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5,636	# Chemist ## Education ### Formal education {#formal_education} Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor\'s degree in chemistry, which takes four years. However, many positions, especially those in research, require a Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.). Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as \"the central science\", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science. At the Master\'s level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry. Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions. Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a chemistry degree, are commonly referred to as chemical technicians. Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, having an associate degree. A chemical technologist has more education or experience than a chemical technician but less than a chemist, often having a bachelor\'s degree in a different field of science with also an associate degree in chemistry (or many credits related to chemistry) or having the same education as a chemical technician but more experience. There are also degrees specific to become a chemical technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional chemist. A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and instrumentation necessary to perform chemical analyzes than a chemical technician. They are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed. They also perform functions in the areas of environmental quality control and the operational phase of a chemical plant. ### Training In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor. The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be. Chemistry, as a field, has so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience. The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes it difficult to categorize the exact roles of these chemistry-related workers as standard for that given level of education. Because of these factors affecting exact job titles with distinct responsibilities, some chemists might begin doing technician tasks while other chemists might begin doing more complicated tasks than those of a technician, such as tasks that also involve formal applied research, management, or supervision included within the responsibilities of that same job title. The level of supervision given to that chemist also varies in a similar manner, with factors similar to those that affect the tasks demanded for a particular chemist. It is important that those interested in a Chemistry degree understand the variety of roles available to them (on average), which vary depending on education and job experience. Those Chemists who hold a bachelor\'s degree are most commonly involved in positions related to either research assistance (working under the guidance of senior chemists in a research-oriented activity), or, alternatively, they may work on distinct (chemistry-related) aspects of a business, organization or enterprise including aspects that involve quality control, quality assurance, manufacturing, production, formulation, inspection, method validation, visitation for troubleshooting of chemistry-related instruments, regulatory affairs, \"on-demand\" technical services, chemical analysis for non-research purposes (e.g., as a legal request, for testing purposes, or for government or non-profit agencies); chemists may also work in environmental evaluation and assessment. Other jobs or roles may include sales and marketing of chemical products and chemistry-related instruments or technical writing. The more experience obtained, the more independence and leadership or management roles these chemists may perform in those organizations. Some chemists with relatively higher experience might change jobs or job position to become a manager of a chemistry-related enterprise, a supervisor, an entrepreneur or a chemistry consultant. Other chemists choose to combine their education and experience as a chemist with a distinct credential to provide different services (e.g., forensic chemists, chemistry-related software development, patent law specialists, environmental law firm staff, scientific news reporting staff, engineering design staff, etc.). In comparison, chemists who have obtained a Master of Science (M.S.) in chemistry or in a very related discipline may find chemist roles that allow them to enjoy more independence, leadership and responsibility earlier in their careers with less years of experience than those with a bachelor\'s degree as highest degree. Sometimes, M.S. chemists receive more complex tasks duties in comparison with the roles and positions found by chemists with a bachelor\'s degree as their highest academic degree and with the same or close-to-same years of job experience. There are positions that are open only to those that at least have a degree related to chemistry at the master\'s level. Although good chemists without a Ph.D. degree but with relatively many years of experience may be allowed some applied research positions, the general rule is that Ph.D. chemists are preferred for research positions and are typically the preferred choice for the highest administrative positions on big enterprises involved in chemistry-related duties. Some positions, especially research oriented, will only allow those chemists who are Ph.D. holders. Jobs that involve intensive research and actively seek to lead the discovery of completely new chemical compounds under specifically assigned monetary funds and resources or jobs that seek to develop new scientific theories require a Ph.D. more often than not. Chemists with a Ph.D. as the highest academic degree are found typically on the research-and-development department of an enterprise and can also hold university positions as professors. Professors for research universities or for big universities usually have a Ph.D., and some research-oriented institutions might require post-doctoral training. Some smaller colleges (including some smaller four-year colleges or smaller non-research universities for undergraduates) as well as community colleges usually hire chemists with a M.S. as professors too (and rarely, some big universities who need part-time or temporary instructors, or temporary staff), but when the positions are scarce and the applicants are many, they might prefer Ph.D. holders instead. ### Skills Skills that a chemist may need on the job include: - Knowledge of chemistry - Familiarity with product development - Using scientific rules, strategies, or concepts to solve problems - Putting together small parts using hands and fingers with dexterity	1,210	Chemist	1
5,636	# Chemist ## Employment Most chemists begin their lives in research laboratories. Many chemists continue working at universities. Other chemists may start companies, teach at high schools or colleges, take samples outside (as environmental chemists), or work in medical examiner offices or police departments (as forensic chemists). Some software that chemists may find themselves using include: - ChemSW Buffer Maker - LabTrack Electronic Lab Notebook - Agilent ChemStation - Waters Empower Chromatography Data Software - Microsoft Excel Increasingly, chemists may also find themselves using artificial intelligence, such as for drug discovery. ### Subdisciplines Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, radiology, and several engineering disciplines. - Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. - Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry. - Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding. - Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships. - Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of carbon compounds. - Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has a large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations. - Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular, the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics. See reductionism. All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists. Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental science, forensic science, geochemistry, green chemistry, history of chemistry, materials science, medical science, molecular biology, molecular genetics, nanotechnology, nuclear chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, supramolecular chemistry and surface chemistry.	538	Chemist	2
5,636	# Chemist ## Professional societies {#professional_societies} Chemists may belong to professional societies specifically for professionals and researchers within the field of chemistry, such as the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the United States, or the Institution of Chemists in India. ## Ethics The \"Global Chemists\' Code of Ethics\" suggests several ethical principles that all chemists should follow: - Promoting the general public\'s appreciation of chemistry - The importance of sustainability and protecting the environment - The importance of scientific research and publications - Respecting safety, such as by using proper personal protective equipment - Respecting chemical security throughout the chemical supply chain, especially for labs and industrial facilities This code of ethics was codified in a 2016 conference held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, run by the American Chemical Society. The points listed are inspired by the 2015 Hague Ethical Guidelines. ## Honors and awards {#honors_and_awards} The highest honor awarded to chemists is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences	176	Chemist	3
5,642	# Costume jewelry thumb\\|upright=1.2\\|Swatch Bijoux Jewelry Costume or fashion jewelry includes a range of decorative items worn for personal adornment that are manufactured as less expensive ornamentation to complement a particular fashionable outfit or garment as opposed to \"real\" (fine) jewelry, which is more costly and which may be regarded primarily as collectibles, keepsakes, or investments. From the outset, costume jewelry --- also known as fashion jewelry --- paralleled the styles of its more precious fine counterparts. ## Terminology It is also known as artificial jewellery, imitation jewellery, imitated jewelry, trinkets, fashion jewelry, junk jewelry, fake jewelry, or fallalery. ## Etymology The term costume jewelry dates back to the early 20th century. It reflects the use of the word \"costume\" to refer to what is now called an \"outfit\". ## Components Originally, costume or fashion jewelry was made of inexpensive simulated gemstones, such as rhinestones or lucite, set in pewter, silver, nickel, or brass. During the depression years, some manufacturers even downgraded rhinestones to meet the cost of production. During the World War II era, sterling silver was often incorporated into costume jewelry designs primarily because: 1. The components used for base metal were needed for wartime production (i.e., military applications), and a ban was placed on their use in the private sector. 2. Base metal was originally popular because it could approximate platinum\'s color, sterling silver fulfilled the same function. This resulted in some years during which sterling silver costume jewelry was produced and some can still be found in today\'s vintage jewelry marketplace. Modern costume jewelry incorporates a wide range of materials. High-end crystals, cubic zirconia simulated diamonds, and some semi-precious stones are used in place of precious stones. Metals include gold- or silver-plated brass, and sometimes vermeil or sterling silver. Lower-priced jewelry may still use gold plating over pewter, nickel, or other metals; items made in countries outside the United States`{{Dubious\|Lead contamination\|date=December 2021}}`{=mediawiki} may contain lead. Some pieces incorporate plastic, acrylic, leather, or wood.	327	Costume jewelry	0
5,642	# Costume jewelry ## Historical expression {#historical_expression} Costume jewelry can be characterized by the period in history in which it was made. ### Art Deco period (1920--1930s) {#art_deco_period_19201930s} The Art Deco movement attempted to combine the harshness of mass production with the sensitivity of art and design. The movement died with the onset of the Great Depression and the outbreak of World War II. According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of the costume jewelry in the Art Deco period were: - Free-flowing curves were replaced with a harshly geometric and symmetrical theme - Long pendants, bangle bracelets, cocktail rings, and elaborate accessory items such as cigarette cases and holders ### Retro period (1935 to 1950) {#retro_period_1935_to_1950} In the Retro period, designers struggled with the art versus mass production dilemma. Natural materials merged with plastics. The retro period primarily included American-made jewelry with a distinctly American look. With the war in Europe, many European jewelry firms were forced to shut down. Many European designers emigrated to the U.S. since the economy was recovering. According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of costume jewelry in the Retro period were: - Glamour, elegance, and sophistication - Flowers, bows, and sunburst designs with a Hollywood flair - Moonstones, horse motifs, military influence, and ballerinas - Bakelite and other plastic jewelry ### Art Modern period (1945 to 1960) {#art_modern_period_1945_to_1960} In the Art Modern period following World War II, jewelry designs became more traditional and understated. The big, bold styles of the Retro period went out of style and were replaced by the more tailored styles of the 1950s and 1960s. According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of costume jewelry in the Art Modern period were: - Bold, lavish jewelry - Large, chunky bracelets, charm bracelets, Jade/opal, citrine and topaz - Poodle pins, Christmas tree pins, and other Christmas jewelry - Rhinestones With the advent of the Mod period came \"Body Jewelry\". Carl Schimel of Kim Craftsmen Jewelry was at the forefront of this style. While Kim Craftsmen closed in the early 1990s, many collectors still forage for their items at antique shows and flea markets.	352	Costume jewelry	1
5,642	# Costume jewelry ## General history {#general_history} Costume jewelry has been part of the culture for almost 300 years. During the 18th century, jewelers began making pieces with inexpensive glass. In the 19th century, costume jewelry made of semi-precious material came into the market. Jewels made of semi-precious material were more affordable, allowing common people to own costume jewelry. However, the real golden era for costume jewelry began in the middle of the 20th century. The new middle class wanted beautiful, but affordable jewelry. The demand for jewelry of this type coincided with the machine age and the Industrial Revolution. The revolution made the production of carefully executed replicas of admired heirloom pieces possible. As the class structure in America changed, so did measures of real wealth. Women in all social stations, even working-class women, could own a small piece of costume jewelry. The average town and countrywoman could acquire and wear a considerable amount of this mass-produced jewelry that was both affordable and stylish. Costume jewelry was also made popular by various designers in the mid-20th century. Some of the most remembered names in costume jewelry include both the high and low priced brands: Crown Trifari, Dior, Chanel, Miriam Haskell, Sherman, Monet, Napier, Corocraft, Coventry, and Kim Craftsmen. A significant factor in the popularization of costume jewelry was Hollywood movies. The leading female stars of the 1940s and 1950s often wore and endorsed the pieces produced by various designers. If you admired a necklace worn by Bette Davis in The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex, you could buy a copy from Joseff of Hollywood, who made the original. Stars such as Vivien Leigh, Elizabeth Taylor, and Jane Russell appeared in adverts for the pieces and the availability of the collections in shops such as Woolworth made it possible for ordinary women to own and wear such jewelry. Coco Chanel greatly popularized the use of faux jewelry in her years as a fashion designer, bringing costume jewelry to life with gold and faux pearls. Chanel\'s designs drew from various historical styles, including Byzantine and Renaissance influences, often featuring crosses and intricate metalwork. Her collaboration with glassmakers, such as the Gripoix family, introduced richly colored glass beads and simulated gemstones, which added depth to her creations without the high cost of traditional precious stones. Kenneth Jay Lane has since the 1960s been known for creating unique pieces for Jackie Onassis, Elizabeth Taylor, Diana Vreeland, and Audrey Hepburn. He is probably best known for his three-strand faux pearl necklace worn by Barbara Bush to her husband\'s inaugural ball. Celebrated names who wore Lane\'s creations include Jackie Kennedy, Babe Paley, the Duchess of Windsor, and Nancy Reagan. Elsa Schiaparelli brought surrealist influences into costume jewelry design, collaborating with artists such as Salvador Dalí. In many instances, high-end fashion jewelry has achieved a \"collectible\" status and increased value over time. Today, there is a substantial secondary market for vintage fashion jewelry. The main collecting market is for \'signed pieces\', which have the maker\'s mark, usually stamped on the reverse. Amongst the most sought after are Miriam Haskell, Sherman, Coro, Butler and Wilson, Crown Trifari, and Sphinx. However, there is also demand for good quality \'unsigned\' pieces, especially if they are of an unusual design.	541	Costume jewelry	2
5,642	# Costume jewelry ## Business and industry {#business_and_industry} Costume jewelry is considered a discrete category of fashion accessory and displays many characteristics of a self-contained industry. Costume jewelry manufacturers are located throughout the world, with a particular concentration in parts of China and India, where the trade of these goods dominates entire citywide and region-wide economies. There has been considerable controversy in the United States and elsewhere about the lack of regulations in the manufacture of such jewelry---these range from human rights issues surrounding the treatment of labor, to the use of manufacturing processes in which small, but potentially harmful, amounts of toxic metals are added during production. In 2010, the Associated Press released the story that toxic levels of the metal cadmium were found in children\'s jewelry. An Associated Press investigation found some pieces contained more than 80 percent of cadmium. The broader issues surrounding imports, exports, trade laws, and globalization also apply to the costume jewelry trade. As part of the supply chain, wholesalers in the United States and other nations purchase costume jewelry from manufacturers. They typically import or export it to wholesale distributors and suppliers who deal directly with retailers. Wholesale costume jewelry merchants traditionally seek new suppliers at trade shows. The trade-show model has changed as the Internet has become increasingly important in global trade. Retailers can now select from many wholesalers with sites on the World Wide Web. The wholesalers purchase from international suppliers available on the Web from different parts of the world, like Chinese, Korean, Indonesian, Thai, and Indian jewelry companies, with their wide range of products in bulk quantities. Some sites also market directly to consumers who can purchase costume jewelry at significantly reduced prices. Some websites categorize fashion jewelry separately, while others use this term instead of costume jewelry. The trend of jewelry-making at home by hobbyists for personal enjoyment or sale on sites like Etsy has resulted in the common practice of buying wholesale costume jewelry in bulk and using it for parts. There is a rise in demand for artificial or imitation jewelry by 85% due to the increase in gold prices, according to a 2011 report	359	Costume jewelry	3
5,645	# Cult film A cult film, also commonly referred to as a cult classic, is a film that has acquired a cult following. Cult films are known for their dedicated, passionate fanbase, which forms an elaborate subculture, members of which engage in repeated viewings, dialogue-quoting, and audience participation. Inclusive definitions allow for major studio productions, especially box-office bombs, while exclusive definitions focus more on obscure, transgressive films shunned by the mainstream. The difficulty in defining the term and subjectivity of what qualifies as a cult film mirror classificatory disputes about art. The term cult film itself was first used in the 1970s to describe the culture that surrounded underground films and midnight movies, though cult was in common use in film analysis for decades prior to that. Cult films trace their origin back to controversial and suppressed films kept alive by dedicated fans. In some cases, reclaimed or rediscovered films have acquired cult followings decades after their original release, occasionally for their camp value. Other cult films have since become well-respected or reassessed as classics; there is debate as to whether these popular and accepted films are still cult films. After failing at the cinema, some cult films have become regular fixtures on cable television or profitable sellers on home video. Others have inspired their own film festivals. Cult films can both appeal to specific subcultures and form their own subcultures. Other media that reference cult films can easily identify which demographics they desire to attract and offer savvy fans an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge. Cult films frequently break cultural taboos, and many feature excessive displays of violence, gore, sexuality, profanity, or combinations thereof. This can lead to controversy, censorship, and outright bans; less transgressive films may attract similar amounts of controversy when critics call them frivolous or incompetent. Films that fail to attract requisite amounts of controversy may face resistance when labeled as cult films. Mainstream films and big budget blockbusters have attracted cult followings similar to more underground and lesser known films; fans of these films often emphasize the films\' niche appeal and reject the more popular aspects. Fans who like the films for the wrong reasons, such as perceived elements that represent mainstream appeal and marketing, will often be ostracized or ridiculed. Likewise, fans who stray from accepted subcultural scripts may experience similar rejection. Since the late 1970s, cult films have become increasingly popular. Films that once would have been limited to obscure cult followings are now capable of breaking into the mainstream, and showings of cult films have proved to be a profitable business venture. Overly broad usage of the term has resulted in controversy, as purists state it has become a meaningless descriptor applied to any film that is the slightest bit weird or unconventional; others accuse Hollywood studios of trying to artificially create cult films or use the term as a marketing tactic. Modern films are frequently stated to be an \"instant cult classic\", occasionally before they are released. Some films have acquired massive, quick cult followings, owing to advertisements and posts made by fans spreading virally through social media. Easy access to cult films via video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing has led some critics to pronounce the death of cult films.	541	Cult film	0
5,645	# Cult film ## Definition A cult film is any film that has a cult following, although the term is not easily defined and can be applied to a wide variety of films. Some definitions exclude films that have been released by major studios or have big budgets, that try specifically to become cult films, or become accepted by mainstream audiences and critics. Cult films are defined by audience reaction as much as by their content. This may take the form of elaborate and ritualized audience participation, film festivals, or cosplay. Over time, the definition has become more vague and inclusive as it drifts away from earlier, stricter views. Increasing use of the term by mainstream publications has resulted in controversy, as cinephiles argue that the term has become meaningless or \"elastic, a catchall for anything slightly maverick or strange\". Academic Mark Shiel has criticized the term itself as being a weak concept, reliant on subjectivity; different groups can interpret films in their own terms. According to feminist scholar Joanne Hollows, this subjectivity causes films with large female cult followings to be perceived as too mainstream and not transgressive enough to qualify as a cult film. Academic Mike Chopra‑Gant says that cult films become decontextualized when studied as a group, and Shiel criticizes this recontextualization as cultural commodification. In 2008, Cineaste asked a range of academics for their definition of a cult film. Several defined cult films primarily in terms of their opposition to mainstream films and conformism, explicitly requiring a transgressive element, though others disputed the transgressive potential, given the demographic appeal to conventional moviegoers and mainstreaming of cult films. Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock instead called them mainstream films with transgressive elements. Most definitions also required a strong community aspect, such as obsessed fans or ritualistic behavior. Citing misuse of the term, Mikel J. Koven took a self-described hard-line stance that rejected definitions that use any other criteria. Matt Hills instead stressed the need for an open-ended definition rooted in structuration, where the film and the audience reaction are interrelated and neither is prioritized. Ernest Mathijs focused on the accidental nature of cult followings, arguing that cult film fans consider themselves too savvy to be marketed to, while Jonathan Rosenbaum rejected the continued existence of cult films and called the term a marketing buzzword. Mathijs suggests that cult films help to understand ambiguity and incompleteness in life given the difficulty in even defining the term. That cult films can have opposing qualities -- such as good and bad, failure and success, innovative and retro -- helps to illustrate that art is subjective and never self-evident. This ambiguity leads critics of postmodernism to accuse cult films of being beyond criticism, as the emphasis is now on personal interpretation rather than critical analysis or metanarratives. These inherent dichotomies can lead audiences to be split between ironic and earnest fans. Writing in Defining Cult Movies, Jancovich et al. quote academic Jeffrey Sconce, who defines cult films in terms of paracinema, marginal films that exist outside critical and cultural acceptance in such varied genres as exploitation, beach party musicals, and softcore pornography. However, they reject cult films as having a single unifying feature; instead, they state that cult films are united in their \"subcultural ideology\" and opposition to mainstream tastes, itself a vague and undefinable term. Cult followings themselves can range from adoration to contempt, and they have little in common except for their celebration of nonconformity -- even the bad films ridiculed by fans are artistically nonconformist, albeit unintentionally. At the same time, they state that bourgeois, masculine tastes are frequently reinforced, which makes cult films more of an internal conflict within the bourgeoisie, rather than a rebellion against it. This results in an anti-academic bias despite the use of formal methodologies, such as defamiliarization. This contradiction exists in many subcultures, especially those dependent on defining themselves in terms of opposition to the mainstream. This nonconformity is eventually co-opted by the dominant forces, such as Hollywood, and marketed to the mainstream. Academic Xavier Mendik proposes that films can become cult by virtue of their genre or content, especially if it is transgressive. Due to their rejection of mainstream appeal, Mendik says cult films can be more creative and political; times of relative political instability produce more interesting films.	715	Cult film	1
5,645	# Cult film ## General overview {#general_overview} Cult films have existed since the early days of cinema. Film critic Harry Alan Potamkin traces them back to 1910s France and the reception of Pearl White, William S. Hart, and Charlie Chaplin, which he described as \"a dissent from the popular ritual\". Nosferatu (1922) was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker\'s Dracula. Stoker\'s widow sued the production company, and all known copies in Germany were destroyed. Now illegal to distribute in many countries, Nosferatu became an early cult film. Academic Chuck Kleinhans identifies the Marx Brothers as making other early cult films. On their original release, some highly regarded classics from the Golden Age of Hollywood were panned by critics and audiences, relegated to cult status. The Night of the Hunter (1955) was a cult film for years, quoted often and championed by fans, before it was reassessed as an important and influential classic. During this time, American exploitation films and imported European art films were marketed similarly. Although critics Pauline Kael and Arthur Knight argued against arbitrary divisions into high and low culture, American films settled into rigid genres; European art films continued to push the boundaries of simple definitions, and these exploitative art films and artistic exploitation films influenced American cult films. Much like later cult films, these early exploitation films encouraged audience participation, influenced by live theater and vaudeville. Modern cult films grew from 1960s counterculture and underground films, popular among those who rejected mainstream Hollywood films. These underground film festivals led to the creation of midnight movies, which attracted cult followings. The term cult film itself was an outgrowth of this movement and was first used in the 1970s, though cult had been in use for decades in film analysis with both positive and negative connotations. These films were more concerned with cultural significance than the social justice sought by earlier avant-garde films. Midnight movies became more popular and mainstream by the 1970s, peaking with the release of The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), which finally found its audience several years after its release. Eventually, the rise of home video marginalized midnight movies once again, after which many directors joined the burgeoning independent film scene or went back underground. Home video gave a second life to box-office flops, as positive word-of-mouth or excessive replay on cable television led these films to develop an appreciative audience, as well as obsessive replay and study. For example, The Beastmaster (1982), despite its failure at the box office, became one of the most played films on American cable television and developed into a cult film. Home video and television broadcasts of cult films were initially greeted with hostility. Joanne Hollows states that they were seen as turning cult films mainstream -- in effect, feminizing them by opening them to distracted, passive audiences. Releases from major studios, such as The Big Lebowski (1998), which was distributed by Universal Studios, can become cult films when they fail at the box office and develop a cult following through reissues, such as midnight movies, festivals, and home video. Hollywood films, due to their nature, are more likely to attract this kind of attention, which leads to a mainstreaming effect of cult culture. With major studios behind them, even financially unsuccessful films can be re-released multiple times to seek an audience. The constant use of profanity and drugs in otherwise mainstream, Hollywood films, such as The Big Lebowski, can alienate critics and audiences yet lead to a large cult following among more open-minded demographics not often associated with cult films, such as Wall Street bankers and professional soldiers. Thus, even comparatively mainstream films can satisfy the traditional demands of a cult film, perceived by fans as transgressive, niche, and uncommercial. Discussing his reputation for making cult films, Bollywood director Anurag Kashyap said, \"I didn\'t set out to make cult films. I wanted to make box-office hits.\" Academics Ernest Mathijs and Jamie Sexton state that this acceptance of mainstream culture and commercialism is not out of character, as cult audiences have a more complex relationship to these concepts: their opposition is to mainstream values and excessive commercialism. In a global context, popularity can vary widely by territory, especially with regard to limited releases. Mad Max (1979) was an international hit, except in America where it became an obscure cult favorite, ignored by critics and available for years only in a dubbed version though it earned over \$100M internationally. Foreign cinema can put a different spin on popular genres, such as Japanese horror, which was initially a cult favorite in America. Asian imports to the West are often marketed as exotic cult films and of interchangeable national identity. Foreign influence can affect fan response, especially on genres tied to a national identity; when they become more global in scope, questions of authenticity may arise. Filmmakers and films ignored in their own country can become the objects of cult adoration in another, producing perplexed reactions in their native country. Cult films can also establish an early viability for more mainstream films, both for filmmakers and national cinema. The early cult horror films of Peter Jackson were so strongly associated with his homeland that they affected the international reputation of New Zealand and its cinema. As more artistic films emerged, New Zealand was perceived as a legitimate competitor to Hollywood, which mirrored Jackson\'s career trajectory. Heavenly Creatures (1994) acquired its own cult following, became a part of New Zealand\'s national identity, and paved the way for big-budget, Hollywood-style epics, such as Jackson\'s The Lord of the Rings trilogy. Cult film fans often watch films obsessively or in idiosyncratic ways, such as speeding them up or slowing them down. Fan may watch marathons of horror films on Halloween, sentimental melodrama on Christmas, and romantic films on Valentine\'s Day. Christmas films in particular have a nostalgic factor. These films, ritually watched every season, give a sense of community and shared nostalgia. New films often have trouble making inroads against the institutions of It\'s a Wonderful Life (1946) and Miracle on 34th Street (1947). These films provide mild criticism of consumerism while encouraging family values. Halloween, on the other hand, allows for flaunting society\'s taboos and testing one\'s fears via horror films. Mathijs criticizes the commercialized nature of Halloween and horror films, which he states feels lacks community. Mathijs states that Halloween horror conventions can provide the missing community aspect. Despite their oppositional nature, cult films can produce celebrities. Like cult films themselves, authenticity is an important aspect of their popularity. Actors can become typecast as they become strongly associated with such iconic roles. Tim Curry, despite his acknowledged range as an actor, found casting difficult after he achieved fame in The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Even when discussing unrelated projects, interviewers frequently bring up the role, which causes him to tire of discussing it. Mary Woronov, known for her transgressive roles in cult films, eventually transitioned to mainstream films. She was expected to recreate the transgressive elements of her cult films within the confines of mainstream cinema. Instead of the complex gender deconstructions of her Andy Warhol films, she became typecast as a lesbian or domineering woman. Sylvia Kristel, after starring in Emmanuelle (1974), found herself highly associated with the film and the sexual liberation of the 1970s. Caught between the transgressive elements of her cult film and the mainstream appeal of soft-core pornography, she was unable to work in anything but exploitation films and Emmanuelle sequels. Despite her immense popularity and cult following, she rated only a footnote in most histories of European cinema if she was even mentioned. Similarly, Chloë Sevigny has struggled with her reputation as a cult independent film star famous for her daring roles in transgressive films. Cult films can also trap directors. Leonard Kastle, who directed The Honeymoon Killers (1969), never directed another film again. Despite his cult following, which included François Truffaut, he was unable to find financing for any of his other screenplays. Qualities that bring cult films to prominence -- such as an uncompromising, unorthodox vision -- caused Alejandro Jodorowsky to languish in obscurity for years.	1,352	Cult film	2
5,645	# Cult film ## Transgression and censorship {#transgression_and_censorship} Transgressive films as a distinct artistic movement began in the 1970s. Unconcerned with genre distinctions, they drew inspiration equally from the nonconformity of European art cinema and experimental film, the gritty subject matter of Italian neorealism, and the shocking images of 1960s exploitation. Some used hardcore pornography and horror, occasionally at the same time. In the 1980s, filmmaker Nick Zedd identified this movement as the Cinema of Transgression and wrote a manifesto. Popular in midnight showings, they were mainly limited to large urban areas, which led academic Joan Hawkins to label them as \"downtown culture\". These films acquired a legendary reputation as they were discussed and debated in alternative weeklies, such as The Village Voice. Home video finally allowed general audiences to see them, which gave many people their first taste of underground film. Mathijs says that cult films often disrupt viewer expectations, such as giving characters transgressive motivations or focusing attention on elements outside the film. Cult films can also transgress national stereotypes and genre conventions, such as Battle Royale (2000), which broke many rules of teenage slasher films. The reverse -- when films based on cult properties lose their transgressive edge -- can result in derision and rejection by fans. Audience participation itself can be transgressive, such as breaking long-standing taboos against talking during films and throwing things at the screen. According to Mathijs, critical reception is important to a film\'s perception as cult, through topicality and controversy. Topicality, which can be regional (such as objection to government funding of the film) or critical (such as philosophical objections to the themes), enables attention and a contextual response. Cultural topics make the film relevant and can lead to controversy, such as a moral panic, which provides opposition. Cultural values transgressed in the film, such as sexual promiscuity, can be attacked by proxy through attacks on the film. These concerns can vary from culture to culture, and they need not be at all similar. However, Mathijs says the film must invoke metacommentary for it to be more than simply culturally important. While referencing previous arguments, critics may attack its choice of genre or its very right to exist. By taking stances on these varied issues, critics assure their own relevance while helping to elevate the film to cult status. Perceived racist and reductive remarks by critics can rally fans and raise the profile of cult films, such as Rex Reed\'s comments about Korean culture in his review of Oldboy (2003). Critics can also polarize audiences and lead debates, such as how Joe Bob Briggs and Roger Ebert dueled over I Spit On Your Grave (1978). Briggs later contributed a commentary track to the DVD release in which he describes it as a feminist film. Films which do not attract enough controversy may be ridiculed and rejected when suggested as cult films. Academic Peter Hutchings, noting the many definitions of a cult film that require transgressive elements, states that cult films are known in part for their excesses. Both subject matter and its depiction are portrayed in extreme ways that break taboos of good taste and aesthetic norms. Violence, gore, sexual perversity, and even the music can be pushed to stylistic excess far beyond that allowed by mainstream cinema. Film censorship can make these films obscure and make it difficult to find common criteria used to define cult films. Despite this, these films remain well-known and prized among collectors. Fans will occasionally express frustration with dismissive critics and conventional analysis, which they believe marginalizes and misinterprets paracinema. In marketing these films, young men are predominantly targeted. Horror films in particular can draw fans who seek the most extreme films. Audiences can also ironically latch on to offensive themes, such as misogyny, using these films as catharsis for the things that they hate most in life. Exploitative, transgressive elements can be pushed to excessive extremes for both humor and satire. Frank Henenlotter faced censorship and ridicule, but he found acceptance among audiences receptive to themes that Hollywood was reluctant to touch, such as violence, drug addiction, and misogyny. Lloyd Kaufman sees his films\' political statements as more populist and authentic than the hypocrisy of mainstream films and celebrities. Despite featuring an abundance of fake blood, vomit, and diarrhea, Kaufman\'s films have attracted positive attention from critics and academics. Excess can also exist in films that highlight the excesses of 1980s fashion and commercialism. Films that are influenced by unpopular styles or genres can become cult films. Director Jean Rollin worked within cinéma fantastique, an unpopular genre in modern France. Influenced by American films and early French fantasists, he drifted between art, exploitation, and pornography. His films were reviled by critics, but he retained a cult following drawn by the nudity and eroticism. Similarly, Jess Franco chafed under fascist censorship in Spain but became influential in Spain\'s horror boom of the 1960s. These transgressive films that straddle the line between art and horror may have overlapping cult followings, each with their own interpretation and reasons for appreciating it. The films that followed Jess Franco were unique in their rejection of mainstream art. Popular among fans of European horror for their subversiveness and obscurity, these later Spanish films allowed political dissidents to criticize the fascist regime within the cloak of exploitation and horror. Unlike most exploitation directors, they were not trying to establish a reputation. They were already established in the art-house world and intentionally chose to work within paracinema as a reaction against the New Spanish Cinema, an artistic revival supported by the fascists. As late as the 1980s, critics still cited Pedro Almodóvar\'s anti-macho iconoclasm as a rebellion against fascist mores, as he grew from countercultural rebel to mainstream respectability. Transgressive elements that limit a director\'s appeal in one country can be celebrated or highlighted in another. Takashi Miike has been marketed in the West as a shocking and avant-garde filmmaker despite his many family-friendly comedies, which have not been imported. The transgressive nature of cult films can lead to their censorship. During the 1970s and early 1980s, a wave of explicit, graphic exploitation films caused controversy. Called \"video nasties\" within the UK, they ignited calls for censorship and stricter laws on home video releases, which were largely unregulated. Consequently, the British Board of Film Classification banned many popular cult films due to issues of sex, violence, and incitement to crime. Released during the cannibal boom, Cannibal Holocaust (1980) was banned in dozens of countries and caused the director to be briefly jailed over fears that it was a real snuff film. Although opposed to censorship, director Ruggero Deodato later agreed with cuts made by the BBFC that removed unsimulated animal killings, which limited the film\'s distribution. Frequently banned films may introduce questions of authenticity as fans question whether they have seen a truly uncensored cut. Cult films have been falsely claimed to have been banned to increase their transgressive reputation and explain their lack of mainstream penetration. Marketing campaigns have also used such claims to raise interest among curious audiences. Home video has allowed cult film fans to import rare or banned films, finally giving them a chance to complete their collection with imports and bootlegs. Cult films previously banned are sometimes released with much fanfare, and the fans assumed to be already familiar with the controversy. Personal responsibility is often highlighted, and a strong anti-censorship message may be present. Previously lost scenes cut by studios can be re-added and restore a director\'s original vision, which draws similar fanfare and acclaim from fans. Imports are sometimes censored to remove elements that would be controversial, such as references to Islamic spirituality in Indonesian cult films. Academics have written of how transgressive themes in cult films can be regressive. David Church and Chuck Kleinhans describe an uncritical celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, including misogyny and racism. Church has also criticized gendered descriptions of transgressive content that celebrate masculinity. Joanne Hollows further identifies a gendered component to the celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, where male terms are used to describe films outside the mainstream while female terms are used to describe mainstream, conformist cinema. Jacinda Read\'s expansion states that cult films, despite their potential for empowerment of the marginalized, are more often used by politically incorrect males. Knowledgeable about feminism and multiculturalism, they seek a refuge from the academic acceptance of these progressive ideals. Their playful and ironic acceptance of regressive lad culture invites, and even dares, condemnation from academics and the uncool. Thus, cult films become a tool to reinforce mainstream values through transgressive content; Rebecca Feasy states that cultural hierarchies can also be reaffirmed through mockery of films perceived to be lacking masculinity. However, the sexploitation films of Doris Wishman took a feminist approach which avoids and subverts the male gaze and traditional goal-oriented methods. Wishman\'s subject matter, though exploitative and transgressive, was always framed in terms of female empowerment and the feminine spectator. Her use of common cult film motifs -- female nudity and ambiguous gender -- were repurposed to comment on feminist topics. Similarly, the films of Russ Meyer were a complicated combination of transgressive, mainstream, progressive, and regressive elements. They attracted both acclaim and denouncement from critics and progressives. Transgressive films imported from cultures that are recognizably different yet still relatable can be used to progressively examine issues in another culture.	1,564	Cult film	3
