merged into one corporate entity, legally named \"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.\"
### Ensign Peak Advisors {#ensign_peak_advisors}
In December 2019, a whistleblower alleged the church held over \$100 billion in investment funds through its investment management company, Ensign Peak Advisors (EP); that it failed to use the funds for charitable purposes and instead used them in for-profit ventures; and that it misled contributors and the public about the usage and extent of those funds. In response, the church\'s First Presidency stated that \"the Church complies with all applicable law governing our donations, investments, taxes, and reserves,\" and that \"a portion\" of funds received by the church are \"methodically safeguarded through wise financial management and the building of a prudent reserve for the future\". The church has not directly addressed the fund\'s size to the public, but third parties have treated the disclosures as legitimate.
In February 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) issued a \$5 million penalty to the church and its investment company, EP. The SEC alleged that the church concealed its investments and their management in multiple shell companies from 1997 to 2019; the SEC believes these shell companies were approved by senior church leadership to avoid public transparency. The church released a statement that in 2000 EP \"received and relied upon legal counsel regarding how to comply with its reporting obligations while attempting to maintain the privacy of the portfolio.\" After initial SEC concern in June 2019, the church stated that EP \"adjusted its approach and began filing a single aggregated report
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# Casuistry
**Casuistry** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|zj|u|ᵻ|s|t|r|i}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|KAZ|ew|iss|tree}}`{=mediawiki}) is a process of reasoning that seeks to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending abstract rules from a particular case, and reapplying those rules to new instances. This method occurs in applied ethics and jurisprudence. The term is also used pejoratively to criticise the use of clever but unsound reasoning, especially in relation to ethical questions (as in sophistry). It has been defined as follows:
> Study of cases of conscience and a method of solving conflicts of obligations by applying general principles of ethics, religion, and moral theology to particular and concrete cases of human conduct. This frequently demands an extensive knowledge of natural law and equity, civil law, ecclesiastical precepts, and an exceptional skill in interpreting these various norms of conduct\....
It remains a common method in applied ethics.
## Etymology
According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the term and its agent noun \"casuist\", appearing from about 1600, derive from the Latin noun `{{Wikt-lang|la|casus}}`{=mediawiki}, meaning \"case\", especially as referring to a \"case of conscience\". The same source says, \"Even in the earliest printed uses the sense was pejorative\".
## History
Casuistry dates from at least Aristotle (384--322 BC), yet the peak of casuistry was from 1550 to 1650, when the Society of Jesus (commonly known as the *Jesuits*) used case-based reasoning, particularly in administering the Sacrament of Penance (or \"confession\"). The term became pejorative following Blaise Pascal\'s attack on the misuse of the method in his *Provincial Letters* (1656--57). The French mathematician, religious philosopher and Jansenist sympathiser attacked priests who used casuistic reasoning in confession to pacify wealthy church donors. Pascal charged that \"remorseful\" aristocrats could confess a sin one day, re-commit it the next, then generously donate to the church and return to re-confess their sin, confident that they were being assigned a penance in name only. These criticisms darkened casuistry\'s reputation in the following centuries. For example, the *Oxford English Dictionary* quotes a 1738 essay by Henry St. John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke to the effect that casuistry \"destroys, by distinctions and exceptions, all morality, and effaces the essential difference between right and wrong, good and evil\".
The 20th century saw a revival of interest in casuistry. In their book *The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning* (1988), Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin argue that it is not casuistry but its abuse that has been a problem; that, properly used, casuistry is powerful reasoning. Jonsen and Toulmin offer casuistry as a method for compromising the contradictory principles of moral absolutism and moral relativism. In addition, the ethical philosophies of utilitarianism (especially preference utilitarianism) and pragmatism have been identified as employing casuistic reasoning.`{{by whom|date=June 2022}}`{=mediawiki}
### Early modernity {#early_modernity}
The casuistic method was popular among Catholic thinkers in the early modern period. Casuistic authors include Antonio Escobar y Mendoza, whose *Summula casuum conscientiae* (1627) enjoyed great success, Thomas Sanchez, Vincenzo Filliucci (Jesuit and penitentiary at St Peter\'s), Antonino Diana, Paul Laymann (*Theologia Moralis*, 1625), John Azor (*Institutiones Morales*, 1600), Etienne Bauny, Louis Cellot, Valerius Reginaldus, and Hermann Busembaum (d. 1668).
The progress of casuistry was interrupted toward the middle of the 17th century by the controversy which arose concerning the doctrine of probabilism, which effectively stated that one could choose to follow a \"probable opinion\"`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}that is, an opinion supported by a theologian or another`{{mdash}}`{=mediawiki}even if it contradicted a more probable opinion or a quotation from one of the Fathers of the Church.
Certain kinds of casuistry were criticised by early Protestant theologians, because it was used to justify many of the abuses that they sought to reform. It was famously attacked by the Catholic and Jansenist philosopher Blaise Pascal during the formulary controversy against the Jesuits, in his Provincial Letters, as the use of rhetorics to justify moral laxity, which became identified by the public with **Jesuitism**; hence the everyday use of the term to mean complex and sophistic reasoning to justify moral laxity. By the mid-18th century, \"casuistry\" had become a synonym for attractive-sounding, but ultimately false, moral reasoning.
In 1679 Pope Innocent XI publicly condemned sixty-five of the more radical propositions (*stricti mentalis*), taken chiefly from the writings of Escobar, Suarez and other casuists as *propositiones laxorum moralistarum* and forbade anyone to teach them under penalty of excommunication. Despite this condemnation by a pope, both Catholicism and Protestantism permit the use of ambiguous statements in specific circumstances.
### Later modernity {#later_modernity}
G. E. Moore dealt with casuistry in chapter 1.4 of his *Principia Ethica*, in which he claimed that \"the defects of casuistry are not defects of principle; no objection can be taken to its aim and object. It has failed only because it is far too difficult a subject to be treated adequately in our present state of knowledge\". Furthermore, he asserted that \"casuistry is the goal of ethical investigation. It cannot be safely attempted at the beginning of our studies, but only at the end\".
Since the 1960s, applied ethics has revived the ideas of casuistry in applying moral reasoning to particular cases in law, bioethics, and business ethics. Its facility for dealing with situations where rules or values conflict with each other has made it a useful approach in professional ethics, and casuistry\'s reputation has improved somewhat as a result.
Pope Francis, a Jesuit, has criticized casuistry as \"the practice of setting general laws on the basis of exceptional cases\" in instances where a more holistic approach would be preferred
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# Chinese input method
Several input methods allow the use of Chinese characters with computers. Most allow selection of characters based either on their pronunciation or their graphical shape. Phonetic input methods are easier to learn but are less efficient, while graphical methods allow faster input, but have a steep learning curve.
Other methods allow users to write characters directly via touchscreens, such as those found on mobile phones and tablet computers.
## History
Chinese input methods predate the computer. One of the early attempts was an electro-mechanical Chinese typewriter Mingkwai (`{{zh|c=明快 |p=míngkuài |w=ming-k'uai}}`{=mediawiki}) which was invented by Lin Yutang, a prominent Chinese writer, in the 1940s. It assigned thirty base shapes or strokes to different keys and adopted a new way of categorizing Chinese characters. But the typewriter was not produced commercially and Lin soon found himself deeply in debt.
Before the 1980s, Chinese publishers hired teams of workers and selected a few thousand type pieces from an enormous Chinese character set. Chinese government agencies entered characters using a long, complicated list of Chinese telegraph codes, which assigned different numbers to each character. During the early computer era, Chinese characters were categorized by their radicals or Pinyin romanization, but results were less than satisfactory.
In the 1970s to 1980s, large keyboards with thousands of keys were used to input Chinese. Each key was mapped to several Chinese characters. To type a character, one pressed the character key and then a selection key. There were also experimental \"radical keyboards\" with dozens to several hundreds keys. Chinese characters were decomposed into \"radicals\", each of which was represented by a key. Unwieldy and difficult to use, these keyboards became obsolete after the introduction of Cangjie input method, the first method to use only the standard QWERTY keyboard and make Chinese touch typing possible.
Chu Bong-Foo invented a common input method in 1976 with his Cangjie input method, which assigns different \"roots\" to each key on a standard computer keyboard. With this method, for example, the character *日* is assigned to the A key, and 月 is assigned to B. Typing them together will result in the character *明* (\"bright\").
Despite its steeper learning curve, this method remains popular in Chinese communities that use traditional Chinese characters, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan; the method allows very precise input, thus allowing users to type more efficiently and quickly, provided they are familiar with the fairly complicated rules of the method. It was the first method that allowed users to enter more than a hundred Chinese characters per minute. Its popularity is also helped by its omnipresence on traditional Chinese computer systems, since Chu has given up its patent in 1982, stating that it should be part of the cultural asset. Developers of Chinese systems can adopt it freely, and users do not have the hassle of it being absent on devices with Chinese support. Cangjie input programs supporting a large CJK character set have been developed.
All methods have their strengths and weaknesses. The pinyin method can be learned rapidly but its maximum input rate is limited. The Wubi method takes longer to learn, but expert typists can enter text much more rapidly with it than with phonetic methods. However, Wubi is proprietary, and a version of it has become freely available only after its inventor lost a patent lawsuit in 1997.
Due to these complexities, there is no \"standard\" method.
By 1989, bopomofo and pinyin were available for the IBM PC. In mainland China, pinyin methods such as Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin are the most popular. In Taiwan, use of Cangjie, Dayi, Boshiamy, and bopomofo predominate; and in Hong Kong and Macau, the Cangjie is most often taught in schools, while a few schools teach CKC Chinese Input System.
Other methods include handwriting recognition, OCR and speech recognition. The computer itself must first be \"trained\" before the first or second of these methods are used; that is, the new user enters the system in a special \"learning mode\" so that the system can learn to identify their handwriting or speech patterns. The latter two methods are used less frequently than keyboard-based input methods and suffer from relatively high error rates, especially when used without proper \"training\", though higher error rates are an acceptable trade-off to many users.
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# Chinese input method
## Categories
### Phonetic-based {#phonetic_based}
The user enters pronunciations that are converted into relevant Chinese characters. The user must select the desired character from homophones, which are common in Chinese. Modern systems, such as Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin, predict the desired characters based on context and user preferences. For example, if one enters the sounds *jicheng*, the software will type *繼承* (to inherit), but if *jichengche* is entered, *計程車* (taxi) will appear.
Various Chinese dialects complicate the system. Phonetic methods are mainly based on standard pinyin, Zhuyin/Bopomofo, and Jyutping in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, respectively. Input methods based on other varieties of Chinese, like Hakka or Minnan, also exist.
While the phonetic system is easy to learn, choosing appropriate Chinese characters slows typing speed. Most users report a typing speed of fifty characters per minute, though some reach over one hundred per minute. With some phonetic IMEs (Input Method Editors), in addition to predictive input based on previous conversions, it is possible for users to create custom dictionary entries for frequently used characters and phrases, potentially lowering the number of characters required to evoke it.
#### Shuangpin
thumb\|upright=1.35\|The Microsoft pinyin 2003 shuangpin scheme. Shuangpin (*双拼*; *雙拼*), literally dual spell, is a stenographical phonetic input method based on hanyu pinyin that reduces the number of keystrokes for one Chinese character to two by distributing every vowel and consonant composed of more than one letter to a specific key. In most Shuangpin layout schemes such as Xiaohe, Microsoft 2003 and Ziranma, the most frequently used vowels are placed on the middle layer, reducing the risk of repetitive strain injury.
Shuangpin is supported by a large number of pinyin input software including QQ, Microsoft Bing Pinyin, Sogou Pinyin and Google Pinyin.