5,645	# Cult film ## Subcultural appeal and fandom {#subcultural_appeal_and_fandom} Cult films can be used to help define or create groups as a form of subcultural capital; knowledge of cult films proves that one is \"authentic\" or \"non-mainstream\". They can be used to provoke an outraged response from the mainstream, which further defines the subculture, as only members could possibly tolerate such deviant entertainment. More accessible films have less subcultural capital; among extremists, banned films will have the most. By referencing cult films, media can identify desired demographics, strengthen bonds with specific subcultures, and stand out among those who understand the intertextuality. Popular films from previous eras may be reclaimed by genre fans long after they have been forgotten by the original audiences. This can be done for authenticity, such as horror fans who seek out now-obscure titles from the 1950s instead of the modern, well-known remakes. Authenticity may also drive fans to deny genre categorization to films perceived as too mainstream or accessible. Authenticity in performance and expertise can drive fan acclaim. Authenticity can also drive fans to decry the mainstream in the form of hostile critics and censors. Especially when promoted by enthusiastic and knowledgeable programmers, choice of venue can be an important part of expressing individuality. Besides creating new communities, cult films can link formerly disparate groups, such as fans and critics. As these groups intermix, they can influence each other, though this may be resisted by older fans, unfamiliar with these new references. In extreme cases, cult films can lead to the creation of religions, such as Dudeism. For their avoidance of mainstream culture and audiences, enjoyment of irony, and celebration of obscure subcultures, academic Martin Roberts compares cult film fans to hipsters. A film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has unusual significance. For example, Norman Wisdom\'s films, friendly to Marxist interpretation, amassed a cult following in Albania, as they were among the few Western films allowed by the country\'s Communist rulers. The Wizard of Oz (1939) and its star, Judy Garland, hold special significance to American and British gay culture, although it is a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture. Similarly, James Dean and his brief film career have become icons of alienated youth. Cult films can have such niche appeal that they are only popular within certain subcultures, such as Reefer Madness (1936) and Hemp for Victory (1942) among the stoner subculture. Beach party musicals, popular among American surfers, failed to find an equivalent audience when imported to the United Kingdom. When films target subcultures like this, they may seem unintelligible without the proper cultural capital. Films which appeal to teenagers may offer subcultural identities that are easily recognized and differentiate various subcultural groups. Films which appeal to stereotypical male activities, such as sports, can easily gain strong male cult followings. Sports metaphors are often used in the marketing of cult films to males, such as emphasizing the \"extreme\" nature of the film, which increases the appeal to youth subcultures fond of extreme sports. Matt Hills\' concept of the \"cult blockbuster\" involves cult followings inside larger, mainstream films. Although these are big budget, mainstream films, they still attract cult followings. The cult fans differentiate themselves from ordinary fans in several ways: longstanding devotion to the film, distinctive interpretations, and fan works. Hills identifies three different cult followings for The Lord of the Rings, each with their own fandom separate from the mainstream. Academic Emma Pett identifies Back to the Future (1985) as another example of a cult blockbuster. Although the film was an instant hit when released, it has also developed a nostalgic cult following over the years. The hammy acting by Christopher Lloyd and quotable dialogue have drawn a cult following, as they mimic traditional cult films. Blockbuster science fiction films that include philosophical subtexts, such as The Matrix, allow cult film fans to enjoy them on a higher level than the mainstream. Star Wars, with its large cult following in geek subculture, has been cited as both a cult blockbuster and a cult film. Although a mainstream epic, Star Wars has provided its fans with a spirituality and culture outside of the mainstream. Fans, in response to the popularity of these blockbusters, will claim elements for themselves while rejecting others. For example, in the Star Wars film series, mainstream criticism of Jar Jar Binks focused on racial stereotyping. Although cult film fans will use that to bolster their arguments, he is rejected because he represents mainstream appeal and marketing. Also, instead of valuing textual rarity, fans of cult blockbusters will value repeat viewings. They may also engage in behaviors more traditional for fans of cult television and other serial media, as cult blockbusters are often franchised, preconceived as a film series, or both. To reduce mainstream accessibility, a film series can be self-reflexive and full of in-jokes that only longtime fans can understand. Mainstream critics may ridicule commercially successful directors of cult blockbusters, such as James Cameron, Michael Bay, and Luc Besson, whose films have been called simplistic. This critical backlash may serve to embellish the filmmakers\' reception as cult auteurs. In the same way, critics may ridicule fans of cult blockbusters as immature or shallow. Cult films can create their own subculture. Rocky Horror, originally made to exploit the popularity of glam subculture, became what academic Gina Marchetti called a \"sub-subculture\", a variant that outlived its parent subculture. Although often described as primarily composed of obsessed fans, cult film fandom can include many newer, less experienced members. Familiar with the film\'s reputation and having watched clips on online video platforms, these fans may take the next step and enter the film\'s fandom. If they are the majority, they may alter or ignore long-standing traditions, such as audience participation rituals; rituals which lack perceived authenticity may be criticized, but accepted rituals bring subcultural capital to veteran fans who introduce them to the newer members. Newer fans may cite the film itself as their reason for attending a showing, but longtime fans often cite the community. Organized fandoms may spread and become popular as a way of introducing new people to the film. Fans of cult films, as in media fandom, are frequently producers and not simple consumers. Unconcerned with traditional views on intellectual property, these fan works are often unsanctioned, transformative, and ignore fictional canon. Like cult films themselves, magazines and websites dedicated to cult films revel in their self-conscious offensiveness. They maintain a sense of exclusivity by offending mainstream audiences with misogyny, gore, and racism. Obsessive trivia can be used to bore mainstream audiences while building up subcultural capital. Specialist stores on the fringes of society (or websites which prominently partner with hardcore pornographic sites) can be used to reinforce the outsider nature of cult film fandom, especially when they use erotic or gory imagery. By assuming a preexisting knowledge of trivia, non-fans can be excluded. Previous articles and controversies can also be alluded to without explanation. Casual readers and non-fans will thus be left out of discussions and debates, as they lack enough information to meaningfully contribute. When fans like a cult film for the wrong reasons, such as casting or characters aimed at mainstream appeal, they may be ridiculed. Thus, fandom can keep the mainstream at bay while defining themselves in terms of the \"Other\", a philosophical construct divergent from social norms. Commercial aspects of fandom (such as magazines or books) can also be defined in terms of \"otherness\" and thus valid to consume: consumers purchasing independent or niche publications are discerning consumers, but the mainstream is denigrated. Irony or self-deprecating humor can also be used. In online communities, different subcultures attracted to transgressive films can clash over values and criteria for subcultural capital. Even within subcultures, fans who break subcultural scripts, such as denying the affectivity of a disturbing film, will be ridiculed for their lack of authenticity.	1,324	Cult film	4
5,645	# Cult film ## Types ### \"So bad it\'s good\" {#so_bad_its_good} thumb\\|thumbtime=103\\|upright=1.5\\|`{{center\|''Plan 9 from Outer Space'', full film; runtime 01:19:03}}`{=mediawiki} The critic Michael Medved characterized examples of the \"so bad it\'s good\" class of low-budget cult film through books such as The Golden Turkey Awards. These films include financially fruitless and critically scorned films that have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs, such as Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957), Mommie Dearest (1981), The Room (2003), and the Ugandan action comedy film Who Killed Captain Alex? (2010). Similarly, Paul Verhoeven\'s Showgirls (1995) bombed in theaters but developed a cult following on video. Catching on, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer capitalized on the film\'s ironic appeal and marketed it as a cult film. Sometimes, fans will impose their own interpretation of films which have attracted derision, such as reinterpreting an earnest melodrama as a comedy. `{{proper name\|Jacob deNobel}}`{=mediawiki} of the Carroll County Times states that films can be perceived as nonsensical or inept when audiences misunderstand avant-garde filmmaking or misinterpret parody. Films such as Rocky Horror can be misinterpreted as \"weird for weirdness\' sake\" by people unfamiliar with the cult films that they parody. `{{proper name\|\|deNobel}}`{=mediawiki} ultimately rejects the use of the label \"so bad it\'s good\" as mean-spirited and often misapplied. Alamo Drafthouse programmer Zack Carlson has further said that any film which succeeds in entertaining an audience is good regardless of irony. In francophone culture, \"so bad it\'s good\" films are known as `{{Interlanguage link\|nanar\|lt=nanars\|Fr\|\|WD=}}`{=mediawiki}. The rise of the Internet and on-demand films has led critics to question whether \"so bad it\'s good\" films have a future now that people have such diverse options in both availability and catalog, though fans eager to experience the worst films ever made can lead to lucrative showings for local theaters and merchandisers. ### Camp and guilty pleasures {#camp_and_guilty_pleasures} Chuck Kleinhans states that the difference between a guilty pleasure and a cult film can be as simple as the number of fans; David Church raises the question of how many people it takes to form a cult following, especially now that home video makes fans difficult to count. As these cult films become more popular, they can bring varied responses from fans that depend on different interpretations, such as camp, irony, genuine affection, or combinations thereof. Earnest fans, who recognize and accept the film\'s faults, can make minor celebrities of the film\'s cast, though the benefits are not always clear. Cult film stars known for their camp can inject subtle parody or signal when films should not be taken seriously. Campy actors can also provide comic book supervillains for serious, artistic-minded films. This can draw fan acclaim and obsession more readily than subtle, method-inspired acting. Mark Chalon Smith of the Los Angeles Times says technical faults may be forgiven if a film makes up for them in other areas, such as camp or transgressive content. Smith states that the early films of John Waters are amateurish and less influential than claimed, but Waters\' outrageous vision cements his place in cult cinema. Films such as Myra Breckinridge (1970) and Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970) can experience critical reappraisal later, once their camp excess and avant-garde filmmaking are better accepted, and films that are initially dismissed as frivolous are often reassessed as campy. Films that intentionally try to appeal to fans of camp may end up alienating them, as the films become perceived as trying too hard or not authentic. ### Nostalgia According to academic Brigid Cherry, nostalgia \"is a strong element of certain kinds of cult appeal.\" When Veoh added many cult films to their site, they cited nostalgia as a factor for their popularity. Academic I. Q. Hunter describes cult films as \"New Hollywood in extremis\" and a form of nostalgia for that period. Ernest Mathijs instead states that cult films use nostalgia as a form of resistance against progress and capitalistic ideas of a time-based economy. By virtue of the time travel plot, Back to the Future permits nostalgia for both the 1950s and 1980s. Many members of its nostalgic cult following are too young to have been alive during those periods, which Emma Pett interprets as fondness for retro aesthetics, nostalgia for when they saw the film rather than when it was released, and looking to the past to find a better time period. Similarly, films directed by John Hughes have taken hold in midnight movie venues, trading off of nostalgia for the 1980s and an ironic appreciation for their optimism. Mathijs and Sexton describe Grease (1978) as a film nostalgic about an imagined past that has acquired a nostalgic cult following. Other cult films, such as Streets of Fire (1984), create a new fictional world based on nostalgic views of the past. Cult films may also subvert nostalgia, such as The Big Lebowski, which introduces many nostalgic elements and then reveals them as fake and hollow. Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010) is another example, containing extensive nostalgia for the music and video gaming culture of the 2000s. Author China Miéville praises the use of satire in Donnie Darko for its avoidance of falling into facile and comforting nostalgia, but Nathan Lee of the New York Sun identifies the retro aesthetic and nostalgic pastiche as factors in its popularity among midnight movie crowds. ### Midnight movies {#midnight_movies} Author Tomas Crowder-Taraborrelli describes midnight movies as a reaction against the political and cultural conservatism in America, and Joan Hawkins identifies the movement as running the gamut from anarchist to libertarian, united in their anti-establishment attitude and punk aesthetic. These films are resistant to simple categorization and are defined by the fanaticism and ritualistic behaviors of their audiences. Midnight movies require a night life and an audience willing to invest themselves actively. Hawkins states that these films took a rather bleak point of view due to the living conditions of the artists and the economic prospects of the 1970s. Like the surrealists and dadaists, they not only satirically attacked society but also the very structure of film -- a counter-cinema that deconstructs narrative and traditional processes. In the late 1980s and 1990s, midnight movies transitioned from underground showings to home video viewings; eventually, a desire for community brought a resurgence, and The Big Lebowski kick-started a new generation. Demographics shifted, and more hip and mainstream audiences were drawn to them. Although studios expressed skepticism, large audiences were drawn to box-office flops, such as The Warriors (1979) gang movie from Walter Hill, Office Space (1999) and Donnie Darko (2001). Modern midnight movies retain their popularity and have been strongly diverging from mainstream films shown at midnight. Mainstream cinemas, eager to disassociate themselves from negative associations and increase profits, have begun abandoning midnight screenings. Although classic midnight movies have dropped off in popularity, they still bring reliable crowds.	1,131	Cult film	5
5,645	# Cult film ## Types ### Art and exploitation {#art_and_exploitation} Although seemingly at odds with each other, art and exploitation films are frequently treated as equal and interchangeable in cult fandom, listed alongside each other and described in similar terms: their ability to provoke a response. The most exploitative aspects of art films are thus played up and their academic recognition ignored. This flattening of culture follows the popularity of post-structuralism, which rejects a hierarchy of artistic merit and equates exploitation and art. Mathijs and Sexton state that although cult films are not synonymous with exploitation, as is occasionally assumed, this is a key component; they write that exploitation, which exists on the fringes of the mainstream and deals with taboo subjects, is well-suited for cult followings. Academic David Andrews writes that cult softcore films are \"the most masculinized, youth-oriented, populist, and openly pornographic softcore area.\" The sexploitation films of Russ Meyer were among the first to abandon all hypocritical pretenses of morality and were technically proficient enough to gain a cult following. His persistent vision saw him received as an auteur worthy of academic study; director John Waters attributes this to Meyer\'s ability to create complicated, sexually charged films without resorting to explicit sex. Myrna Oliver described Doris Wishman\'s exploitation films as \"crass, coarse, and camp \... perfect fodder for a cult following.\" \"Sick films\", the most disturbing and graphically transgressive films, have their own distinct cult following; these films transcend their roots in exploitation, horror, and art films. In 1960s and 1970s America, exploitation and art films shared audiences and marketing, especially in New York City\'s grindhouse cinemas. ### B and genre films {#b_and_genre_films} Mathijs and Sexton state that genre is an important part of cult films; cult films will often mix, mock, or exaggerate the tropes associated with traditional genres. Science fiction, fantasy, and horror are known for their large and dedicated cult followings; as science fiction films become more popular, fans emphasize non-mainstream and less commercial aspects of it. B films, which are often conflated with exploitation, are as important to cult films as exploitation. Teodor Reljic of Malta Today states that cult B films are a realistic goal for Malta\'s burgeoning film industry. Genre films, B films that strictly adhere to genre limitations, can appeal to cult film fans: given their transgressive excesses, horror films are likely to become to cult films; films like Galaxy Quest (1999) highlight the importance of cult followings and fandom to science fiction; and authentic martial arts skills in Hong Kong action films can drive them to become cult favorites. Cult musicals can range from the traditional, such as Singin\' in the Rain (1952), which appeal to cult audiences through nostalgia, camp, and spectacle, to the more non-traditional, such as Cry-Baby (1990), which parodies musicals, and Rocky Horror, which uses a rock soundtrack. Romantic fairy tale The Princess Bride (1987) failed to attract audiences in its original release, as the studio did not know how to market it. The freedom and excitement associated with cars can be an important part of drawing cult film fans to genre films, and they can signify action and danger with more ambiguity than a gun. Ad Week writes that cult B films, when released on home video, market themselves and need only enough advertising to raise curiosity or nostalgia. ### Animation Animation can provide wide open vistas for stories. The French film Fantastic Planet (1973) explored ideas beyond the limits of traditional, live-action science fiction films. Ralph Bakshi\'s career has been marked with controversy: Fritz the Cat (1972), the first animated film to be rated \"X\" by the MPAA, provoked outrage for its racial caricatures and graphic depictions of sex, and Coonskin (1975) was decried as racist. Bakshi recalls that older animators had tired of \"kid stuff\" and desired edgier work, whereas younger animators hated his work for \"destroying the Disney images\". Eventually, his work was reassessed and cult followings, which include Quentin Tarantino and Robert Rodriguez, developed around several of his films. Heavy Metal (1981) faced similar denunciations from critics. Donald Liebenson of the Los Angeles Times cites the violence and sexual imagery as alienating critics, who did not know what to make of the film. It became a popular midnight movie and was frequently bootlegged by fans, as licensing issues kept it from being released on video for many years. Phil Hoad of The Guardian identifies Akira (1988) as introducing violent, adult Japanese animation (known as anime) to the West and paving the way for later works. Anime, according to academic Brian Ruh, is not a cult genre, but the lack of individual fandoms inside anime fandom itself lends itself to a bleeding over of cult attention and can help spread works internationally. Anime, which is frequently presented as a series (with movies either rising from existing series, or spinning off series based on the film), provides its fans with alternative fictional canons and points of view that can drive fan activity. The Ghost in the Shell films, for example, provided Japanese fans with enough bonus material and spinoffs that it encouraged cult tendencies. Markets that did not support the sale of these materials saw less cult activity. ### Nonfiction Sensationalistic documentaries called mondo films replicate the most shocking and transgressive elements of exploitation films. They are usually modeled after \"sick films\" and cover similar subject matter. In The Cult Film Reader, academics Mathijs and Mendik write that these documentaries often present non-Western societies as \"stereotypically mysterious, seductive, immoral, deceptive, barbaric or savage\". Though they can be interpreted as racist, Mathijs and Mendik state that they also \"exhibit a liberal attitude towards the breaking of cultural taboos\". Mondo films like Faces of Death mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results. Like \"so bad it\'s good\" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use. Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra\'s Why We Fight World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are \"slickly made and have proven their ability to persuade an audience.\" The sponsored film Mr. B Natural became a cult hit when it was broadcast on the satirical television show Mystery Science Theater 3000; cast member Trace Beaulieu cited these educational shorts as his favorite to mock on the show. Mark Jancovich states that cult audiences are drawn to these films because of their \"very banality or incoherence of their political positions\", unlike traditional cult films, which achieve popularity through auteurist radicalism.	1,118	Cult film	6
5,645	# Cult film ## Mainstream popularity {#mainstream_popularity} Mark Shiel explains the rising popularity of cult films as an attempt by cinephiles and scholars to escape the oppressive conformity and mainstream appeal of even independent film, as well as a lack of condescension in both critics and the films; Academic Donna de Ville says it is a chance to subvert the dominance of academics and cinephiles. According to Xavier Mendik, \"academics have been really interested in cult movies for quite a while now.\" Mendik has sought to bring together academic interest and fandom through Cine-Excess, a film festival. I. Q. Hunter states that \"it\'s much easier to be a cultist now, but it is also rather more inconsequential.\" Citing the mainstream availability of Cannibal Holocaust, Jeffrey Sconce rejects definitions of cult films based on controversy and excess, as they\'ve now become meaningless. Cult films have influenced such diverse industries as cosmetics, music videos, and fashion. Cult films have shown up in less expected places; as a sign of his popularity, a bronze statue of Ed Wood has been proposed in his hometown, and L\'Osservatore Romano, the official newspaper of the Holy See, has courted controversy for its endorsement of cult films and pop culture. When cities attempt to renovate neighborhoods, fans have called attempts to demolish iconic settings from cult films \"cultural vandalism\". Cult films can also drive tourism, even when it is unwanted. From Latin America, Alejandro Jodorowsky\'s film El Topo (1970) has attracted attention of rock musicians such as John Lennon, Mick Jagger, and Bob Dylan. As far back as the 1970s, Attack of the Killer Tomatoes (1978) was designed specifically to be a cult film, and The Rocky Horror Picture Show was produced by 20th Century Fox, a major Hollywood studio. Over its decades-long release, Rocky Horror became the seventh highest grossing R-rated film when adjusted for inflation; journalist Matt Singer has questioned whether Rocky Horror{{\'}}s popularity invalidates its cult status. Founded in 1974, Troma Entertainment, an independent studio, became known for both its cult following and cult films. In the 1980s, Danny Peary\'s Cult Movies (1981) influenced director Edgar Wright and film critic Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club. The rise of home video had a mainstreaming effect on cult films and cultish behavior, though some collectors would be unlikely to self-identify as cult film fans. Film critic Joe Bob Briggs began reviewing drive-in theater and cult films, though he faced much criticism as an early advocate of exploitation and cult films. Briggs highlights the mainstreaming of cult films by pointing out the respectful obituaries that cult directors have received from formerly hostile publications and acceptance of politically incorrect films at mainstream film festivals. This acceptance is not universal, though, and some critics have resisted this mainstreaming of paracinema. Beginning in the 1990s, director Quentin Tarantino had the greatest success in turning cult films mainstream. Tarantino later used his fame to champion obscure cult films that had influenced him and set up the short-lived Rolling Thunder Pictures, which distributed several of his favorite cult films. Tarantino\'s clout led Phil Hoad of The Guardian to call Tarantino the world\'s most influential director. As major Hollywood studios and audiences both become savvy to cult films, productions once limited to cult appeal have instead become popular hits, and cult directors have become hot properties known for more mainstream and accessible films. Remarking on the popular trend of remaking cult films, Claude Brodesser-Akner of New York magazine states that Hollywood studios have been superstitiously hoping to recreate past successes rather than trading on nostalgia. Their popularity brought some critics to proclaim the death of cult films now that they have finally become successful and mainstream, are too slick to attract a proper cult following, lack context, or are too easily found online. In response, David Church says that cult film fans have retreated to more obscure and difficult to find films, often using illegal distribution methods, which preserves the outlaw status of cult films. Virtual spaces, such as online forums and fan sites, replace the traditional fanzines and newsletters. Cult film fans consider themselves collectors, rather than consumers, as they associate consumers with mainstream, Hollywood audiences. This collecting can take the place of fetishization of a single film. Addressing concerns that DVDs have revoked the cult status of films like Rocky Horror, academic Mikel J. Koven states that small scale screenings with friends and family can replace midnight showings. Koven also identifies television shows, such as Twin Peaks, as retaining more traditional cult activities inside popular culture. Despite this, the Alamo Drafthouse has capitalized on cult films and the surrounding culture through inspiration drawn from Rocky Horror and retro promotional gimmickry. They sell out their shows regularly and have acquired a cult following of their own. Academic Bob Batchelor, writing in Cult Pop Culture, states that the internet has democratized cult culture and destroyed the line between cult and mainstream. Fans of even the most obscure films can communicate online with each other in vibrant communities. Although known for their big-budget blockbusters, Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have criticized the current Hollywood system of gambling everything on the opening weekend of these productions. Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent instead suggests that Hollywood look to capitalize on cult films, which have exploded in popularity on the internet. The rise of social media has been a boon to cult films. Sites such as Twitter have displaced traditional venues for fandom and courted controversy from cultural critics who are unamused by campy cult films. After a clip from one of his films went viral, director-producer Roger Corman made a distribution deal with YouTube. Found footage which had originally been distributed as cult VHS collections eventually went viral on YouTube, which opened them to new generations of fans. Films such as Birdemic (2008) and The Room (2003) gained quick, massive popularity, as prominent members of social networking sites discussed them. Their rise as \"instant cult classics\" bypasses the years of obscurity that most cult films labor under. In response, critics have described the use of viral marketing as astroturfing and an attempt to manufacture cult films. I. Q. Hunter identifies a prefabricated cult film style which includes \"deliberately, insulting bad films\", \"slick exercises in dysfunction and alienation\", and mainstream films \"that sell themselves as worth obsessing over\". Writing for NPR, Scott Tobias states that Don Coscarelli, whose previous films effortlessly attracted cult followings, has drifted into this realm. Tobias criticizes Coscarelli as trying too hard to appeal to cult audiences and sacrificing internal consistency for calculated quirkiness. Influenced by the successful online hype of The Blair Witch Project (1999), other films have attempted to draw online cult fandom with the use of prefabricated cult appeal. Snakes on a Plane (2006) is an example that attracted massive attention from curious fans. Uniquely, its cult following preceded the film\'s release and included speculative parodies of what fans imagined the film might be. This reached the point of convergence culture when fan speculation began to impact on the film\'s production. Although it was proclaimed a cult film and major game-changer before it was released, it failed to win either mainstream audiences or maintain its cult following. In retrospect, critic Spencer Kornhaber called it a serendipitous novelty and a footnote to a \"more naive era of the Internet\". However, it became influential in both marketing and titling. This trend of \"instant cult classics\" which are hailed yet fail to attain a lasting following is described by Matt Singer, who states that the phrase is an oxymoron. Cult films are often approached in terms of auteur theory, which states that the director\'s creative vision drives a film. This has fallen out of favor in academia, creating a disconnect between cult film fans and critics. Matt Hills states that auteur theory can help to create cult films; fans that see a film as continuing a director\'s creative vision are likely to accept it as cult. According to academic Greg Taylor, auteur theory also helped to popularize cult films when middlebrow audiences found an accessible way to approach avant-garde film criticism. Auteur theory provided an alternative culture for cult film fans while carrying the weight of scholarship. By requiring repeated viewings and extensive knowledge of details, auteur theory naturally appealed to cult film fans. Taylor further states that this was instrumental in allowing cult films to break through to the mainstream. Academic Joe Tompkins states that this auteurism is often highlighted when mainstream success occurs. This may take the place of -- and even ignore -- political readings of the director. Cult films and directors may be celebrated for their transgressive content, daring, and independence, but Tompkins argues that mainstream recognition requires they be palatable to corporate interests who stand to gain much from the mainstreaming of cult film culture. While critics may champion revolutionary aspects of filmmaking and political interpretation, Hollywood studios and other corporate interests will instead highlight only the aspects that they wish to legitimize in their own films, such as sensational exploitation. Someone like George A. Romero, whose films are both transgressive and subversive, will have the transgressive aspects highlighted while the subversive aspects are ignored	1,528	Cult film	7
5,653	# Clarke's three laws British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke formulated three adages that are known as Clarke\'s three laws, of which the third law is the best known and most widely cited. They are part of his ideas in his extensive writings about the future. ## The laws {#the_laws} [The laws](https://www.newscientist.com/definition/clarkes-three-laws/) are: 1. When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong. 2. The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible. 3. Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic. ## Origins One account stated that Clarke\'s laws were developed after the editor of his works in French started numbering the author\'s assertions. All three laws appear in Clarke\'s essay \"Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination\", first published in Profiles of the Future (1962); however, they were not all published at the same time. Clarke\'s first law was proposed in the 1962 edition of the essay, as \"Clarke\'s Law\" in Profiles of the Future. The second law is offered as a simple observation in the same essay but its status as Clarke\'s second law was conferred by others. It was initially a derivative of the first law and formally became Clarke\'s second law where the author proposed the third law in the 1973 revision of Profiles of the Future, which included an acknowledgement. It was also here that Clarke wrote about the third law in these words: \"As three laws were good enough for Newton, I have modestly decided to stop there\". The third law is the best known and most widely cited. It was published in a 1968 letter to Science magazine and eventually added to the 1973 revision of the \"Hazards of Prophecy\" essay. ## Variants of the third law {#variants_of_the_third_law} The third law has inspired many snowclones and other variations: - Any sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial intelligence is indistinguishable from God. (Shermer\'s last law) - Any sufficiently advanced act of benevolence is indistinguishable from malevolence (referring to artificial intelligence) - Any sufficiently advanced incompetence is indistinguishable from malice (Grey\'s law) - Any sufficiently advanced garbage is indistinguishable from magic. (Sterling\'s corollary to Clarke\'s law) This idea also underlies the setting of the novel Roadside Picnic by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, in which human stalkers try to navigate the location of an alien \"visitation\", trying to make sense of technically advanced items discarded by the aliens. - Any sufficiently advanced garbage is indistinguishable from a rigged demo. ## Corollaries and follow-ups {#corollaries_and_follow_ups} Isaac Asimov\'s follow-up to Clarke\'s First Law: > \"When, however, the lay public rallies round an idea that is denounced by distinguished but elderly scientists and supports that idea with great fervour and emotion -- the distinguished but elderly scientists are then, after all, probably right.\" A contrapositive of the third law is \"Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced	499	Clarke's three laws	0
5,661	# Centime Centime (from centesimus) is French for \"cent\", and is used in English as the name of the fraction currency in several Francophone countries (including Switzerland, Algeria, Belgium, Morocco and France). In France, the usage of centime goes back to the introduction of the decimal monetary system under Napoleon. This system aimed at replacing non-decimal fractions of older coins. A five-centime coin was known as a sou, i.e. a solidus or shilling. In Francophone Canada `{{frac\|1\|100}}`{=mediawiki} of a Canadian dollar is officially known as a cent (pronounced /sɛnt/) in both English and French. However, in practice, the form of cenne (pronounced /sɛn/) has completely replaced the official cent. Spoken and written use of the official form cent in Francophone Canada is exceptionally uncommon. In the Canadian French vernacular sou, sou noir (noir means \"black\" in French), cenne, and cenne noire are all widely known, used, and accepted monikers when referring to either `{{frac\|1\|100}}`{=mediawiki} of a Canadian dollar or the 1¢ coin (colloquially known as a \"penny\" in North American English). ## Subdivision of euro: cent or centime? {#subdivision_of_euro_cent_or_centime} In the European community, cent is the official name for one hundredth of a euro. However, in French-speaking countries, the word centimeis the preferred term. The Superior Council of the French language of Belgium recommended in 2001 the use of centime, since cent is also the French word for \"hundred\". An analogous decision was published in the Journal officiel in France (2 December 1997). In Morocco, dirhams are divided into 100 centimes and one may find prices in the country quoted in centimes rather than in dirhams. Sometimes centimes are known as francs or, in former Spanish areas, pesetas. ## Usage A centime is one-hundredth of the following basic monetary units: ### Current - Algerian dinar - Burundian franc - CFP franc - CFA franc - Comorian franc - Congolese franc - Djiboutian franc - Ethiopian birr (as santim) - Guinean franc - Haitian gourde - Moroccan dirham - Rwandan franc - Swiss franc (by French and English speakers only; Italian speakers use centesimo	343	Centime	0
5,662	# Calendar year A calendar year begins on the New Year\'s Day of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year\'s Day, and thus consists of a whole number of days. The Gregorian calendar year, which is in use as civil calendar in most of the world, begins on January 1 and ends on December 31. It has a length of 365 days in an ordinary year but, in order to reconcile the calendar year with the astronomical cycle, it has 366 days in a leap year. With 97 leap years every 400 years, the Gregorian calendar year has an average length of 365.2425 days. Other formula-based calendars can have lengths which are further out of step with the solar cycle: for example, the Julian calendar has an average length of 365.25 days, and the Hebrew calendar has an average length of 365.2468 days. The Lunar Hijri calendar (\"Islamic calendar\") is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. The astronomer\'s mean tropical year, which is averaged over equinoxes and solstices, is currently 365.24219 days, slightly shorter than the average length of the calendar year in most calendars. A year can also be measured by starting on any other named day of the calendar, and ending on the day before this named day in the following year. This may be termed a \"year\'s time\", but is not a \"calendar year\". ## Quarter year {#quarter_year} The calendar year can be divided into four quarters, often abbreviated as Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4. Since they are three months each, they are also called trimesters. In the Gregorian calendar: - First quarter, Q1: January 1 -- March 31 (90 days or 91 days in leap years) - Second quarter, Q2: April 1 -- June 30 (91 days) - Third quarter, Q3: July 1 -- September 30 (92 days) - Fourth quarter, Q4: October 1 -- December 31 (92 days) In some domains, weeks are preferred over months for scheduling and reporting, so they use quarters of exactly 13 weeks each, often following ISO week date conventions. One in five to six years has a 53rd week which is usually appended to the last quarter. It is then 98 days instead of 91 days long, which complicates comparisons. In the Chinese calendar, the quarters are traditionally associated with the 4 seasons of the year: - Spring: 1st to 3rd month - Summer: 4th to 6th month - Autumn: 7th to 9th month - Winter: 10th to 12th month ## Quadrimester The calendar year can also be divided into quadrimesters (from French quadrimestre), lasting for four months each. They can also be called the early, middle, or late parts of the year. In the Gregorian calendar: - First quadrimester, early year: January 1 -- April 30 (120 days or 121 days in leap years) - Second quadrimester, mid-year: May 1 -- August 31 (123 days) - Third quadrimester, late year: September 1 -- December 31 (122 days) ## Semester The calendar year can also be divided into semesters, lasting six months each and often being abbreviated as S1 and S2	529	Calendar year	0
5,689	# College upright=1.35\\|thumb\\| Corpus Christi College, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge in England A college (Latin: collegium) may be a tertiary educational institution (sometimes awarding degrees), part of a collegiate university, an institution offering vocational education, a further education institution, or a secondary school. In most of the world, a college may be a high school or secondary school, a college of further education, a training institution that awards trade qualifications, a higher-education provider that does not have university status (often without its own degree-awarding powers), or a constituent part of a university. In the United States, a college may offer undergraduate programs -- either as an independent institution or as the undergraduate program of a university -- or it may be a residential college of a university or a community college, referring to (primarily public) higher education institutions that aim to provide affordable and accessible education, usually limited to two-year associate degrees. The word \"college\" is generally also used as a synonym for a university in the US, and as used in phrases such as \"college students\" and \"going to college\" it is understood to mean any degree granting institution, whether denominated a school, an institute, a college, or a university. Colleges in countries such as France, Belgium, and Switzerland provide secondary education. ## Etymology The word \"college\" is from the Latin verb lego, legere, legi, lectum, \"to collect, gather together, pick\", plus the preposition cum, \"with\", thus meaning \"selected together\". Thus \"colleagues\" are literally \"persons who have been selected to work together\". In ancient Rome a collegium was a \"body, guild, corporation united in colleagueship; of magistrates, praetors, tribunes, priests, augurs; a political club or trade guild\". Thus a college was a form of corporation or corporate body, an artificial legal person (body/corpus) with its own legal personality, with the capacity to enter into legal contracts, to sue and be sued. In mediaeval England there were colleges of priests, for example in chantry chapels; modern survivals include the Royal College of Surgeons in England (originally the Guild of Surgeons Within the City of London), the College of Arms in London (a body of heralds enforcing heraldic law), an electoral college (to elect representatives); all groups of persons \"selected in common\" to perform a specified function and appointed by a monarch, founder or other person in authority. As for the modern \"college of education\", it was a body created for that purpose, for example Eton College was founded in 1440 by letters patent of King Henry VI for the constitution of a college of Fellows, priests, clerks, choristers, poor scholars, and old poor men, with one master or governor, whose duty it shall be to instruct these scholars and any others who may resort thither from any part of England in the knowledge of letters, and especially of grammar, without payment\".	477	College	0
5,689	# College ## Overview ### Higher education {#higher_education} Within higher education, the term can be used to refer to: - A constituent part of a collegiate university, for example King\'s College, Cambridge, or of a federal university, for example King\'s College London. - A liberal arts college, an independent institution of higher education focusing on undergraduate education, such as Williams College or Amherst College. - A liberal arts division of a university whose undergraduate program does not otherwise follow a liberal arts model, such as the Yuanpei College at Peking University. - An institute providing specialised training, such as a college of further education, for example Belfast Metropolitan College, a teacher training college, or an art college. - A Catholic higher education institute which includes universities, colleges, and other institutions of higher education privately run by the Catholic Church, typically by religious institutes. Those tied to the Holy See are specifically called pontifical universities. - In the United States, college is sometimes but rarely a synonym for a research university, such as Dartmouth College, one of the eight universities in the Ivy League. - In the United States, the undergraduate college of a university which also confers graduate degrees, such as Yale College, the undergraduate college within Yale University. ### Further education {#further_education} A sixth form college or college of further education is an educational institution in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Belize, the Caribbean, Malta, Norway, Brunei, and Southern Africa, among others, where students aged 16 to 19 typically study for advanced school-level qualifications, such as A-levels, BTEC, HND or its equivalent and the International Baccalaureate Diploma, or school-level qualifications such as GCSEs. In Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the phrase \"sixth form college\" as the English name for a lycée. ### Secondary education {#secondary_education} In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called \"colleges\" or have \"college\" as part of their title. In Australia the term \"college\" is applied to any private or independent (non-government) primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The King\'s School, Parramatta are considered colleges. There has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as \"colleges\". In the state of Victoria, some state high schools are referred to as secondary colleges, although the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School. In Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, \"college\" is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some high schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as \"secondary colleges\". In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, but state schools offering only secondary education are called \"State High School\". In Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, \"college\" refers to the final two years of high school (years 11 and 12), and the institutions which provide this. In this context, \"college\" is a system independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a shorter version of matriculation college. In a number of Canadian cities, many government-run secondary schools are called \"collegiates\" or \"collegiate institutes\" (C.I.), a complicated form of the word \"college\" which avoids the usual \"post-secondary\" connotation. This is because these secondary schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects and ability levels (for example, collegiates offered Latin while vocational schools offered technical courses). Some private secondary schools (such as Upper Canada College, Vancouver College) choose to use the word \"college\" in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the separate school system, may also use the word \"college\" or \"collegiate\" in their names. In New Zealand the word \"college\" normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17 and \"college\" appears as part of the name especially of private or integrated schools. \"Colleges\" most frequently appear in the North Island, whereas \"high schools\" are more common in the South Island. In the Netherlands, \"college\" is equivalent to HBO (Higher professional education). It is oriented towards professional training with a clear occupational outlook, unlike universities which are scientifically oriented. In South Africa, some secondary schools, especially private schools on the English public school model, have \"college\" in their title, including six of South Africa\'s Elite Seven high schools. A typical example of this category would be St John\'s College. Private schools that specialize in improving children\'s marks through intensive focus on examination needs are informally called \"cram-colleges\". In Sri Lanka the word \"college\" (known as Vidyalaya in Sinhala) normally refers to a secondary school, which usually signifies above the 5th standard. During the British colonial period a limited number of exclusive secondary schools were established based on English public school model (Royal College Colombo, S. Thomas\' College, Mount Lavinia, Trinity College, Kandy) these along with several Catholic schools (St. Joseph\'s College, Colombo, St Anthony\'s College) traditionally carry their name as colleges. Following the start of free education in 1931 large group of central colleges were established to educate the rural masses. Since Sri Lanka gained Independence in 1948, many schools that have been established have been named as \"college\". ### Other As well as an educational institution, the term, in accordance with its etymology, may also refer to any formal group of colleagues set up under statute or regulation; often under a Royal Charter. Examples include an electoral college, the College of Arms, a college of canons, and the College of Cardinals. Other collegiate bodies include professional associations, particularly in medicine and allied professions. In the UK these include the Royal College of Nursing and the Royal College of Physicians. Examples in the United States include the American College of Physicians, the American College of Surgeons, and the American College of Dentists. An example in Australia is the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners. ## College by country {#college_by_country} The different ways in which the term \"college\" is used to describe educational institutions in various regions of the world is listed below:	1,036	College	1
5,689	# College ## Americas ### Canada In Canadian English, the term \"college\" usually refers to a trades school, applied arts/science/technology/business/health school or community college. These are post-secondary institutions granting certificates, diplomas, associate degrees and (in some cases) bachelor\'s degrees. The French acronym specific to public institutions within Quebec\'s particular system of pre-university and technical education is CEGEP (Collège d\'enseignement général et professionnel, \"college of general and professional education\"). They are collegiate-level institutions that a student typically enrols in if they wish to continue onto university in the Quebec education system,`{{notetag\|Exceptions are made for "mature" student, meaning 21 years of age or over, and out of the educational system for at least 2 years.}}`{=mediawiki} or to learn a trade. In Ontario and Alberta, there are also institutions that are designated university colleges, which only grant undergraduate degrees. This is to differentiate between universities, which have both undergraduate and graduate programs and those that do not. In Canada, there is a strong distinction between \"college\" and \"university\". In conversation, one specifically would say either \"they are going to university\" (i.e., studying for a three- or four-year degree at a university) or \"they are going to college\" (i.e., studying at a technical/career training). #### Usage in a university setting {#usage_in_a_university_setting} The term college also applies to distinct entities that formally act as an affiliated institution of the university, formally referred to as federated college, or affiliated colleges. A university may also formally include several constituent colleges, forming a collegiate university. Examples of collegiate universities in Canada include Trent University, and the University of Toronto. These types of institutions act independently, maintaining their own endowments, and properties. However, they remain either affiliated, or federated with the overarching university, with the overarching university being the institution that formally grants the degrees. For example, Trinity College was once an independent institution, but later became federated with the University of Toronto. Several centralized universities in Canada have mimicked the collegiate university model; although constituent colleges in a centralized university remains under the authority of the central administration. Centralized universities that have adopted the collegiate model to a degree includes the University of British Columbia, with Green College and St. John\'s College; and the Memorial University of Newfoundland, with Sir Wilfred Grenfell College. Occasionally, \"college\" refers to a subject specific faculty within a university that, while distinct, are neither federated nor affiliated---College of Education, College of Medicine, College of Dentistry, College of Biological Science among others. The Royal Military College of Canada is a military college which trains officers for the Canadian Armed Forces. The institution is a full-fledged university, with the authority to issue graduate degrees, although it continues to word the term college in its name. The institution\'s sister schools, Royal Military College Saint-Jean also uses the term college in its name, although it academic offering is akin to a CEGEP institution in Quebec. A number of post-secondary art schools in Canada formerly used the word college in their names, despite formally being universities. However, most of these institutions were renamed, or re-branded in the early 21st century, omitting the word college from its name. #### Usage in secondary education {#usage_in_secondary_education} The word college continues to be used in the names public separate secondary schools in Ontario. A number of independent schools across Canada also use the word college in its name. Public secular school boards in Ontario also refer to their secondary schools as collegiate institutes. However, usage of the word collegiate institute varies between school boards. Collegiate institute is the predominant name for secondary schools in Lakehead District School Board, and Toronto District School Board, although most school boards in Ontario use collegiate institute alongside high school, and secondary school in the names of their institutions. Similarly, secondary schools in Regina, and Saskatoon are referred to as Collegiate. ### Chile Officially, since 2009, the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile incorporated the term \"college\" as the name of a tertiary education program as a bachelor\'s degree. The program features a Bachelor of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, a Bachelor of Social Science and a Bachelor of Arts and Humanities. It has the same system as the American universities, it combines majors and minors and finally, it let the students continue a higher degree in the same university once the program it is completed. But in Chile, the term \"college\" is not usually used for tertiary education, but is used mainly in the name of some private bilingual schools, corresponding to levels 0, 1 and 2 of the ISCED 2011. Some examples are they Santiago College, Saint George\'s College, among others.	764	College	2
5,689	# College ## Americas ### United States {#united_states} In the United States, there were 5,916 post-secondary institutions (universities and colleges) `{{as of\|2020\|alt=as of 2020–21\|post=,}}`{=mediawiki} having peaked at 7,253 in 2012--13 and fallen every year since. A \"college\" in the US can refer to a constituent part of a university (which can be a residential college, the sub-division of the university offering undergraduate courses, or a school of the university offering particular specialized courses), an independent institution offering bachelor\'s-level courses, or an institution offering instruction in a particular professional, technical or vocational field. In popular usage, the word \"college\" is the generic term for any post-secondary undergraduate education. Americans \"go to college\" after high school, regardless of whether the specific institution is formally a college or a university. Some students choose to dual-enroll, by taking college classes while still in high school. The word and its derivatives are the standard terms used to describe the institutions and experiences associated with American post-secondary undergraduate education. Students must pay for college before taking classes. Some borrow the money via loans, and some students fund their educations with cash, scholarships, grants, or some combination of these payment methods. In 2011, the state or federal government subsidized \$8,000 to \$100,000 for each undergraduate degree. For state-owned schools (called \"public\" universities), the subsidy was given to the college, with the student benefiting from lower tuition. The state subsidized on average 50% of public university tuition. Colleges vary in terms of size, degree, and length of stay. Two-year colleges, also known as junior or community colleges, usually offer an associate degree, and four-year colleges usually offer a bachelor\'s degree. Often, these are entirely undergraduate institutions, although some have graduate school programs. Four-year institutions in the U.S. that emphasize a liberal arts curriculum are known as liberal arts colleges. Until the 20th century, liberal arts, law, medicine, theology, and divinity were about the only form of higher education available in the United States. These schools have traditionally emphasized instruction at the undergraduate level, although advanced research may still occur at these institutions. While there is no national standard in the United States, the term \"university\" primarily designates institutions that provide undergraduate and graduate education. A university typically has as its core and its largest internal division an undergraduate college teaching a liberal arts curriculum, also culminating in a bachelor\'s degree. What often distinguishes a university is having, in addition, one or more graduate schools engaged in both teaching graduate classes and in research. Often these would be called a School of Law or School of Medicine, (but may also be called a college of law, or a faculty of law). An exception is Vincennes University, Indiana, which is styled and chartered as a \"university\" even though almost all of its academic programs lead only to two-year associate degrees. Some institutions, such as Dartmouth College and The College of William & Mary, have retained the term \"college\" in their names for historical reasons. In one unique case, Boston College and Boston University, the former located in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts and the latter located in Boston, Massachusetts, are completely separate institutions. Usage of the terms varies among the states. In 1996, for example, Georgia changed all of its four-year institutions previously designated as colleges to universities, and all of its vocational technology schools to technical colleges. The terms \"university\" and \"college\" do not exhaust all possible titles for an American institution of higher education. Other options include \"institute\" (Worcester Polytechnic Institute and Massachusetts Institute of Technology), \"academy\" (United States Military Academy), \"union\" (Cooper Union), \"conservatory\" (New England Conservatory), and \"school\" (Juilliard School). In colloquial use, the institutions are still referred to as \"college\" when referring to undergraduate studies. The term college is also, as in the United Kingdom, used for a constituent semi-autonomous part of a larger university but generally organized on academic rather than residential lines. For example, at many institutions, the undergraduate portion of the university can be briefly referred to as the college (such as The College of the University of Chicago, Harvard College at Harvard, or Columbia College at Columbia) while at others, such as the University of California, Berkeley, \"colleges\" are collections of academic programs and other units that share some common characteristics, mission, or disciplinary focus (the \"college of engineering\", the \"college of nursing\", and so forth). There exist other variants for historical reasons, including some uses that exist because of mergers and acquisitions; for example, Duke University, which was called Trinity College until the 1920s, still calls its main undergraduate subdivision Trinity College of Arts and Sciences. #### Residential colleges {#residential_colleges} Some American universities, such as Princeton, Rice, and Yale have established residential colleges (sometimes, as at Harvard, the first to establish such a system in the 1930s, known as houses) along the lines of Oxford or Cambridge. Unlike the Oxbridge colleges, but similarly to Durham, these residential colleges are not autonomous legal entities nor are they typically much involved in education itself, being primarily concerned with room, board, and social life. At the University of Michigan, University of California, San Diego and the University of California, Santa Cruz, each residential college teaches its own core writing courses and has its own distinctive set of graduation requirements. Many American universities have placed increased emphasis on their residential colleges in recent years. This is exemplified by the creation of new colleges at Ivy League schools such as Yale University and Princeton University, and efforts to strengthen the contribution of the residential colleges to student education, including through a 2016 taskforce at Princeton on residential colleges. #### Origin of the American usage {#origin_of_the_american_usage} The founders of the first institutions of higher education in the United States were graduates of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. The small institutions they founded would not have seemed to them like universities -- they were tiny and did not offer the higher degrees in medicine and theology. Furthermore, they were not composed of several small colleges. Instead, the new institutions felt like the Oxford and Cambridge colleges they were used to -- small communities, housing and feeding their students, with instruction from residential tutors (as in the United Kingdom, described above). When the first students graduated, these \"colleges\" assumed the right to confer degrees upon them, usually with authority---for example, The College of William & Mary has a royal charter from the British monarchy allowing it to confer degrees while Dartmouth College has a charter permitting it to award degrees \"as are usually granted in either of the universities, or any other college in our realm of Great Britain.\" The leaders of Harvard College (which granted America\'s first degrees in 1642) might have thought of their college as the first of many residential colleges that would grow up into a New Cambridge university. However, over time, few new colleges were founded there, and Harvard grew and added higher faculties. Eventually, it changed its title to university, but the term \"college\" had stuck and \"colleges\" have arisen across the United States. In American English, the word \"college\" not only embodies a particular type of school, but has historically been used to refer to the general concept of undergraduate education when it is not necessary to specify a school, as in \"going to college\" or \"college savings accounts\" offered by banks. In a survey of more than 2,000 college students in 33 states and 156 different campuses, the U.S. Public Interest Research Group found the average student spends as much as \$1,200 each year on textbooks and supplies alone. By comparison, the group says that\'s the equivalent of 39 percent of tuition and fees at a community college, and 14 percent of tuition and fees at a four-year public university.	1,292	College	3
5,689	# College ## Americas ### United States {#united_states} #### Morrill Land-Grant Act {#morrill_land_grant_act} In addition to private colleges and universities, the U.S. also has a system of government funded, public universities. Many were founded under the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862. A movement had arisen to bring a form of more practical higher education to the masses, as \"\...many politicians and educators wanted to make it possible for all young Americans to receive some sort of advanced education.\" The Morrill Act \"\...made it possible for the new western states to establish colleges for the citizens.\" Its goal was to make higher education more easily accessible to the citizenry of the country, specifically to improve agricultural systems by providing training and scholarship in the production and sales of agricultural products, and to provide formal education in \"\...agriculture, home economics, mechanical arts, and other professions that seemed practical at the time.\" The act was eventually extended to allow all states that had remained with the Union during the American Civil War, and eventually all states, to establish such institutions. Most of the colleges established under the Morrill Act have since become full universities, and some are among the elite of the world. #### Benefits of college {#benefits_of_college} Selection of a four-year college as compared to a two-year junior college, even by marginal students such as those with a C+ grade average in high school and SAT scores in the mid 800s, increases the probability of graduation and confers substantial economic and social benefits.	252	College	4
5,689	# College ## Asia ### Bangladesh In Bangladesh, educational institutions offering higher secondary (11th--12th grade) education are known as colleges. ### Hong Kong {#hong_kong} In Hong Kong, the term \'college\' is used by tertiary institutions as either part of their names or to refer to a constituent part of the university, such as the colleges in the collegiate The Chinese University of Hong Kong; or to a residence hall of a university, such as St. John\'s College, University of Hong Kong. Many older secondary schools have the term \'college\' as part of their names. ### India The modern system of education was heavily influenced by the British starting in 1835. In India, the term \"college\" is commonly reserved for institutions that offer high school diplomas at year 12 (\"Junior College\", similar to American high schools), and those that offer the bachelor\'s degree; some colleges, however, offer programmes up to PhD level. Generally, colleges are located in different parts of a state and all of them are affiliated to a regional university. The colleges offer programmes leading to degrees of that university. Colleges may be either Autonomous or non-autonomous. Autonomous Colleges are empowered to establish their own syllabus, and conduct and assess their own examinations; in non-autonomous colleges, examinations are conducted by the university, at the same time for all colleges under its affiliation. There are several hundred universities and each university has affiliated colleges, often a large number. The first liberal arts and sciences college in India was \"Cottayam College\" or the \"Syrian College\", Kerala in 1815. The First inter linguistic residential education institution in Asia was started at this college. At present it is a Theological seminary which is popularly known as Orthodox Theological Seminary or Old Seminary. After that, CMS College, Kottayam, established in 1817, and the Presidency College, Kolkata, also 1817, initially known as Hindu College. The first college for the study of Christian theology and ecumenical enquiry was Serampore College (1818). The first Missionary institution to impart Western style education in India was the Scottish Church College, Calcutta (1830). The first commerce and economics college in India was Sydenham College, Mumbai (1913). In India a new term has been introduced that is Autonomous Institutes & Colleges. An autonomous Colleges are colleges which need to be affiliated to a certain university. These colleges can conduct their own admission procedure, examination syllabus, fees structure etc. However, at the end of course completion, they cannot issue their own degree or diploma. The final degree or diploma is issued by the affiliated university. Also, some significant changes can pave way under the NEP (New Education Policy 2020) which may affect the present guidelines for universities and colleges. Implemented in the 2023--2024 academic year, the new education policy is said to fill the gaps and cover the drawbacks of the Indian education system. ### Israel thumb\\|upright=0.75\\|Braude College of Engineering In Israel, any non-university higher-learning facility is called a college. Institutions accredited by the Council for Higher Education in Israel (CHE) to confer a bachelor\'s degree are called \"academic colleges\" (Mikhlala; plural Mikhlalot). These colleges (at least 4 for 2012) may also offer master\'s degrees and act as research facilities. There are also over twenty teacher training colleges or seminaries, most of which may award only a Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree. - Academic colleges: Any educational facility that had been approved to offer at least bachelor\'s degree is entitled by CHE to use the term \"academic college\" in its name. - Engineering academic college: Any academic facility that offers at least a bachelor\'s degree and most of it faculties are providing an engineering degree and engineering license. - Educational academic college: After an educational facility that had been approved for \"teachers seminar\" status is then approved to provide a Bachelor of Education, its name is changed to include \"educational academic college.\" - Technical college: A \"technical college\" (מכללה טכנולוגית) is an educational facility that is approved to allow to provide P.E. degree (הנדסאי; 14\'th class) or technician (טכנאי; 13\'th class) diploma and licenses. - Training College: A \"training college\" (מכללה להכשרה or מכללה מקצועית) is an educational facility that provides basic training allowing a person to receive a working permit in a field such as alternative medicine, cooking, art, mechanic, electrician and other professions. A trainee could receive the right to work in certain professions as apprentice (j. mechanic, j. electrician etc.). After working in the training field for enough time, an apprentice can receive a license to operate as mechanic or electrician) This educational facility is mostly used to provide basic training for low tech jobs and for job seekers without any training that are provided by the nation\'s Employment Service (שירות התעסוקה). ### Macau Following the Portuguese usage, the term \"college\" (colégio) in Macau has traditionally been used in the names for private (and non-governmental) pre-university educational institutions, which correspond to form one to form six level tiers. Such schools are usually run by the Roman Catholic church or missionaries in Macau. Examples include Chan Sui Ki Perpetual Help College, Yuet Wah College, and Sacred Heart Canossian College.	849	College	5
5,689	# College ## Asia ### Philippines In the Philippines, colleges usually refer to institutions of learning that grant degrees but whose scholastic fields are not as diverse as that of a university (University of Santo Tomas, University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, Far Eastern University, and AMA University), such as the San Beda College which specializes in law, AMA Computer College whose campuses are spread all over the Philippines which specializes in information and computing technologies, and the Mapúa Institute of Technology which specializes in engineering, or to component units within universities that do not grant degrees but rather facilitate the instruction of a particular field, such as a College of Science and College of Engineering, among many other colleges of the University of the Philippines. A state college may not have the word \"college\" on its name, but may have several component colleges, or departments. Thus, the Eulogio Amang Rodriguez Institute of Science and Technology is a state college by classification. Usually, the term \"college\" is also thought of as a hierarchical demarcation between the term \"university\", and quite a number of colleges seek to be recognized as universities as a sign of improvement in academic standards (Colegio de San Juan de Letran, San Beda College), and increase in the diversity of the offered degree programs (called \"courses\"). For private colleges, this may be done through a survey and evaluation by the Commission on Higher Education and accrediting organizations, as was the case of Urios College which is now the Fr. Saturnino Urios University. For state colleges, it is usually done by a legislation by the Congress or Senate. In common usage, \"going to college\" simply means attending school for an undergraduate degree, whether it\'s from an institution recognized as a college or a university. When it comes to referring to the level of education, college is the term more used to be synonymous to tertiary or higher education. A student who is or has studied his/her undergraduate degree at either an institution with college or university in its name is considered to be going to or have gone to college. ### Singapore The term \"college\" in Singapore is generally only used for pre-university educational institutions called \"Junior Colleges\", which provide the final two years of secondary education (equivalent to sixth form in British terms or grades 11--12 in the American system). Since 1 January 2005, the term also refers to the three campuses of the Institute of Technical Education with the introduction of the \"collegiate system\", in which the three institutions are called ITE College East, ITE College Central, and ITE College West respectively. The term \"university\" is used to describe higher-education institutions offering locally conferred degrees. Institutions offering diplomas are called \"polytechnics\", while other institutions are often referred to as \"institutes\" and so forth. ### Sri Lanka {#sri_lanka} There are several professional and vocational institutions that offer post-secondary education without granting degrees that are referred to as \"colleges\". This includes the Sri Lanka Law College, the many Technical Colleges and Teaching Colleges. ### Turkey In Turkey, the term \"kolej\" (college) refers to a private high school, typically preceded by one year of preparatory language education. Notable Turkish colleges include Robert College, Uskudar American Academy, American Collegiate Institute and Tarsus American College.	550	College	6
5,689	# College ## Africa ### South Africa {#south_africa} Although the term \"college\" is hardly used in any context at any university in South Africa, some non-university tertiary institutions call themselves colleges. These include teacher training colleges, business colleges and wildlife management colleges. See: List of universities in South Africa#Private colleges and universities; List of post secondary institutions in South Africa. ### Zimbabwe The term college is mainly used by private or independent secondary schools with Advanced Level (Upper 6th formers) and also Polytechnic Colleges which confer diplomas only. A student can complete secondary education (International General Certificate of Secondary Education, IGCSE) at 16 years and proceed straight to a poly-technical college or they can proceed to Advanced level (16 to 19 years) and obtain a General Certificate of Education (GCE) certificate which enables them to enroll at a university, provided they have good grades. Alternatively, with lower grades, the GCE certificate holders will have an added advantage over their GCSE counterparts if they choose to enroll at a polytechnical college. Some schools in Zimbabwe choose to offer the International Baccalaureate studies as an alternative to the IGCSE and GCE. ## Europe ### Greece *Kollegio* (in Greek Κολλέγιο) refers to the Centers of Post-Lyceum Education (in Greek Κέντρο Μεταλυκειακής Εκπαίδευσης, abbreviated as KEME), which are principally private and belong to the Greek post-secondary education system. Some of them have links to EU or US higher education institutions or accreditation organizations, such as the NEASC. Kollegio (or Kollegia in plural) may also refer to private non-tertiary schools, such as the Athens College. ### Ireland thumb\\|upright=1.25\\|right\\|Parliament Square, Trinity College Dublin in Ireland In Ireland the term \"college\" is normally used to describe an institution of tertiary education. University students often say they attend \"college\" rather than \"university\". Until 1989, no university provided teaching or research directly; they were formally offered by a constituent college of the university. There are number of secondary education institutions that traditionally used the word \"college\" in their names: these are either older, private schools (such as Belvedere College, Gonzaga College, Castleknock College, and St. Michael\'s College) or what were formerly a particular kind of secondary school. These secondary schools, formerly known as \"technical colleges,\" were renamed \"community colleges,\" but remain secondary schools. The country\'s only ancient university is the University of Dublin. Created during the reign of Elizabeth I, it is modelled on the collegiate universities of Cambridge and Oxford. However, only one constituent college was ever founded, hence the curious position of Trinity College Dublin today; although both are usually considered one and the same, the university and college are completely distinct corporate entities with separate and parallel governing structures. Among more modern foundations, the National University of Ireland, founded in 1908, consisted of constituent colleges and recognised colleges until 1997. The former are now referred to as constituent universities -- institutions that are essentially universities in their own right. The National University can trace its existence back to 1850 and the creation of the Queen\'s University of Ireland and the creation of the Catholic University of Ireland in 1854. From 1880, the degree awarding roles of these two universities was taken over by the Royal University of Ireland, which remained until the creation of the National University in 1908 and Queen\'s University Belfast. The state\'s two new universities, Dublin City University and University of Limerick, were initially National Institute for Higher Education institutions. These institutions offered university level academic degrees and research from the start of their existence and were awarded university status in 1989 in recognition of this. Third level technical education in the state has been carried out in the Institutes of Technology, which were established from the 1970s as Regional Technical Colleges. These institutions have delegated authority which entitles them to give degrees and diplomas from Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI) in their own names. A number of private colleges exist such as Dublin Business School, providing undergraduate and postgraduate courses validated by QQI and in some cases by other universities. Other types of college include colleges of education, such as the Church of Ireland College of Education. These are specialist institutions, often linked to a university, which provide both undergraduate and postgraduate academic degrees for people who want to train as teachers. A number of state-funded further education colleges exist -- which offer vocational education and training in a range of areas from business studies and information and communications technology to sports injury therapy. These courses are usually one, two or less often three years in duration and are validated by QQI at Levels 5 or 6, or for the BTEC Higher National Diploma award, which is a Level 6/7 qualification, validated by Edexcel. There are numerous private colleges (particularly in Dublin and Limerick) which offer both further and higher education qualifications. These degrees and diplomas are often certified by foreign universities/international awarding bodies and are aligned to the National Framework of Qualifications at Levels 6, 7 and 8. ### Netherlands In the Netherlands there are 3 main educational routes after high school. - MBO (middle-level applied education), which is the equivalent of junior college. Designed to prepare students for either skilled trades and technical occupations and workers in support roles in professions such as engineering, accountancy, business administration, nursing, medicine, architecture, and criminology or for additional education at another college with more advanced academic material. - HBO (higher professional education), which is the equivalent of college and has a professional orientation. After HBO (typically 4--6 years), pupils can enroll in a (professional) master\'s program (1--2 years) or enter the job market. The HBO is taught in vocational universities (hogescholen), of which there are over 40 in the Netherlands, each of which offers a broad variety of programs, with the exception of some that specialize in arts or agriculture. Note that the hogescholen are not allowed to name themselves university in Dutch. This also stretches to English and therefore HBO institutions are known as universities of applied sciences. - WO (Scientific education), which is the equivalent to university level education and has an academic orientation. HBO graduates can be awarded two titles, which are Baccalaureus (bc.) and Ingenieur (ing.). At a WO institution, many more bachelor\'s and master\'s titles can be awarded. Bachelor\'s degrees: Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Bachelor of Laws (LLB). Master\'s degrees: Master of Arts (MA), Master of Laws (LLM) and Master of Science (MSc). The PhD title is a research degree awarded upon completion and defense of a doctoral thesis.	1,086	College	7