### Shape-based {#shape_based}
- Cangjie input method
- Simplified Cangjie
- Dayi method
- Array input method (*行列*)
- Four-corner method
- Stroke count method
- Wubi method
- Zhengma method
- Biaoxingma method
- ZYQ method (*正易全*)
### Others
- Chinese telegraph code (*中文電碼*)
### Examples of keyboard layouts {#examples_of_keyboard_layouts}
Image:Keyboard layout Zhuyin.svg\|A typical keyboard layout for zhuyin on computers, which can be used as an input method Image:Wubi keyboard.png\|A keyboard using the Wubi method Image:Keyboard layout cangjie.png\|A typical keyboard layout for the Cangjie method, which is based on the U.S. keyboard layout. Note the non-standard use of Z as the collision key. Image:Keyboard layout Dayi.svg\|A typical keyboard layout for the Dayi method Image:Keyboard layout Chinese Traditional
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# Carbon sink
thumb\|upright=1.35 \|Carbon sinks (green bars on the right) remove carbon from the atmosphere, whereas carbon sources (greenhouse gas emissions) (grey bars on the left) add them. Since the 1850s, there are more carbon sources than sinks and therefore the carbon dioxide in Earth\'s atmosphere is rising.A **carbon sink** is a natural or artificial carbon sequestration process that \"removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere\". These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is **carbon pool**, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, florae, fossil fuel reservoirs and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.
Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the ocean. Soil is an important carbon storage medium. Much of the organic carbon retained in the soil of agricultural areas has been depleted due to intensive farming. *Blue carbon* designates carbon that is fixed via certain marine ecosystems. *Coastal blue carbon* includes mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses. These make up a majority of ocean plant life and store large quantities of carbon. *Deep blue carbon* is located in international waters and includes carbon contained in \"continental shelf waters, deep-sea waters and the sea floor beneath them\".
For climate change mitigation purposes, the maintenance and enhancement of natural carbon sinks, mainly soils and forests, is important. In the past, human practices like deforestation and industrial agriculture have depleted natural carbon sinks. This kind of land use change has been one of the causes of climate change.
## Definition
In the context of climate change and in particular mitigation, a *sink* is defined as \"Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere\".
In the case of non-`{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} greenhouse gases, sinks need not store the gas. Instead they can break it down into substances that have a reduced effect on global warming. For example, nitrous oxide can be reduced to harmless N~2~.
Related terms are \"carbon pool, reservoir, sequestration, source and uptake\". The same publication defines *carbon pool* as \"a reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon \[\...\], reside in various chemical forms for a period of time.\"
Both carbon pools and carbon sinks are important concepts in understanding the carbon cycle, but they refer to slightly different things. A carbon pool can be thought of as the overarching term, and carbon sink is then a particular type of carbon pool: A carbon pool is all the places where carbon can be stored (for example the atmosphere, oceans, soil, plants, and fossil fuels).
## Types
The amount of carbon dioxide varies naturally in a dynamic equilibrium with photosynthesis of land plants. The natural carbon sinks are:
- Soil is a carbon store and active carbon sink.
- Photosynthesis by terrestrial plants with grass and trees allows them to serve as carbon sinks during growing seasons.
- Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via solubility and biological pumps.
Artificial carbon sinks are those that store carbon in building materials or deep underground (geologic carbon sequestration). No major artificial systems remove carbon from the atmosphere on a large scale yet.
Public awareness of the significance of `{{CO2}}`{=mediawiki} sinks has grown since passage of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset.
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# Carbon sink
## Natural carbon sinks {#natural_carbon_sinks}
thumb\|right\|upright=2\|This diagram of the fast carbon cycle shows the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, soil and oceans in billions of tons of carbon per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions in billions of tons of carbon per year. White numbers indicate stored carbon.*Main article: Carbon sequestration*
### Soils
Soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium and contain more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined. Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, and is degraded by chemical weathering and biological degradation. More recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus.
Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the boreal forests of North America and the Taiga of Russia. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate conditions due to high temperatures and extensive leaching by rainfall. Areas, where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced, are generally only fertile for two to three years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are highly efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients, which explains their lushness in a nutrient desert.
Grasslands contribute to soil organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the climatic conditions of these regions (e.g., cooler temperatures and semi-arid to arid conditions), these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter. This can vary based on rainfall, the length of the winter season, and the frequency of naturally occurring lightning-induced grass-fires. While these fires release carbon dioxide, they improve the quality of the grasslands overall, in turn increasing the amount of carbon retained in the humic material. They also deposit carbon directly into the soil in the form of biochar that does not significantly degrade back to carbon dioxide.
Much organic carbon retained in many agricultural areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices. Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world\'s grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. Methods that significantly enhance carbon sequestration in soil are called carbon farming. They include for example no-till farming, residue mulching, cover cropping, and crop rotation.
### Forests
### Deep ocean, tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses {#deep_ocean_tidal_marshes_mangroves_and_seagrasses}
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# Carbon sink
## Enhancing natural carbon sinks {#enhancing_natural_carbon_sinks}
### Purpose in the context of climate change {#purpose_in_the_context_of_climate_change}
### Carbon sequestration techniques in oceans {#carbon_sequestration_techniques_in_oceans}
To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following technologies have been proposed but none have achieved large scale application so far: Seaweed farming, ocean fertilisation, artificial upwelling, basalt storage, mineralization and deep sea sediments, adding bases to neutralize acids. The idea of direct deep-sea carbon dioxide injection has been abandoned.
## Artificial carbon sinks {#artificial_carbon_sinks}
### Geologic carbon sequestration {#geologic_carbon_sequestration}
### Wooden buildings {#wooden_buildings}
Broad-base adoption of mass timber and their role in substituting steel and concrete in new mid-rise construction projects over the next few decades has the potential to turn timber buildings into carbon sinks, as they store the carbon dioxide taken up from the air by trees that are harvested and used as mass timber. This could result in storing between 10 million tons of carbon per year in the lowest scenario and close to 700 million tons in the highest scenario. For this to happen, the harvested forests would need to be sustainably managed and wood from demolished timber buildings would need to be reused or preserved on land in various forms.
Using rapidly renewable plant materials like bamboo, straw or hempcrete can be further carbon sinks
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# Chemical bond
A **chemical bond** is the association of atoms or ions to form molecules, crystals, and other structures. The bond may result from the electrostatic force between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds, or some combination of these effects. Chemical bonds are described as having different strengths: there are \"strong bonds\" or \"primary bonds\" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and \"weak bonds\" or \"secondary bonds\" such as dipole--dipole interactions, the London dispersion force, and hydrogen bonding.
Since opposite electric charges attract, the negatively charged electrons surrounding the nucleus and the positively charged protons within a nucleus attract each other. Electrons shared between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them. \"Constructive quantum mechanical wavefunction interference\" stabilizes the paired nuclei (see Theories of chemical bonding). Bonded nuclei maintain an optimal distance (the bond distance) balancing attractive and repulsive effects explained quantitatively by quantum theory.
The atoms in molecules, crystals, metals and other forms of matter are held together by chemical bonds, which determine the structure and properties of matter.
All bonds can be described by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplified rules and other theories allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory, which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and molecular orbital theory which includes the linear combination of atomic orbitals and ligand field theory. Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances.
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# Chemical bond
## Overview of main types of chemical bonds {#overview_of_main_types_of_chemical_bonds}
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms. This attraction may be seen as the result of different behaviors of the outermost or valence electrons of atoms. These behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various circumstances, so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them. However it remains useful and customary to differentiate between different types of bond, which result in different properties of condensed matter.
In the simplest view of a covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Energy is released by bond formation. This is not as a result of reduction in potential energy, because the attraction of the two electrons to the two protons is offset by the electron-electron and proton-proton repulsions. Instead, the release of energy (and hence stability of the bond) arises from the reduction in kinetic energy due to the electrons being in a more spatially distributed (i.e. longer de Broglie wavelength) orbital compared with each electron being confined closer to its respective nucleus. These bonds exist between two particular identifiable atoms and have a direction in space, allowing them to be shown as single connecting lines between atoms in drawings, or modeled as sticks between spheres in models.
In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. Covalent bonds often result in the formation of small collections of better-connected atoms called molecules, which in solids and liquids are bound to other molecules by forces that are often much weaker than the covalent bonds that hold the molecules internally together. Such weak intermolecular bonds give organic molecular substances, such as waxes and oils, their soft bulk character, and their low melting points (in liquids, molecules must cease most structured or oriented contact with each other). When covalent bonds link long chains of atoms in large molecules, however (as in polymers such as nylon), or when covalent bonds extend in networks through solids that are not composed of discrete molecules (such as diamond or quartz or the silicate minerals in many types of rock) then the structures that result may be both strong and tough, at least in the direction oriented correctly with networks of covalent bonds. Also, the melting points of such covalent polymers and networks increase greatly.
In a simplified view of an *ionic* bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The *bond* then results from electrostatic attraction between the positive and negatively charged ions. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures. This type of bond gives rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt.
A less often mentioned type of bonding is *metallic* bonding. In this type of bonding, each atom in a metal donates one or more electrons to a \"sea\" of electrons that reside between many metal atoms. In this sea, each electron is free (by virtue of its wave nature) to be associated with a great many atoms at once. The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom. Metallic bonding may be seen as an extreme example of delocalization of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom participates. This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the tensile strength of metals). However, metallic bonding is more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to more easily deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways. This results in the malleability of metals. The cloud of electrons in metallic bonding causes the characteristically good electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, and also their shiny lustre that reflects most frequencies of white light.
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# Chemical bond
## History
Early speculations about the nature of the **chemical bond**, from as early as the 12th century, supposed that certain types of chemical species were joined by a type of chemical affinity. In 1704, Sir Isaac Newton famously outlined his atomic bonding theory, in \"Query 31\" of his *Opticks*, whereby atoms attach to each other by some \"force\". Specifically, after acknowledging the various popular theories in vogue at the time, of how atoms were reasoned to attach to each other, i.e. \"hooked atoms\", \"glued together by rest\", or \"stuck together by conspiring motions\", Newton states that he would rather infer from their cohesion, that \"particles attract one another by some force, which in immediate contact is exceedingly strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from the particles with any sensible effect.\"
In 1819, on the heels of the invention of the voltaic pile, Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed a theory of chemical combination stressing the electronegative and electropositive characters of the combining atoms. By the mid 19th century, Edward Frankland, F.A. Kekulé, A.S. Couper, Alexander Butlerov, and Hermann Kolbe, building on the theory of radicals, developed the theory of valency, originally called \"combining power\", in which compounds were joined owing to an attraction of positive and negative poles. In 1904, Richard Abegg proposed his rule that the difference between the maximum and minimum valencies of an element is often eight. At this point, valency was still an empirical number based only on chemical properties.
However the nature of the atom became clearer with Ernest Rutherford\'s 1911 discovery that of an atomic nucleus surrounded by electrons in which he quoted Nagaoka rejected Thomson\'s model on the grounds that opposite charges are impenetrable. In 1904, Nagaoka proposed an alternative planetary model of the atom in which a positively charged center is surrounded by a number of revolving electrons, in the manner of Saturn and its rings.
Nagaoka\'s model made two predictions:
- a very massive atomic center (in analogy to a very massive planet)
- electrons revolving around the nucleus, bound by electrostatic forces (in analogy to the rings revolving around Saturn, bound by gravitational forces.)
Rutherford mentions Nagaoka\'s model in his 1911 paper in which the atomic nucleus is proposed.
At the 1911 Solvay Conference, in the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck stated: \"The intermediaries could be the electrons.\" These nuclear models suggested that electrons determine chemical behavior.
Next came Niels Bohr\'s 1913 model of a nuclear atom with electron orbits. In 1916, chemist Gilbert N. Lewis developed the concept of electron-pair bonds, in which two atoms may share one to six electrons, thus forming the single electron bond, a single bond, a double bond, or a triple bond; in Lewis\'s own words, \"An electron may form a part of the shell of two different atoms and cannot be said to belong to either one exclusively.\"
Also in 1916, Walther Kossel put forward a theory similar to Lewis\' only his model assumed complete transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of ionic bonding. Both Lewis and Kossel structured their bonding models on that of Abegg\'s rule (1904).
Niels Bohr also proposed a model of the chemical bond in 1913. According to his model for a diatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. The dynamic equilibrium of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the Coulomb repulsion -- the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other.