5,689	# College ## Europe ### Portugal Presently in Portugal, the term colégio (college) is normally used as a generic reference to a private (non-government) school that provides from basic to secondary education. Many of the private schools include the term colégio in their name. Some special public schools -- usually of the boarding school type -- also include the term in their name, with a notable example being the Colégio Militar (Military College). The term colégio interno (literally \"internal college\") is used specifically as a generic reference to a boarding school. Until the 19th century, a colégio was usually a secondary or pre-university school, of public or religious nature, where the students usually lived together. A model for these colleges was the Royal College of Arts and Humanities, founded in Coimbra by King John III of Portugal in 1542. ### United Kingdom {#united_kingdom} #### Secondary education and further education {#secondary_education_and_further_education} Further education (FE) colleges and sixth form colleges are institutions providing further education to students over 16. Some of these also provide higher education courses (see below). In the context of secondary education, \'college\' is used in the names of some private schools, e.g. Eton College and Winchester College. #### Higher education {#higher_education_1} In higher education, a college is normally a provider that does not hold university status, although it can also refer to a constituent part of a collegiate or federal university or a grouping of academic faculties or departments within a university. Traditionally the distinction between colleges and universities was that colleges did not award degrees while universities did, but this is no longer the case with NCG having gained taught degree awarding powers (the same as some universities) on behalf of its colleges, and many of the colleges of the University of London holding full degree awarding powers and being effectively universities. Most colleges, however, do not hold their own degree awarding powers and continue to offer higher education courses that are validated by universities or other institutions that can award degrees. In England, `{{as of\|2016\|August\|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}, over 60% of the higher education providers directly funded by HEFCE (208/340) are sixth-form or further education colleges, often termed colleges of further and higher education, along with 17 colleges of the University of London, one university college, 100 universities, and 14 other providers (six of which use \'college\' in their name). Overall, this means over two-thirds of state-supported higher education providers in England are colleges of one form or another. Many private providers are also called colleges, e.g. the New College of the Humanities and St Patrick\'s College, London. Colleges within universities vary immensely in their responsibilities. The large constituent colleges of the University of London are effectively universities in their own right; colleges in some universities, including those of the University of the Arts London and smaller colleges of the University of London, run their own degree courses but do not award degrees; those at the University of Roehampton provide accommodation and pastoral care as well as delivering the teaching on university courses; those at Oxford and Cambridge deliver some teaching on university courses as well as providing accommodation and pastoral care; and those in Durham, Kent, Lancaster and York provide accommodation and pastoral care but do not normally participate in formal teaching. The legal status of these colleges also varies widely, with University of London colleges being independent corporations and recognised bodies, Oxbridge colleges, colleges of the University of the Highlands and Islands (UHI) and some Durham colleges being independent corporations and listed bodies, most Durham colleges being owned by the university but still listed bodies, and those of other collegiate universities not having formal recognition. When applying for undergraduate courses through UCAS, University of London colleges are treated as independent providers, colleges of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham and UHI are treated as locations within the universities that can be selected by specifying a \'campus code\' in addition to selecting the university, and colleges of other universities are not recognised. The UHI and the University of Wales Trinity Saint David (UWTSD) both include further education colleges. However, while the UHI colleges integrate FE and HE provision, UWTSD maintains a separation between the university campuses (Lampeter, Carmarthen and Swansea) and the two colleges (Coleg Sir Gâr and Coleg Ceredigion; n.b. coleg is Welsh for college), which although part of the same group are treated as separate institutions rather than colleges within the university. A university college is an independent institution with the power to award taught degrees, but which has not been granted university status. University College is a protected title that can only be used with permission, although note that University College London, University College, Oxford and University College, Durham are colleges within their respective universities and not university colleges (in the case of UCL holding full degree awarding powers that set it above a university college), while University College Birmingham is a university in its own right and also not a university college.	825	College	8
5,689	# College ## Oceania ### Australia In Australia a college may be an institution of tertiary education that is smaller than a university, run independently or as part of a university. Following a reform in the 1980s many of the formerly independent colleges now belong to a larger universities. Referring to parts of a university, there are residential colleges which provide residence for students, both undergraduate and postgraduate, called university colleges. These colleges often provide additional tutorial assistance, and some host theological study. Many colleges have strong traditions and rituals, so are a combination of dormitory style accommodation and fraternity or sorority culture. Most technical and further education institutions (TAFEs), which offer certificate and diploma vocational courses, are styled \"TAFE colleges\" or \"Colleges of TAFE\". In some places, such as Tasmania, college refers to a type of school for Year 10, 11 and 12 students, e.g. Don College. ### New Zealand {#new_zealand} The constituent colleges of the former University of New Zealand (such as Canterbury University College) have become independent universities. Some halls of residence associated with New Zealand universities retain the name of \"college\", particularly at the University of Otago (which although brought under the umbrella of the University of New Zealand, already possessed university status and degree awarding powers). The institutions formerly known as \"Teacher-training colleges\" now style themselves \"College of education\". Some universities, such as the University of Canterbury, have divided their university into constituent administrative \"Colleges\" -- the College of Arts containing departments that teach Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, College of Science containing Science departments, and so on. This is largely modelled on the Cambridge model, discussed above. Like the United Kingdom some professional bodies in New Zealand style themselves as \"colleges\", for example, the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, the Royal Australasian College of Physicians. In some parts of the country, secondary school is often referred to as college and the term is used interchangeably with high school. This sometimes confuses people from other parts of New Zealand. But in all parts of the country many secondary schools have \"College\" in their name, such as Rangitoto College, New Zealand\'s largest secondary	357	College	9
5,697	# Civil Rights Memorial The Civil Rights Memorial is an American memorial in Montgomery, Alabama, created by Maya Lin. The names of 41 people are inscribed on the granite fountain as martyrs who were killed in the civil rights movement. The memorial is sponsored by the Southern Poverty Law Center. ## Design The names included in the memorial belong to those who were killed between 1955 and 1968. The dates chosen represent a time when legalized segregation was prominent. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in schools was unlawful and 1968 is the year of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. The monument was created by Maya Lin, who also created the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. The Civil Rights Memorial was dedicated in 1989. The concept of Lin\'s design is based on the soothing and healing effect of water. It was inspired by a passage from King\'s 1963 \"I Have a Dream\" speech \"\...we will not be satisfied \"until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream\...\" The quotation in the passage, which is inscribed on the memorial, is a direct paraphrase of Amos 5:24, as translated in the American Standard Version of the Bible. The memorial is a fountain in the form of an asymmetric inverted stone cone. A film of water flows over the base of the cone, which contains the 41 names included. It is possible to touch the smooth film of water and to alter it temporarily, which quickly returns to smoothness. The memorial is designed in a timeline manner. It begins with Brown v. Board in 1954, and ends with Martin Luther King Jr.\'s assassination in 1968. ## Tours and location {#tours_and_location} The memorial is in downtown Montgomery, at 400 Washington Avenue, in an open plaza in front of the Civil Rights Memorial Center, which was the offices of the Southern Poverty Law Center until it moved across the street into a new building in 2001. The memorial may be visited freely 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The Civil Rights Memorial Center offers guided group tours, lasting approximately one hour. Tours are available by appointment, Monday to Saturday. The memorial is only a few blocks from other historic sites, including the Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church, the Alabama State Capitol, the Alabama Department of Archives and History, the corners where Claudette Colvin and Rosa Parks boarded buses in 1955 on which they would later refuse to give up their seats, and the Rosa Parks Library and Museum.	432	Civil Rights Memorial	0
5,697	# Civil Rights Memorial ## Names included {#names_included} ### \"Civil Rights Martyrs\" {#civil_rights_martyrs} The 41 names included in the Civil Rights Memorial are those of: - Louis Allen - Willie Brewster - Benjamin Brown - Johnnie Mae Chappell - James Chaney - Addie Mae Collins - Vernon Dahmer - Jonathan Daniels - Henry Hezekiah Dee - Roman Ducksworth Jr. - Willie Edwards - Medgar Evers - Andrew Goodman - Paul Guihard - Samuel Hammond Jr. - Jimmie Lee Jackson - Wharlest Jackson - Martin Luther King Jr. - Bruce W. Klunder - George W. Lee - Herbert Lee - Viola Liuzzo - Denise McNair - Delano Herman Middleton - Charles Eddie Moore - Oneal Moore - William Lewis Moore - Mack Charles Parker - Lemuel Penn - James Reeb - John Earl Reese - Carole Robertson - Michael Schwerner - Henry Ezekial Smith - Lamar Smith - Emmett Till - Clarence Triggs - Virgil Lamar Ware - Cynthia Wesley - Ben Chester White - Sammy Younge Jr. ### \"The Forgotten\" {#the_forgotten} \"The Forgotten\" are 74 people who are identified in a display at the Civil Rights Memorial Center. These names were not inscribed on the Memorial because there was insufficient information about their deaths at the time the Memorial was created. However, it is thought that these people were killed as a result of racially motivated violence between 1952 and 1968. - Andrew Lee Anderson - Frank Andrews - Isadore Banks - Larry Bolden - James Brazier - Thomas Brewer - Hilliard Brooks - Charles Brown - Jessie Brown - Carrie Brumfield - Eli Brumfield - Silas (Ernest) Caston - Clarence Cloninger - Willie Countryman - Vincent Dahmon - Woodrow Wilson Daniels - Joseph Hill Dumas - Pheld Evans - J. E. Evanston - Mattie Greene - Jasper Greenwood - Jimmie Lee Griffith - A. C. Hall - Rogers Hamilton - Collie Hampton - Alphonso Harris - Izell Henry - Arthur James Hill - Ernest Hunter - Luther Jackson - Ernest Jells - Joe Franklin Jeter - Marshall Johnson - John Lee - Willie Henry Lee - Richard Lillard - George Love - Robert McNair - Maybelle Mahone - Sylvester Maxwell - Clinton Melton - James Andrew Miller - Booker T. Mixon - Nehemiah Montgomery - Frank Morris - James Earl Motley - Sam O\'Quinn - Hubert Orsby - Larry Payne - C. H. Pickett - Albert Pitts - David Pitts - Ernest McPharland - Jimmy Powell - William Roy Prather - Johnny Queen - Donald Rasberry - Fred Robinson - Johnny Robinson - Willie Joe Sanford - Marshall Scott Jr. - Jessie James Shelby - W. G	438	Civil Rights Memorial	1
5,706	# Çevik Bir Çevik Bir (born 1939) is a Turkish retired army general. He was a member of the Turkish General Staff in the 1990s. He took a major part in several important international missions in the Middle East and North Africa. He was born in Buca, İzmir Province, in 1939 and is married with one child. He graduated from the Turkish Military Academy as an engineer officer in 1958, from the Army Staff College in 1970 and from the Armed Forces College in 1971. He graduated from NATO Defense College, Rome, Italy in 1973. From 1983 to 1985, he served at SHAPE, NATO\'s headquarters in Belgium. He was promoted to brigadier general and commanded an armed brigade and division in Turkey. From 1987 to 1991, he served as major general, and then was promoted to lieutenant general. After the dictator Siad Barre's ousting, conflicts between the General Mohammed Farah Aidid party and other clans in Somalia had led to famine and lawlessness throughout the country. An estimated 300,000 people had died from starvation. A combined military force of United States and United Nations (under the name \"UNOSOM\") were deployed to Mogadishu, to monitor the ceasefire and deliver food and supplies to the starving people of Somali. Çevik Bir, who was then a lieutenant-general of Turkey, became the force commander of UNOSOM II in April 1993. Despite the retreat of US and UN forces after several deaths due to local hostilities mainly led by Aidid, the introduction of a powerful military force opened the transportation routes, enabling the provision of supplies and ended the famine quickly. He was succeeded as Force Commander by a Malaysian general in January 1994. He became a four-star general and served three years as vice chairman of the Turkish Armed Forces, then appointed commander of the Turkish First Army, in Istanbul. While he was vice chairman of the TAF, he signed the Turkish-Israeli Military Coordination agreement in 1996. Çevik Bir became the Turkish army\'s deputy chief of general staff shortly after the Somali operation and played a vital role in establishing a Turkish-Israeli entente. He retired from the army on 30 August 1999. He is a former member of the Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA). On 12 April 2012, Bir and 30 other officers were taken in custody for their role in the 1997 military memorandum that forced the then Turkish government, led by the Refah Partisi (Welfare Party), to step down. On 11 September 2021, the General Staff Personnel Presidency reported to the Ankara 5th High Criminal Court, where the case was heard, that the administrative action was taken to demolish the 13 retired generals convicted in the February 28 trial. Thus, Çevik Bir was demoted. Çevik Bir, one of the generals who planned the process, said \"In Turkey we have a marriage of Islam and democracy. (...) The child of this marriage is secularism. Now this child gets sick from time to time. The Turkish Armed Forces is the doctor which saves the child. Depending on how sick the kid is, we administer the necessary medicine to make sure the child recuperates\"	525	Çevik Bir	0
5,714	# Cornish Nationalist Party The Cornish Nationalist Party (CNP; An Parti Kenethlegek Kernow) is a political party founded in 1975. It initially campaigned for independence for Cornwall but later supported devolved powers under central UK control. The CNP should not be confused other Cornish nationalist parties, including Mebyon Kernow (MK) from which the CNP split in 1975, or the similarly named Cornish National Party, which split from MK in 1969. ## History The party was formed on 28 May 1975 by people who left Mebyon Kernow, Cornwall\'s main nationalist party, and was first led by James Whetter. The split with Mebyon Kernow was based on two main debates. First was whether to be a centre-left party, appealing to the electorate on a social democratic line, or whether to appeal emotionally on a centre-right cultural line. At the time, the same debate was occurring in most political parties campaigning for autonomy from the United Kingdom, including the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru. Second was whether to embrace devolution as a first step to full independence (or as the sole step if this was what the electorate wished) or for independence to be \"all or nothing\". The CNP represented a more right-wing outlook based on the belief that cultural arguments were more likely to win votes than economic`{{specify\|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} ones. The CNP worked to preserve the Celtic identity of Cornwall, and encouraged links with Cornish people overseas and with other regions with distinct identities. It also gave support to the Cornish language and commemorated Thomas Flamank, a leader of the Cornish Rebellion in 1497, at an annual ceremony at Bodmin on 27 June each year. It also worked to improve Cornwall\'s economy.`{{clarify\|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} Since the death of founder James Whetter in 2018, the CNP has been led by Androw Hawke. ### Electoral and campaign activity {#electoral_and_campaign_activity} Throughout its history, the CNP has been sporadically registered with the Electoral Commission, fielding candidates for some elections but not others. When not participating in elections it has often continued to act as a campaign group or pressure group, although its visibility and influence within Cornwall is negligible. It stood for national elections twice, in 1979 and 1983. In April 2009, a news story reported that the party had re-formed following a conference in Bodmin; however, it did not contest any elections that year. A newspaper article and a revamp of the party website in October 2014 state that the party planned to contest elections once more. The reformed party was registered with the Electoral Commission in 2014, but ceased to be registered in 2017. ### Indian office {#indian_office} In 1983 the party opened an office in India. The Indian office was established by Gagan Narayan Dua and published a periodical entitled Cornish India. ### Publications Whetter was the founder and editor of the CNP quarterly journal,`{{verify source\|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki} The Cornish Banner (An Baner Kernewek), within the actions of the Roseland Institute. ## Elections and results {#elections_and_results} Year Election Constituency Candidate Votes \% Ref ------ ------------------------------ ----------------------- --------------- ------- ------ ----- 1979 UK general election Truro James Whetter 227 0.4 1983 UK general election North Cornwall James Whetter 364 0.67 1984 European Parliament election Cornwall and Plymouth James Whetter 1892 1.0 At the 1984 European Parliament election, the CNP was affiliated to the now defunct European Federalist Party (1974-1995). The CNP had one parish councillor, leader Androw Hawke who was elected to Polperro Community Council for the second time on 4 May 2017.`{{failed verification\|date=August 2024}}`{=mediawiki}	580	Cornish Nationalist Party	0
5,714	# Cornish Nationalist Party ## Policy ### Original policies {#original_policies} The Policy Statement of the CNP was published in 1975. The 1977 Programme of the Cornish Nationalist Party was laid out under multiple key points. World and continental government : The party promotes international federalism in which power is decentaralised \"to the true, natural identities and units\" to free Celtic nations from their \"imperialist overlords\". It will work to achieve autonomy for Cornwall to the degree \"necessary for her total fulfilment as a Celtic nation. It believes \"internationalism is based on strong nationalisms.\" Celtic confederation : The party will work to establish a confederation of the six Celtic countries with shared institutions, within a united Europe. The Cornish state : A Cornish state should have sovereign authority inside its traditional border and over its surrounding sea. Its national flag will be the flag of Saint Piran. The Isles of Scilly may have a referendum to decide on membership. Devolved powers may be an acceptable step towards this ultimate goal. Democratic government : Power within the Cornish state should also be decentralised to smaller units and these should be based on traditional hundred, parish and town boundaries. Legal system : Transition from the English legal system to \"Celtic Confederation Courts\", European courts, and UN courts. New court procedures will introduce the verdict \'not proven\' as in Scotland and treat crime against persons as more serious than property crime. Punishment will focus on rehabilitation. Language : Cornish will be the official language, the language of government, and eventually of education, via a process modelled on the revival of the Hebrew language in Israel. Mass communication : The Cornish state will have a free press. Publications and programming promoting Cornish and Celtic culture will be supported by the state. Aid will be given to the promotion of the party\'s Cornish Banner periodical. Social organisation and welfare : The party supports continuing welfare for the old, sick and young. For others it will \"encourage self-reliance and self-sufficiency\" instead of \"hand-outs\". Men and women will be equal but \"encouraged in their loyalties to old-established and traditional nuclear families\" as well as to local communities and to Cornwall. Housing : The party would end second homes and build housing to be bought affordably. Economy : Property rights will be respected and registered in the Cornish state. The economy will be based on a mixture of capitalist and socialist systems. Small businesses will be encouraged, while new industry will emerge \"naturally\" from \"market conditions\". English \"class antagnoism\" will be avoided in larger businesses via profit sharing and worker representation on boards. Farming will be encouraged and fishermen will have sole rights to seas within 50 miles. Cooperatives and unions will be formed. The state has rights to all natural resources in its territory, and extraction companies will pay a proportion of their value to the state. Tourism will be controlled in volume, given better amenities, and refocused on Cornish culture. Transport and communication : Improvements will avoid widening roads and removing hedgerows. Energy : The Cornish state will use existing resources and develop new ones, prioritising natural sources. Environment and ecology : The environment is unique and should be protected via education. People should be encouraged to build new buildings in a traditional Celtic style. Planning control will be minimal to ensure freedom. Sport : Cornish sports and sports that the Cornish are good at will be encouraged in schools and at the national or Celtic level. Culture and recreation : Traditional festivals, dances, literature and folklore will be promoted. Religion : Education should focus on Christianity and ancient Celtic religion. People should have freedom of religion. Youth : The party will develop a Cornish Youth Movement based on the Welsh Urdd Gobaith Cymru. Defence : The Cornish state will have a \"home defence force, linked to local communities and civil units of administration\". It will have no offence force but will contribute to Celtic, European and UN forces. Water rights will be protected by fishery protection vessels and gun boats. Rights may be leased to England for naval use. Foreign policy and ambassadorial recognition : The Cornish state will support international co-operation and justice as well as Celtic unity. Ambassadorial recognition of all but the most closely-linked stated will happen at the Celtic level. ### Other policies {#other_policies} Other policies have included:`{{when\|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} - Better job prospects for Cornish people. - Reduction of unemployment to an acceptable level (2.5%). - The protection of the self-employed and small businesses in Cornwall. - Cheaper housing and priority for Cornish people. - The Cornish state will have control over the number and nature of immigrants. - The establishment of a Cornish economic department to aid the basic industries of farming, fishing, china clay and mining and secondary industries developing from these. - Improved transport facilities in Cornwall with greater scope for private enterprise to operate. - Existing medical and welfare services for Cornish people will be developed and improved. - Protection of Cornish natural resources, including offshore resources. - Courses on Cornish language and history should be made available in schools for those who want them. - The rule of law will be upheld by the Cornish state and the judiciary will be separate from the legislative and executive functions of the state. More recent policies include:`{{when\|date=August 2023}}`{=mediawiki} - A far greater say in government for Cornish people (by referendums if necessary) and the decentralisation of considerable powers to a Cornish nation within a united Europe - special links being established with our Celtic brothers and sisters in Scotland, Ireland, Isle of Man, Wales and Brittany. - Calling for more legislative powers to be given to Cornwall Council. The authority should effectively become the Cornish government, with town and parish councils acting as local government. - Cornwall council should have a reduction in councillors, with standardisation of electoral areas and constituencies in throughout Cornwall. - The Westminster government should appoint a Minister for Cornwall and confirm there will be no further plans to have any parliamentary constituency covering part of Cornwall and Devon. - John Le Bretton, vice-chairman of the party, stated: \"The CNP supports the retention of Cornwall Council as a Cornwall-wide authority running Cornish affairs and we call for the British government in Westminster to devolve powers to the council so that decisions affecting Cornwall can be made in Cornwall\".	1,063	Cornish Nationalist Party	1
5,714	# Cornish Nationalist Party ## Image The CNP has had image problems, having been seen as similarly styled to nativist and far-right parties, the British National Party (BNP) and National Front (NF). During the 1970s, the party magazine The Cornish Banner / An Baner Kernewek published letters sympathetic to the NF and critical of \"Zionist\" politicians. In around 1976, CNP formed a controversial uniformed wing, for which it received criticism from members of the Celtic League and MK. The group, known as the \"Greenshirts\", was led by the CNP Youth Movement leader and public relations officer Wallace Simmons. Simmons also founded the Cornish Front, which supported the NF. A notable political difference is that CNP and Cornish Front were sympathetic to Irish republicanism while the NF was largely supportive of Ulster loyalism, though there were exceptions within the NF, including former leading figure Patrick Harrington who is of Irish Catholic heritage	151	Cornish Nationalist Party	2
5,719	# Cutaway (filmmaking) In film and video, a cutaway is the interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually followed by a cut back to the first shot. A cutaway scene is the interruption of a scene with the insertion of another scene, generally unrelated or only peripherally related to the original scene. The interruption is usually quick, and is usually, although not always, ended by a return to the original scene. The effect is of commentary to the original scene and creates variety. ## Usage The most common use of cutaway shots in dramatic films is to adjust the pace of the main action, to conceal the deletion of some unwanted part of the main shot, or to allow the joining of parts of two versions of that shot. For example, a scene may be improved by cutting a few frames out of an actor\'s pause; a brief view of a listener can help conceal the break. Or the actor may fumble some of his lines in a group shot; rather than discarding a good version of the shot, the director may just have the actor repeat the lines for a new shot, and cut to that alternate view when necessary. Cutaways are also used often in older horror films in place of special effects. For example, a shot of a zombie getting its head cut off may, for instance, start with a view of an axe being swung through the air, followed by a close-up of the actor swinging it, then followed by a cut back to the now severed head. George A. Romero, creator of the Dead Series, and Tom Savini pioneered effects that removed the need for cutaways in horror films. In news broadcasting and documentary work, the cutaway is used much as it would be in fiction. On location, there is usually just one camera to film an interview, and it is usually trained on the interviewee. Often, there is also only one microphone. After the interview, the interviewer usually repeats his questions while he is being filmed, with pauses that act as if the answers are listened to. These shots can be used as cutaways. Cutaways to the interviewer, called noddies, can also be used to cover cuts. The cutaway does not necessarily contribute any dramatic content of its own, but is used to help the editor assemble a longer sequence. For that reason, editors choose cutaways related to the main action, such as another action or object in the same location. For example, if the main shot is of a man walking down an alley, possible cutaways may include a shot of a cat on a nearby dumpster or a shot of a person watching from a window overhead. The animated series Family Guy is noted for its use of cutaway gags	477	Cutaway (filmmaking)	0
5,723	# Constellations (journal) *Constellations: An International Journal of Critical and Democratic Theory* is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal of critical post-Marxist and democratic theory and successor of Praxis International. Constellations is committed to publishing the best of contemporary critical theory and democratic theory in philosophy, politics, social theory, and law. The journal aims to expanding the global possibilities for radical politics and social criticism. ## Editorial team {#editorial_team} Nadia Urbinati, Amy Allen, Jean L.Cohen, and Andreas Kalyvas are former co-editors. It is currently edited by Simone Chambers, Cristina Lafont, and Hubertus Buchstein. Ertug Tombus is the managing editor of the journal since 2009. Seyla Benhabib, Nancy Fraser and Andrew Arato are the co-founding former editors. With an international editorial contribution, it is based at the New School in New York	130	Constellations (journal)	0
5,726	# Crane shot In filmmaking and video production, a crane shot is a shot taken by a camera on a moving crane or jib. Filmmaker D. W. Griffith created the first crane for his 1916 epic film Intolerance, with famed special effects pioneer Eiji Tsuburaya later constructing the first iron camera crane which is still adapted worldwide today. Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be moved by remote control. Crane shots are often found in what are supposed to be emotional or suspenseful scenes. One example of this technique is the shots taken by remote cranes in the car-chase sequence of the 1985 film To Live and Die in L.A. Some filmmakers place the camera on a boom arm simply to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups. ## History D. W. Griffith designed the first camera crane for his 1916 epic film Intolerance. His crane measured 140 feet tall and ascended on six four-wheeled railroad trucks. In 1929, future special effects pioneer Eiji Tsuburaya constructed a smaller replica of Griffith\'s wooden camera crane without blueprints or manuals. Although his wooden crane collapsed shortly after its completion, Tsuburaya created the first-ever iron shooting crane in October 1934, and an adaptation of this crane is still used worldwide today. ## Camera crane types {#camera_crane_types} Camera cranes may be small, medium, or large, depending on the load capacity and length of the loading arm. Historically, the first camera crane provided for lifting the camera together with the operator, and sometimes an assistant. The range of motion of the boom was restricted because of the high load capacity and the need to ensure operator safety. In recent years`{{When\|date=April 2021}}`{=mediawiki} a camera crane boom tripod with a remote control has become popular. It carries on the boom only a movie or television camera without an operator and allows shooting from difficult positions as a small load capacity makes it possible to achieve a long reach of the crane boom and relative freedom of movement. The operator controls the camera from the ground through a motorized panoramic head, using remote control and video surveillance by watching the image on the monitor. A separate category consists of telescopic camera cranes. These devices allow setting an arbitrary trajectory of the camera, eliminating the characteristic jib crane radial displacement that comes with traditional spanning shots. Large camera cranes are almost indistinguishable from the usual boom-type cranes, with the exception of special equipment for smoothly moving the boom and controlling noise. Small camera cranes and crane-trucks have a lightweight construction, often without a mechanical drive. The valves are controlled manually by balancing the load-specific counterweight, facilitating manipulation. To improve usability and repeatability of movement of the crane in different takes, the axis of rotation arrows are provided with limbs and a pointer. In some cases, the camera crane is mounted on a dolly for even greater camera mobility. Such devices are called crane trolleys. In modern films robotic cranes allow use of multiple actuators for high-accuracy repeated movement of the camera in trick photography. These devices are called tap-robots; some sources use the term motion control. ## Manufacturers The major supplier of cranes in the cinema of the United States throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s was the Chapman Company (later Chapman-Leonard of North Hollywood), supplanted by dozens of similar manufacturers around the world. The traditional design provided seats for both the director and the camera operator, and sometimes a third seat for the cinematographer as well. Large weights on the back of the crane compensate for the weight of the people riding the crane and must be adjusted carefully to avoid the possibility of accidents. During the 1960s, the tallest crane was the Chapman Titan crane, a massive design over 20 feet high that won an Academy Scientific & Engineering award. During the last few years, camera cranes have been miniaturized and costs have dropped so dramatically that most aspiring film makers have access to these tools. What was once a \"Hollywood\" effect is now available for under \$400. Manufacturers of camera cranes include ABC-Products, Cambo, Filmotechnic, Polecam, Panther and Matthews Studio Equipment, Sevenoak, and Newton Nordic. ## Camera crane technique {#camera_crane_technique} Most such cranes were manually operated, requiring an experienced boom operator who knew how to vertically raise, lower, and \"crab\" the camera alongside actors while the crane platform rolled on separate tracks. The crane operator and camera operator had to precisely coordinate their moves so that focus, pan, and camera position all started and stopped at the same time, requiring great skill and rehearsal. On the back of the crane is a counter weight. This allows the crane to smooth action while in motion with minimal effort.	789	Crane shot	0
5,726	# Crane shot ## Notable usage {#notable_usage} - D. W. Griffith\'s Intolerance (1916) featured the first ever crane shot for a film. - Atsuo Tomioka\'s 1935 film The Chorus of a Million featured the first iron camera crane, which was created and employed in the film in 1934 by Eiji Tsuburaya. - Leni Riefenstahl had a cameraman shoot a half-circle pan shot from a crane for the 1935 Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will. - A crane shot was used in Orson Welles\' 1941 film Citizen Kane. Welles also used a crane camera during the iconic opening of Touch of Evil (1958). The camera perched on a Chapman crane begins on a close-up of a ticking time bomb and ends three-plus minutes later with a blinding explosion. - The Western High Noon (1952) had a famous crane shot. The shot backs up and rises, in order to show Marshal Will Kane totally alone and isolated on the street. - The 1964 film by Mikhail Kalatozov, I Am Cuba contains two of the most astonishing tracking shots ever attempted. - In his film Sympathy for the Devil, Jean-Luc Godard used a crane for almost every shot in the movie, giving each scene a 360-degree tour of the tableau Godard presented to the viewer. In the final scene, he even shows the crane he was able to rent on his limited budget by including it in the scene. This was one of his traits as a filmmaker --- showing off his budget --- as he did with Brigitte Bardot in Le Mepris (Contempt). - The closing take of Richard Attenborough\'s film version of Oh! What a Lovely War begins with a single war grave, gradually pulling back to reveal hundreds of identical crosses. - The 1980 comedy-drama film The Stunt Man featured a crane throughout the production of the fictitious film-within-a-film (with the director played by Peter O\'Toole). - The television comedy Second City Television (SCTV) uses the concept of the crane shot as comedic material. After using a crane shot in one of the first NBC-produced episodes, the network complained about the exorbitant cost of renting the crane. SCTV writers responded by making the \"crane shot\" a ubiquitous symbol of production excess while also lampooning network executives who care nothing about artistic vision and everything about the bottom line. At the end of the second season, an inebriated Johnny LaRue (John Candy) is given his very own crane by Santa Claus, implying he would be able to have a crane shot whenever he wanted it. - Director Dario Argento included an extensive scene in Tenebrae where the camera seemingly crawled over the walls and up a house wall, all in one seamless take. Due to its length, the tracking shot ended up being the production\'s most difficult and complex part to complete. - The 2004 Johnnie To film Breaking News opens with an elaborate seven-minute single-take crane shot. - Director Dennis Dugan frequently uses top-to-bottom crane shots in his comedy films. - A camera crane panoramic master interior live shot opens The Late Late Show with James Corden after the pre-recorded exterior aerial-shot. - Jeopardy! uses a crane to pan the camera over the audience	535	Crane shot	1
5,739	# Compiler Compilation}} `{{Use dmy dates\|date=October 2020}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Program execution}}`{=mediawiki} In computing, a compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language (the source language) into another language (the target language). The name \"compiler\" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a low-level programming language (e.g. assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program. There are many different types of compilers which produce output in different useful forms. A cross-compiler produces code for a different CPU or operating system than the one on which the cross-compiler itself runs. A bootstrap compiler is often a temporary compiler, used for compiling a more permanent or better optimised compiler for a language. Related software include decompilers, programs that translate from low-level languages to higher level ones; programs that translate between high-level languages, usually called source-to-source compilers or transpilers; language rewriters, usually programs that translate the form of expressions without a change of language; and compiler-compilers, compilers that produce compilers (or parts of them), often in a generic and reusable way so as to be able to produce many differing compilers. A compiler is likely to perform some or all of the following operations, often called phases: preprocessing, lexical analysis, parsing, semantic analysis (syntax-directed translation), conversion of input programs to an intermediate representation, code optimization and machine specific code generation. Compilers generally implement these phases as modular components, promoting efficient design and correctness of transformations of source input to target output. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementers invest significant effort to ensure compiler correctness. ## Comparison with interpreter {#comparison_with_interpreter} With respect to making source code runnable, an interpreter provides a similar function as a compiler, but via a different mechanism. An interpreter executes code without converting it to machine code. Some interpreters execute source code while others execute an intermediate form such as bytecode. A program compiled to native code tends to run faster than if interpreted. Environments with a bytecode intermediate form tend toward intermediate speed. Just-in-time compilation allows for native execution speed with a one-time startup processing time cost. Low-level programming languages, such as assembly and C, are typically compiled, especially when speed is a significant concern, rather than cross-platform support. For such languages, there are more one-to-one correspondences between the source code and the resulting machine code, making it easier for programmers to control the use of hardware. In theory, a programming language can be used via either a compiler or an interpreter, but in practice, each language tends to be used with only one or the other. Nonetheless, it is possible to write a compiler for a language that is commonly interpreted. For example, Common Lisp can be compiled to Java bytecode (then interpreted by the Java virtual machine), C code (then compiled to native machine code), or directly to native code.	492	Compiler	0
5,739	# Compiler ## History upright=1.5\\|thumb \\|A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language, multi-target compiler Theoretical computing concepts developed by scientists, mathematicians, and engineers formed the basis of digital modern computing development during World War II. Primitive binary languages evolved because digital devices only understand ones and zeros and the circuit patterns in the underlying machine architecture. In the late 1940s, assembly languages were created to offer a more workable abstraction of the computer architectures. Limited memory capacity of early computers led to substantial technical challenges when the first compilers were designed. Therefore, the compilation process needed to be divided into several small programs. The front end programs produce the analysis products used by the back end programs to generate target code. As computer technology provided more resources, compiler designs could align better with the compilation process. It is usually more productive for a programmer to use a high-level language, so the development of high-level languages followed naturally from the capabilities offered by digital computers. High-level languages are formal languages that are strictly defined by their syntax and semantics which form the high-level language architecture. Elements of these formal languages include: - Alphabet, any finite set of symbols; - String, a finite sequence of symbols; - Language, any set of strings on an alphabet. The sentences in a language may be defined by a set of rules called a grammar. Backus--Naur form (BNF) describes the syntax of \"sentences\" of a language. It was developed by John Backus and used for the syntax of Algol 60. The ideas derive from the context-free grammar concepts by linguist Noam Chomsky. \"BNF and its extensions have become standard tools for describing the syntax of programming notations. In many cases, parts of compilers are generated automatically from a BNF description.\" Between 1942 and 1945, Konrad Zuse designed the first (algorithmic) programming language for computers called \[\[Plankalkül\]\] (\"Plan Calculus\"). Zuse also envisioned a Planfertigungsgerät (\"Plan assembly device\") to automatically translate the mathematical formulation of a program into machine-readable punched film stock. While no actual implementation occurred until the 1970s, it presented concepts later seen in APL designed by Ken Iverson in the late 1950s. APL is a language for mathematical computations. Between 1949 and 1951, Heinz Rutishauser proposed Superplan, a high-level language and automatic translator. His ideas were later refined by Friedrich L. Bauer and Klaus Samelson. High-level language design during the formative years of digital computing provided useful programming tools for a variety of applications: - FORTRAN (Formula Translation) for engineering and science applications is considered to be one of the first actually implemented high-level languages and first optimizing compiler.`{{third-party inline\|date=October 2024}}`{=mediawiki} - COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language) evolved from A-0 and FLOW-MATIC to become the dominant high-level language for business applications. - LISP (List Processor) for symbolic computation. Compiler technology evolved from the need for a strictly defined transformation of the high-level source program into a low-level target program for the digital computer. The compiler could be viewed as a front end to deal with the analysis of the source code and a back end to synthesize the analysis into the target code. Optimization between the front end and back end could produce more efficient target code. Some early milestones in the development of compiler technology: - May 1952: Grace Hopper\'s team at Remington Rand wrote the compiler for the A-0 programming language (and coined the term compiler to describe it), although the A-0 compiler functioned more as a loader or linker than the modern notion of a full compiler. - 1952, before September: An Autocode compiler developed by Alick Glennie for the Manchester Mark I computer at the University of Manchester is considered by some to be the first compiled programming language. - 1954--1957: A team led by John Backus at IBM developed FORTRAN which is usually considered the first high-level language. In 1957, they completed a FORTRAN compiler that is generally credited as having introduced the first unambiguously complete compiler. - 1959: The Conference on Data Systems Language (CODASYL) initiated development of COBOL. The COBOL design drew on A-0 and FLOW-MATIC. By the early 1960s COBOL was compiled on multiple architectures. - 1958--1960: Algol 58 was the precursor to ALGOL 60. It introduced code blocks, a key advance in the rise of structured programming. ALGOL 60 was the first language to implement nested function definitions with lexical scope. It included recursion. Its syntax was defined using BNF. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. Tony Hoare remarked: \"\... it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors.\" - 1958--1962: John McCarthy at MIT designed LISP. The symbol processing capabilities provided useful features for artificial intelligence research. In 1962, LISP 1.5 release noted some tools: an interpreter written by Stephen Russell and Daniel J. Edwards, a compiler and assembler written by Tim Hart and Mike Levin. Early operating systems and software were written in assembly language. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the use of high-level languages for system programming was still controversial due to resource limitations. However, several research and industry efforts began the shift toward high-level systems programming languages, for example, BCPL, BLISS, B, and C. BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) designed in 1966 by Martin Richards at the University of Cambridge was originally developed as a compiler writing tool. Several compilers have been implemented, Richards\' book provides insights to the language and its compiler. BCPL was not only an influential systems programming language that is still used in research but also provided a basis for the design of B and C languages. BLISS (Basic Language for Implementation of System Software) was developed for a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-10 computer by W. A. Wulf\'s Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) research team. The CMU team went on to develop BLISS-11 compiler one year later in 1970. Multics (Multiplexed Information and Computing Service), a time-sharing operating system project, involved MIT, Bell Labs, General Electric (later Honeywell) and was led by Fernando Corbató from MIT. Multics was written in the PL/I language developed by IBM and IBM User Group. IBM\'s goal was to satisfy business, scientific, and systems programming requirements. There were other languages that could have been considered but PL/I offered the most complete solution even though it had not been implemented. For the first few years of the Multics project, a subset of the language could be compiled to assembly language with the Early PL/I (EPL) compiler by Doug McIlory and Bob Morris from Bell Labs. EPL supported the project until a boot-strapping compiler for the full PL/I could be developed. Bell Labs left the Multics project in 1969, and developed a system programming language B based on BCPL concepts, written by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson. Ritchie created a boot-strapping compiler for B and wrote Unics (Uniplexed Information and Computing Service) operating system for a PDP-7 in B. Unics eventually became spelled Unix.	1,150	Compiler	1
5,739	# Compiler ## History Bell Labs started the development and expansion of C based on B and BCPL. The BCPL compiler had been transported to Multics by Bell Labs and BCPL was a preferred language at Bell Labs. Initially, a front-end program to Bell Labs\' B compiler was used while a C compiler was developed. In 1971, a new PDP-11 provided the resource to define extensions to B and rewrite the compiler. By 1973 the design of C language was essentially complete and the Unix kernel for a PDP-11 was rewritten in C. Steve Johnson started development of Portable C Compiler (PCC) to support retargeting of C compilers to new machines. Object-oriented programming (OOP) offered some interesting possibilities for application development and maintenance. OOP concepts go further back but were part of LISP and Simula language science. Bell Labs became interested in OOP with the development of C++. C++ was first used in 1980 for systems programming. The initial design leveraged C language systems programming capabilities with Simula concepts. Object-oriented facilities were added in 1983. The Cfront program implemented a C++ front-end for C84 language compiler. In subsequent years several C++ compilers were developed as C++ popularity grew. In many application domains, the idea of using a higher-level language quickly caught on. Because of the expanding functionality supported by newer programming languages and the increasing complexity of computer architectures, compilers became more complex. DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) sponsored a compiler project with Wulf\'s CMU research team in 1970. The Production Quality Compiler-Compiler PQCC design would produce a Production Quality Compiler (PQC) from formal definitions of source language and the target. PQCC tried to extend the term compiler-compiler beyond the traditional meaning as a parser generator (e.g., Yacc) without much success. PQCC might more properly be referred to as a compiler generator. PQCC research into code generation process sought to build a truly automatic compiler-writing system. The effort discovered and designed the phase structure of the PQC. The BLISS-11 compiler provided the initial structure. The phases included analyses (front end), intermediate translation to virtual machine (middle end), and translation to the target (back end). TCOL was developed for the PQCC research to handle language specific constructs in the intermediate representation. Variations of TCOL supported various languages. The PQCC project investigated techniques of automated compiler construction. The design concepts proved useful in optimizing compilers and compilers for the (since 1995, object-oriented) programming language Ada. The Ada STONEMAN document formalized the program support environment (APSE) along with the kernel (KAPSE) and minimal (MAPSE). An Ada interpreter NYU/ED supported development and standardization efforts with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Initial Ada compiler development by the U.S. Military Services included the compilers in a complete integrated design environment along the lines of the STONEMAN document. Army and Navy worked on the Ada Language System (ALS) project targeted to DEC/VAX architecture while the Air Force started on the Ada Integrated Environment (AIE) targeted to IBM 370 series. While the projects did not provide the desired results, they did contribute to the overall effort on Ada development. Other Ada compiler efforts got underway in Britain at the University of York and in Germany at the University of Karlsruhe. In the U. S., Verdix (later acquired by Rational) delivered the Verdix Ada Development System (VADS) to the Army. VADS provided a set of development tools including a compiler. Unix/VADS could be hosted on a variety of Unix platforms such as DEC Ultrix and the Sun 3/60 Solaris targeted to Motorola 68020 in an Army CECOM evaluation. There were soon many Ada compilers available that passed the Ada Validation tests. The Free Software Foundation GNU project developed the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) which provides a core capability to support multiple languages and targets. The Ada version GNAT is one of the most widely used Ada compilers. GNAT is free but there is also commercial support, for example, AdaCore, was founded in 1994 to provide commercial software solutions for Ada. GNAT Pro includes the GNU GCC based GNAT with a tool suite to provide an integrated development environment. High-level languages continued to drive compiler research and development. Focus areas included optimization and automatic code generation. Trends in programming languages and development environments influenced compiler technology. More compilers became included in language distributions (PERL, Java Development Kit) and as a component of an IDE (VADS, Eclipse, Ada Pro). The interrelationship and interdependence of technologies grew. The advent of web services promoted growth of web languages and scripting languages. Scripts trace back to the early days of Command Line Interfaces (CLI) where the user could enter commands to be executed by the system. User Shell concepts developed with languages to write shell programs. Early Windows designs offered a simple batch programming capability. The conventional transformation of these language used an interpreter. While not widely used, Bash and Batch compilers have been written. More recently sophisticated interpreted languages became part of the developers tool kit. Modern scripting languages include PHP, Python, Ruby and Lua. (Lua is widely used in game development.) All of these have interpreter and compiler support. \"When the field of compiling began in the late 50s, its focus was limited to the translation of high-level language programs into machine code \... The compiler field is increasingly intertwined with other disciplines including computer architecture, programming languages, formal methods, software engineering, and computer security.\" The \"Compiler Research: The Next 50 Years\" article noted the importance of object-oriented languages and Java. Security and parallel computing were cited among the future research targets.	928	Compiler	2
5,739	# Compiler ## Compiler construction {#compiler_construction} A compiler implements a formal transformation from a high-level source program to a low-level target program. Compiler design can define an end-to-end solution or tackle a defined subset that interfaces with other compilation tools e.g. preprocessors, assemblers, linkers. Design requirements include rigorously defined interfaces both internally between compiler components and externally between supporting toolsets. In the early days, the approach taken to compiler design was directly affected by the complexity of the computer language to be processed, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources available. Resource limitations led to the need to pass through the source code more than once. A compiler for a relatively simple language written by one person might be a single, monolithic piece of software. However, as the source language grows in complexity the design may be split into a number of interdependent phases. Separate phases provide design improvements that focus development on the functions in the compilation process. ### One-pass vis-à-vis multi-pass compilers`{{anchor\|Single-pass}}`{=mediawiki} {#one_pass_vis_à_vis_multi_pass_compilers} Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers. Compiling involves performing much work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work. As a result, compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations. The ability to compile in a single pass has classically been seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one-pass compilers generally perform compilations faster than multi-pass compilers. Thus, partly driven by the resource limitations of early systems, many early languages were specifically designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., Pascal). In some cases, the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source. For instance, consider a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source which affects the translation of a statement appearing on line 10. In this case, the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a subsequent pass. The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated optimizations needed to generate high quality code. It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes. For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once. Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers. Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requires less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.	473	Compiler	3
5,739	# Compiler ## Compiler construction {#compiler_construction} ### Three-stage compiler structure {#three_stage_compiler_structure} thumb\\|center\\|upright=2.5\\|Compiler design Regardless of the exact number of phases in the compiler design, the phases can be assigned to one of three stages. The stages include a front end, a middle end, and a back end. - The front end scans the input and verifies syntax and semantics according to a specific source language. For statically typed languages it performs type checking by collecting type information. If the input program is syntactically incorrect or has a type error, it generates error and/or warning messages, usually identifying the location in the source code where the problem was detected; in some cases the actual error may be (much) earlier in the program. Aspects of the front end include lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and semantic analysis. The front end transforms the input program into an intermediate representation (IR) for further processing by the middle end. This IR is usually a lower-level representation of the program with respect to the source code. - The middle end performs optimizations on the IR that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. This source code/machine code independence is intended to enable generic optimizations to be shared between versions of the compiler supporting different languages and target processors. Examples of middle end optimizations are removal of useless (dead-code elimination) or unreachable code (reachability analysis), discovery and propagation of constant values (constant propagation), relocation of computation to a less frequently executed place (e.g., out of a loop), or specialization of computation based on the context, eventually producing the \"optimized\" IR that is used by the back end. - The back end takes the optimized IR from the middle end. It may perform more analysis, transformations and optimizations that are specific for the target CPU architecture. The back end generates the target-dependent assembly code, performing register allocation in the process. The back end performs instruction scheduling, which re-orders instructions to keep parallel execution units busy by filling delay slots. Although most optimization problems are NP-hard, heuristic techniques for solving them are well-developed and implemented in production-quality compilers. Typically the output of a back end is machine code specialized for a particular processor and operating system. This front/middle/back-end approach makes it possible to combine front ends for different languages with back ends for different CPUs while sharing the optimizations of the middle end. Practical examples of this approach are the GNU Compiler Collection, Clang (LLVM-based C/C++ compiler), and the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, which have multiple front-ends, shared optimizations and multiple back-ends. #### Front end {#front_end} The front end analyzes the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the intermediate representation (IR). It also manages the symbol table, a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope. While the frontend can be a single monolithic function or program, as in a scannerless parser, it was traditionally implemented and analyzed as several phases, which may execute sequentially or concurrently. This method is favored due to its modularity and separation of concerns. Most commonly, the frontend is broken into three phases: lexical analysis (also known as lexing or scanning), syntax analysis (also known as scanning or parsing), and semantic analysis. Lexing and parsing comprise the syntactic analysis (word syntax and phrase syntax, respectively), and in simple cases, these modules (the lexer and parser) can be automatically generated from a grammar for the language, though in more complex cases these require manual modification. The lexical grammar and phrase grammar are usually context-free grammars, which simplifies analysis significantly, with context-sensitivity handled at the semantic analysis phase. The semantic analysis phase is generally more complex and written by hand, but can be partially or fully automated using attribute grammars. These phases themselves can be further broken down: lexing as scanning and evaluating, and parsing as building a concrete syntax tree (CST, parse tree) and then transforming it into an abstract syntax tree (AST, syntax tree). In some cases additional phases are used, notably line reconstruction and preprocessing, but these are rare. The main phases of the front end include the following: - `{{visible anchor\|Line reconstruction}}`{=mediawiki} converts the input character sequence to a canonical form ready for the parser. Languages which strop their keywords or allow arbitrary spaces within identifiers require this phase. The top-down, recursive-descent, table-driven parsers used in the 1960s typically read the source one character at a time and did not require a separate tokenizing phase. Atlas Autocode and Imp (and some implementations of ALGOL and Coral 66) are examples of stropped languages whose compilers would have a Line Reconstruction phase. - Preprocessing supports macro substitution and conditional compilation. Typically the preprocessing phase occurs before syntactic or semantic analysis; e.g. in the case of C, the preprocessor manipulates lexical tokens rather than syntactic forms. However, some languages such as Scheme support macro substitutions based on syntactic forms. - Lexical analysis (also known as lexing or tokenization) breaks the source code text into a sequence of small pieces called lexical tokens. This phase can be divided into two stages: the scanning, which segments the input text into syntactic units called lexemes and assigns them a category; and the evaluating, which converts lexemes into a processed value. A token is a pair consisting of a token name and an optional token value. Common token categories may include identifiers, keywords, separators, operators, literals and comments, although the set of token categories varies in different programming languages. The lexeme syntax is typically a regular language, so a finite-state automaton constructed from a regular expression can be used to recognize it. The software doing lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer. This may not be a separate step---it can be combined with the parsing step in scannerless parsing, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level. - Syntax analysis (also known as parsing) involves parsing the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program. This phase typically builds a parse tree, which replaces the linear sequence of tokens with a tree structure built according to the rules of a formal grammar which define the language\'s syntax. The parse tree is often analyzed, augmented, and transformed by later phases in the compiler. - Semantic analysis adds semantic information to the parse tree and builds the symbol table. This phase performs semantic checks such as type checking (checking for type errors), or object binding (associating variable and function references with their definitions), or definite assignment (requiring all local variables to be initialized before use), rejecting incorrect programs or issuing warnings. Semantic analysis usually requires a complete parse tree, meaning that this phase logically follows the parsing phase, and logically precedes the code generation phase, though it is often possible to fold multiple phases into one pass over the code in a compiler implementation. #### Middle end {#middle_end} The middle end, also known as optimizer, performs optimizations on the intermediate representation in order to improve the performance and the quality of the produced machine code. The middle end contains those optimizations that are independent of the CPU architecture being targeted. The main phases of the middle end include the following: - Analysis: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate representation derived from the input; data-flow analysis is used to build use-define chains, together with dependence analysis, alias analysis, pointer analysis, escape analysis, etc. Accurate analysis is the basis for any compiler optimization. The control-flow graph of every compiled function and the call graph of the program are usually also built during the analysis phase. - Optimization: the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are inline expansion, dead-code elimination, constant propagation, loop transformation and even automatic parallelization. Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization, and they tightly work together. For example, dependence analysis is crucial for loop transformation. The scope of compiler analysis and optimizations vary greatly; their scope may range from operating within a basic block, to whole procedures, or even the whole program. There is a trade-off between the granularity of the optimizations and the cost of compilation. For example, peephole optimizations are fast to perform during compilation but only affect a small local fragment of the code, and can be performed independently of the context in which the code fragment appears. In contrast, interprocedural optimization requires more compilation time and memory space, but enable optimizations that are only possible by considering the behavior of multiple functions simultaneously. Interprocedural analysis and optimizations are common in modern commercial compilers from HP, IBM, SGI, Intel, Microsoft, and Sun Microsystems. The free software GCC was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is Open64, which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes. Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimizations, some compilers skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.	1,523	Compiler	4
5,739	# Compiler ## Compiler construction {#compiler_construction} ### Three-stage compiler structure {#three_stage_compiler_structure} #### Back end {#back_end} The back end is responsible for the CPU architecture specific optimizations and for code generation. The main phases of the back end include the following: - Machine dependent optimizations: optimizations that depend on the details of the CPU architecture that the compiler targets. A prominent example is peephole optimizations, which rewrites short sequences of assembler instructions into more efficient instructions. - Code generation: the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native machine language of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated addressing modes (see also Sethi--Ullman algorithm). Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate debugging. ### Compiler correctness {#compiler_correctness} Compiler correctness is the branch of software engineering that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its language specification. Techniques include developing the compiler using formal methods and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler.	190	Compiler	5
5,739	# Compiler ## Compiled vis-à-vis interpreted languages {#compiled_vis_à_vis_interpreted_languages} Higher-level programming languages usually appear with a type of translation in mind: either designed as compiled language or interpreted language. However, in practice there is rarely anything about a language that requires it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted, although it is possible to design languages that rely on re-interpretation at run time. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language -- for instance, BASIC is sometimes called an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters. Interpretation does not replace compilation completely. It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see machine language). Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques. For example, where an expression can be executed during compilation and the results inserted into the output program, then it prevents it having to be recalculated each time the program runs, which can greatly speed up the final program. Modern trends toward just-in-time compilation and bytecode interpretation at times blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters even further. Some language specifications spell out that implementations must include a compilation facility; for example, Common Lisp. However, there is nothing inherent in the definition of Common Lisp that stops it from being interpreted. Other languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, APL, SNOBOL4, and many scripting languages allow programs to construct arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then execute that code by passing it to a special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime library that includes a version of the compiler itself.	332	Compiler	6
5,739	# Compiler ## Types One classification of compilers is by the platform on which their generated code executes. This is known as the target platform. A native or hosted compiler is one whose output is intended to directly run on the same type of computer and operating system that the compiler itself runs on. The output of a cross compiler is designed to run on a different platform. Cross compilers are often used when developing software for embedded systems that are not intended to support a software development environment. The output of a compiler that produces code for a virtual machine (VM) may or may not be executed on the same platform as the compiler that produced it. For this reason, such compilers are not usually classified as native or cross compilers. The lower level language that is the target of a compiler may itself be a high-level programming language. C, viewed by some as a sort of portable assembly language, is frequently the target language of such compilers. For example, Cfront, the original compiler for C++, used C as its target language. The C code generated by such a compiler is usually not intended to be readable and maintained by humans, so indent style and creating pretty C intermediate code are ignored. Some of the features of C that make it a good target language include the `#line` directive, which can be generated by the compiler to support debugging of the original source, and the wide platform support available with C compilers. While a common compiler type outputs machine code, there are many other types: - Source-to-source compilers are a type of compiler that takes a high-level language as its input and outputs a high-level language. For example, an automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high-level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g. OpenMP) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran\'s `DOALL` statements). Other terms for a source-to-source compiler are transcompiler or transpiler. - Bytecode compilers compile to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some Prolog implementations - This Prolog machine is also known as the Warren Abstract Machine (or WAM). - Bytecode compilers for Java, Python are also examples of this category. - Just-in-time compilers (JIT compiler) defer compilation until runtime. JIT compilers exist for many modern languages including Python, JavaScript, Smalltalk, Java, Microsoft .NET\'s Common Intermediate Language (CIL) and others. A JIT compiler generally runs inside an interpreter. When the interpreter detects that a code path is \"hot\", meaning it is executed frequently, the JIT compiler will be invoked and compile the \"hot\" code for increased performance. - For some languages, such as Java, applications are first compiled using a bytecode compiler and delivered in a machine-independent intermediate representation. A bytecode interpreter executes the bytecode, but the JIT compiler will translate the bytecode to machine code when increased performance is necessary.`{{primary source inline\|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} - Hardware compilers (also known as synthesis tools) are compilers whose input is a hardware description language and whose output is a description, in the form of a netlist or otherwise, of a hardware configuration. - The output of these compilers target computer hardware at a very low level, for example a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) or structured application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).`{{primary source inline\|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Such compilers are said to be hardware compilers, because the source code they compile effectively controls the final configuration of the hardware and how it operates. The output of the compilation is only an interconnection of transistors or lookup tables. - An example of hardware compiler is XST, the Xilinx Synthesis Tool used for configuring FPGAs.`{{primary source inline\|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Similar tools are available from Altera,`{{primary source inline\|date=March 2017}}`{=mediawiki} Synplicity, Synopsys and other hardware vendors. - Research systems compile subsets of high level serial languages, such as Python or C++, directly into parallelized digital logic. This is typically easier to do for functional languages or functional subsets of multi-paradigm languages. - A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. - A program that translates into an object code format that is not supported on the compilation machine is called a cross compiler and is commonly used to prepare code for execution on embedded software applications.`{{better source needed\|date=March 2023}}`{=mediawiki} - A program that rewrites object code back into the same type of object code while applying optimisations and transformations is a binary recompiler. Assemblers, which translate human readable assembly language to the machine code instructions executed by hardware, are not considered compilers. (The inverse program that translates machine code to assembly language is called a disassembler	776	Compiler	7
5,743	# Counting-out game A counting-out game or counting-out rhyme is a simple method of \'randomly\' selecting a person from a group, often used by children for the purpose of playing another game. It usually requires no materials, and is achieved with spoken words or hand gestures. The historian Henry Carrington Bolton suggested in his 1888 book Counting Out Rhymes of Children that the custom of counting out originated in the \"superstitious practices of divination by lots.\" Many such methods involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a rhyme. A new person is pointed at as each word is said. The player who is selected at the conclusion of the rhyme is \"it\" or \"out\". In an alternate version, the circle of players may each put two feet in and at the conclusion of the rhyme, that player removes one foot and the rhyme starts over with the next person. In this case, the first player that has both feet removed is \"it\" or \"out\". In theory the result of a counting rhyme is determined entirely by the starting selection (and would result in a modulo operation), but in practice they are often accepted as random selections because the number of words has not been calculated beforehand, so the result is unknown until someone is selected. A variant of counting-out game, known as the Josephus problem, represents a famous theoretical problem in mathematics and computer science. ## Examples Several simple games can be played to select one person from a group, either as a straightforward winner, or as someone who is eliminated. Rock, Paper, Scissors, Odd or Even and Blue Shoe require no materials and are played using hand gestures, although with the former it is possible for a player to win or lose through skill rather than luck. Coin flipping and drawing straws are fair methods of randomly determining a player. Fizz Buzz is a spoken word game where if a player slips up and speaks a word out of sequence, they are eliminated. ### Common rhymes {#common_rhymes} (These rhymes may have many local or regional variants	354	Counting-out game	0
5,759	# Complex analysis Complexity theory}} `{{More footnotes\|date=March 2021}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Complex analysis sidebar}}`{=mediawiki} Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions of complex numbers. It is helpful in many branches of mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, analytic combinatorics, and applied mathematics, as well as in physics, including the branches of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, and twistor theory. By extension, use of complex analysis also has applications in engineering fields such as nuclear, aerospace, mechanical and electrical engineering. As a differentiable function of a complex variable is equal to the sum function given by its Taylor series (that is, it is analytic), complex analysis is particularly concerned with analytic functions of a complex variable, that is, holomorphic functions. The concept can be extended to functions of several complex variables. Complex analysis is contrasted with real analysis, which deals with the study of real numbers and functions of a real variable. ## History Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics, with roots in the 18th century and just prior. Important mathematicians associated with complex numbers include Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and many more in the 20th century. Complex analysis, in particular the theory of conformal mappings, has many physical applications and is also used throughout analytic number theory. In modern times, it has become very popular through a new boost from complex dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions. Another important application of complex analysis is in string theory which examines conformal invariants in quantum field theory.	266	Complex analysis	0
5,759	# Complex analysis ## Complex functions {#complex_functions} A complex function is a function from complex numbers to complex numbers. In other words, it is a function that has a (not necessarily proper) subset of the complex numbers as a domain and the complex numbers as a codomain. Complex functions are generally assumed to have a domain that contains a nonempty open subset of the complex plane. For any complex function, the values $z$ from the domain and their images $f(z)$ in the range may be separated into real and imaginary parts: : $z=x+iy \quad \text{ and } \quad f(z) = f(x+iy)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y),$ where $x,y,u(x,y),v(x,y)$ are all real-valued. In other words, a complex function $f:\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}$ may be decomposed into : $u:\mathbb{R}^2\to\mathbb{R} \quad$ and $\quad v:\mathbb{R}^2\to\mathbb{R},$ i.e., into two real-valued functions ($u$, $v$) of two real variables ($x$, $y$). Similarly, any complex-valued function `{{mvar\|f}}`{=mediawiki} on an arbitrary set `{{mvar\|X}}`{=mediawiki} (is isomorphic to, and therefore, in that sense, it) can be considered as an ordered pair of two real-valued functions: `{{math\|(Re ''f'', Im ''f'')}}`{=mediawiki} or, alternatively, as a vector-valued function from `{{mvar\|X}}`{=mediawiki} into $\mathbb R^2.$ Some properties of complex-valued functions (such as continuity) are nothing more than the corresponding properties of vector valued functions of two real variables. Other concepts of complex analysis, such as differentiability, are direct generalizations of the similar concepts for real functions, but may have very different properties. In particular, every differentiable complex function is analytic (see next section), and two differentiable functions that are equal in a neighborhood of a point are equal on the intersection of their domain (if the domains are connected). The latter property is the basis of the principle of analytic continuation which allows extending every real analytic function in a unique way for getting a complex analytic function whose domain is the whole complex plane with a finite number of curve arcs removed. Many basic and special complex functions are defined in this way, including the complex exponential function, complex logarithm functions, and trigonometric functions.	331	Complex analysis	1
5,759	# Complex analysis ## Holomorphic functions {#holomorphic_functions} Complex functions that are differentiable at every point of an open subset $\Omega$ of the complex plane are said to be holomorphic on `{{nowrap\|<math>\Omega</math>.}}`{=mediawiki} In the context of complex analysis, the derivative of $f$ at $z_0$ is defined to be : $f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \to z_0} \frac{f(z)-f(z_0)}{z-z_0}.$ Superficially, this definition is formally analogous to that of the derivative of a real function. However, complex derivatives and differentiable functions behave in significantly different ways compared to their real counterparts. In particular, for this limit to exist, the value of the difference quotient must approach the same complex number, regardless of the manner in which we approach $z_0$ in the complex plane. Consequently, complex differentiability has much stronger implications than real differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, whereas the existence of the nth derivative need not imply the existence of the (n + 1)th derivative for real functions. Furthermore, all holomorphic functions satisfy the stronger condition of analyticity, meaning that the function is, at every point in its domain, locally given by a convergent power series. In essence, this means that functions holomorphic on $\Omega$ can be approximated arbitrarily well by polynomials in some neighborhood of every point in $\Omega$. This stands in sharp contrast to differentiable real functions; there are infinitely differentiable real functions that are nowhere analytic; see `{{slink\|Non-analytic smooth function\|A smooth function which is nowhere real analytic}}`{=mediawiki}. Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions `{{nowrap\|<math>\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them entire functions, while rational functions $p/q$, where p and q are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where q is zero. Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as meromorphic functions. On the other hand, the functions `{{nowrap\|<math>z\mapsto \Re(z)</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap\|<math>z\mapsto \|z\|</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} and $z\mapsto \bar{z}$ are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy--Riemann conditions (see below). An important property of holomorphic functions is the relationship between the partial derivatives of their real and imaginary components, known as the Cauchy--Riemann conditions. If $f:\mathbb{C}\to\mathbb{C}$, defined by `{{nowrap\|<math>f(z) = f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} where `{{nowrap\|<math>x, y, u(x, y),v(x, y) \in \R</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} is holomorphic on a region `{{nowrap\|<math>\Omega</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} then for all $z_0\in \Omega$, $$\frac{\partial f}{\partial\bar{z}}(z_0) = 0,\ \text{where } \frac\partial{\partial\bar{z}} \mathrel{:=} \frac12\left(\frac\partial{\partial x} + i\frac\partial{\partial y}\right).$$ In terms of the real and imaginary parts of the function, u and v, this is equivalent to the pair of equations $u_x = v_y$ and $u_y=-v_x$, where the subscripts indicate partial differentiation. However, the Cauchy--Riemann conditions do not characterize holomorphic functions, without additional continuity conditions (see Looman--Menchoff theorem). Holomorphic functions exhibit some remarkable features. For instance, Picard\'s theorem asserts that the range of an entire function can take only three possible forms: `{{nowrap\|<math>\mathbb{C}</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} `{{nowrap\|<math>\mathbb{C}\setminus\{z_0\}</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} or $\{z_0\}$ for some `{{nowrap\|<math>z_0\in\mathbb{C}</math>.}}`{=mediawiki} In other words, if two distinct complex numbers $z$ and $w$ are not in the range of an entire function `{{nowrap\|<math>f</math>,}}`{=mediawiki} then $f$ is a constant function. Moreover, a holomorphic function on a connected open set is determined by its restriction to any nonempty open subset. ## Conformal map {#conformal_map}	544	Complex analysis	2