In 1927, the first mathematically complete quantum description of a simple chemical bond, i.e. that produced by one electron in the hydrogen molecular ion, H~2~^+^, was derived by the Danish physicist Øyvind Burrau. This work showed that the quantum approach to chemical bonds could be fundamentally and quantitatively correct, but the mathematical methods used could not be extended to molecules containing more than one electron. A more practical, albeit less quantitative, approach was put forward in the same year by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. The Heitler--London method forms the basis of what is now called valence bond theory. In 1929, the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method (LCAO) approximation was introduced by Sir John Lennard-Jones, who also suggested methods to derive electronic structures of molecules of F~2~ (fluorine) and O~2~ (oxygen) molecules, from basic quantum principles. This molecular orbital theory represented a covalent bond as an orbital formed by combining the quantum mechanical Schrödinger atomic orbitals which had been hypothesized for electrons in single atoms. The equations for bonding electrons in multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection (i.e., *analytically*), but approximations for them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results. Most quantitative calculations in modern quantum chemistry use either valence bond or molecular orbital theory as a starting point, although a third approach, density functional theory, has become increasingly popular in recent years.
In 1933, H. H. James and A. S. Coolidge carried out a calculation on the dihydrogen molecule that, unlike all previous calculation which used functions only of the distance of the electron from the atomic nucleus, used functions which also explicitly added the distance between the two electrons. With up to 13 adjustable parameters they obtained a result very close to the experimental result for the dissociation energy. Later extensions have used up to 54 parameters and gave excellent agreement with experiments. This calculation convinced the scientific community that quantum theory could give agreement with experiment. However this approach has none of the physical pictures of the valence bond and molecular orbital theories and is difficult to extend to larger molecules.
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# Chemical bond
## Bonds in chemical formulas {#bonds_in_chemical_formulas}
Because atoms and molecules are three-dimensional, it is difficult to use a single method to indicate orbitals and bonds. In **molecular formulas** the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated in different ways depending on the type of discussion. Sometimes, some details are neglected. For example, in organic chemistry one is sometimes concerned only with the functional group of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol may be written in conformational form, three-dimensional form, full two-dimensional form (indicating every bond with no three-dimensional directions), compressed two-dimensional form (CH~3~--CH~2~--OH), by separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C~2~H~5~OH), or by its atomic constituents (C~2~H~6~O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (with the two-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, e.g. for elemental carbon ~.~^\'^C^\'^. Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, e.g. the hypothetical ethene^−4^ anion (~\\~^/^C=C~/~^\\^ ^−4^) indicating the possibility of bond formation.
## Strong chemical bonds {#strong_chemical_bonds}
+-------------------------------------+
| **Typical bond lengths in pm\ |
| and bond energies in kJ/mol.**\ |
| Bond lengths can be converted to Å\ |
| by division by 100 (1 Å = 100 pm).\ |
+-------------------------------------+
| Bond |
+-------------------------------------+
| H --- Hydrogen |
+-------------------------------------+
| H--H |
+-------------------------------------+
| H--O |
+-------------------------------------+
| H--F |
+-------------------------------------+
| H--Cl |
+-------------------------------------+
| C --- Carbon |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--H |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--C |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--C= |
+-------------------------------------+
| =C--C≡ |
+-------------------------------------+
| =C--C= |
+-------------------------------------+
| C=C |
+-------------------------------------+
| C≡C |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--N |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--O |
+-------------------------------------+
| C=O |
+-------------------------------------+
| C≡O |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--F |
+-------------------------------------+
| C--Cl |
+-------------------------------------+
| N --- Nitrogen |
+-------------------------------------+
| N--H |
+-------------------------------------+
| N--N |
+-------------------------------------+
| N≡N |
+-------------------------------------+
| O --- Oxygen |
+-------------------------------------+
| O--O |
+-------------------------------------+
| O=O |
+-------------------------------------+
| F, Cl, Br, I --- Halogens |
+-------------------------------------+
| F--F |
+-------------------------------------+
| Cl--Cl |
+-------------------------------------+
| Br--H |
+-------------------------------------+
| Br--Br |
+-------------------------------------+
| I--H |
+-------------------------------------+
| I--I |
+-------------------------------------+
Strong chemical bonds are the *intramolecular* forces that hold atoms together in molecules. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals.
The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in electronegativity of the constituent elements. Electronegativity is the tendency for an atom of a given chemical element to attract shared electrons when forming a chemical bond, where the higher the associated electronegativity then the more it attracts electrons. Electronegativity serves as a simple way to quantitatively estimate the bond energy, which characterizes a bond along the continuous scale from covalent to ionic bonding. A large difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond.
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# Chemical bond
## Strong chemical bonds {#strong_chemical_bonds}
### Ionic bond {#ionic_bond}
Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms that have a large electronegativity difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding, but an electronegativity difference of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic while a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent. Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). A typical feature of ionic bonds is that the species form into ionic crystals, in which no ion is specifically paired with any single other ion in a specific directional bond. Rather, each species of ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, and the spacing between it and each of the oppositely charged ions near it is the same for all surrounding atoms of the same type. It is thus no longer possible to associate an ion with any specific other single ionized atom near it. This is a situation unlike that in covalent crystals, where covalent bonds between specific atoms are still discernible from the shorter distances between them, as measured via such techniques as X-ray diffraction.
Ionic crystals may contain a mixture of covalent and ionic species, as for example salts of complex acids such as sodium cyanide, NaCN. X-ray diffraction shows that in NaCN, for example, the bonds between sodium cations (Na^+^) and the cyanide anions (CN^−^) are *ionic*, with no sodium ion associated with any particular cyanide. However, the bonds between the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) atoms in cyanide are of the *covalent* type, so that each carbon is strongly bound to *just one* nitrogen, to which it is physically much closer than it is to other carbons or nitrogens in a sodium cyanide crystal.
When such crystals are melted into liquids, the ionic bonds are broken first because they are non-directional and allow the charged species to move freely. Similarly, when such salts dissolve into water, the ionic bonds are typically broken by the interaction with water but the covalent bonds continue to hold. For example, in solution, the cyanide ions, still bound together as single CN^−^ ions, move independently through the solution, as do sodium ions, as Na^+^. In water, charged ions move apart because each of them are more strongly attracted to a number of water molecules than to each other. The attraction between ions and water molecules in such solutions is due to a type of weak dipole-dipole type chemical bond. In melted ionic compounds, the ions continue to be attracted to each other, but not in any ordered or crystalline way.
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# Chemical bond
## Strong chemical bonds {#strong_chemical_bonds}
### Covalent bond {#covalent_bond}
Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding in which two or more atoms share valence electrons more or less equally. The simplest and most common type is a single bond in which two atoms share two electrons. Other types include the double bond, the triple bond, one- and three-electron bonds, the three-center two-electron bond and three-center four-electron bond.
In non-polar covalent bonds, the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small, typically 0 to 0.3. Bonds within most organic compounds are described as covalent. The figure shows methane (CH~4~), in which each hydrogen forms a covalent bond with the carbon. See sigma bonds and pi bonds for LCAO descriptions of such bonding.
Molecules that are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane.
A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character. This means that the two shared electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. Such bonds occur between two atoms with moderately different electronegativities and give rise to dipole--dipole interactions. The electronegativity difference between the two atoms in these bonds is 0.3 to 1.7.
#### Single and multiple bonds {#single_and_multiple_bonds}
A single bond between two atoms corresponds to the sharing of one pair of electrons. The Hydrogen (H) atom has one valence electron. Two Hydrogen atoms can then form a molecule, held together by the shared pair of electrons. Each H atom now has the noble gas electron configuration of helium (He). The pair of shared electrons forms a single covalent bond. The electron density of these two bonding electrons in the region between the two atoms increases from the density of two non-interacting H atoms.
A double bond has two shared pairs of electrons, one in a sigma bond and one in a pi bond with electron density concentrated on two opposite sides of the internuclear axis. A triple bond consists of three shared electron pairs, forming one sigma and two pi bonds. An example is nitrogen. Quadruple and higher bonds are very rare and occur only between certain transition metal atoms.
#### Coordinate covalent bond (dipolar bond) {#coordinate_covalent_bond_dipolar_bond}
A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the two shared bonding electrons are from the same one of the atoms involved in the bond. For example, boron trifluoride (BF~3~) and ammonia (NH~3~) form an adduct or coordination complex F~3~B←NH~3~ with a B--N bond in which a lone pair of electrons on N is shared with an empty atomic orbital on B. BF~3~ with an empty orbital is described as an electron pair acceptor or Lewis acid, while NH~3~ with a lone pair that can be shared is described as an electron-pair donor or Lewis base. The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding. Such bonding is shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. (In the Figure, solid lines are bonds in the plane of the diagram, wedged bonds point towards the observer, and dashed bonds point away from the observer.)
Transition metal complexes are generally bound by coordinate covalent bonds. For example, the ion Ag^+^ reacts as a Lewis acid with two molecules of the Lewis base NH~3~ to form the complex ion Ag(NH~3~)~2~^+^, which has two Ag←N coordinate covalent bonds.
### Metallic bonding {#metallic_bonding}
In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The free movement or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength.
## Intermolecular bonding {#intermolecular_bonding}
There are several types of weak bonds that can be formed between two or more molecules which are not covalently bound. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to attract or repel each other. Often, these forces influence physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance.
Van der Waals forces are interactions between closed-shell molecules. They include both Coulombic interactions between partial charges in polar molecules, and Pauli repulsions between closed electrons shells.
Keesom forces are the forces between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules.`{{r|Atkins|p=701}}`{=mediawiki} London dispersion forces are the forces between induced dipoles of different molecules.`{{r|Atkins|p=703}}`{=mediawiki} There can also be an interaction between a permanent dipole in one molecule and an induced dipole in another molecule.`{{r|Atkins|p=702}}`{=mediawiki}
Hydrogen bonds of the form A\--H•••B occur when A and B are two highly electronegative atoms (usually N, O or F) such that A forms a highly polar covalent bond with H so that H has a partial positive charge, and B has a lone pair of electrons which is attracted to this partial positive charge and forms a hydrogen bond.`{{r|Atkins|p=702}}`{=mediawiki} Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. In some cases a similar halogen bond can be formed by a halogen atom located between two electronegative atoms on different molecules.
At short distances, repulsive forces between atoms also become important.`{{r|Atkins|p=705-6}}`{=mediawiki}
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# Chemical bond
## Theories of chemical bonding {#theories_of_chemical_bonding}
In the (unrealistic) limit of \"pure\" ionic bonding, electrons are perfectly localized on one of the two atoms in the bond. Such bonds can be understood by classical physics. The force between the atoms depends on isotropic continuum electrostatic potentials. The magnitude of the force is in simple proportion to the product of the two ionic charges according to Coulomb\'s law.
Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond (VB) theory or molecular orbital (MO) theory. The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number, formal charge, and electronegativity. The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, bonding is conceptualized as being built up from electron pairs that are localized and shared by two atoms via the overlap of atomic orbitals. The concepts of orbital hybridization and resonance augment this basic notion of the electron pair bond. In molecular orbital theory, bonding is viewed as being delocalized and apportioned in orbitals that extend throughout the molecule and are adapted to its symmetry properties, typically by considering linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO). Valence bond theory is more chemically intuitive by being spatially localized, allowing attention to be focused on the parts of the molecule undergoing chemical change. In contrast, molecular orbitals are more \"natural\" from a quantum mechanical point of view, with orbital energies being physically significant and directly linked to experimental ionization energies from photoelectron spectroscopy. Consequently, valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory are often viewed as competing but complementary frameworks that offer different insights into chemical systems. As approaches for electronic structure theory, both MO and VB methods can give approximations to any desired level of accuracy, at least in principle. However, at lower levels, the approximations differ, and one approach may be better suited for computations involving a particular system or property than the other.