5,759	# Complex analysis ## Major results {#major_results} One of the central tools in complex analysis is the line integral. The line integral around a closed path of a function that is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero, as is stated by the Cauchy integral theorem. The values of such a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a path integral on the disk\'s boundary (as shown in Cauchy\'s integral formula). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of residues among others is applicable (see methods of contour integration). A \"pole\" (or isolated singularity) of a function is a point where the function\'s value becomes unbounded, or \"blows up\". If a function has such a pole, then one can compute the function\'s residue there, which can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful residue theorem. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by Picard\'s theorem. Functions that have only poles but no essential singularities are called meromorphic. Laurent series are the complex-valued equivalent to Taylor series, but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities through infinite sums of more well understood functions, such as polynomials. A bounded function that is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is Liouville\'s theorem. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. If a function is holomorphic throughout a connected domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain. The function on the larger domain is said to be analytically continued from its values on the smaller domain. This allows the extension of the definition of functions, such as the Riemann zeta function, which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane. Sometimes, as in the case of the natural logarithm, it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a Riemann surface. All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of complex analysis in more than one complex dimension in which the analytic properties such as power series expansion carry over whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as conformality) do not carry over. The Riemann mapping theorem about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, which may be the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions. A major application of certain complex spaces is in quantum mechanics as wave functions	494	Complex analysis	3
5,776	# Caving Caving, also known as spelunking (United States and Canada) and potholing (United Kingdom and Ireland), is the recreational pastime of exploring wild cave systems (as distinguished from show caves). In contrast, speleology is the scientific study of caves and the cave environment. The challenges involved in caving vary according to the cave being visited; in addition to the total absence of light beyond the entrance, negotiating pitches, squeezes, and water hazards can be difficult. Cave diving is a distinct, and more hazardous, sub-speciality undertaken by a small minority of technically proficient cavers. In an area of overlap between recreational pursuit and scientific study, the most devoted and serious-minded cavers become accomplished at the surveying and mapping of caves and the formal publication of their efforts. These are usually published freely and publicly, especially in the UK and other European countries, although in the US they are generally more private. Although caving is sometimes categorized as an \"extreme sport,\" cavers do not commonly use this terminology and typically dislike the term being used in reference to caving, as it implies a disregard for safety. Though caving is a fairly safe sport compared to other activities that are sometimes classified as \"extreme sports\", incidents do occur. These tend to be related to flooding, hypothermia, rock falls, caver falls, SRT accidents, or some combination of these. Many caving skills overlap with those involved in canyoning and mine and urban exploration. ## Motivation Caving is often undertaken for the enjoyment of the outdoor activity or for physical exercise, as well as original exploration, similar to mountaineering or diving. Physical or biological science is also an important goal for some cavers, while others are engaged in cave photography. Virgin cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on Earth and much effort is put into trying to locate, enter and survey them. In well-explored regions (such as most developed nations), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining access to new caves often requires cave digging or cave diving. Caving, in certain areas, has also been utilized as a form of eco and adventure tourism, for example in New Zealand. Tour companies have established an industry leading and guiding tours into and through caves. Depending on the type of cave and the type of tour, the experience could be adventure-based or ecological-based. There are tours led through lava tubes by a guiding service (e.g. Lava River Cave, the oceanic islands of Tenerife, [Iceland](http://cave.is/caves-in-iceland/leidarendi-cave/) and [Hawaii](https://web.archive.org/web/20080218044937/http://www.nps.gov/havo/planyourvisit/craterrimtour_tube.htm)). Caving has also been described as an \"individualist\'s team sport\" by some, as cavers can often make a trip without direct physical assistance from others but will generally go in a group for companionship or to provide emergency help if needed. Some however consider the assistance cavers give each other as a typical team sport activity. ## Etymology The term potholing refers to the act of exploring potholes, a word originating in the north of England for predominantly vertical caves. Clay Perry, an American caver of the 1940s, wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout New England. This group referred to themselves as spelunkers, a term derived from the Latin spēlunca (\"cave, cavern, den\"). This is regarded as the first use of the word in the Americas. Throughout the 1950s, spelunking was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US. In the 1960s, the terms spelunking and spelunker began to be considered déclassé among experienced enthusiasts. In 1985, Steve Knutson -- editor of the National Speleological Society (NSS) publication American Caving Accidents -- made the following distinction: This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and T-shirts displayed by some cavers: \"Cavers rescue spelunkers\". Nevertheless, outside the caving community, \"spelunking\" and \"spelunkers\" predominately remain neutral terms referring to the practice and practitioners, without any respect to skill level.	657	Caving	0
5,776	# Caving ## History In the mid-19th century, John Birkbeck explored potholes in England, notably Gaping Gill in 1842 and Alum Pot in 1847--8, returning there in the 1870s. In the mid-1880s, Herbert E. Balch began exploring Wookey Hole Caves and in the 1890s, Balch was introduced to the caves of the Mendip Hills. One of the oldest established caving clubs, Yorkshire Ramblers\' Club, was founded in 1892. Caving as a specialized pursuit was pioneered by Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859--1938), who first achieved the descent and exploration of the Gouffre de Padirac, in France, as early as 1889 and the first complete descent of a 110-metre wet vertical shaft at Gaping Gill in 1895. He developed his own techniques based on ropes and metallic ladders. Martel visited Kentucky and notably Mammoth Cave National Park in October 1912. In the 1920s famous US caver Floyd Collins made important explorations in the area and in the 1930s, as caving became increasingly popular, small exploration teams both in the Alps and in the karstic high plateaus of southwest France (Causses and Pyrenees) transformed cave exploration into both a scientific and recreational activity. Robert de Joly, Guy de Lavaur and Norbert Casteret were prominent figures of that time, surveying mostly caves in Southwest France. During World War II, an alpine team composed of Pierre Chevalier, Fernand Petzl, Charles Petit-Didier and others explored the Dent de Crolles cave system near Grenoble, which became the deepest explored system in the world (-658m) at that time. The lack of available equipment during the war forced Pierre Chevalier and the rest of the team to develop their own equipment, leading to technical innovation. The scaling-pole (1940), nylon ropes (1942), use of explosives in caves (1947) and mechanical rope-ascenders (Henri Brenot\'s \"monkeys\", first used by Chevalier and Brenot in a cave in 1934) can be directly associated to the exploration of the Dent de Crolles cave system. In 1941, American cavers organized themselves into the National Speleological Society (NSS) to advance the exploration, conservation, study and understanding of caves in the United States. American caver Bill Cuddington, known as \"Vertical Bill\", further developed the single-rope technique (SRT) in the late 1950s. In 1958, two Swiss alpinists, Juesi and Marti teamed together, creating the first rope ascender known as the Jumar. In 1968 Bruno Dressler asked Fernand Petzl, who worked as a metals machinist, to build a rope-ascending tool, today known as the Petzl Croll, that he had developed by adapting the Jumar to vertical caving. Pursuing these developments, Petzl started in the 1970s a caving equipment manufacturing company named Petzl. The development of the rappel rack and the evolution of mechanical ascension systems extended the practice and safety of vertical exploration to a wider range of cavers.	457	Caving	1
5,776	# Caving ## Practice and equipment {#practice_and_equipment} Hard hats are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver\'s primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric LED lights are most common. Many cavers carry two or more sources of light -- one as primary and the others as backup in case the first fails. More often than not, a second light will be mounted to the helmet for quick transition if the primary fails. Carbide lamp systems are an older form of illumination, inspired by miner\'s equipment, and are still used by some cavers, particularly on remote expeditions where electric charging facilities are not available. The type of clothes worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored, and the local culture. In cold caves, the caver may wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a fleece (\"furry\") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., cordura) or waterproof (e.g., PVC) material. Lighter clothing may be worn in warm caves, particularly if the cave is dry, and in tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide some abrasion protection while remaining as cool as possible. Wetsuits may be worn if the cave is particularly wet or involves stream passages. On the feet boots are worn -- hiking-style boots in drier caves, or rubber boots (such as wellies) often with neoprene socks (\"wetsocks\") in wetter caves. Knee-pads (and sometimes elbow-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Depending on the nature of the cave, gloves are sometimes worn to protect the hands against abrasion or cold. In pristine areas and for restoration, clean oversuits and powder-free, non-latex surgical gloves are used to protect the cave itself from contaminants. Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (single rope technique or SRT) or for protection. Knots commonly used in caving are the figure-of-eight- (or figure-of-nine-) loop, bowline, alpine butterfly, and Italian hitch. Ropes are usually rigged using bolts, slings, and carabiners. In some cases cavers may choose to bring and use a flexible metal ladder. In addition to the equipment already described, cavers frequently carry packs containing first-aid kits, emergency equipment, and food. Containers for securely transporting urine are also commonly carried. On longer trips, containers for securely transporting feces out of the cave are carried. During very long trips, it may be necessary to camp in the cave -- some cavers have stayed underground for many days, or in particularly extreme cases, for weeks at a time. This is particularly the case when exploring or mapping extensive cave systems, where it would be impractical to retrace the route back to the surface regularly. Such long trips necessitate the cavers carrying provisions, sleeping, and cooking equipment.	470	Caving	2
5,776	# Caving ## Safety `{{See also\|Cave rescue}}`{=mediawiki} Caves can be dangerous places; hypothermia, falling, flooding, falling rocks and physical exhaustion are the main risks. Rescuing people from underground is difficult and time-consuming, and requires special skills, training, and equipment. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers (often other long-time cavers who have participated in specialized courses, as normal rescue staff are not sufficiently experienced in cave environments), who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue. This said, caving is not necessarily a high-risk sport (especially if it does not involve difficult climbs or diving). As in all physical sports, knowing one\'s limitations is key. Caving in warmer climates carries the risk of contracting histoplasmosis, a fungal infection that is contracted from bird or bat droppings. It can cause pneumonia and can disseminate in the body to cause continued infections. In many parts of the world, leptospirosis, a type of bacterial infection spread by animals including rats, is a distinct threat. The presence of rat urine in rainwater or precipitation that enters the cave\'s water system is the primary vector of infection. Complications are uncommon, but can be serious. These safety risks while caving can be minimized by using a number of techniques: - Checking that there is no danger of flooding during the expedition. Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly, trapping people in cut-off passages and drowning them. In the UK, drowning accounts for almost half of all caving fatalities (see List of UK caving fatalities). - Using teams of several cavers, preferably at least four. If an injury occurs, one caver stays with the injured person while the other two go out for help, providing assistance to each other on their way out. - Notifying people outside the cave as to the intended return time. After an appropriate delay without a return, these will then organize a search party (usually made up by other cavers trained in cave rescues, as even professional emergency personnel are unlikely to have the skills to effect a rescue in difficult conditions). - Use of helmet-mounted lights (hands-free) with extra batteries. American cavers recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice among European cavers. - Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a helmet, are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which dry quickly, shed water, and are warm when wet, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed. In watery cave passages, polypropylene thermal underwear or wetsuits may be required to avoid hypothermia. - Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers can become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorize the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or \"cairns\" of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection. - Vertical caving uses ladders or single rope technique (SRT) to avoid the need for climbing passages that are too difficult. SRT is a complex skill and requires proper training and well-maintained equipment. Some drops that are abseiled down may be as deep as several hundred meters (for example Harwoods Hole).	624	Caving	3
5,776	# Caving ## Cave conservation {#cave_conservation} Many cave environments are very fragile. Many speleothems can be damaged by even the slightest touch and some by impacts as slight as a breath. Research suggests that increased carbon dioxide levels can lead to \"a higher equilibrium concentration of calcium within the drip waters feeding the speleothems, and hence causes dissolution of existing features.\" In 2008, researchers found evidence that respiration from cave visitors may generate elevated carbon dioxide concentrations in caves, leading to increased temperatures of up to 3 °C and a dissolution of existing features. Pollution is also of concern. Since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution may ultimately end up in someone\'s drinking water, and can even seriously affect the surface environment, as well. Even minor pollution such as dropping organic material can have a dramatic effect on the cave biota. Cave-dwelling species are also very fragile. Often, a particular species found in a cave may live within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world; an example is the Alabama cave shrimp. Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species\' life cycles. Though cave wildlife may not always be immediately visible, it is typically nonetheless present in most caves. Bats are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Bats which hibernate are most vulnerable during the winter season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat\'s store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. Bats which migrate are most sensitive during the summer months when they are raising their young. For these reasons, visiting caves inhabited by hibernating bats is discouraged during cold months; and visiting caves inhabited by migratory bats is discouraged during the warmer months when they are most sensitive and vulnerable. Due to an affliction affecting bats in the northeastern US known as white nose syndrome (WNS), the US Fish & Wildlife Service has called for a moratorium effective March 26, 2009, on caving activity in states known to have hibernacula (MD, NY, VT, NH, MA, CT, NJ, PA, VA, and WV) affected by WNS, as well as adjoining states. Some cave passages may be marked with flagging tape or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Marked paths may show ways around notably fragile areas such as a pristine floor of sand or silt which may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may easily be spoiled forever by a single misplaced step. Active formations such as flowstone can be similarly marred with a muddy footprint or handprint, and ancient human artifacts, such as fiber products, may even crumble to dust under all but the most gentle touch. In 1988, concerned that cave resources were becoming increasingly damaged through unregulated use, Congress enacted the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act, giving land management agencies in the United States expanded authority to manage cave conservation on public land.	514	Caving	4
5,776	# Caving ## Caving organizations {#caving_organizations} Cavers in many countries have created organizations for the administration and oversight of caving activities within their nations. The oldest of these is the French Federation of Speleology (originally Société de spéléologie) founded by Édouard-Alfred Martel in 1895, which produced the first periodical journal in speleology, Spelunca. The first University-based speleological institute in the world was founded in 1920 in Cluj-Napoca, Romania, by Emil Racovita, a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica. The British Speleological Association was established in 1935. In the United States, the National Speleological Society in the US was founded in 1941; however, it was originally formed as the Speleological Society of the District of Columbia on May 6, 1939. An international speleological congress was proposed at a meeting in Valence-sur-Rhone, France in 1949 and first held in 1953 in Paris. The International Union of Speleology (UIS) was founded in 1965	152	Caving	5
5,785	# Crime In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition, though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state (\"a public wrong\"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law. The notion that acts such as murder, rape, and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is a criminal offence is defined by the criminal law of each relevant jurisdiction. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, in some common law nations no such comprehensive statute exists. The state (government) has the power to severely restrict one\'s liberty for committing certain crimes. In most modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere. If found guilty, an offender may be sentenced to a form of reparation such as a community sentence, or, depending on the nature of their offence, to undergo imprisonment, life imprisonment or, in some jurisdictions, death. Usually, to be classified as a crime, the \"act of doing something criminal\" (actus reus) must`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}with certain exceptions`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}be accompanied by the \"intention to do something criminal\" (mens rea). While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime. Breaches of private law (torts and breaches of contract) are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure.	299	Crime	0
5,785	# Crime ## Definition The exact definition of crime is a philosophical issue without an agreed upon answer. Fields such as law, politics, sociology, and psychology define crime in different ways. Crimes may be variously considered as wrongs against individuals, against the community, or against the state. The criminality of an action is dependent on its context; acts of violence will be seen as crimes in many circumstances but as permissible or desirable in others. Crime was historically seen as a manifestation of evil, but this has been superseded by modern criminal theories. ### Legalism Legal and political definitions of crime consider actions that are banned by authorities or punishable by law. Crime is defined by the criminal law of a given jurisdiction, including all actions that are subject to criminal procedure. There is no limit to what can be considered a crime in a legal system, so there may not be a unifying principle used to determine whether an action should be designated as a crime. From a legal perspective, crimes are generally wrong actions that are severe enough to warrant punishment that infringes on the perpetrator\'s liberties. English criminal law and the related common law of Commonwealth countries can define offences that the courts alone have developed over the years, without any actual legislation: common law offences. The courts used the concept of malum in se to develop various common law offences. ### Sociology As a sociological concept, crime is associated with actions that cause harm and violate social norms. Under this definition, crime is a type of social construct, and societal attitudes determine what is considered criminal. In legal systems based on legal moralism, the predominant moral beliefs of society determine the legal definition as well as the social definition of crime. This system is less prominent in liberal democratic societies that prioritize individualism and multiculturalism over other moral beliefs. Paternalism defines crime not only as harm to others or to society, but also as harm to the self. ### Psychology Psychological definitions consider the state of mind of perpetrators and their relationship with their environment.	349	Crime	1
5,785	# Crime ## History ### Early history {#early_history} Restrictions on behavior existed in all prehistoric societies. Crime in early human society was seen as a personal transgression and was addressed by the community as a whole rather than through a formal legal system, often through the use of custom, religion, or the rule of a tribal leader. Some of the oldest extant writings are ancient criminal codes. The earliest known criminal code was the Code of Ur-Nammu (`{{c.\|lk=no\|2100\|2050 BC}}`{=mediawiki}), and the first known criminal code that incorporated retaliatory justice was the Code of Hammurabi. The latter influenced the conception of crime across several civilizations over the following millennia. The Romans systematized law and applied their system across the Roman Empire. The initial rules of Roman law regarded assaults as a matter of private compensation. The most significant Roman law concept involved dominion. Most acts recognized as crimes in ancient societies, such as violence and theft, have persisted to the modern era. The criminal justice system of Imperial China existed unbroken for over 2,000 years. Many of the earliest conceptions of crime are associated with sin and corresponded to acts that were believed to invoke the anger of a deity. This idea was further popularized with the development of the Abrahamic religions. The understanding of crime and sin were closely associated with one another for much of history, and conceptions of crime took on many of the ideas associated with sin. Islamic law developed its own system of criminal justice as Islam spread in the seventh and eighth centuries. ### Post-classical era {#post_classical_era} In post-classical Europe and East Asia, central government was limited and crime was defined locally. Towns established their own criminal justice systems, while crime in the countryside was defined by the social hierarchies of feudalism. In some places, such as the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Italy, feudal justice survived into the 19th century. Common law first developed in England under the rule of Henry II in the 12th century. He established a system of traveling judges that tried accused criminals in each region of England by applying precedent from previous rulings. Legal developments in 12th century England also resulted in the earliest known recording of official crime data. ### Modern era {#modern_era} In the modern era, crime came to be seen as an issue affecting society rather than conflicts between individuals. Writers such as Thomas Hobbes saw crime as a societal issue as early as the 17th century. Imprisonment developed as a long-term penalty for crime in the 18th century. Increasing urbanization and industrialization in the 19th century caused crime to become an immediate issue that affected society, prompting government intervention in crime and the establishment of criminology as its own field. Anthropological criminology was popularized by Cesare Lombroso in the late-19th century. This was a biological determinist school of thought based in social darwinism, arguing that certain people are naturally born as criminals. The eugenics movement of the early-20th century similarly held that crime was caused primarily by genetic factors. The concept of crime underwent a period of change as modernism was widely accepted in the years following World War II. Crime increasingly came to be seen as a societal issue, and criminal law was seen as a means to protect the public from antisocial behavior. This idea was associated with a larger trend in the western world toward social democracy and centre-left politics. Through most of history, reporting of crime was generally local. The advent of mass media through radio and television in the mid-20th century allowed for the sensationalism of crime. This created well-known stories of criminals such as Jeffrey Dahmer, and it allowed for dramatization that perpetuates misconceptions about crime. Forensic science was popularized in the 1980s, establishing DNA profiling as a new method to prevent and analyze crime.	637	Crime	2
5,785	# Crime ## Criminal law {#criminal_law} Virtually all countries in the 21st century have criminal law grounded in civil law, common law, Islamic law, or socialist law. Historically, criminal codes have often divided criminals by class or caste, prescribing different penalties depending on status. In some tribal societies, an entire clan is recognized as liable for a crime. In many cases, disputes over a crime in this system lead to a feud that lasts over several generations. ### Criminalization The state determines what actions are considered criminal in the scope of the law. Criminalization has significant human rights considerations, as it can infringe on rights of autonomy and subject individuals to unjust punishment. ### Law enforcement {#law_enforcement} The enforcement of criminal law seeks to prevent crime and sanction crimes that do occur. This enforcement is carried out by the state through law enforcement agencies, such as police, which are empowered to arrest suspected perpetrators of crimes. Law enforcement may focus on policing individual crimes, or it may focus on bringing down overall crime rates. One common variant, community policing, seeks to prevent crime by integrating police into the community and public life. ### Criminal procedure {#criminal_procedure} When the perpetrator of a crime is found guilty of the crime, the state delivers a sentence to determine the penalty for the crime. ### Liability If a crime is committed, the individual responsible is considered to be liable for the crime. For liability to exist, the individual must be capable of understanding the criminal process and the relevant authority must have legitimate power to establish what constitutes a crime. ### International criminal law {#international_criminal_law} International criminal law typically addresses serious offenses, such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. As with all international law, these laws are created through treaties and international custom, and they are defined through the consensus of the involved states. International crimes are not prosecuted through a standard legal system, though international organizations may establish tribunals to investigate and rule on egregious offenses such as genocide.	338	Crime	3
5,785	# Crime ## Types ### White-collar crime {#white_collar_crime} White-collar crime refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft, fraud, bribery, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, labor racketeering, embezzlement, cybercrime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and forgery. ### Blue-collar crime {#blue_collar_crime} Blue-collar crime is any crime committed by an individual from a lower social class as opposed to white-collar crime which is associated with crime committed by someone of a higher-level social class. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them. Examples of blue-collar crime include Narcotic production or distribution, sexual assault, theft, burglary, assault or murder. ### Violent crime {#violent_crime} Violent crime is crime that involves an act of violent aggression against another person. Common examples of violent crime include homicide, assault, sexual assault, and robbery. Some violent crimes, such as assault, may be committed with the intention of causing harm. Other violent crimes, such as robbery, may use violence to further another goal. Violent crime is distinct from noncriminal types of violence, such as self-defense, use of force, and acts of war. Acts of violence are most often perceived as deviant when they are committed as an overreaction or a disproportionate response to provocation. ### Property crime {#property_crime} Common examples of property crime include burglary, theft, and vandalism. Examples of financial crimes include counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, and bribery. The scope of financial crimes has expanded significantly since the beginning of modern economics in the 17th century. In occupational crime, the complexity and anonymity of computer systems may help criminal employees camouflage their operations. The victims of the most costly scams include banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies, and other large financial institutions. ### Public order crime {#public_order_crime} Public order crime is crime that violates a society\'s norms about what constitutes socially acceptable behavior. Examples of public order crimes include gambling, drug-related crime, public intoxication, prostitution, loitering, breach of the peace, panhandling, vagrancy, street harassment, excessive noise, and littering. Public order crime is associated with the broken windows theory, which posits that public order crimes increase the likelihood of other types of crime. Some public order crimes are considered victimless crimes in which no specific victim can be identified. Most nations in the Western world have moved toward decriminalization of victimless crimes in the modern era. Adultery, fornication, blasphemy, apostasy, and invoking the name of God are commonly recognized as crimes in theocratic societies or those heavily influenced by religion. ### Political crime {#political_crime} Political crime is crime that directly challenges or threatens the state. Examples of political crimes include subversion, rebellion, treason, mutiny, espionage, sedition, terrorism, riot, and unlawful assembly. Political crimes are associated with the political agenda of a given state, and they are necessarily applied against political dissidents. Due to their unique relation to the state, political crimes are often encouraged by one nation against another, and it is political alignment rather than the act itself that determines criminality. State crime that is carried out by the state to repress law-abiding citizens may also be considered political crime. ### Inchoate crime {#inchoate_crime} Inchoate crime is crime that is carried out in anticipation of other illegal actions but does not cause direct harm. Examples of inchoate crimes include attempt and conspiracy. Inchoate crimes are defined by substantial action to facilitate a crime with the intention of the crime\'s occurrence. This is distinct from simple preparation for or consideration of criminal activity. They are unique in that renunciation of criminal intention is generally enough to absolve the perpetrator of criminal liability, as their actions are no longer facilitating a potential future crime.	633	Crime	4
5,785	# Crime ## Participants ### Criminal A criminal is an individual who commits a crime. What constitutes a criminal can vary depending on the context and the law, and it often carries a pejorative connotation. Criminals are often seen as embodying certain stereotypes or traits and are seen as a distinct type of person from law-abiding citizens. Despite this, no mental or physical trend is identifiable that differentiates criminals from non-criminals. Public response to criminals may be indignant or sympathetic. Indignant responses involve resentment and a desire for vengeance, wishing to see criminals removed from society or made to suffer for harm that they cause. Sympathetic responses involve compassion and understanding, seeking to rehabilitate or forgive criminals and absolve them of blame. In the modern era, a criminal is a human being. Historically, from ancient times until the 19th century, many societies believed that non-human animals were capable of committing crimes, and prosecuted and punished them accordingly. Prosecutions of animals gradually dwindled during the 19th century, although a few were recorded as late as the 1910s and 1920s. ### Victim A victim is an individual who has been treated unjustly or made to suffer. In the context of crime, the victim is the individual that is harmed by a violation of criminal law. Victimization is associated with post-traumatic stress and a long-term decrease in quality of life. Victimology is the study of victims, including their role in crime and how they are affected. Several factors affect an individual\'s likelihood of becoming a victim. Some factors may cause victims of crime to experience short-term or long-term \"repeat victimization\". Common long-term victims are those that have close relationships with the criminal, manifesting in crimes such as domestic violence, embezzlement, child abuse, and bullying. Repeat victimization may also occur when a potential victim appears to be a viable target, such as when indicating wealth in a less affluent region. Many of the traits that indicate criminality also indicate victimality; victims of crime are more likely to engage in unlawful behavior and respond to provocation. Overall demographic trends of victims and criminals are often similar, and victims are more likely to have engaged in criminal activities themselves. The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while remaining indifferent to a possible desire for deterrence. Victims, on their own, may lack the economies of scale that could allow them to administer a penal system, let alone to collect any fines levied by a court.	411	Crime	5
5,785	# Crime ## Crime statistics {#crime_statistics} Information and statistics about crime in a given jurisdiction are collected as crime estimates, typically produced by national or international agencies. Methods to collect crime statistics may vary, even between jurisdictions within the same nation. Under-reporting of crime is common, particularly in developing nations, resulting in the dark figure of crime. Victim studies may be used to determine the frequency of crime in a given population. The gap to official statistics is generally smaller with higher severity of the crime. Clearance rate measures the fraction of crimes where a criminal charge has been laid or the responsible person convicted. Fear of crime can be distinct from crime probability. ### Public perception {#public_perception} Crime is often a high priority political issue in developed countries, regardless of the country\'s crime rates. People that are not regularly exposed to crime most often experience it through media, including news reporting and crime fiction. Exposure of crime through news stories is associated with alarmism and inaccurate perceptions of crime trends. Selection bias in new stories about criminals significantly over-represent the prevalence of violent crime, and news reporting will often overemphasize a specific type of crime for a period of time, creating a \"crime wave\" effect. As public opinion of morality changes over time, actions that were once condemned as crimes may be considered justifiable. ## Criminal justice {#criminal_justice} ### Natural-law theory {#natural_law_theory} Justifying the state\'s use of force to coerce compliance with its laws has proven a consistent theoretical problem. One of the earliest justifications involved the theory of natural law. This posits that the nature of the world or of human beings underlies the standards of morality or constructs them. Thomas Aquinas wrote in the 13th century: \"the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts\". He regarded people as by nature rational beings, concluding that it becomes morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. In the 1760s, William Blackstone described the thesis: : \"This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.\" But John Austin (1790--1859), an early positivist, applied utilitarianism in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality. He denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality. Thus, in Austinian terms, a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual remains free to choose what to do. Similarly, H.L.A. Hart saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty, with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law involved internal logic and consistency, and that the state\'s agents used state power with responsibility. Ronald Dworkin rejects Hart\'s theory and proposes that all individuals should expect the equal respect and concern of those who govern them as a fundamental political right. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of deference (the citizen\'s duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make. There are natural-law theorists who have accepted the idea of enforcing the prevailing morality as a primary function of the law. This view entails the problem that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible: if conformity with natural law forms a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, count as morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice.	742	Crime	6
5,785	# Crime ## Criminal justice {#criminal_justice} ### Corrections and punishment {#corrections_and_punishment} Authorities may respond to crime through corrections, carrying out punishment as a means to censure the criminal act. Punishment is generally reserved for serious offenses. Individuals regularly engage in activity that could be scrutinized under criminal law but are deemed inconsequential. Retributive justice seeks to create a system of accountability and punish criminals in a way that knowingly causes suffering. This may arise out of a feeling that criminals deserve to suffer and that punishment should exist for its own sake. The existence of punishment also creates an effect of deterrence that discourages criminal action for fear of punishment. Rehabilitation seeks to understand and mitigate the causes of a criminal\'s unlawful action to prevent recidivism. Different criminological theories propose different methods of rehabilitation, including strengthening social networks, reducing poverty, influencing values, and providing therapy for physical and mental ailments. Rehabilitative programs may include counseling or vocational education. Developed nations are less likely to use physical punishments. Instead, they will impose financial penalties or imprisonment. In places with widespread corruption or limited rule of law, crime may be punished extralegally through mob rule and lynching. Whether a crime can be resolved through financial compensation varies depending on the culture and the specific context of the crime. Historically, many societies have absolved acts of homicide through compensation to the victim\'s relatives. ## Criminology The study of crime is called criminology. Criminology is a subfield of sociology that addresses issues of social norms, social order, deviance, and violence. It includes the motivations and consequences of crime and its perpetrators, as well as preventative measures, either studying criminal acts on an individual level or the relationship of crime and the community. Due to the wide range of concepts associated with crime and the disagreement on a precise definition, the focus of criminology can vary considerably. Various theories within criminology provide different descriptions and explanations for crime, including social control theory, subcultural theory, strain theory, differential association, and labeling theory. Subfields of criminology and related fields of study include crime prevention, criminal law, crime statistics, anthropological criminology, criminal psychology, criminal sociology, criminal psychiatry, victimology, penology, and forensic science. Besides sociology, criminology is often associated with law and psychology.	374	Crime	7
5,785	# Crime ## Causes and correlates {#causes_and_correlates} Criminal behavior determinants include cost--benefit analysis, opportunity or crime of passion. A person that commits a criminal act typically believes that its benefits will outweigh the risk of being caught and punished. Negative economic factors, such as unemployment and income inequality, can increase the incentive to commit crime, while severe punishments can deter crime in some cases. Social factors similarly affect the likelihood of criminal activity. Crime corresponds heavily with social integration; groups that are less integrated with society or that are forcibly integrated with society are more likely to engage in crime. Involvement in the community, such as through a church, decreases the likelihood of crime, while associating with criminals increases the likelihood of becoming a criminal as well. There is no known genetic cause of crime. Some genes have been found to affect traits that may incline individuals toward criminal activity, but no biological or physiological trait has been found to directly cause or compel criminal actions. One biological factor is the disparity between men and women, as men are significantly more likely to commit crimes than women in virtually all cultures. Crimes committed by men also tend to be more severe than those committed by women. Crime distribution shows a long tail with a small fraction of individuals re-offending many times due to high recidivism, while onset of crime at younger age predicts a longer criminal career	237	Crime	8
5,794	# Central tendency In statistics, a central tendency (or measure of central tendency) is a central or typical value for a probability distribution. Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages. The term central tendency dates from the late 1920s. The most common measures of central tendency are the arithmetic mean, the median, and the mode. A middle tendency can be calculated for either a finite set of values or for a theoretical distribution, such as the normal distribution. Occasionally authors use central tendency to denote \"the tendency of quantitative data to cluster around some central value.\" The central tendency of a distribution is typically contrasted with its dispersion or variability; dispersion and central tendency are the often characterized properties of distributions. Analysis may judge whether data has a strong or a weak central tendency based on its dispersion. ## Measures The following may be applied to one-dimensional data. Depending on the circumstances, it may be appropriate to transform the data before calculating a central tendency. Examples are squaring the values or taking logarithms. Whether a transformation is appropriate and what it should be, depend heavily on the data being analyzed. Arithmetic mean or simply, mean: the sum of all measurements divided by the number of observations in the data set.\ Median: the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set. The median and the mode are the only measures of central tendency that can be used for ordinal data, in which values are ranked relative to each other but are not measured absolutely.\ Mode: the most frequent value in the data set. This is the only central tendency measure that can be used with nominal data, which have purely qualitative category assignments.\ Generalized mean: A generalization of the Pythagorean means, specified by an exponent.\ Geometric mean: the nth root of the product of the data values, where there are n of these. This measure is valid only for data that are measured on a strictly positive scale.\ Harmonic mean: the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the data values. This measure is valid only for data that are measured either on a strictly positive or a strictly negative scale.\ Weighted arithmetic mean: an arithmetic mean that incorporates weighting to certain data elements.\ Truncated mean or trimmed mean: the arithmetic mean of data values after a certain number or proportion of the highest and lowest data values have been discarded.\ Interquartile mean: a truncated mean based on data within the interquartile range.\ Midrange: the arithmetic mean of the maximum and minimum values of a data set.\ Midhinge: the arithmetic mean of the first and third quartiles.\ Quasi-arithmetic mean: A generalization of the generalized mean, specified by a continuous injective function.\ Trimean: the weighted arithmetic mean of the median and two quartiles.\ Winsorized mean: an arithmetic mean in which extreme values are replaced by values closer to the median. Any of the above may be applied to each dimension of multi-dimensional data, but the results may not be invariant to rotations of the multi-dimensional space. Geometric median: the point minimizing the sum of distances to a set of sample points. This is the same as the median when applied to one-dimensional data, but it is not the same as taking the median of each dimension independently. It is not invariant to different rescaling of the different dimensions.\ Quadratic mean (often known as the root mean square): useful in engineering, but not often used in statistics. This is because it is not a good indicator of the center of the distribution when the distribution includes negative values.\ Simplicial depth: the probability that a randomly chosen simplex with vertices from the given distribution will contain the given center\ Tukey median: a point with the property that every halfspace containing it also contains many sample points	643	Central tendency	0
5,794	# Central tendency ## Solutions to variational problems {#solutions_to_variational_problems} Several measures of central tendency can be characterized as solving a variational problem, in the sense of the calculus of variations, namely minimizing variation from the center. That is, given a measure of statistical dispersion, one asks for a measure of central tendency that minimizes variation: such that variation from the center is minimal among all choices of center. In a quip, \"dispersion precedes location\". These measures are initially defined in one dimension, but can be generalized to multiple dimensions. This center may or may not be unique. In the sense of `{{math\|{{var\|L}}<sup>{{var\|p}}</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} spaces, the correspondence is: dispersion central tendency -- ---------------------------- --------------------------- variation ratio mode average absolute deviation median (geometric median) standard deviation mean (centroid) maximum deviation midrange The associated functions are called `{{math\|{{var\|p}}}}`{=mediawiki}-norms: respectively 0-\"norm\", 1-norm, 2-norm, and ∞-norm. The function corresponding to the `{{var\|L}}`{=mediawiki}^0^ space is not a norm, and is thus often referred to in quotes: 0-\"norm\". In equations, for a given (finite) data set `{{math\|X}}`{=mediawiki}, thought of as a vector `{{math\|{{strong\|x}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{var\|x}}`{=mediawiki}`{{sub\|1}}`{=mediawiki},...,`{{var\|x}}`{=mediawiki}`{{sub\|{{var\|n}}}}`{=mediawiki})}}, the dispersion about a point `{{math\|{{strong\|c}}}}`{=mediawiki} is the \"distance\" from `{{math\|{{strong\|x}}}}`{=mediawiki} to the constant vector `{{math\|{{strong\|c}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{var\|c}}`{=mediawiki},...,`{{var\|c}}`{=mediawiki})}} in the `{{var\|p}}`{=mediawiki}-norm (normalized by the number of points `{{var\|n}}`{=mediawiki}): $$f_p(c) = \left\\| \mathbf{x} - \mathbf{c} \right\\|_p := \bigg( \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n \left\| x_i - c\right\| ^p \bigg) ^{1/p}$$ For `{{math\|{{var\|p}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 0}} and `{{math\|{{var\|p {{=}} ∞}}`{=mediawiki}}} these functions are defined by taking limits, respectively as `{{math\|{{var\|p}} → 0}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math\|{{var\|p}} → ∞}}`{=mediawiki}. For `{{math\|{{var\|p}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 0}} the limiting values are `{{math\|0<sup>0</sup> {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 0}} and `{{math\|{{var\|a}}<sup>0</sup> {{=}}`{=mediawiki} 1}} for `{{math\|{{var\|a}} ≠ 0}}`{=mediawiki}, so the difference becomes simply equality, so the 0-norm counts the number of unequal points. For `{{math\|{{var\|p}} {{=}}`{=mediawiki} ∞}} the largest number dominates, and thus the ∞-norm is the maximum difference. ### Uniqueness The mean (L^2^ center) and midrange (L^∞^ center) are unique (when they exist), while the median (L^1^ center) and mode (L^0^ center) are not in general unique. This can be understood in terms of convexity of the associated functions (coercive functions). The 2-norm and ∞-norm are strictly convex, and thus (by convex optimization) the minimizer is unique (if it exists), and exists for bounded distributions. Thus standard deviation about the mean is lower than standard deviation about any other point, and the maximum deviation about the midrange is lower than the maximum deviation about any other point. The 1-norm is not strictly convex, whereas strict convexity is needed to ensure uniqueness of the minimizer. Correspondingly, the median (in this sense of minimizing) is not in general unique, and in fact any point between the two central points of a discrete distribution minimizes average absolute deviation. The 0-\"norm\" is not convex (hence not a norm). Correspondingly, the mode is not unique -- for example, in a uniform distribution any point is the mode. ### Clustering Instead of a single central point, one can ask for multiple points such that the variation from these points is minimized. This leads to cluster analysis, where each point in the data set is clustered with the nearest \"center\". Most commonly, using the 2-norm generalizes the mean to k-means clustering, while using the 1-norm generalizes the (geometric) median to k-medians clustering. Using the 0-norm simply generalizes the mode (most common value) to using the k most common values as centers. Unlike the single-center statistics, this multi-center clustering cannot in general be computed in a closed-form expression, and instead must be computed or approximated by an iterative method; one general approach is expectation--maximization algorithms. ### Information geometry {#information_geometry} The notion of a \"center\" as minimizing variation can be generalized in information geometry as a distribution that minimizes divergence (a generalized distance) from a data set. The most common case is maximum likelihood estimation, where the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) maximizes likelihood (minimizes expected surprisal), which can be interpreted geometrically by using entropy to measure variation: the MLE minimizes cross-entropy (equivalently, relative entropy, Kullback--Leibler divergence). A simple example of this is for the center of nominal data: instead of using the mode (the only single-valued \"center\"), one often uses the empirical measure (the frequency distribution divided by the sample size) as a \"center\". For example, given binary data, say heads or tails, if a data set consists of 2 heads and 1 tails, then the mode is \"heads\", but the empirical measure is 2/3 heads, 1/3 tails, which minimizes the cross-entropy (total surprisal) from the data set. This perspective is also used in regression analysis, where least squares finds the solution that minimizes the distances from it, and analogously in logistic regression, a maximum likelihood estimate minimizes the surprisal (information distance).	772	Central tendency	1
5,794	# Central tendency ## Relationships between the mean, median and mode {#relationships_between_the_mean_median_and_mode} For unimodal distributions the following bounds are known and are sharp: : $\frac{\| \theta - \mu \|}{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 3 } ,$ ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` : $\frac{\| \nu - \mu \|}{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 0.6 } ,$ ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` : $\frac{\| \theta - \nu \|}{ \sigma } \le \sqrt{ 3 } ,$ where μ is the mean, ν is the median, θ is the mode, and σ is the standard deviation. For every distribution, : $\frac{\| \nu - \mu \|}{ \sigma } \le 1	102	Central tendency	2
5,796	# Celebrity Celebrity is a condition of fame and broad public recognition of a person or group due to the attention given to them by mass media. The word is also used to refer to famous individuals. A person may attain celebrity status by having great wealth, participation in sports or the entertainment industry, their position as a political figure, or even their connection to another celebrity. \'Celebrity\' usually implies a favorable public image, as opposed to the neutrals \'famous\' or \'notable\', or the negatives \'infamous\' and \'notorious\'. ## History In his 2020 book Dead Famous: An Unexpected History Of Celebrity, British historian Greg Jenner uses the definition: `{{blockquote\|Celebrity (noun): a unique persona made widely known to the public via media coverage, and whose life is publicly consumed as dramatic entertainment, and whose commercial brand is made profitable for those who exploit their popularity, and perhaps also for themselves.<ref name="jenner">{{cite book \|last1=Jenner \|first1=Greg \|title=Dead Famous: An Unexpected History of Celebrity from Bronze Age to Silver Screen \|date=2020 \|isbn=978-0297869801 \|url=https://smile.amazon.co.uk/Dead-Famous-Celebrity-Greg-Jenner/dp/0297869809/ref=smi_www_rco2_go_smi_g5447869900?_encoding=UTF8&%2AVersion%2A=1&%2Aentries%2A=0&ie=UTF8#reader_B07VTMZGGQ \|access-date=24 May 2020 \|chapter=Introduction\|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson }}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Although his book is subtitled \"from Bronze Age to Silver Screen\", and despite the fact that \"Until very recently, sociologists argued that celebrity was invented just over 100 years ago, in the flickering glimmer of early Hollywood\" and the suggestion that some medieval saints might qualify, Jenner asserts that the earliest celebrities lived in the early 1700s, his first example being Henry Sacheverell. Over time, the invention of more types of mass media has broadened the ways in which people have become famous. Athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement. Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime (a departure from the usual depiction of battles and divine lineage). In the early 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder, the first possible case of posthumous popularity. The Christian Church promoted him as a martyr, and images of him and scenes from his life became widespread in just a few years. In a pattern often repeated, what started as an explosion of popularity (often referred to with the suffix \'mania\') turned into long-lasting fame: pilgrimages to Canterbury Cathedral, where he was killed, became instantly fashionable, and the fascination with his life and death inspired plays and films. The cult of personality (particularly in the west) can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation. Lord Byron became a celebrity in 1812 after the publication of the first two cantos of Childe Harold\'s Pilgrimage. \"I awoke one morning and found myself famous,\" he said. According to McGann: \"He rapidly became the most brilliant star in the dazzling world of Regency London.\" Establishing cultural hot spots became important in generating fame, such as in London and Paris in the 18th and 19th centuries. Newspapers started including \"gossip\" columns, and certain clubs and events became places to be seen to receive publicity. David Lodge called Charles Dickens the \"first writer to feel the intense pressure of being simultaneously an artist and an object of unrelenting public interest and adulation\", and Juliet John backed up the claim for Dickens \"to be called the first self-made global media star of the age of mass culture.\" Theatrical actors were often considered celebrities. Restaurants near theaters, where actors would congregate, began putting up caricatures or photographs of actors on celebrity walls in the late 19th century. The subject of widespread public and media interest, Lillie Langtry, made her West End theatre debut in 1881 causing a sensation in London by becoming the first socialite to appear on stage. The following year she became the poster-girl for Pears Soap, becoming the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. In 1895, poet and playwright Oscar Wilde became the subject of \"one of the first celebrity trials\". Another example of celebrities in the entertainment industry was in music, beginning in the mid-19th century. Never seen before in music, many people engaged in an immense fan frenzy called Lisztomania that began in 1841. This created the basis for the behavior fans have around their favorite musicians in modern society. The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th century, creating the first film celebrities. The term celebrity was not always tied to actors in films however, especially when cinema was starting as a medium. As Paul McDonald states in The Star System: Hollywood\'s Production of Popular Identities, \"In the first decade of the twentieth century, American film production companies withheld the names of film performers, despite requests from audiences, fearing that public recognition would drive performers to demand higher salaries.\" Public fascination went well beyond the on-screen exploits of movie stars, and their private lives became headline news: for example, in Hollywood the marriages of Elizabeth Taylor and in Bollywood the affairs of Raj Kapoor in the 1950s. Like theatrical actors before them, movie actors were the subjects of celebrity walls in restaurants they frequented, near movie studios, most notably at Sardi\'s in Hollywood. The second half of the century saw television and popular music bring new forms of celebrity, such as the rock star and the pop group, epitomised by Elvis Presley and the Beatles, respectively. John Lennon\'s highly controversial 1966 quote: \"We\'re more popular than Jesus now\", which he later insisted was not a boast, and that he was not in any way comparing himself with Christ, gives an insight into both the adulation and notoriety that fame can bring. Unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors; for example, presenters, talk show hosts, and newsreaders. However, most of these are only famous within the regions reached by their particular broadcaster, and only a few such as Oprah Winfrey, Jerry Springer, or David Frost could be said to have broken through into wider stardom. Television also gave exposure to sportspeople, notably Pelé after his emergence at the 1958 FIFA World Cup, with Barney Ronay in The Guardian stating, \"What is certain is that Pelé invented this game, the idea of individual global sporting superstardom, and in a way that is unrepeatable now.\" In the \'60s and early \'70s, the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing. In most cases, the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghostwriter, but the celebrity would then be available for a book tour and appearances on talk shows.	1,115	Celebrity	0
5,796	# Celebrity ## Wealth ### Forbes Celebrity 100 {#forbes_celebrity_100} Forbes magazine releases an annual Forbes Celebrity 100 list of the highest-paid celebrities in the world. The total earnings for all top celebrity 100 earners totaled \$4.5 billion in 2010 alone. For instance, Forbes ranked media mogul and talk show host, Oprah Winfrey as the top earner \"Forbes magazine\'s annual ranking of the most powerful celebrities\", with earnings of \$290 million in the past year. Forbes cites that Lady Gaga reportedly earned over \$90 million in 2010. In 2011, golfer Tiger Woods was one of highest-earning celebrity athletes, with an income of \$74 million and is consistently ranked one of the highest-paid athletes in the world. In 2013, Madonna was ranked as the fifth most powerful and the highest-earning celebrity of the year with earnings of \$125 million. She has consistently been among the most powerful and highest-earning celebrities in the world, occupying the third place in Forbes Celebrity 100 2009 with \$110 million of earnings, and getting the tenth place in the 2011 edition of the list with annual earnings equal to \$58 million. Beyoncé has also appeared in the top ten in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013, 2017, and topped the list in 2014 with earnings of \$115 million. Cristiano Ronaldo followed by Lionel Messi in 2020 became the first two athletes in a team sport to surpass \$1 billion in earnings during their careers. Forbes also lists the top-earning deceased celebrities, with singer Michael Jackson, fantasy author J. R. R. Tolkien and children\'s author Roald Dahl each topping the annual list with earnings of \$500 million over the course of a year. ### Entrepreneurship and endorsements {#entrepreneurship_and_endorsements} Celebrity endorsements have proven very successful around the world where, due to increasing consumerism, a person owns a \"status symbol\" by purchasing a celebrity-endorsed product. Although it has become commonplace for celebrities to place their name with endorsements onto products just for quick money, some celebrities have gone beyond merely using their names and have put their entrepreneurial spirit to work by becoming entrepreneurs by attaching themselves in the business aspects of entertainment and building their own business brand beyond their traditional salaried activities. Along with investing their salaried wages into growing business endeavors, several celebrities have become innovative business leaders in their respective industries. Numerous celebrities have ventured into becoming business moguls and established themselves as entrepreneurs, idolizing many well known business leaders such as Bill Gates, Richard Branson and Warren Buffett. For instance, former basketball player Michael Jordan became an entrepreneur involved with many sports-related ventures including investing a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, Paul Newman started his own salad dressing business after leaving behind a distinguished acting career, and rap musician Birdman started his own record label, clothing line, and an oil business while maintaining a career as a rap artist. In 2014, David Beckham became co-owner of new Major League Soccer team Inter Miami, which began playing in 2020. Former Brazil striker and World Cup winner Ronaldo became the majority owner of La Liga club Real Valladolid in 2018. Other celebrities such as Tyler Perry, George Lucas, and Steven Spielberg have become successful entrepreneurs through starting their own film production companies and running their own movie studios beyond their traditional activities. Tabloid magazines and talk TV shows bestow a great deal of attention to celebrities. To stay in the public eye and build wealth in addition to their salaried labor, numerous celebrities have begun participating and branching into various business ventures and endorsements, which include: animation, publishing, fashion designing, cosmetics, consumer electronics, household items and appliances, cigarettes, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, hair care, hairdressing, jewelry design, fast food, credit cards, video games, writing, and toys. In addition to these, some celebrities have been involved with some business and investment-related ventures also include: sports team ownership, fashion retailing, establishments such as restaurants, cafes, hotels, and casinos, movie theaters, advertising and event planning, management-related ventures such as sports management, financial services, model management, and talent management, record labels, film production, television production, publishing books and music, massage therapy, salons, health and fitness, and real estate. Although some celebrities have achieved additional financial success from various business ventures, the vast majority of celebrities are not successful businesspeople and still rely on salaried labored wages to earn a living. Not all celebrities eventually succeed with their businesses and other related side ventures. Some celebrities either went broke or filed for bankruptcy as a result of dabbling with such side businesses or endorsements.	752	Celebrity	1
5,796	# Celebrity ## Famous for being famous {#famous_for_being_famous} Famous for being famous, in popular culture terminology, refers to someone who attains celebrity status for no particular identifiable reason, or who achieves fame through association with a celebrity. The term is a pejorative, suggesting the target has no particular talents or abilities. British journalist Malcolm Muggeridge made the first known usage of the phrase in the introduction to his book Muggeridge Through The Microphone: BBC Radio and Television (1967) in which he wrote: > In the past if someone was famous or notorious, it was for something---as a writer or an actor or a criminal; for some talent or distinction or abomination. Today one is famous for being famous. People who come up to one in the street or in public places to claim recognition nearly always say: \"I\'ve seen you on the telly!\" The coinages \"famesque\" and \"celebutante\" are of similar pejorative gist. This shift has sparked criticism for promoting superficial recognition over substantive achievements and reflects broader changes in how fame and success are perceived in modern culture. ## Mass media phenomena {#mass_media_phenomena} Mass media has dramatically reshaped the concept of celebrity by amplifying visibility and extending fame globally. With the rise of television, social media, and reality TV, individuals can achieve stardom not just through traditional talents but also through their personal lives and online presence. This heightened visibility brings intense public scrutiny, where every detail of a celebrity\'s life is subject to constant media coverage. Celebrities often become brands themselves, influencing trends and consumer behavior while navigating the pressures of privacy erosion and mental health challenges. Celebrities may be resented for their accolades, and the public may have a love/hate relationship with celebrities. Due to the high visibility of celebrities\' private lives, their successes and shortcomings are often made very public. Celebrities are alternately portrayed as glowing examples of perfection, when they garner awards, or as decadent or immoral if they become associated with a scandal. When seen in a positive light, celebrities are frequently portrayed as possessing skills and abilities beyond average people; for example, celebrity actors are routinely celebrated for acquiring new skills necessary for filming a role within a very brief time, and to a level that amazes the professionals who train them. Similarly, some celebrities with very little formal education can sometimes be portrayed as experts on complicated issues. Some celebrities have been very vocal about their political views. For example, Matt Damon expressed his displeasure with 2008 US vice presidential nominee Sarah Palin, as well as with the 2011 United States debt-ceiling crisis.	431	Celebrity	2
5,796	# Celebrity ## Internet Also known as being internet famous. ### Social networking and video hosting {#social_networking_and_video_hosting} Most high-profile celebrities participate in social networking services and photo or video hosting platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Social networking services allow celebrities to communicate directly with their fans, removing the \"traditional\" media. Through social media, many people outside of the entertainment and sports sphere become a celebrity in their own sphere. Social media humanizes celebrities in a way that arouses public fascination as evident by the success of magazines such as Us Weekly and People Weekly. Celebrity blogging has also spawned stars such as Perez Hilton who is known for not only blogging but also outing celebrities. Social media and the rise of the smartphone has changed how celebrities are treated and how people gain the platform of fame. Websites like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube allow people to become a celebrity in a different manner. For example, Justin Bieber got his start on YouTube by posting videos of him singing. His fans were able to directly contact him through his content and were able to interact with him on several social media platforms. The internet, as said before, also allows fans to connect with their favorite celebrity without ever meeting them in person. Social media sites have also contributed to the fame of certain celebrities, such as Tila Tequila who became known through MySpace. ### Asia A report by the BBC highlighted a longtime trend of Asian internet celebrities called Wanghong in Chinese. According to the BBC, there are two kinds of online celebrities in China---those who create original content, such as Papi Jiang, who is regularly censored by Chinese authorities for cursing in her videos, and Wanghongs fall under the second category, as they have clothing and cosmetics businesses on Taobao, China\'s equivalent of Amazon. ## Access restriction {#access_restriction} Access to celebrities is strictly controlled by the celebrities entourage of staff which includes managers, publicists, agents, personal assistants, and bodyguards. Journalists may even have difficulty accessing celebrities for interviews. Writer and actor Michael Musto said, \"You have to go through many hoops just to talk to a major celebrity. You have to get past three different sets of publicists: the publicist for the event, the publicist for the movie, and then the celebrity\'s personal publicist. They all have to approve you.\" Celebrities also typically have security staff at their home or properties, to protect them and their belongs from similar threats. ## \"Fifteen minutes of fame\" {#fifteen_minutes_of_fame} \"15 minutes of fame\" is a phrase often used as slang to short-lived publicity. Certain \"15 minutes of fame\" celebrities can be average people seen with an A-list celebrity, who are sometimes noticed on entertainment news channels such as E! News. These are ordinary people becoming celebrities, often based on the ridiculous things they do. \"In fact, many reality show contestants fall into this category: the only thing that qualifies them to be on TV is that they\'re real.\" ## Health implications {#health_implications} Common threats such as stalking have spawned celebrity worship syndrome where a person becomes overly involved with the details of a celebrity\'s personal life. Psychologists have indicated that though many people obsess over glamorous film, television, sport and music stars, the disparity in salaries in society seems to value professional athletes and entertainment industry-based professionals. One study found that singers, musicians, actors and athletes die younger on average than writers, composers, academics, politicians and businesspeople, with a greater incidence of cancer and especially lung cancer. However, it was remarked that the reasons for this remained unclear, with theories including innate tendencies towards risk-taking as well as the pressure or opportunities of particular types of fame. Fame might have negative psychological effects. An academic study on the subject said that fame has an addictive quality to it. When a celebrity\'s fame recedes over time, the celebrity may find it difficult to adjust psychologically. Recently, there has been more attention toward the impact celebrities have on health decisions of the population at large. It is believed that the public will follow celebrities\' health advice to some extent. This can have positive impacts when the celebrities give solid, evidence-informed health advice, however, it can also have detrimental effects if the health advice is not accurate enough	717	Celebrity	3
5,797	# Cluster sampling thumb\\|upright=1.3\\|Cluster sampling. A group of twelve people are divided into pairs, and two pairs are then selected at random. In statistics, cluster sampling is a sampling plan used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population. It is often used in marketing research. In this sampling plan, the total population is divided into these groups (known as clusters) and a simple random sample of the groups is selected. The elements in each cluster are then sampled. If all elements in each sampled cluster are sampled, then this is referred to as a \"one-stage\" cluster sampling plan. If a simple random subsample of elements is selected within each of these groups, this is referred to as a \"two-stage\" cluster sampling plan. A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce the total number of interviews and costs given the desired accuracy. For a fixed sample size, the expected random error is smaller when most of the variation in the population is present internally within the groups, and not between the groups. ## Cluster elemental {#cluster_elemental} The population within a cluster should ideally be as heterogeneous as possible, but there should be homogeneity between clusters. Each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the total population. The clusters should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. A random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study. In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are sampled. In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters. The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so sampling is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage). In stratified sampling, the sampling is done on elements within each stratum. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are sampled. A common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency. This contrasts with stratified sampling where the motivation is to increase precision. There is also multistage cluster sampling, where at least two stages are taken in selecting elements from clusters. ## When clusters are of different sizes {#when_clusters_are_of_different_sizes} Without modifying the estimated parameter, cluster sampling is unbiased when the clusters are approximately the same size. In this case, the parameter is computed by combining all the selected clusters. When the clusters are of different sizes there are several options: One method is to sample clusters and then survey all elements in that cluster. Another method is a two-stage method of sampling a fixed proportion of units (be it 5% or 50%, or another number, depending on cost considerations) from within each of the selected clusters. Relying on the sample drawn from these options will yield an unbiased estimator. However, the sample size is no longer fixed upfront. This leads to a more complicated formula for the standard error of the estimator, as well as issues with the optics of the study plan (since the power analysis and the cost estimations often relate to a specific sample size). A third possible solution is to use probability proportionate to size sampling. In this sampling plan, the probability of selecting a cluster is proportional to its size, so a large cluster has a greater probability of selection than a small cluster. The advantage here is that when clusters are selected with probability proportionate to size, the same number of interviews should be carried out in each sampled cluster so that each unit sampled has the same probability of selection.	627	Cluster sampling	0
5,797	# Cluster sampling ## Applications of cluster sampling {#applications_of_cluster_sampling} An example of cluster sampling is area sampling or geographical cluster sampling. Each cluster is a geographical area in an area sampling frame. Because a geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey, greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by grouping several respondents within a local area into a cluster. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but cost savings may make such an increase in sample size feasible. For the organization of a population census, the first step is usually dividing the overall geographic area into enumeration areas or census tracts for the field work organization. Enumeration areas may be also useful as first-stage units for cluster sampling in many types of surveys. When a population census is outdated, the list of individuals should not be directly used as sampling frame for a socio-economic survey. Updating the whole census is economically unfeasible. A good alternative may be keeping the old enumeration areas, with some update in highly dynamic areas, such as urban suburbs, selecting a sample of enumeration areas and updating the list of individuals or households only in the selected enumeration areas. Cluster sampling is used to estimate low mortalities in cases such as wars, famines and natural disasters. ### Fisheries science {#fisheries_science} It is almost impossible to take a simple random sample of fish from a population, which would require that individuals are captured individually and at random. This is because fishing gears capture fish in groups (or clusters). In commercial fisheries sampling, the costs of operating at sea are often too large to select hauls individually and at random. Therefore, observations are further clustered by either vessel or fishing trip. ### Economics The World Bank has applied adaptive cluster sampling to study informal businesses in developing countries in a cost efficient manner, as the informal sector is not captured by official records and too expensive to be studied through simple random sampling. The approach follows a two-stage sampling whereby adaptive cluster sampling is used to generate an estimate of the universe of informal businesses in operations, while the second stage to obtain a random sample about the characteristics of those businesses.	377	Cluster sampling	1
5,797	# Cluster sampling ## Advantages - Can be cheaper than other sampling plans -- e.g. fewer travel expenses, and administration cost. - Feasibility: This sampling plan takes large populations into account. Since these groups are so small, deploying any other sampling plan would be very costly. - Economy: The regular two major concerns of expenditure, i.e., traveling and listing, are greatly reduced in this method. For example: Compiling research information about every household in a city would be very costly, whereas compiling information about various blocks of the city will be more economical. Here, traveling as well as listing efforts will be greatly reduced. - Reduced variability: in the rare case of a negative intraclass correlation between subjects within a cluster, the estimators produced by cluster sampling will yield more accurate estimates than data obtained from a simple random sample (i.e. the design effect will be larger than 1). This is not a commonplace scenario. Major use: when the sampling frame of all elements is not available we can resort only to cluster sampling. ## Disadvantages - Higher sampling error, which can be expressed by the design effect: the ratio between the variance of an estimator made from the samples of the cluster study and the variance of an estimator obtained from a sample of subjects in an equally reliable, randomly sampled unclustered study. The larger the intraclass correlation is between subjects within a cluster the worse the design effect becomes (i.e. the larger it gets from 1. Indicating a larger expected increase in the variance of the estimator). In other words, the more there is heterogeneity between clusters and more homogeneity between subjects within a cluster, the less accurate our estimators become. This is because in such cases we are better on sampling as many clusters as we can and making do with a small sample of subjects from within each cluster (i.e. two-stage cluster sampling). - Complexity. Cluster sampling is more sophisticated and requires more attention with how to plan and how to analyze (i.e.: to take into account the weights of subjects during the estimation of parameters, confidence intervals, etc.)	353	Cluster sampling	2
5,797	# Cluster sampling ## More on cluster sampling {#more_on_cluster_sampling} ### Two-stage cluster sampling {#two_stage_cluster_sampling} Two-stage cluster sampling, a simple case of multistage sampling, is obtained by selecting cluster samples in the first stage and then selecting a sample of elements from every sampled cluster. Consider a population of N clusters in total. In the first stage, n clusters are selected using the ordinary cluster sampling method. In the second stage, simple random sampling is usually used. It is used separately in every cluster and the numbers of elements selected from different clusters are not necessarily equal. The total number of clusters N, the number of clusters selected n, and the numbers of elements from selected clusters need to be pre-determined by the survey designer. Two-stage cluster sampling aims at minimizing survey costs and at the same time controlling the uncertainty related to estimates of interest. This method can be used in health and social sciences. For instance, researchers used two-stage cluster sampling to generate a representative sample of the Iraqi population to conduct mortality surveys. Sampling in this method can be quicker and more reliable than other methods, which is why this method is now used frequently. ### Inference when the number of clusters is small {#inference_when_the_number_of_clusters_is_small} Cluster sampling methods can lead to significant bias when working with a small number of clusters. For instance, it can be necessary to cluster at the state or city-level, units that may be small and fixed in number. Microeconometrics methods for panel data often use short panels, which is analogous to having few observations per clusters and many clusters. The small cluster problem can be viewed as an incidental parameter problem. While the point estimates can be reasonably precisely estimated, if the number of observations per cluster is sufficiently high, we need the number of clusters $G\rightarrow \infty$ for the asymptotics to kick in. If the number of clusters is low the estimated covariance matrix can be downward biased. Small numbers of clusters are a risk when there is serial correlation or when there is intraclass correlation as in the Moulton context. When having few clusters, we tend to underestimate serial correlation across observations when a random shock occurs, or the intraclass correlation in a Moulton setting. Several studies have highlighted the consequences of serial correlation and highlighted the small-cluster problem. In the framework of the Moulton factor, an intuitive explanation of the small cluster problem can be derived from the formula for the Moulton factor. Assume for simplicity that the number of observations per cluster is fixed at n. Below, $V_{c}(\beta)$ stands for the covariance matrix adjusted for clustering, $V(\beta)$ stands for the covariance matrix not adjusted for clustering, and ρ stands for the intraclass correlation: : $\frac{V_{c}(\hat\beta)}{V(\hat\beta)}=1+(n-1)\rho$ The ratio on the left-hand side indicates how much the unadjusted scenario overestimates the precision. Therefore, a high number means a strong downward bias of the estimated covariance matrix. A small cluster problem can be interpreted as a large n: when the data is fixed and the number of clusters is low, the number of data within a cluster can be high. It follows that inference, when the number of clusters is small, will not have the correct coverage. Several solutions for the small cluster problem have been proposed. One can use a bias-corrected cluster-robust variance matrix, make T-distribution adjustments, or use bootstrap methods with asymptotic refinements, such as the percentile-t or wild bootstrap, that can lead to improved finite sample inference. Cameron, Gelbach and Miller (2008) provide microsimulations for different methods and find that the wild bootstrap performs well in the face of a small number of clusters	605	Cluster sampling	3