Unlike the spherically symmetrical Coulombic forces in pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds are generally directed and anisotropic. These are often classified based on their symmetry with respect to a molecular plane as sigma bonds and pi bonds. In the general case, atoms form bonds that are intermediate between ionic and covalent, depending on the relative electronegativity of the atoms involved. Bonds of this type are known as polar covalent bonds
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# Geography of the Comoros
The **Comoros archipelago** consists of four main islands aligned along a northwest--southeast axis at the north end of the Mozambique Channel, between Mozambique and the island of Madagascar. Still widely known by their French names, the islands officially have been called by their Swahili names by the Comorian government. They are Grande Comore (Njazidja), Mohéli (Mwali), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Mayotte (Mahoré). The islands\' distance from each other---Grande Comore is some 200 kilometers from Mayotte, forty kilometers from Mohéli, and eighty kilometers from Anjouan---along with a lack of good harbor facilities, make transportation and communication difficult. Comoros are sunny islands.
## Details
The islands have a total land area of 2,236 square kilometers (including Mayotte), and claim territorial waters of 320 square kilometers. Mount Karthala (2316 m) on Grande Comore is an active volcano. From April 17 to 19, 2005, the volcano began spewing ash and gas, forcing as many as 10,000 people to flee. Comoros is located within the Somali Plate.
## Grande Comore {#grande_comore}
Grande Comore is the largest island, sixty-seven kilometers long and twenty-seven kilometers wide, with a total area of 1,146 square kilometers. The most recently formed of the four islands in the archipelago, it is also of volcanic origin. Two volcanoes form the island\'s most prominent topographic features: La Grille in the north, with an elevation of 1,000 meters, is extinct and largely eroded; Kartala in the south, rising to a height of 2,361 meters, last erupted in 1977. A plateau averaging 600 to 700 meters high connects the two mountains. Because Grande Comore is geologically a relatively new island, its soil is thin and rocky and cannot hold water. As a result, water from the island\'s heavy rainfall must be stored in catchment tanks. There are no coral reefs along the coast, and the island lacks a good harbor for ships. One of the largest remnants of the Comoros\' once-extensive rain forests is on the slopes of Kartala. The national capital has been at Moroni since 1962.
## Anjouan
Anjouan, triangular shaped and forty kilometers from apex to base, has an area of 424 square kilometers. Three mountain chains --- Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime---emanate from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 m), giving the island its distinctive shape. Older than Grande Comore, Anjouan has deeper soil cover, but overcultivation has caused serious erosion. A coral reef lies close to shore; the island\'s capital of Mutsamudu is also its main port.
## Mohéli
Mohéli is thirty kilometers long and twelve kilometers wide, with an area of 290 square kilometers. It is the smallest of the four islands and has a central mountain chain reaching 860 meters at its highest. Like Grande Comore, it retains stands of rain forest. Mohéli\'s capital is Fomboni.
## Mayotte
Mayotte, geologically the oldest of the four islands, is thirty-nine kilometers long and twenty-two kilometers wide, totaling 375 square kilometers, and its highest points are between 500 and 600 meters above sea level. Because of greater weathering of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A well-developed coral reef that encircles much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi, capital of the Comoros until 1962 and now Mayotte\'s administrative center, is situated on a rocky outcropping off the east shore of the main island. Dzaoudzi is linked by a causeway to le Pamanzi, which at ten kilometers in area is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mayotte. Islets are also scattered in the coastal waters of Mayotte just as in Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli.
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# Geography of the Comoros
## Flora and fauna {#flora_and_fauna}
Comorian waters are the habitat of the coelacanth, a rare fish with limblike fins and a cartilaginous skeleton, the fossil remains of which date as far back as 400 million years and which was once thought to have become extinct about 70 million years ago. A live specimen was caught in 1938 off southern Africa; other coelacanths have since been found in the vicinity of the Comoro Islands.
Several mammals are unique to the islands themselves. Livingstone\'s fruit bat, although plentiful when discovered by explorer David Livingstone in 1863, has been reduced to a population of about 120, entirely on Anjouan. The world\'s largest bat, the jet-black Livingstone fruit bat has a wingspan of nearly two meters. A British preservation group sent an expedition to the Comoros in 1992 to bring some of the bats to Britain to establish a breeding population.
A hybrid of the common brown lemur (*Eulemur fulvus*) originally from Madagascar, was introduced by humans prior to European colonization and is found on Mayotte.`{{LoM3 Sfn|p=400}}`{=mediawiki} The mongoose lemur (*Eulemur mongoz*), also introduced from Madagascar by humans, can be found on the islands of Mohéli and Anjouan.`{{LoM3 Sfn|p=446}}`{=mediawiki}
22 species of bird are unique to the archipelago and 17 of these are restricted to the Union of the Comoros. These include the Karthala scops-owl, Anjouan scops-owl and Humblot\'s flycatcher.
Partly in response to international pressures, Comorians in the 1990s have become more concerned about the environment. Steps are being taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to counteract degradation of the environment, especially on densely populated Anjouan. Specifically, to minimize the cutting down of trees for fuel, kerosene is being subsidized, and efforts are being made to replace the loss of the forest cover caused by ylang-ylang distillation for perfume. The Community Development Support Fund, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a World Bank affiliate) and the Comorian government, is working to improve water supply on the islands as well.
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# Geography of the Comoros
## Climate
The climate is marine tropical, with two seasons: hot and humid from November to April, the result of the northeastern monsoon, and a cooler, drier season the rest of the year. Average monthly temperatures range from 23 to along the coasts. Although the average annual precipitation is 2000 mm, water is a scarce commodity in many parts of the Comoros. Mohéli and Mayotte possess streams and other natural sources of water, but Grande Comore and Anjouan, whose mountainous landscapes retain water poorly, are almost devoid of naturally occurring running water. Cyclones, occurring during the hot and wet season, can cause extensive damage, especially in coastal areas. On the average, at least twice each decade houses, farms, and harbor facilities are devastated by these great storms.
### Tropical cyclones {#tropical_cyclones}
Due to their low latitude, the islands are rarely affected by tropical cyclones. However, several cyclones have had damaging and deadly effects. Cyclones in December 1905 and again in December 1906 led to a famine that killed 490 people between August 1905 and January 1906. A tropical cyclone in 1950 killed 585 people while moving through Anjouan and Moheli, injuring 70,000 others. The cyclone left 40,000 people homeless, and also caused ₣3.5 worth of damage to crops and infrastructure.
### Weather
## Extreme points {#extreme_points}
This is a list of the extreme points of the Comoros, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. This list excludes the French-administered island of Mayotte which is claimed by the Comorian government.
- Northernmost point -- unnamed headland north-west of Bangoua Kouni, Grande Comore
- Easternmost point -- unnamed peninsula east of Domoni, Anjouan
- Southernmost point - unnamed headland on Île Canzouni, Mohéli
- Westernmost point - unnamed headland west of Iconi, Grande Comore
## Statistics
**Area:** 2,235 km^2^
**Coastline:** 340 km
**Climate:** tropical marine; rainy season (November to May)
**Terrain:** volcanic islands, interiors vary from steep mountains to low hills
**Elevation extremes:**\
*lowest point:* Indian Ocean 0 m\
*highest point:* Karthala 2,360 m
**Natural resources:** fish
**Land use:**\
*arable land:* 47.29%\
*permanent crops:* 29.55%\
*other:* 23.16% (2012 est.)
**Irrigated land:** 1.3 km^2^ (2003)
**Total renewable water resources:** 1.2 km^3^ (2011)
**Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):**\
*total:* 0.01 km^3^/yr (48%/5%/47%)\
*per capital:* 16
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# Demographics of the Comoros
The Comorians (*القمري*) inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. Islam is the dominant religion, and Quranic schools for children reinforce its influence. Although Islamic culture is firmly established throughout, a small minority are Christian.
The most common language is Comorian, related to Swahili. French and Arabic also are spoken. About 89% of the population is literate.
The Comoros have had eight censuses since World War II:
- 1951
- 1956
- 1958-09-07: 183,133
- 1966-07-06
- Note: in 1974 Mayotte was removed from the Comoros
- 1980-09-15: 335,150
- 1991-09-15: 446,817
- 2003-09-15: 575,660
- 2017-12-15: 758,316
The latest official estimate (for 1 July 2020) is 897,219.
Population density figures conceal a great disparity between the republic\'s most crowded island, Nzwani, which had a density of 772 persons per square kilometer in 2017; Njazidja, which had a density of 331 persons per square kilometer in 2017; and Mwali, where the 2017 population density figure was 178 persons per square kilometer. By comparison, estimates of the population density per square kilometer of the Indian Ocean\'s other island microstates ranged from 241 (Seychelles) to 690 (Maldives) in 1993. Given the rugged terrain of Njazidja and Nzwani, and the dedication of extensive tracts to agriculture on all three islands, population pressures on the Comoros are becoming increasingly critical.
The age structure of the population of the Comoros is similar to that of many developing countries, in that the republic has a very large proportion of young people. In 1989, 46.4 percent of the population was under fifteen years of age, an above-average proportion even for sub-Saharan Africa. The population\'s rate of growth was a relatively high 3.5 percent per annum in the mid-1980s, up substantially from 2.0 percent in the mid-1970s and 2.1 percent in the mid-1960s.
In 1983 the Abdallah regime borrowed US\$2.85 million from the International Development Association to devise a national family planning program. However, Islamic reservations about contraception made forthright advocacy and implementation of birth control programs politically hazardous, and consequently little was done in the way of public policy.
The Comorian population has become increasingly urbanized in recent years. In 1991 the percentage of Comorians residing in cities and towns of more than 5,000 persons was about 30 percent, up from 25 percent in 1985 and 23 percent in 1980. The Comoros\' largest cities were the capital, Moroni, with about 30,000 people, and the port city of Mutsamudu, on the island of Nzwani, with about 20,000 people.
Migration among the various islands is important. Natives of Nzwani have settled in significant numbers on less crowded Mwali, causing some social tensions, and many Nzwani also migrate to Maore. In 1977 Maore expelled peasants from Ngazidja and Nzwani who had recently settled in large numbers on the island. Some were allowed to reenter starting in 1981 but solely as migrant labor.
The number of Comorians living abroad has been estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000; during the colonial period, most of them lived in Tanzania, Madagascar, and other parts of Southeast Africa. The number of Comorians residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comorian rioting in December 1976 in Mahajanga, in which at least 1,400 Comorians were killed. As many as 17,000 Comorians left Madagascar to seek refuge in their native land in 1977 alone. About 100,000 Comorians live in France; many of them had gone there for a university education and never returned. Small numbers of Indians, Malagasy, South Africans, and Europeans (mostly French) live on the islands and play an important role in the economy. Most French left after independence in 1975.
Some Persian Gulf countries started buying Comorian citizenship for their stateless Bedoon residents and deporting them to Comoros.
## Population
### UN population projections {#un_population_projections}
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# Demographics of the Comoros
## Vital statistics {#vital_statistics}
Statistics `{{as of|2010|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}:
Period Live births per year Deaths per year Natural change per year CBR\* CDR\* NC\* TFR\* IMR\*
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------- ----------------- ------------------------- ------- ------- ------ ------- -------
1950--1955 8 000 4 000 4 000 46.8 24.0 22.8 6.00 178
1955--1960 9 000 4 000 5 000 48.9 22.9 26.0 6.60 167
1960--1965 10 000 4 000 6 000 48.0 20.8 27.2 6.91 154
1965--1970 11 000 4 000 6 000 46.8 18.9 27.9 7.05 141
1970--1975 12 000 4 000 8 000 46.8 16.9 29.8 7.05 127
1975--1980 14 000 5 000 10 000 47.9 15.6 32.3 7.05 116
1980--1985 17 000 5 000 12 000 48.6 14.3 34.4 7.05 106
1985--1990 16 000 5 000 11 000 39.6 12.1 27.5 6.00 95
1990--1995 17 000 5 000 12 000 36.6 11.0 25.6 5.30 89
1995--2000 20 000 6 000 15 000 38.6 10.6 28.0 5.30 83
2000--2005 24 000 6 000 18 000 40.2 10.1 30.0 5.30 78
2005--2010 27 000 7 000 20 000 39.0 9.4 29.5 5.08 72
\* CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)
### Demographic and Health Surveys {#demographic_and_health_surveys}
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
Year Total Urban
------ ------- ----------- -------
CBR TFR CBR TFR
1996 33.9 5.1 (3.7) 28.9
2012 32.3 4.3 (3.2) 27.7
Structure of the population (DHS 2012) (Males 11 088, Females 12 284 = 23 373) :
Age Group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
----------- ---------- ------------ -----------
0--4 15.5 13.6 14.5
5--9 15.0 13.8 14.4
10--14 13.9 11.8 12.8
15--19 10.1 11.2 10.7
20--24 6.8 8.6 7.8
25--29 5.4 7.8 6.7
30--34 5.8 6.5 6.2
35--39 6.0 5.4 5.7
40--44 4.5 4.0 4.2
45--49 3.2 2.5 2.9
50--54 2.9 4.9 3.9
55--59 1.7 2.2 2.0
60--64 3.3 2.6 2.9
65--69 1.5 1.3 1.4
70--74 2.3 1.7 2.0
75--79 0.8 0.8 0.8
80+ 1.2 1.3 1.3
Unknown 0.1 0.1 0.1
Age group Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
----------- ---------- ------------ -----------
0--14 44.4 39.2 41.7
15--64 49.7 55.6 52.7
65+ 5.8 5.1 5.5
Fertility data as of 2012 (DHS Program):
Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40--49
--------------- ---------------------- -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------
Mohéli 5.0 6.8 6.3
Anjouan 5.2 6.7 5.8
Grande Comore 3.5 6.5 4
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# Telecommunications in the Comoros
In large part thanks to international aid programs, Moroni has international telecommunications service. Telephone service, however, is largely limited to the islands\' few towns.
## Overview
Telephones -- main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
Telephones -- mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
Telephone system: sparse system of microwave radio relay and HF radiotelephone communication stations\
*domestic:* HF radiotelephone communications and microwave radio relay\
CMDA mobile network (Huri, operated by Comores Telecom)\
*international:* HF radiotelephone communications to Madagascar and Réunion
Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
Radios: 90,000 (1997)
Television broadcast stations: 0 (1998)
Televisions: 1,000 (1997)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
Country code (Top-level domain): .km
## Special projects {#special_projects}
In October 2011 the State of Qatar launched a special program for the construction of a wireless network to interconnect the three islands of the archipelago, by means of low cost, repeatable technology. The project has been developed by Qatar University and Politecnico di Torino, under the supervision of prof. Mazen Hasna and prof. Daniele Trinchero, with a major participation of local actors (Comorian Government, NRTIC, University of the Comoros)
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# Transport in the Comoros
There are a number of systems of **transport in the Comoros**. The Comoros possesses 880 km of road, of which 673 km are paved. It has three seaports: Fomboni, Moroni and Moutsamoudou, but does not have a merchant marine, and no longer has any railway network. It has four airports, all with paved runways, one with runways over 2438 m long, with the others having runways shorter than 1523 m.
The isolation of the Comoros had made air traffic a major means of transportation. One of President Abdallah\'s accomplishments was to make the Comoros more accessible by air. During his administration, he negotiated agreements to initiate or enhance commercial air links with Tanzania and Madagascar. The Djohar regime reached an agreement in 1990 to link Moroni and Brussels by air. By the early 1990s, commercial flights connected the Comoros with France, Mauritius, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, and Madagascar. The national airline was Air Comores. Daily flights linked the three main islands, and air service was also available to Mahoré; each island had airstrips. In 1986 the republic received a grant from the French government\'s CCCE to renovate and expand Hahaya airport, near Moroni. Because of the absence of scheduled sea transport between the islands, nearly all interisland passenger traffic is by air.
More than 99% of freight is transported by sea. Both Moroni on Njazidja and Mutsamudu on Nzwani have artificial harbors. There is also a harbor at Fomboni, on Mwali. Despite extensive internationally financed programs to upgrade the harbors at Moroni and Mutsamudu, by the early 1990s only Mutsamudu was operational as a deepwater facility. Its harbor could accommodate vessels of up to eleven meters\' draught. At Moroni, ocean-going vessels typically lie offshore and are loaded or unloaded by smaller craft, a costly and sometimes dangerous procedure. Most freight continues to be sent to Tanzania, Kenya, Reunion, or Madagascar for transshipment to the Comoros. Use of Comoran ports is further restricted by the threat of cyclones from December through March. The privately operated Comoran Navigation Company (*Société Comorienne de Navigation*) is based in Moroni, and provides services to Madagascar.
Roads serve the coastal areas, rather than the interior, and the mountainous terrain makes surface travel difficult
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# Army of National Development
The **Comorian Armed Forces** (*Armée nationale de développement, AND*; `{{literally|Army of National Development}}`{=mediawiki}) are the national military of the Comoros. The armed forces consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small troop presence in the Comoros at government request. France maintains a small Navy base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) in Mayotte.
## Structure
The AND consists of the following components:
- Comorian Ground Defense Force
- Comorian National Gendarmerie
- National School of the Armed Forces and Gendarmerie
- Comorian Air Force
- Comorian Presidential Guard
- Comorian Military Health Services
- Comorian Coast Guard
## Equipment inventory {#equipment_inventory}
- FN FAL battle rifle
- AK-47 assault rifle
- Type 81 assault rifle
- NSV HMG
- RPG-7 anti-tank weapon
- Mitsubishi L200 pickup truck
## Aircraft
Note: The last comprehensive aircraft inventory list was from *Aviation Week & Space Technology* in 2007.
Aircraft Origin Type Variant In service Notes
--------------------------- ---------------- --------------------- ---------- ------------ -------
Transport
Cessna 402 United States Transport 1
L-410 Turbolet Czech Republic Transport 1
Aérospatiale Corvette France VIP transport 1
Helicopters
Mil Mi-14 Russia Transport / Utility Mi-14PZh 2
Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil France Utility 1
Trainer aircraft
SIAI-Marchetti SF
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# Crystal
thumb\|upright=1.25\|Crystals of amethyst quartz thumb\|upright=1.25\|Microscopically, a single crystal has atoms in a near-perfect periodic arrangement; a polycrystal is composed of many microscopic crystals (called \"crystallites\" or \"grains\"); and an amorphous solid (such as glass) has no periodic arrangement even microscopically.
A **crystal** or **crystalline solid** is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification.
The word *crystal* derives from the Ancient Greek word *κρύσταλλος* (`{{transliteration|grc|''krustallos''}}`{=mediawiki}), meaning both \"ice\" and \"rock crystal\", from *κρύος* (`{{transliteration|grc|''kruos''}}`{=mediawiki}), \"icy cold, frost\".
Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics.
Despite the name, lead crystal, crystal glass, and related products are *not* crystals, but rather types of glass, i.e. amorphous solids.
Crystals, or crystalline solids, are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements.
## Crystal structure (microscopic) {#crystal_structure_microscopic}
The scientific definition of a \"crystal\" is based on the microscopic arrangement of atoms inside it, called the crystal structure. A crystal is a solid where the atoms form a periodic arrangement. (Quasicrystals are an exception, see below).
Not all solids are crystals. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the phase change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse, forming a *polycrystalline* structure. In the final block of ice, each of the small crystals (called \"crystallites\" or \"grains\") is a true crystal with a periodic arrangement of atoms, but the whole polycrystal does *not* have a periodic arrangement of atoms, because the periodic pattern is broken at the grain boundaries. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, etc. Solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called *amorphous solids*, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically. There are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does.
A crystal structure (an arrangement of atoms in a crystal) is characterized by its *unit cell*, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal.
The symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries (230 is commonly cited, but this treats chiral equivalents as separate entities), called crystallographic space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system (where the crystals may form cubes or rectangular boxes, such as halite shown at right) or hexagonal crystal system (where the crystals may form hexagons, such as ordinary water ice).
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# Crystal
## Crystal faces, shapes and crystallographic forms {#crystal_faces_shapes_and_crystallographic_forms}
thumb\|upright=1.6\|As a halite crystal is growing, new atoms can very easily attach to the parts of the surface with rough atomic-scale structure and many dangling bonds. Therefore, these parts of the crystal grow out very quickly (yellow arrows). Eventually, the whole surface consists of smooth, stable faces, where new atoms cannot as easily attach themselves. Crystals are commonly recognized, macroscopically, by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. These shape characteristics are not *necessary* for a crystal---a crystal is scientifically defined by its microscopic atomic arrangement, not its macroscopic shape---but the characteristic macroscopic shape is often present and easy to see.
Euhedral crystals are those that have obvious, well-formed flat faces. Anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid.
The flat faces (also called facets) of a euhedral crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal: they are planes of relatively low Miller index. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others (lower surface energy). As a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces. Therefore, the flat surfaces tend to grow larger and smoother, until the whole crystal surface consists of these plane surfaces. (See diagram on right.)
One of the oldest techniques in the science of crystallography consists of measuring the three-dimensional orientations of the faces of a crystal, and using them to infer the underlying crystal symmetry.
A crystal\'s **crystallographic forms** are sets of possible faces of the crystal that are related by one of the symmetries of the crystal. For example, crystals of galena often take the shape of cubes, and the six faces of the cube belong to a crystallographic form that displays one of the symmetries of the isometric crystal system. Galena also sometimes crystallizes as octahedrons, and the eight faces of the octahedron belong to another crystallographic form reflecting a different symmetry of the isometric system. A crystallographic form is described by placing the Miller indices of one of its faces within brackets. For example, the octahedral form is written as {111}, and the other faces in the form are implied by the symmetry of the crystal.
Forms may be closed, meaning that the form can completely enclose a volume of space, or open, meaning that it cannot. The cubic and octahedral forms are examples of closed forms. All the forms of the isometric system are closed, while all the forms of the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems are open. A crystal\'s faces may all belong to the same closed form, or they may be a combination of multiple open or closed forms.
A crystal\'s habit is its visible external shape. This is determined by the crystal structure (which restricts the possible facet orientations), the specific crystal chemistry and bonding (which may favor some facet types over others), and the conditions under which the crystal formed.
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# Crystal
## Occurrence in nature {#occurrence_in_nature}
### Rocks
By volume and weight, the largest concentrations of crystals in the Earth are part of its solid bedrock. Crystals found in rocks typically range in size from a fraction of a millimetre to several centimetres across, although exceptionally large crystals are occasionally found. `{{As of|1999}}`{=mediawiki}, the world\'s largest known naturally occurring crystal is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, 18 m long and 3.5 m in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg.
Some crystals have formed by magmatic and metamorphic processes, giving origin to large masses of crystalline rock. The vast majority of igneous rocks are formed from molten magma and the degree of crystallization depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified. Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under great pressures, have completely crystallized; but many kinds of lava were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly, and in this latter group a small amount of amorphous or glassy matter is common. Other crystalline rocks, the metamorphic rocks such as marbles, mica-schists and quartzites, are recrystallized. This means that they were at first fragmental rocks like limestone, shale and sandstone and have never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution, but the high temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism have acted on them by erasing their original structures and inducing recrystallization in the solid state.
Other rock crystals have formed out of precipitation from fluids, commonly water, to form druses or quartz veins. Evaporites such as halite, gypsum and some limestones have been deposited from aqueous solution, mostly owing to evaporation in arid climates.
### Ice
Water-based ice in the form of snow, sea ice, and glaciers are common crystalline/polycrystalline structures on Earth and other planets. A single snowflake is a single crystal or a collection of crystals, while an ice cube is a polycrystal. Ice crystals may form from cooling liquid water below its freezing point, such as ice cubes or a frozen lake. Frost, snowflakes, or small ice crystals suspended in the air (ice fog) more often grow from a supersaturated gaseous-solution of water vapor and air, when the temperature of the air drops below its dew point, without passing through a liquid state. Another unusual property of water is that it expands rather than contracts when it crystallizes.
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# Crystal
## Occurrence in nature {#occurrence_in_nature}
### Organigenic crystals {#organigenic_crystals}
Many living organisms are able to produce crystals grown from an aqueous solution, for example calcite and aragonite in the case of most molluscs or hydroxylapatite in the case of bones and teeth in vertebrates.
## Polymorphism and allotropy {#polymorphism_and_allotropy}
The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice I~h~, but can also exist as the cubic Ice I~c~, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different *phases*.
In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline phases. For example, water can also form amorphous ice, while SiO~2~ can form both fused silica (an amorphous glass) and quartz (a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals.
For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is referred to as allotropy. For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have very different properties. For example, diamond is the hardest substance known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant. Chocolate can form six different types of crystals, but only one has the suitable hardness and melting point for candy bars and confections. Polymorphism in steel is responsible for its ability to be heat treated, giving it a wide range of properties.
Polyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form.
## Crystallization
Crystallization is the process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved in a fluid. (More rarely, crystals may be deposited directly from gas; see: epitaxy and frost.)
Crystallization is a complex and extensively-studied field, because depending on the conditions, a single fluid can solidify into many different possible forms. It can form a single crystal, perhaps with various possible phases, stoichiometries, impurities, defects, and habits. Or, it can form a polycrystal, with various possibilities for the size, arrangement, orientation, and phase of its grains. The final form of the solid is determined by the conditions under which the fluid is being solidified, such as the chemistry of the fluid, the ambient pressure, the temperature, and the speed with which all these parameters are changing.
Specific industrial techniques to produce large single crystals (called *boules*) include the Czochralski process and the Bridgman technique. Other less exotic methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including hydrothermal synthesis, sublimation, or simply solvent-based crystallization.
Large single crystals can be created by geological processes. For example, selenite crystals in excess of 10 m are found in the Cave of the Crystals in Naica, Mexico. For more details on geological crystal formation, see above.
Crystals can also be formed by biological processes, see above. Conversely, some organisms have special techniques to *prevent* crystallization from occurring, such as antifreeze proteins.
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# Crystal
## Defects, impurities, and twinning {#defects_impurities_and_twinning}
thumb\|left\|upright=1.25\|Two types of crystallographic defects. Top right: edge dislocation. Bottom right: screw dislocation. An *ideal* crystal has every atom in a perfect, exactly repeating pattern. However, in reality, most crystalline materials have a variety of crystallographic defects: places where the crystal\'s pattern is interrupted. The types and structures of these defects may have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.
A few examples of crystallographic defects include vacancy defects (an empty space where an atom should fit), interstitial defects (an extra atom squeezed in where it does not fit), and dislocations (see figure at right). Dislocations are especially important in materials science, because they help determine the mechanical strength of materials.
Another common type of crystallographic defect is an impurity, meaning that the \"wrong\" type of atom is present in a crystal. For example, a perfect crystal of diamond would only contain carbon atoms, but a real crystal might perhaps contain a few boron atoms as well. These boron impurities change the diamond\'s color to slightly blue. Likewise, the only difference between ruby and sapphire is the type of impurities present in a corundum crystal.
In semiconductors, a special type of impurity, called a dopant, drastically changes the crystal\'s electrical properties. Semiconductor devices, such as transistors, are made possible largely by putting different semiconductor dopants into different places, in specific patterns.
Twinning is a phenomenon somewhere between a crystallographic defect and a grain boundary. Like a grain boundary, a twin boundary has different crystal orientations on its two sides. But unlike a grain boundary, the orientations are not random, but related in a specific, mirror-image way.
Mosaicity is a spread of crystal plane orientations. A mosaic crystal consists of smaller crystalline units that are somewhat misaligned with respect to each other.
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# Crystal
## Chemical bonds {#chemical_bonds}
In general, solids can be held together by various types of chemical bonds, such as metallic bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, van der Waals bonds, and others. None of these are necessarily crystalline or non-crystalline. However, there are some general trends as follows:
Metals crystallize rapidly and are almost always polycrystalline, though there are exceptions like amorphous metal and single-crystal metals. The latter are grown synthetically, for example, fighter-jet turbines are typically made by first growing a single crystal of titanium alloy, increasing its strength and melting point over polycrystalline titanium. A small piece of metal may naturally form into a single crystal, such as Type 2 telluric iron, but larger pieces generally do not unless extremely slow cooling occurs. For example, iron meteorites are often composed of single crystal, or many large crystals that may be several meters in size, due to very slow cooling in the vacuum of space. The slow cooling may allow the precipitation of a separate phase within the crystal lattice, which form at specific angles determined by the lattice, called Widmanstatten patterns.
Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts with a non-metal, such as sodium with chlorine. These often form substances called salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or potassium nitrate (saltpeter), with crystals that are often brittle and cleave relatively easily. Ionic materials are usually crystalline or polycrystalline. In practice, large salt crystals can be created by solidification of a molten fluid, or by crystallization out of a solution. Some ionic compounds can be very hard, such as oxides like aluminium oxide found in many gemstones such as ruby and synthetic sapphire.
Covalently bonded solids (sometimes called covalent network solids) are typically formed from one or more non-metals, such as carbon or silicon and oxygen, and are often very hard, rigid, and brittle. These are also very common, notable examples being diamond and quartz respectively.
Weak van der Waals forces also help hold together certain crystals, such as crystalline molecular solids, as well as the interlayer bonding in graphite. Substances such as fats, lipids and wax form molecular bonds because the large molecules do not pack as tightly as atomic bonds. This leads to crystals that are much softer and more easily pulled apart or broken. Common examples include chocolates, candles, or viruses. Water ice and dry ice are examples of other materials with molecular bonding.Polymer materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevent complete crystallization---and sometimes polymers are completely amorphous.
## Quasicrystals
`{{Main article|Quasicrystal}}`{=mediawiki} A quasicrystal consists of arrays of atoms that are ordered but not strictly periodic. They have many attributes in common with ordinary crystals, such as displaying a discrete pattern in x-ray diffraction, and the ability to form shapes with smooth, flat faces.
Quasicrystals are most famous for their ability to show five-fold symmetry, which is impossible for an ordinary periodic crystal (see crystallographic restriction theorem).
The International Union of Crystallography has redefined the term \"crystal\" to include both ordinary periodic crystals and quasicrystals (\"any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction diagram\").
Quasicrystals, first discovered in 1982, are quite rare in practice. Only about 100 solids are known to form quasicrystals, compared to about 400,000 periodic crystals known in 2004. The 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Dan Shechtman for the discovery of quasicrystals.
## Special properties from anisotropy {#special_properties_from_anisotropy}
Crystals can have certain special electrical, optical, and mechanical properties that glass and polycrystals normally cannot. These properties are related to the anisotropy of the crystal, i.e. the lack of rotational symmetry in its atomic arrangement. One such property is the piezoelectric effect, where a voltage across the crystal can shrink or stretch it. Another is birefringence, where a double image appears when looking through a crystal. Moreover, various properties of a crystal, including electrical conductivity, electrical permittivity, and Young\'s modulus, may be different in different directions in a crystal. For example, graphite crystals consist of a stack of sheets, and although each individual sheet is mechanically very strong, the sheets are rather loosely bound to each other. Therefore, the mechanical strength of the material is quite different depending on the direction of stress.
Not all crystals have all of these properties. Conversely, these properties are not quite exclusive to crystals. They can appear in glasses or polycrystals that have been made anisotropic by working or stress---for example, stress-induced birefringence.
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# Crystal
## Crystallography
*Crystallography* is the science of measuring the crystal structure (in other words, the atomic arrangement) of a crystal. One widely used crystallography technique is X-ray diffraction. Large numbers of known crystal structures are stored in crystallographic databases.
## Image gallery {#image_gallery}
<File:Insulincrystals.jpg>\|Insulin crystals grown in earth orbit. The low gravity allows crystals to be grown with minimal defects. <File:Hoar> frost macro2.jpg\|Hoar frost: A type of ice crystal (picture taken from a distance of about 5 cm). <File:Gallium> crystals.jpg\|Gallium, a metal that easily forms large crystals. <File:Apatite-Rhodochrosite-Fluorite-169799.jpg%7CAn> apatite crystal sits front and center on cherry-red rhodochroite rhombs, purple fluorite cubes, quartz and a dusting of brass-yellow pyrite cubes. <File:Monokristalines> Silizium für die Waferherstellung.jpg\|Boules of silicon, like this one, are an important type of industrially-produced single crystal. <File:Bornite-Chalcopyrite-Pyrite-180794.jpg%7CA> specimen consisting of a bornite-coated chalcopyrite crystal nestled in a bed of clear quartz crystals and lustrous pyrite crystals. The bornite-coated crystal is up to 1.5 cm across. <File:Calcite-millerite> association.jpg\|Needle-like millerite crystals partially encased in calcite crystal and oxidized on their surfaces to zaratite; from the Devonian Milwaukee Formation of Wisconsin <File:Crystallized> sugar, multiple crystals and a single crystal grown from seed.jpg\|Crystallized sugar. Crystals on the right were grown from a sugar cube, while the left from a single seed crystal taken from the right. Red dye was added to the solution when growing the larger crystal, but, insoluble with the solid sugar, all but small traces were forced to precipitate out as it grew
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# Cytosine
**Cytosine** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|t|ə|ˌ|s|iː|n|,_|-|ˌ|z|iː|n|,_|-|ˌ|s|ɪ|n}}`{=mediawiki}) (symbol **C** or **Cyt**) is one of the four nucleotide bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. In Watson--Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.
## History
Cytosine was discovered and named by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.
In 1998, cytosine was used in an early demonstration of quantum information processing when Oxford University researchers implemented the Deutsch--Jozsa algorithm on a two qubit nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer (NMRQC).
In March 2015, NASA scientists reported the formation of cytosine, along with uracil and thymine, from pyrimidine under the space-like laboratory conditions, which is of interest because pyrimidine has been found in meteorites although its origin is unknown.
## Chemical reactions {#chemical_reactions}
Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA.
Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. The difference in rates of deamination of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine (to uracil and thymine) forms the basis of bisulfite sequencing.
## Biological function {#biological_function}
When found third in a codon of RNA, cytosine is synonymous with uracil, as they are interchangeable as the third base. When found as the second base in a codon, the third is always interchangeable. For example, UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG are all serine, regardless of the third base.
Active enzymatic deamination of cytosine or 5-methylcytosine by the APOBEC family of cytosine deaminases could have both beneficial and detrimental implications on various cellular processes as well as on organismal evolution. The implications of deamination on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, on the other hand, remains less understood.
## Theoretical aspects {#theoretical_aspects}
Until October 2021, Cytosine had not been found in meteorites, which suggested the first strands of RNA and DNA had to look elsewhere to obtain this building block. Cytosine likely formed within some meteorite parent bodies, however did not persist within these bodies due to an effective deamination reaction into uracil.
In October 2021, Cytosine was announced as having been found in meteorites by researchers in a joint Japan/NASA project, that used novel methods of detection which avoided damaging nucleotides as they were extracted from meteorites
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# Castle of the Winds
***Castle of the Winds*** is a tile-based roguelike video game for Microsoft Windows. It was developed by Rick Saada in 1989 and distributed by Epic MegaGames in 1993. The game was released around 1998 as a freeware download by the author. Though it is secondary to its hack and slash gameplay, *Castle of the Winds* has a plot loosely based on Norse mythology, told with setting changes, unique items, and occasional passages of text. The game is composed of two parts: ***A Question of Vengeance**\'\', released as shareware, and***Lifthransir\'s Bane**\'\', sold commercially. A combined license for both parts was also sold.
## Gameplay
The game differs from most roguelikes in a number of ways. Its interface is mouse-dependent, but supports keyboard shortcuts (such as \'g\' to get an item). *Castle of the Winds* also allows the player to restore saved games after dying.
The game favors the use of magic in combat, as spells are the only weapons that work from a distance. The player character automatically gains a spell with each experience level, and can permanently gain others using corresponding books, until all thirty spells available are learned. There are two opposing pairs of elements: cold vs. fire and lightning vs. acid/poison. Spells are divided into six categories: attack, defense, healing, movement, divination, and miscellaneous.
*Castle of the Winds* possesses an inventory system that limits a player\'s load based on weight and bulk, rather than by number of items. It allows the character to use different containers, including packs, belts, chests, and bags. Other items include weapons, armor, protective clothing, purses, and ornamental jewellery. Almost every item in the game can be normal, cursed, or enchanted, with curses and enchantments working in a manner similar to *NetHack*. Although items do not break with use, they may already be broken or rusted when found. Most objects that the character currently carries can be renamed.
Wherever the player goes before entering the dungeon, there is always a town which offers the basic services of a temple for healing and curing curses, a junk store where anything can be sold for a few copper coins, a sage who can identify items and (from the second town onwards) a bank for storing the total capacity of coins to lighten the player\'s load. Other services that differ and vary in what they sell are outfitters, weaponsmiths, armoursmiths, magic shops and general stores.
The game tracks how much time has been spent playing the game. Although story events are not triggered by the passage of time, it does determine when merchants rotate their stock. Victorious players are listed as \"Valhalla\'s Champions\" in the order of time taken, from fastest to slowest. If the player dies, they are still put on the list, but are categorized as \"Dead\", with their experience point total listed as at the final killing blow. The amount of time spent also determines the difficulty of the last boss.
## Plot
The player begins in a tiny hamlet, near which they used to live. Their farm has been destroyed and godparents killed. After clearing out an abandoned mine, the player finds a scrap of parchment that reveals the death of the player\'s godparents was ordered by an unknown enemy. The player then returns to the hamlet to find it pillaged, and decides to travel to Bjarnarhaven.
Once in Bjarnarhaven, the player explores the levels beneath a nearby fortress, eventually facing Hrungnir, the Hill Giant Lord, responsible for ordering the player\'s godparents\' death. Hrungnir carries the Enchanted Amulet of Kings. Upon activating the amulet, the player is informed of their past by their dead father, after which the player is transported to the town of Crossroads, and *Part I* ends. The game can be imported or started over in *Part II*.
The town of Crossroads is run by a Jarl who at first does not admit the player, but later (on up to three occasions) provides advice and rewards. The player then enters the nearby ruined titular Castle of the Winds. There the player meets his/her deceased grandfather, who instructs them to venture into the dungeons below, defeat Surtur, and reclaim their birthright. Venturing deeper, the player encounters monsters run rampant, a desecrated crypt, a necromancer, and the installation of various special rooms for elementals. The player eventually meets and defeats the Wolf-Man leader, Bear-Man leader, the four Jotun kings, a Demon Lord, and finally Surtur. Upon defeating Surtur and escaping the dungeons, the player sits upon the throne, completing the game.
## Development
Inspired by his love of RPGs and while learning Windows programming in the 80s, Rick Saada designed and completed *Castle of the Winds*. The game sold 13,500 copies. By 1998, the game\'s author, Rick Saada, decided to distribute the entirety of *Castle of the Winds* free of charge.
The game is public domain per Rick Saada\'s words: `{{Blockquote|Rick Saada, creator of ''Castle of the Winds'', decided to give permission for anyone to distribute it for free. Epic doesn't have an ''exclusive'' license to sell it.<ref name="odin-downloads"/>}}`{=mediawiki}
### Graphics
All terrain tiles, some landscape features, all monsters and objects, and some spell/effect graphics take the form of Windows 3.1 icons and were done by Paul Canniff. Multi-tile graphics, such as ball spells and town buildings, are bitmaps included in the executable file. No graphics use colors other than the Windows-standard 16-color palette, plus transparency. They exist in monochrome versions as well, meaning that the game will display well on monochrome monitors.
The map view is identical to the playing-field view, except for scaling to fit on one screen. A simplified map view is available to improve performance on slower computers. The latter functionality also presents a cleaner display, as the aforementioned scaling routine does not always work correctly.
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# Castle of the Winds
## Reception
*Computer Gaming World* rated the gameplay as good and the graphics simple but effective, while noticing the lack of audio, but regarded the game itself enjoyable
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# Countable set
In mathematics, a set is **countable** if either it is finite or it can be made in one to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers. Equivalently, a set is *countable* if there exists an injective function from it into the natural numbers; this means that each element in the set may be associated to a unique natural number, or that the elements of the set can be counted one at a time, although the counting may never finish due to an infinite number of elements.
In more technical terms, assuming the axiom of countable choice, a set is *countable* if its cardinality (the number of elements of the set) is not greater than that of the natural numbers. A countable set that is not finite is said to be **countably infinite**.
The concept is attributed to Georg Cantor, who proved the existence of uncountable sets, that is, sets that are not countable; for example the set of the real numbers.
## A note on terminology {#a_note_on_terminology}
Although the terms \"countable\" and \"countably infinite\" as defined here are quite common, the terminology is not universal. An alternative style uses *countable* to mean what is here called countably infinite, and *at most countable* to mean what is here called countable.
The terms *enumerable* and **denumerable** may also be used, e.g. referring to countable and countably infinite respectively, definitions vary and care is needed respecting the difference with recursively enumerable.
## Definition
A set $S$ is *countable* if:
- Its cardinality $|S|$ is less than or equal to $\aleph_0$ (aleph-null), the cardinality of the set of natural numbers $\N$.
- There exists an injective function from $S$ to $\N$.
- $S$ is empty or there exists a surjective function from $\N$ to $S$.
- There exists a bijective mapping between $S$ and a subset of $\N$.
- $S$ is either finite ($|S|<\aleph_0$) or countably infinite.
All of these definitions are equivalent.
A set $S$ is *countably infinite* if:
- Its cardinality $|S|$ is exactly $\aleph_0$.
- There is an injective and surjective (and therefore bijective) mapping between $S$ and $\N$.
- $S$ has a one-to-one correspondence with $\N$.
- The elements of $S$ can be arranged in an infinite sequence $a_0, a_1, a_2, \ldots$, where $a_i$ is distinct from $a_j$ for $i\neq j$ and every element of $S$ is listed.
A set is *uncountable* if it is not countable, i.e. its cardinality is greater than $\aleph_0$.
## History
In 1874, in his first set theory article, Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is uncountable, thus showing that not all infinite sets are countable. In 1878, he used one-to-one correspondences to define and compare cardinalities. In 1883, he extended the natural numbers with his infinite ordinals, and used sets of ordinals to produce an infinity of sets having different infinite cardinalities.
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# Countable set
## Introduction
A *set* is a collection of *elements*, and may be described in many ways. One way is simply to list all of its elements; for example, the set consisting of the integers 3, 4, and 5 may be denoted $\{3, 4, 5\}$, called roster form. This is only effective for small sets, however; for larger sets, this would be time-consuming and error-prone. Instead of listing every single element, sometimes an ellipsis (\"\...\") is used to represent many elements between the starting element and the end element in a set, if the writer believes that the reader can easily guess what \... represents; for example, $\{1, 2, 3, \dots, 100\}$ presumably denotes the set of integers from 1 to 100. Even in this case, however, it is still *possible* to list all the elements, because the number of elements in the set is finite. If we number the elements of the set 1, 2, and so on, up to $n$, this gives us the usual definition of \"sets of size $n$\".
Some sets are *infinite*; these sets have more than $n$ elements where $n$ is any integer that can be specified. (No matter how large the specified integer $n$ is, such as $n=10^{1000}$, infinite sets have more than $n$ elements.) For example, the set of natural numbers, denotable by $\{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,\dots\}$, has infinitely many elements, and we cannot use any natural number to give its size. It might seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; \...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size. This view works well for countably infinite sets and was the prevailing assumption before Georg Cantor\'s work. For example, there are infinitely many odd integers, infinitely many even integers, and also infinitely many integers overall. We can consider all these sets to have the same \"size\" because we can arrange things such that, for every integer, there is a distinct even integer: $\ldots \, -\! 2\! \rightarrow \! - \! 4, \, -\! 1\! \rightarrow \! - \! 2, \, 0\! \rightarrow \! 0, \, 1\! \rightarrow \! 2, \, 2\! \rightarrow \! 4 \, \cdots$ or, more generally, $n \rightarrow 2n$ (see picture). What we have done here is arrange the integers and the even integers into a *one-to-one correspondence* (or *bijection*), which is a function that maps between two sets such that each element of each set corresponds to a single element in the other set. This mathematical notion of \"size\", cardinality, is that two sets are of the same size if and only if there is a bijection between them. We call all sets that are in one-to-one correspondence with the integers *countably infinite* and say they have cardinality $\aleph_0$.
Georg Cantor showed that not all infinite sets are countably infinite. For example, the real numbers cannot be put into one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers (non-negative integers). The set of real numbers has a greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers and is said to be uncountable.
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# Countable set
## Formal overview {#formal_overview}
By definition, a set $S$ is *countable* if there exists a bijection between $S$ and a subset of the natural numbers $\N=\{0,1,2,\dots\}$. For example, define the correspondence $a \leftrightarrow 1,\ b \leftrightarrow 2,\ c \leftrightarrow 3$ Since every element of $S=\{a,b,c\}$ is paired with *precisely one* element of $\{1,2,3\}$, *and* vice versa, this defines a bijection, and shows that $S$ is countable. Similarly we can show all finite sets are countable.
As for the case of infinite sets, a set $S$ is countably infinite if there is a bijection between $S$ and all of $\N$. As examples, consider the sets $A=\{1,2,3,\dots\}$, the set of positive integers, and $B=\{0,2,4,6,\dots\}$, the set of even integers. We can show these sets are countably infinite by exhibiting a bijection to the natural numbers. This can be achieved using the assignments $n \leftrightarrow n+1$ and $n \leftrightarrow 2n$, so that $\begin{matrix}
0 \leftrightarrow 1, & 1 \leftrightarrow 2, & 2 \leftrightarrow 3, & 3 \leftrightarrow 4, & 4 \leftrightarrow 5, & \ldots \\[6pt]
0 \leftrightarrow 0, & 1 \leftrightarrow 2, & 2 \leftrightarrow 4, & 3 \leftrightarrow 6, & 4 \leftrightarrow 8, & \ldots
\end{matrix}$ Every countably infinite set is countable, and every infinite countable set is countably infinite. Furthermore, any subset of the natural numbers is countable, and more generally: `{{math theorem | math_statement = A subset of a countable set is countable.<ref>{{harvnb|Halmos|1960|page=91}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki}
The set of all ordered pairs of natural numbers (the Cartesian product of two sets of natural numbers, $\N\times\N$ is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like the one in the picture: The resulting mapping proceeds as follows: $0 \leftrightarrow (0, 0), 1 \leftrightarrow (1, 0), 2 \leftrightarrow (0, 1), 3 \leftrightarrow (2, 0), 4 \leftrightarrow (1, 1), 5 \leftrightarrow (0, 2), 6 \leftrightarrow (3, 0), \ldots$ This mapping covers all such ordered pairs.
This form of triangular mapping recursively generalizes to $n$-tuples of natural numbers, i.e., $(a_1,a_2,a_3,\dots,a_n)$ where $a_i$ and $n$ are natural numbers, by repeatedly mapping the first two elements of an $n$-tuple to a natural number. For example, $(0, 2, 3)$ can be written as $((0, 2), 3)$. Then $(0, 2)$ maps to 5 so $((0, 2), 3)$ maps to $(5, 3)$, then $(5, 3)$ maps to 39. Since a different 2-tuple, that is a pair such as $(a,b)$, maps to a different natural number, a difference between two n-tuples by a single element is enough to ensure the n-tuples being mapped to different natural numbers. So, an injection from the set of $n$-tuples to the set of natural numbers $\N$ is proved. For the set of $n$-tuples made by the Cartesian product of finitely many different sets, each element in each tuple has the correspondence to a natural number, so every tuple can be written in natural numbers then the same logic is applied to prove the theorem.
The set of all integers $\Z$ and the set of all rational numbers $\Q$ may intuitively seem much bigger than $\N$. But looks can be deceiving. If a pair is treated as the numerator and denominator of a vulgar fraction (a fraction in the form of $a/b$ where $a$ and $b\neq 0$ are integers), then for every positive fraction, we can come up with a distinct natural number corresponding to it. This representation also includes the natural numbers, since every natural number $n$ is also a fraction $n/1$. So we can conclude that there are exactly as many positive rational numbers as there are positive integers. This is also true for all rational numbers, as can be seen below.
In a similar manner, the set of algebraic numbers is countable.\^{a_n}, where $p_n$ is the $n$-th prime.}}
Sometimes more than one mapping is useful: a set $A$ to be shown as countable is one-to-one mapped (injection) to another set $B$, then $A$ is proved as countable if $B$ is one-to-one mapped to the set of natural numbers. For example, the set of positive rational numbers can easily be one-to-one mapped to the set of natural number pairs (2-tuples) because $p/q$ maps to $(p,q)$. Since the set of natural number pairs is one-to-one mapped (actually one-to-one correspondence or bijection) to the set of natural numbers as shown above, the positive rational number set is proved as countable.
With the foresight of knowing that there are uncountable sets, we can wonder whether or not this last result can be pushed any further. The answer is \"yes\" and \"no\", we can extend it, but we need to assume a new axiom to do so.
For example, given countable sets $\textbf{a},\textbf{b},\textbf{c},\dots$, we first assign each element of each set a tuple, then we assign each tuple an index using a variant of the triangular enumeration we saw above: $\begin{array}{ c|c|c }
\text{Index} & \text{Tuple} & \text {Element} \\ \hline
0 & (0,0) & \textbf{a}_0 \\
1 & (0,1) & \textbf{a}_1 \\
2 & (1,0) & \textbf{b}_0 \\
3 & (0,2) & \textbf{a}_2 \\
4 & (1,1) & \textbf{b}_1 \\
5 & (2,0) & \textbf{c}_0 \\
6 & (0,3) & \textbf{a}_3 \\
7 & (1,2) & \textbf{b}_2 \\
8 & (2,1) & \textbf{c}_1 \\
9 & (3,0) & \textbf{d}_0 \\
10 & (0,4) & \textbf{a}_4 \\
\vdots & &
\end{array}$
We need the axiom of countable choice to index *all* the sets $\textbf{a},\textbf{b},\textbf{c},\dots$ simultaneously.
This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, and so on, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product). Thus the set is a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem.
The elements of any finite subset can be ordered into a finite sequence. There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets.
These follow from the definitions of countable set as injective / surjective functions.
**Cantor\'s theorem** asserts that if $A$ is a set and $\mathcal{P}(A)$ is its power set, i.e. the set of all subsets of $A$, then there is no surjective function from $A$ to $\mathcal{P}(A)$. A proof is given in the article Cantor\'s theorem. As an immediate consequence of this and the Basic Theorem above we have: `{{math theorem | name = Proposition | math_statement = The set <math>\mathcal{P}(\N)</math> is not countable; i.e. it is [[uncountable]].}}`{=mediawiki}
For an elaboration of this result see Cantor\'s diagonal argument.
The set of real numbers is uncountable, and so is the set of all infinite sequences of natural numbers.
## Minimal model of set theory is countable {#minimal_model_of_set_theory_is_countable}
If there is a set that is a standard model (see inner model) of ZFC set theory, then there is a minimal standard model (see Constructible universe). The Löwenheim--Skolem theorem can be used to show that this minimal model is countable. The fact that the notion of \"uncountability\" makes sense even in this model, and in particular that this model *M* contains elements that are:
- subsets of *M*, hence countable,
- but uncountable from the point of view of *M*,
was seen as paradoxical in the early days of set theory; see Skolem\'s paradox for more.
The minimal standard model includes all the algebraic numbers and all effectively computable transcendental numbers, as well as many other kinds of numbers.
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# Countable set
## Total orders {#total_orders}
Countable sets can be totally ordered in various ways, for example:
- Well-orders (see also ordinal number):
- The usual order of natural numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \...)
- The integers in the order (0, 1, 2, 3, \...; −1, −2, −3, \...)
- Other (*not* well orders):
- The usual order of integers (\..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, \...)
- The usual order of rational numbers (Cannot be explicitly written as an ordered list!)
In both examples of well orders here, any subset has a *least element*; and in both examples of non-well orders, *some* subsets do not have a *least element*. This is the key definition that determines whether a total order is also a well order
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# List of equations in classical mechanics
Classical mechanics is the branch of physics used to describe the motion of macroscopic objects. It is the most familiar of the theories of physics. The concepts it covers, such as mass, acceleration, and force, are commonly used and known. The subject is based upon a three-dimensional Euclidean space with fixed axes, called a frame of reference. The point of concurrency of the three axes is known as the origin of the particular space.
Classical mechanics utilises many equations---as well as other mathematical concepts---which relate various physical quantities to one another. These include differential equations, manifolds, Lie groups, and ergodic theory. This article gives a summary of the most important of these.
This article lists equations from Newtonian mechanics, see analytical mechanics for the more general formulation of classical mechanics (which includes Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics).
## Classical mechanics {#classical_mechanics}
### Mass and inertia {#mass_and_inertia}
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
| Quantity (common name/s) | (Common) symbol/s | Defining equation | SI units | Dimension |
+========================================================+==============================================================================================+=================================================================================================================================================================================+===========================+===========+
| Linear, surface, volumetric mass density | *λ* or *μ* (especially in acoustics, see below) for Linear, *σ* for surface, *ρ* for volume. | $m = \int \lambda \, \mathrm{d} \ell$ $m = \iint \sigma \, \mathrm{d} S$ | kg m^−*n*^, *n* = 1, 2, 3 | M L^−*n*^ |
| | | | | |
| | | $m = \iiint \rho \, \mathrm{d} V$ | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
| Moment of mass`{{Anchor|Moment of mass}}`{=mediawiki} | **m** (No common symbol) | Point mass: $\mathbf{m} = \mathbf{r}m$ | kg m | M L |
| | | | | |
| | | Discrete masses about an axis $x_i$: $\mathbf{m} = \sum_{i=1}^N \mathbf{r}_i m_i$ | | |
| | | | | |
| | | Continuum of mass about an axis $x_i$: $\mathbf{m} = \int \rho \left ( \mathbf{r} \right ) x_i \mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}$ | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
| Center of mass | **r**~com~ (Symbols vary) | *i*-th moment of mass $\mathbf{m}_i = \mathbf{r}_i m_i$ | m | L |
| | | | | |
| | | Discrete masses: $\mathbf{r}_\mathrm{com} = \frac{1}{M} \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i m_i = \frac{1}{M} \sum_i \mathbf{m}_i$ | | |
| | | | | |
| | | Mass continuum: $\mathbf{r}_\mathrm{com} = \frac{1}{M} \int \mathrm{d}\mathbf{m} = \frac{1}{M} \int \mathbf{r} \, \mathrm{d}m = \frac{1}{M}\int \mathbf{r} \rho \, \mathrm{d}V$ | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
| 2-Body reduced mass | *m*~12~, *μ* Pair of masses = *m*~1~ and *m*~2~ | $\mu = \frac{m_1 m_2}{m_1 + m_2}$ | kg | M |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
| Moment of inertia (MOI) | *I* | Discrete Masses: $I = \sum_i \mathbf{m}_i \cdot \mathbf{r}_i = \sum_i \left | \mathbf{r}_i \right | ^2 m$ | kg m^2^ | M L^2^ |
| | | | | |
| | | Mass continuum: $I = \int \left | \mathbf{r} \right | ^2 \mathrm{d} m = \int \mathbf{r} \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{m} = \int \left | \mathbf{r} \right | ^2 \rho \, \mathrm{d}V$ | | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+-----------+
### Derived kinematic quantities {#derived_kinematic_quantities}
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
-------------------------- ------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------- -----------
Velocity **v** $\mathbf{v} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t}$ m s^−1^ L T^−1^
Acceleration **a** $\mathbf{a} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{v}}{\mathrm{d} t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}^2 \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t^2 }$ m s^−2^ L T^−2^
Jerk **j** $\mathbf{j} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{a}}{\mathrm{d} t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}^3 \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t^3}$ m s^−3^ L T^−3^
Jounce **s** $\mathbf{s} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{j}}{\mathrm{d} t} = \frac{\mathrm{d}^4 \mathbf{r}}{\mathrm{d} t^4}$ m s^−4^ L T^−4^
Angular velocity **ω** $\boldsymbol{\omega} = \mathbf{\hat{n}} \frac{ \mathrm{d} \theta }{\mathrm{d} t}$ rad s^−1^ T^−1^
Angular Acceleration **α** $\boldsymbol{\alpha} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \boldsymbol{\omega}}{\mathrm{d} t} = \mathbf{\hat{n}} \frac{\mathrm{d}^2 \theta}{\mathrm{d} t^2}$ rad s^−2^ T^−2^
Angular jerk **ζ** $\boldsymbol{\zeta} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \boldsymbol{\alpha}}{\mathrm{d} t} = \mathbf{\hat{n}} \frac{ \mathrm{d}^3 \theta}{\mathrm{d} t^3}$ rad s^−3^ T^−3^
### Derived dynamic quantities {#derived_dynamic_quantities}
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Quantity (common name/s) | (Common) symbol/s | Defining equation | SI units | Dimension |
+===========================================================+===========================+=================================================================================================================================+=====================+==============+
| Momentum | **p** | $\mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v}$ | kg m s^−1^ | M L T^−1^ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Force | **F** | $\mathbf{F} = \mathrm{d} \mathbf{p}/\mathrm{d} t$ | N = kg m s^−2^ | M L T^−2^ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Impulse | **J**, Δ**p**, **I** | $\mathbf{J} = \Delta \mathbf{p} = \int_{t_1}^{t_2} \mathbf{F} \, \mathrm{d} t$ | kg m s^−1^ | M L T^−1^ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Angular momentum about a position point **r**~0~, | **L**, **J**, **S** | $\mathbf{L} = \left ( \mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r}_0 \right ) \times \mathbf{p}$ | kg m^2^ s^−1^ | M L^2^ T^−1^ |
| | | | | |
| | | Most of the time we can set **r**~0~ = **0** if particles are orbiting about axes intersecting at a common point. | | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Moment of a force about a position point **r**~0~, Torque | **τ**, **M** | $\boldsymbol{\tau} = \left ( \mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r}_0 \right ) \times \mathbf{F} = \frac{\mathrm{d} \mathbf{L}}{\mathrm{d} t}$ | N m = kg m^2^ s^−2^ | M L^2^ T^−2^ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
| Angular impulse | Δ**L** (no common symbol) | $\Delta \mathbf{L} = \int_{t_1}^{t_2} \boldsymbol{\tau} \, \mathrm{d} t$ | kg m^2^ s^−1^ | M L^2^ T^−1^ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------------+--------------+
### General energy definitions {#general_energy_definitions}
Quantity (common name/s) (Common) symbol/s Defining equation SI units Dimension
---------------------------------------------- -------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------- ------------------------- --------------
Mechanical work due to a Resultant Force *W* $W = \int_C \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{r}$ J = N m = kg m^2^ s^−2^ M L^2^ T^−2^
Work done ON mechanical system, Work done BY *W*~ON~, *W*~BY~ $\Delta W_\mathrm{ON} = - \Delta W_\mathrm{BY}$ J = N m = kg m^2^ s^−2^ M L^2^ T^−2^
Potential energy *φ*, Φ, *U*, *V*, *E~p~* $\Delta W = - \Delta V$ J = N m = kg m^2^ s^−2^ M L^2^ T^−2^
Mechanical power *P* $P = \frac{\mathrm{d}E}{\mathrm{d}t}$ W = J s^−1^ M L^2^ T^−3^
Every conservative force has a potential energy. By following two principles one can consistently assign a non-relative value to *U*:
- Wherever the force is zero, its potential energy is defined to be zero as well.
- Whenever the force does work, potential energy is lost.
| 1,006 |
List of equations in classical mechanics
| 0 |
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