5,808	# Casey at the Bat \"Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic, Sung in the Year 1888\" is a mock-heroic poem written in 1888 by Ernest Thayer. It was first published in The San Francisco Examiner (then called The Daily Examiner) on June 3, 1888, under the pen name \"Phin\", based on Thayer\'s college nickname, \"Phinney\". Featuring a dramatic narrative about a baseball game, the poem was later popularized by DeWolf Hopper in many vaudeville performances. It has become one of the best-known poems in American literature. ## Synopsis A baseball team from the fictional town of \"Mudville\" (the home team) is losing by two runs in its last inning. Both the team and its fans, a crowd of 5,000, believe that they can win if Casey, Mudville\'s star player, gets to bat. However, Casey is scheduled to be the fifth batter of the inning, and the first two batters (Cooney and Barrows) fail to get on base. The next two batters (Flynn and Jimmy Blake) are perceived to be weak hitters with little chance of reaching base to allow Casey a chance to bat. Surprisingly, Flynn hits a single, and Blake follows with a double that allows Flynn to reach third base. Both runners are now in scoring position and Casey represents the potential winning run. Casey is so sure of his abilities that he does not swing at the first two pitches, both called strikes. On the last pitch, the overconfident Casey strikes out swinging, ending the game and sending the crowd home unhappy. ## Text The text is filled with references to baseball as it was in 1888, which in many ways is not far removed from today\'s version. As a work, the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball, including the involvement of the crowd. It also has a fair amount of baseball jargon that can pose challenges for the uninitiated. This is the complete poem as it originally appeared in The Daily Examiner. After publication, various versions with minor changes were produced. ## Inspiration Thayer said he chose the name \"Casey\" after a non-player of Irish ancestry he once knew named Daniel H. Casey; it is open to debate whom, if anyone, he modeled the character after. It has been reported that Thayer\'s best friend Samuel Winslow, who played baseball at Harvard, was the inspiration for Casey. Another classmate of Thayer at Harvard---Edward Terry Sanford---also has been put forward as a possible model for Casey, in part on the ground that Thayer and Sanford were both members of a student group at Harvard (the OK Society) that played some baseball in the mid-1880s. Sanford would go on to a distinguished career in the law, culminating in his appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1923. Another candidate is National League player Mike \"King\" Kelly, who became famous when Boston paid Chicago a record \$10,000 for him. He had a personality that fans liked to cheer or jeer. After the 1887 season, Kelly went on a playing tour to San Francisco. Thayer, who wrote \"Casey\" in 1888, covered the San Francisco leg for the San Francisco Examiner. Thayer, in a letter he wrote in 1905, mentions Kelly as showing \"impudence\" in claiming to have written the poem. The author of the 2004 definitive biography of Kelly---which included a close tracking of his vaudeville career---did not find Kelly claiming to have been the author. ## Composition and publication history {#composition_and_publication_history} \"Casey at the Bat\" was first published in The Daily Examiner on June 3, 1888. A month after the poem was published, it was reprinted as \"Kelly at the Bat\" in the New York Sporting Times. Aside from omitting the first five verses, the only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey, and Boston for Mudville. King Kelly, then of the Boston Beaneaters, was one of baseball\'s two biggest stars at the time (along with Cap Anson).`{{r\|rosenberg\|page1=9}}`{=mediawiki} In 1897, the magazine Current Literature noted the two versions and said, \"The locality, as originally given, is Mudville, not Boston; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color.\"	690	Casey at the Bat	0
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Live performances {#live_performances} left\\|thumb\\|upright=1.1\\|1909 theatrical poster with DeWolf Hopper in A Matinee Idol DeWolf Hopper gave the poem\'s first stage recitation on August 14, 1888, at New York\'s Wallack Theatre as part of the comic opera Prinz Methusalem in the presence of the Chicago White Stockings and New York Giants baseball teams; August 14, 1888 was also Thayer\'s 25th birthday. Hopper became known as an orator of the poem, and recited it more than 10,000 times (by his count---some tabulations are as much as four times higher) before his death. `{{Quote_box \|width=20% \|align=right \|quote="It is as perfect an [[epitome]] of our national game today as it was when every player drank his coffee from a [[mustache cup]]. There are one or more Caseys in every [[Baseball league\|league]], [[Bush league\|bush]] or big, and there is no day in the playing season that this same supreme [[tragedy]], as stark as [[Aristophanes]] for the moment, does not befall on some field."<ref name=Gardner />}}`{=mediawiki} On stage in the early 1890s, baseball star Kelly recited the original \"Casey\" a few dozen times and not the parody. For example, in a review in 1893 of a variety show he was in, the Indianapolis News said, \"Many who attended the performance had heard of Kelly\'s singing and his reciting, and many had heard De Wolf Hopper recite \'Casey at the Bat\' in his inimitable way. Kelly recited this in a sing-song, school-boy fashion.\" Upon Kelly\'s death, a writer would say he gained \"considerable notoriety by his ludicrous rendition of \'Casey at the Bat,\' with which he concluded his \'turn\' \[act\] at each performance.\"`{{r\|rosenberg\|page1=229}}`{=mediawiki} During the 1980s, the magic/comedy team Penn & Teller performed a version of \"Casey at the Bat\" with Teller (the \"silent\" partner) struggling to escape a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over a platform of sharp steel spikes. The set-up was that Penn Jillette would leap off his chair upon finishing the poem, releasing the rope which supported Teller, and send Teller to a gruesome death if Teller had failed to free himself by that time. Jillette enhanced the drama of the performance by drastically accelerating the pace of his recital after the first few stanzas, greatly reducing the time that Teller had left to work free from his bonds.	381	Casey at the Bat	1
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Recordings The first recorded version of \"Casey at the Bat\" was made by Russell Hunting, speaking in a broad Irish accent, in 1893; an [1898 cylinder recording of the text made for the Columbia Graphophone label by Hunting](http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?queryType=@attr+1=1020&num=1&start=1&query=cylinder5348) can be accessed from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library. DeWolf Hopper\'s more famous recorded recitation was released in October 1906. In 1946, Walt Disney released a recording of the narration of the poem by Jerry Colonna, which accompanied the studio\'s animated cartoon adaptation of the poem (see below). In 1973, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra commissioned its former Composer-in-Residence, Frank Proto, to create a work to feature Baseball Hall-of-Famer Johnny Bench with the orchestra. The result \"Casey At The Bat -- an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra\" was an immediate hit and recorded by Bench and the orchestra. It has since been performed more than 800 times by nearly every major and Metropolitan orchestra in the U.S. and Canada. In 1980, baseball pitcher Tug McGraw recorded Casey at The Bat---an American Folk Tale for Narrator and Orchestra by Frank Proto with Peter Nero and the Philly Pops. In 1996, actor James Earl Jones recorded the poem with arranger/composer Steven Reineke and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra. On a 1997 CD set with memorable moments and stories from the game of baseball titled Take Me Out to the Ball Game produced by Jerry Hoffman and Douglas Duer, a Vincent Price oration of the poem is a slightly altered version of the original. In 1998, actor Sir Derek Jacobi recorded the poem with composer/arranger Randol Alan Bass and the National Symphony of London, with the composer conducting. This work, titled \"Casey at the Bat\", has been recorded by the Boston Pops Orchestra, Keith Lockhart conducting. In 2013, Dave Jageler and Charlie Slowes, both radio announcers for the Washington Nationals, each made recordings of the poem for the Library of Congress to mark the 125th anniversary of its first publication. ## Mudville A rivalry of sorts has developed between two cities claiming to be the Mudville described in the poem. Residents of Holliston, Massachusetts, where there is a neighborhood called Mudville, claim it as the Mudville described in the poem. Thayer grew up in nearby Worcester, Massachusetts, where he wrote the poem in 1888; his family owned a wool mill less than 1 mi from Mudville\'s baseball field. However, residents of Stockton, California---which was known for a time as Mudville prior to incorporation in 1850---also lay claim to being the inspiration for the poem. In 1887, Thayer covered baseball for The Daily Examiner---owned by his Harvard classmate William Randolph Hearst---and is said to have covered the local California League team, the Stockton Ports. For the 1902 season, after the poem became popular, Stockton\'s team was renamed the Mudville Nine. The team reverted to the Mudville Nine moniker for the 2000 and 2001 seasons. The Visalia Rawhide, another California League team, currently keeps Mudville alive playing in Mudville jerseys on June 3 each year. Despite the towns\' rival claims, Thayer himself told the Syracuse Post-Standard that \"the poem has no basis in fact.\"	532	Casey at the Bat	2
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Adaptations The poem has been adapted to diverse types of media: ### Books - Ralph Andreano\'s 1965 book, No Joy in Mudville, laments the death of heroes in modern baseball. - In the book Faithful by Steward O\'Nan and Stephen King, describing the 2004 season of the Boston Red Sox, a chapter contributed by King is named \"The Gloom is gone from Mudville\". - Wallace Tripp illustrated a popular 1978 book of the poem. - Kurtis Scaletta\'s 2009 children\'s novel, Mudville, is about a town where it has been raining for 22 years, delaying a baseball game between two rival towns. ### Comics - Marvel Comics published a spoof in August 1969, in the 9th issue of Not Brand Echh, featuring parodies of their popular heroes and villains, and the Bulk (parody of the Hulk) as Casey. - DC Comics\' series Fables from the Vertigo Comics imprint featured an adaptation titled \"Out to the Ball Game\", which features a similar baseball match, with Weyland Smith playing the part of Casey against a team of goblins. ### Film - In 1922, Lee De Forest recorded DeWolf Hopper reciting the poem in DeForest\'s Phonofilm sound-on-film process. - In 1927, a feature-length silent film Casey at the Bat was released, starring Wallace Beery, Ford Sterling, and ZaSu Pitts. At least three other films based on Thayer\'s poem preceded this 1927 release: an Edison short in 1899, another short starring Harry T. Morey in 1913, and a five-reel feature starring DeWolf Hopper in 1916. - Walt Disney Productions produced an Animated Segment adaptation of the poem for the film Make Mine Music (1946) and uses the original text, but is set in 1902 according to the opening song\'s lyrics, instead of 1888. This version is recited by Jerry Colonna. It was later released as an individual short on July 16, 1954. A sequel short was also produced Casey Bats Again and released on June 18, 1954. - A 1976 animated short adaptation, featuring narration by Paul Frees, was released in 1976 by Fine Arts Films. - In 1986, Elliott Gould starred as \"Casey\" in the Shelley Duvall\'s Tall Tales and Legends adaptation of the story, which also starred Carol Kane, Howard Cosell, Bob Uecker, Bill Macy and Rae Dawn Chong. The screenplay, adapted from the poem, was written by Andy Borowitz and the production was directed by David Steinberg. - In The Dream Team (1989), Michael Keaton\'s character announces that \"there is no joy in Mudville\" after giving a fellow mental patient three \"strikes\" for psychotic behavior. - In 1993 the last paragraph is quoted in the film Short Cuts (by Robert Altman), when Lyle Lovett as Andy Bitkower is calling anonymously Andie MacDowell as Ann Finnigan in minute 01:34:58. ### Radio - The poem was adapted for an episode of On Stage that aired on CBS on April 16, 1953. It was written by E. Jack Neuman and starred Elliott Lewis, Cathy Lewis, Hy Averback, Herb Butterfield, Byron Kane, Peter Leeds, Hal March, Howard McNear, and Sidney Miller. - Radio personality Casey Kasem self-identified on-air as \"Casey at the mic.\" ### Television - Jackie Gleason in his \"Reginald Van Gleason III\" persona (in full Mudville baseball uniform) performed a recitation of the poem on his And Awaaaay We Go! album. - Season 1, episode 35 of The Twilight Zone, \"The Mighty Casey\", concerns a baseball player who is actually a robot (June 17, 1960). - In the Northern Exposure episode \"The Graduate\", Chris Stevens gains his Master\'s degree in Comparative literature by subjecting his assessors to a spirited re-enactment of the poem. - In General Hospital, Steve Hardy performs the poem during the 1994 Nurses\' Ball while dressed in a Mudville baseball uniform. He concludes by telling the audience not to worry because Casey is married to the Mudville owner\'s daughter. - In How I Met Your Mother, the episode \"Bedtime Stories\" (which is done entirely in rhymes) features a subplot called \"Mosby At The Bat\". The start of that section of the episode begins with \"The outlook wasn\'t brilliant for poor Ted\'s romantic life\", a line based on the opening of the original poem. - In One Tree Hill, season 8 episode \"The Man Who Sailed Around His Soul\" was a flashback-heavy episode revolving around a baseball game with Jamie Scott narrating the poem throughout. ### Music - Art-song composer Sidney Homer turned the poem into a song. Sheet music was published by G. Schirmer in 1920 as part of Six Cheerful Songs to Poems of American Humor. - William Schuman composed an opera, The Mighty Casey (1953), based on the poem. - The song \"No Joy in Mudville\" from Death Cab for Cutie\'s album We Have the Facts and We\'re Voting Yes directly references the poem. - The song \"Centerfield\" by John Fogerty includes the line \"Well, I spent some time in the Mudville Nine, watchin\' it from the bench. You know I took some lumps when the Mighty Casey struck out.\" - The song \"No Joy In Pudville\" by Steroid Maximus is a reference to this poem. - Joe Walsh\'s 1973 song \"Rocky Mountain Way\" features the lyrics \"Bases are loaded/ And Casey\'s at bat/ Playin\' it play-by-play/ Time to change the batter.\" - In 2008 American composer Randol Alan Bass used the song \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\" by Alfred Von Tilzer and Jack Norworth in Casey at the Bat, a setting of the poem for concert band and narrator.	919	Casey at the Bat	3
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Adaptations ### Theatre - \"Casey at the Bat\" was adapted into a 1953 opera by American composer William Schuman. - An orchestral adaptation by composer Frank Proto has been recorded by the Cincinnati Pops orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel with baseball star Johnny Bench narrating. - The Dallas Symphony commissioned an arrangement of \"Casey\" by Randol Alan Bass in 2001, which he later arranged for concert band.	73	Casey at the Bat	4
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Derivations For a relatively short poem apparently dashed off quickly (and denied by its author for years), \"Casey at the Bat\" had a profound effect on American popular culture. It has been recited, re-enacted, adapted, dissected, parodied, and subjected to just about every other treatment one could imagine. ### Sequels - \"Casey\'s Revenge\", by Grantland Rice (1907), gives Casey another chance against the pitcher who had struck him out in the original story. It was written in 1906, and its first known publication was in the quarterly magazine The Speaker in June 1907, under the pseudonym of James Wilson. In this version, Rice cites the nickname \"Strike-Out Casey\", hence the influence on Casey Stengel\'s name. Casey\'s team is down three runs by the last of the ninth, and once again Casey is down to two strikes---with the bases full this time. However, he connects, and hits the ball so far that it is never found. - \"Casey - Twenty Years Later\", by Clarence P. McDonald (1908), imagines a different redemption for Casey, long after his retirement. The poem, which was indeed published twenty years after the original, in the San Francisco Examiner, sees Casey attending a championship game between the fictional team of \"Bugville\" and an unspecified opponent. In a losing effort, Bugville\'s players are benched and injured throughout the game, until the captain is forced to call for a volunteer from the attendees. An aged Casey answers the call and fills the role surprisingly well, culminating with him hitting the game-winning home run, in his first swing at bat. He then reveals his identity to the joyous fans and players. - In response to the popularity of the 1946 Walt Disney animated adaptation, Disney made a sequel, Casey Bats Again (1954), in which Casey\'s nine daughters redeem his reputation. - In 1988, on the 100th anniversary of the poem, Sports Illustrated writer Frank Deford constructed a fanciful story (later expanded to book form) for what happened before and after the famous ball game. ### Parodies Of the many parodies made of the poem, some of the notable ones include: - Mad magazine republished the original version of the poem in the 1950s with artwork by Jack Davis and no alterations to the text. Later lampoons in Mad included \"\'Cool\' Casey at the Bat\" (1960), an interpretation of the poem in beatnik style, with artwork by Don Martin although the ending still has Casey striking out; \"Casey at the Dice\" in 1969, about a professional gambler; \"Casey at the Contract Talks\" in 1974 (which ends with the owner telling Casey to \"practice hard at home this year \'cause now you\'ve struck out twice\"); Casey at the Talks\" in 1977, a \"modern\" version of the famed poem in which Mudville tries unsuccessfully to sign free agent Casey \[the last line of which is \"Mighty Casey has held out\"\]; \"Baseball at the Bat\", a satire on baseball itself, \"Howard at the Mike\", about Howard Cosell; \"Casey at the Byte\" (1985), a tale of a cocky young computer expert who accidentally erases the White House Budget Plan; \"Clooney as the Bat\", a mockery of George Clooney\'s role as Batman in Batman and Robin; and in 2006 as \"Barry at the Bat\", poking fun at Barry Bonds\' alleged involvement in the BALCO scandal; in 2001, \"Jordan at the Hoop\", satirizing Michael Jordan\'s return to the NBA and his time with the Washington Wizards; and in 2012, \"Casey at the Trial\", satirizing Casey Anthony\'s acquittal in the case of the death of her daughter Caylee. It also includes a \"Poetry Round Robin\" where famous poems are rewritten in the style of the next poet in line, featured Casey at the Bat as written by Edgar Allan Poe. - Sportswriter Leonard Koppett claimed in a 1979 tongue-in-cheek article that the published poem omits 18 lines penned by Thayer, which changed the overall theme of the poem. Koppett added lines, claiming to have transcribed them off an old phonograph recording, that take the pitch count on Casey to full. Meanwhile, his uncle Arnold stirs up wagering action in the stands, before a wink passes between them. Casey throws the game. - Foster Brooks (\"the Lovable Lush\" from the Dean Martin Show) wrote \"Riley on the Mound\", which recounts the story from the pitcher\'s perspective. [1](https://www.chicagotribune.com/1988/06/03/for-a-guy-who-struck-out-100-years-ago-mighty-casey-is-still/) - In his 1987 Baseball Abstract, Bill James published \"Casey Chases A Knuckler\", which employed a five-line stanza and AAAAB structure, about former MLB knuckleball pitcher Charlie Hough - Author Phil Bolsta penned a parody entitled \"Hrbek at the Bat\" about Twins slugger Kent Hrbek which was published in 1987 in the Minneapolis Review of Baseball. - Radio performer Garrison Keillor\'s parodic version of the poem reimagines the game as a road game, instead of a home game, for the Mudville team. The same events occur with Casey striking out in the ninth inning as in the original poem, but with everything told from the perspective of other team. - An episode of Tiny Toon Adventures featured a short titled \"Buster at the Bat\", where Sylvester provides narration as Buster goes up to bat. The poem was parodied again for an episode of Animaniacs, this time with Wakko as the title character and Yakko narrating. Both versions end on a happier note with the main character hitting a home run. - In the fourth season of Garfield and Friends the episode entitled \"Mind Over Matter/Orson at the Bat/Multiple Choice Cartoon\" features Wade Duck narrating a parody of the poem as Orson Pig experiences it in a dream sequence. - In The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius episode \"Return of the Nanobots\", Cindy\'s poem is identical to the ending of \"Casey at the Bat\" but replaces Mudville with Retroville and the last famed line with \"cause Jimmy is an idiot!\" - The New York Times published a parody by Hart Seely and Frank Cammuso in which the poem was narrated by Phil Rizzuto, a New York Yankees announcer who was known to veer off on tangents while calling the game. The poem was later published in Seely and Cammuso\'s book, 2007 Eleven And Other American Comedies. - David Pogue penned a parody version titled \'A Desktop Critic: Steven Saves the Mac\' for Macworld magazine that ran in their October 1999 issue. It tells the story of Steve Jobs\' triumphant return to a struggling Apple Inc and his early efforts to reverse the company\'s fortunes. - Dick Flavin wrote a version titled Teddy at the Bat, after Boston Red Sox legend Ted Williams died in July 2002. Flavin performed the poem at Fenway Park during the night-long tribute to Williams done at the park later that month. The poem replaced Flynn and Blake with Bobby Doerr and Johnny Pesky, the batters who preceded Williams in the 1946 Red Sox lineup. - In 2000, Michael J. Farrand adapted the rhyming scheme, tone, and theme of the poem---while reversing the outcome---to create his poem \"The Man Who Gave All the Dreamers in Baseball Land Bigger Dreams to Dream\" about Kirk Gibson\'s home run off Dennis Eckersley in Game 1 of the 1988 World Series. The poem appears at the Baseball Almanac. - Norman Jackman wrote a reversed-outcome version in 1951 called \"Bobby Thomson at the Bat,\" which went unknown for over 60 years until the San Francisco Giants published it in 2012. It\'s about Thomson\'s famous home run in a 1951 Giant-Dodger playoff game. In 2016, the poem was accepted into the poetry files of the National Baseball Library and Archive of the Hall of Fame. - The New York Times best-selling author and poet laureate of The Ringer, Shea Serrano, penned a loving tribute to NBA player Gordon Hayward in the vein of \"Casey at the Bat\" in 2017. - Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster created \"Shakespearean Baseball\", featuring William Shakespeare-esque characters and dialogue in a skit based upon the poem. They performed the play on The Ed Sullivan Show and on Canadian TV numerous times between the 1950s and 1980s. - Baseball writer and Villanova professor Mitchell Nathanson updated the poem for contemporary times in 2019, publishing \"Casey @ the Bat\" in The Washington Post. ### Translations There are three known translations of the poem into a foreign language, one in French, written in 2007 by French Canadian linguist Paul Laurendeau, with the title Casey au bâton, and two in Hebrew. One by the sports journalist Menachem Less titled \"התור של קייסי לחבוט\" \[Hator Shel Casey Lachbot\], and the other more recent and more true to the original cadence and style by Jason H. Elbaum called קֵיסִי בַּמַּחְבֵּט \[Casey BaMachbayt\].	1,444	Casey at the Bat	5
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Derivations ### Names Casey Stengel describes in his autobiography how his original nickname \"K.C.\" (for his hometown, Kansas City, Missouri) evolved into \"Casey\". It was influenced not just by the name of the poem, which was widely popular in the 1910s, but also because he tended to strike out frequently in his early career so fans and writers started calling him \"strikeout Casey\".	69	Casey at the Bat	6
5,808	# Casey at the Bat ## Contemporary culture {#contemporary_culture} `{{In popular culture\|date=May 2021}}`{=mediawiki} ### Video games {#video_games} - The poem is referenced in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game EarthBound, where a weapon is named the Casey Bat, which is the strongest weapon in the game, but will only hit 25% of the time. ### Television {#television_1} - A recurring character in the Pokémon anime, a girl who is a very enthusiastic fan of baseball, is named \"Casey\" in the English version in reference to the poem. - Season 1, episode 35 of The Twilight Zone was named \"The Mighty Casey\" in reference to the poem\'s lead character, though the plot is unrelated. - The title of Season 3, episode 17 of The Simpsons, \"Homer at the Bat\", is a reference to the poem. - A third-season episode of Storm Chasers was titled \"Sean Casey At Bat\". The episode featured Casey (a chaser) intercepting a tornado for the first time in TIV 2. - In the show Friends, Ross clarifies how to spell \"Casey\" as in \"at the bat\" in the Season 2, episode 14 titled \"The One with the Prom Video.\" - In the show Containment, Season 1, episode 6 takes its name, \"He Stilled the Rising Tumult\", from the poem. - In the show Black Mirror, Season 6, episode 3, \"Beyond the Sea\" quotes the poem.`{{Explain\|date=February 2024}}`{=mediawiki} ### Theme parks {#theme_parks} - Casey\'s Corner is a baseball-themed restaurant in Walt Disney World\'s Magic Kingdom, which serves primarily hotdogs. Pictures of Casey and the pitcher from the Disney animated adaptation are hanging on the walls, and a life-size statue of a baseball player identified as \"Casey\" stands just outside the restaurant. Additionally, the scoreboard in the restaurant shows that Mudville lost to the visitors by two runs. - A hot dog restaurant featuring the Disney character can be found at Disneyland Paris\' Disneyland Park since its opening in 1992, under the name Casey\'s Corner. - A game called Casey at the Bat is in the Games of the Boardwalk at the Disneyland Resort\'s Disney California Adventure. ### Theatre {#theatre_1} - In Cabaret (1993) Clifford Bradshaw recites the end of \"Mighty Casey\" to Sally Bowles. ### Postage stamp {#postage_stamp} On July 11, 1996, the United States Postal Service issued a commemorative stamp depicting \"Mighty Casey.\" The stamp was part of a set commemorating American folk heroes. Other stamps in the set depicted Paul Bunyan, John Henry, and Pecos Bill	409	Casey at the Bat	7
5,814	# Chinese dominoes Chinese dominoes are used in several tile-based games, namely, tien gow, pai gow, tiu u and kap tai shap. In Cantonese they are called `{{zh\|cy=gwāt pái\|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki} (`{{zh\|c=骨牌\|labels=no}}`{=mediawiki}), which literally means \"bone tiles\"; it is also the name of a northern Chinese game, where the rules are quite different from the southern Chinese version of tien gow. ## History Ming author Xie Zhaozhe (1567--1624) records the legend of dominoes having been presented to Song Emperor Huizong in 1112. However the contemporary Li Qingzhao (1084 -- c. 1155) made no mention of dominoes in her compendium of games. In China, early \"domino\" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards. An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century. The oldest confirmed written mention of dominoes in China comes from the Former Events in Wulin (i.e. the capital Hangzhou) written by the Yuan Dynasty (1271--1368) author Zhou Mi (1232--1298), who listed \"pupai\" (gambling plaques or dominoes) as well as dice as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Song Emperor Xiaozong (`{{reign\|1162\|1189}}`{=mediawiki}). Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to pupai, since the Ming author Lu Rong (1436--1494) explicitly defined pupai as dominoes (in regards to a story of a suitor who won a maiden\'s hand by drawing out four winning pupai from a set). Tiles dating from the 12th to 14th centuries have survived. Unlike most modern tiles they are white with black and red pips. The earliest known manual written about dominoes is the Manual of the Xuanhe Period (《宣和牌譜》) written by Qu You (1341--1427), but some Chinese scholars believe this manual is a forgery from a later time. In the Encyclopedia of a Myriad of Treasures, Zhang Pu (1602--1641) described the game of laying out dominoes as pupai, although the character for pu had changed,`{{clarify\|date=August 2022}}`{=mediawiki} yet retained a similar pronunciation. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1912), the suits known as \"Chinese\" and \"barbarian\" were renamed to \"civil\" and \"military\" respectively to avoid offending the ruling Manchus. Tiles with blank ends, like those found in Western \"double-six\" dominoes, once existed during the 17th century. These games employed two sets of \"double-six\" tiles. It is possible that these were the types of dominoes that made it to Europe the following century. However, the 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century. Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century. Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six-sided dice (2d6). One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones. Traditional Chinese domino games include Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Che Deng, and others.	507	Chinese dominoes	0
5,814	# Chinese dominoes ## Deck composition and ranking {#deck_composition_and_ranking} Civil suit (文子) ------------------- ------------------------------------------------ ----- Rank Roll / Domino 1 (high) frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 6-6 2 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 1-1 3 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 4-4 4 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 3-1 5 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 5-5 6 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 3-3 7 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 2-2 8 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 5-6 9 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 4-6 10 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 1-6 11 frameless\\|upright=0.15frameless\\|upright=0.15 1-5 : Dice combinations and domino equivalents Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is equivalent to a single outcome when two six-sided dice are thrown. Each combination is only used once, so there are 21 unique possible patterns. Eleven of these 21 unique patterns are repeated to make a total of 32 tiles in a Chinese dominoes set. The 32-tile set is divided into two \"suits\" or groups called \"military\" and \"civil\". There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group. There are two each of the eleven civil suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of the ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). ### Civil suit {#civil_suit} Each civil tile also has a Chinese name. Here are the Cantonese names and rough English translations: - 6-6 is tin (天 heaven) - 1-1 is dei (地 earth) - 4-4 is yan (人 man) - 1-3 is ngo (鵝 goose or 和 harmony) - 5-5 is mui (梅 plum flower) - 3-3 is cheung (長 long) - 2-2 is ban (板 board) - 5-6 is fu (斧 hatchet) - 4-6 is ping (屏 partition) - 1-6 is tsat (七 long leg seven) - 1-5 is luk (六 big head six) The civil tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized. The hendiatris of Three talents (天地人) dates back for over two thousand years while the harmony (和) of the three have been in dice and domino games since at least the Ming dynasty. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them. ### Military suit {#military_suit} The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total pips or points on the tiles. For example, the \"nines\" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the \"eights\" (2-6 and 3-5). The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games. However, the ranking of combinations of tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow. Since there is only one of each military tile, these are usually grouped in four mixed \"pairs\" of equivalent total points: nines, eights, sevens, and fives; for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles \"match\" because they have same total points (nine) and both are in the military suit. Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair rank equally, such as 1-4 and 2-3, each totaling five. The 2-4 (six) and 1-2 (three) military tiles also are paired together in many games despite the nominal difference in total points. They are the only tiles in the entire set that have no corresponding tile in the military suit, considering sums. In Pai Gow both of these tiles may be scored as three or six, depending on which is more advantageous. This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the gi jun (至尊 supreme). It is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually (in their normal order). When either tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, each takes its regular ranking according to the total points among the other military suit tiles. ### Physical characteristics {#physical_characteristics} Stewart Culin stated that traditional dominoes are made of Chinese ebony with measurements of 2+5/8 in long, 7/8 in wide, and 3/8 in thick. Values are marked with white and red pips. Using the same coloring scheme as traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 pips has those pips colored red; for example, the 4-5 domino has four red pips and five white pips. The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles. Half of the pips on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles. Typically, one of the short edges is marked with a single red pip, and the backs may be marked with three pips, arrayed diagonally white-red-white.	748	Chinese dominoes	1
5,814	# Chinese dominoes ## Deck composition and ranking {#deck_composition_and_ranking} ### Variants <File:挖花牌.JPG%7CHalf> of a Digging Flowers set. The other half is identical. <File:골패> 骨牌 삼재도 三才圖.jpg\\|Dominoes from Korea There are also sets with where the tiles have Xiangqi characters next to the pips. As Xiangqi also has 32 pieces, these dual use sets can be used to play Giog. Variant sets include the Digging Flowers (挖花) game, which use the same 21 patterns generated by the 2d6 combination; some tiles have flowers or frames printed on them while others have their values duplicated. In addition, a Digging Flowers set may include several bonus tiles from mahjong, including flower, season, and blank tiles. Dominoes from Korea also come in a set of 32 and bear markings schematically identical to Chinese dominoes, based on the throw of two dice, although the tiles are closer in size and shape to those used in mahjong, measuring 3/4 ×, and the pip size may vary, especially for the 1- and 4-pip halves. The pairings for the \"military\" suit also differ: 1-2 and 4-5; 1-4 and 2-3, 2-4 and 3-4, 2-5 and 3-5, and 2-6 and 3-6. <table> <caption>Dice throws / tile names (Korean)</caption> <thead> <tr class="header"> <th><p>Value<br /> (Qty)</p></th> <th><p>Image</p></th> <th><p>Name</p></th> <th style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></th> <th><p>Value<br /> (Qty)</p></th> <th><p>Image</p></th> <th><p>Name</p></th> <th style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></th> <th><p>Value<br /> (Qty)</p></th> <th><p>Image</p></th> <th><p>Name</p></th> <th style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></th> <th><p>Value<br /> (Qty)</p></th> <th><p>Image</p></th> <th><p>Name</p></th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1-1<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>smallest<br /> <em>syo-syo</em><br /> (소소)</p></td> <td><p>2-2<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>superior two<br /> <em>tjoun-a</em><br /> (진이)</p></td> <td><p>3-3<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>long three<br /> <em>tjyang-sam</em><br /> (장삼)</p></td> <td><p>4-4<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>superior red<br /> <em>tjoun-hong</em><br /> (직흥)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>1-2<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>rat nose<br /> <em>tjoui-hko</em><br /> (쥐코)</p></td> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>2-3<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>two, three<br /> <em>a-sam</em><br /> (이삼)</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>3-4<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>three, four<br /> <em>sam-sa</em><br /> (삼사)</p></td> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>4-5<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#fdd;"><p>four, five<br /> <em>sa-o</em><br /> (사오)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1-3<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>small, three<br /> <em>syo-sam</em><br /> (소삼)</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>2-4<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#ffd;"><p>two, four<br /> <em>a-sa</em><br /> (이사)</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>3-5<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>three, five<br /> <em>sam-o</em><br /> (삼오)</p></td> <td><p>4-6<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>four, six<br /> <em>sa-ryouk</em><br /> (사육)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>1-4<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#fed;"><p>white, four<br /> <em>paik-sa</em><br /> (백사)</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>2-5<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#dfd;"><p>sovereign two<br /> <em>koan-i</em><br /> (관이)</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>3-6<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>three, six<br /> <em>sam-ryouk</em><br /> (삼육)</p></td> <td><p>5-5<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>superior five<br /> <em>tjoun-o</em><br /> (준오)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="odd"> <td><p>1-5<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>white, five<br /> <em>paik-o</em><br /> (백오)</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>2-6<br /> (1)</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td style="background:#ddf;"><p>two, six<br /> <em>a-ryouk</em><br /> (이육)</p></td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></td> <td><p>5-6<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>five, six<br /> <em>o-ryouk</em><br /> (오육)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> <tr class="even"> <td><p>1-6<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>white, six<br /> <em>paik-ryouk</em><br /> (백육)</p></td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#aaa;"><p> </p></td> <td><p>6-6<br /> (2)</p></td> <td><p>frameless\|upright=0.15</p></td> <td><p>superior six<br /> <em>tjoun-ryouk</em><br /> (주륙)</p></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> : Dice throws / tile names (Korean) Chinese Dominoes may also appear in a card format (:zh:纸骨牌). 15 Lake Cards (`{{cjkv\|c=十五湖牌}}`{=mediawiki}) have the 21 patterns (from the 2d6 combinations) quadruplicated to form an 84-card deck. Si Chuan Cards (`{{cjkv\|c=四川長牌}}`{=mediawiki}) may have the 21 patterns plus two additional cards (the \"listen - use\" and the \"god of wealth\") duplicated up to 5 times to form a 115-card deck. ## Bone tiles game {#bone_tiles_game} The eponymous game of Bone Tiles (gǔpái in Mandarin) is played in northern and central China and as far south as Hunan. The name suggests that it is or became the default game played with dominoes in those regions. It is a trick-taking game similar to Tien Gow but has been simplified. In single-tile tricks, the civil and military suits have been merged into a single suit. In double-tile tricks, there is a new ranking order similar to Pai Gow. Triple-tile and quadruple-tile tricks are not allowed as in older versions of Tien Gow. Scoring has been simplified to number of stacks won	697	Chinese dominoes	2
5,828	# Cryptozoology Cryptozoology is a pseudoscience and subculture that searches for and studies unknown, legendary, or extinct animals whose present existence is disputed or unsubstantiated, particularly those popular in folklore, such as Bigfoot, the Loch Ness Monster, Yeti, the chupacabra, the Jersey Devil, or the Mokele-mbembe. Cryptozoologists refer to these entities as cryptids, a term coined by the subculture. Because it does not follow the scientific method, cryptozoology is considered a pseudoscience by mainstream science: it is neither a branch of zoology nor of folklore studies. It was originally founded in the 1950s by zoologists Bernard Heuvelmans and Ivan T. Sanderson. Scholars have noted that the subculture rejected mainstream approaches from an early date, and that adherents often express hostility to mainstream science. Scholars studying cryptozoologists and their influence (including cryptozoology\'s association with Young Earth creationism) noted parallels in cryptozoology and other pseudosciences such as ghost hunting and ufology, and highlighted uncritical media propagation of cryptozoologist claims. ## Terminology, history, and approach {#terminology_history_and_approach} As a field, cryptozoology originates from the works of Bernard Heuvelmans, a Belgian zoologist, and Ivan T. Sanderson, a Scottish zoologist. Notably, Heuvelmans published On the Track of Unknown Animals (French: Sur la piste des bêtes ignorées) in 1955, a landmark work among cryptozoologists that was followed by numerous other similar works. In addition, Sanderson published a series of books that contributed to the developing hallmarks of cryptozoology, including Abominable Snowmen: Legend Come to Life (1961). Heuvelmans himself traced cryptozoology to the work of Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, who theorized that a large unidentified species of seal was responsible for sea serpent reports. Cryptozoology is \'the study of hidden animals\' (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, kryptós \"hidden, secret\"; Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion \"animal\", and λόγος, logos, i.e. \"knowledge, study\"). The term dates from 1959 or before--- Heuvelmans attributes the coinage of the term cryptozoology to Sanderson. Following cryptozoology, the term cryptid was coined in 1983 by cryptozoologist J. E. Wall in the summer issue of the International Society of Cryptozoology newsletter. According to Wall \"\[It has been\] suggested that new terms be coined to replace sensational and often misleading terms like \'monster\'. My suggestion is \'cryptid\', meaning a living thing having the quality of being hidden or unknown \... describing those creatures which are (or may be) subjects of cryptozoological investigation.\" The Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun cryptid as \"an animal whose existence or survival to the present day is disputed or unsubstantiated; any animal of interest to a cryptozoologist\". While used by most cryptozoologists, the term cryptid is not used by academic zoologists. In a textbook aimed at undergraduates, academics Caleb W. Lack and Jacques Rousseau note that the subculture\'s focus on what it deems to be \"cryptids\" is a pseudoscientific extension of older belief in monsters and other similar entities from the folkloric record, yet with a \"new, more scientific-sounding name: cryptids\". While biologists regularly identify new species, cryptozoologists often focus on creatures from the folkloric record. Most famously, these include the Loch Ness Monster, Champ (folklore), Bigfoot, the chupacabra, as well as other \"imposing beasts that could be labeled as monsters\". In their search for these entities, cryptozoologists may employ devices such as motion-sensitive cameras, night-vision equipment, and audio-recording equipment. While there have been attempts to codify cryptozoological approaches, unlike biologists, zoologists, botanists, and other academic disciplines, however, \"there are no accepted, uniform, or successful methods for pursuing cryptids\". Some scholars have identified precursors to modern cryptozoology in certain medieval approaches to the folkloric record, and the psychology behind the cryptozoology approach has been the subject of academic study. Few cryptozoologists have a formal science education, and fewer still have a science background directly relevant to cryptozoology. Adherents often misrepresent the academic backgrounds of cryptozoologists. According to writer Daniel Loxton and paleontologist Donald Prothero, \"\[c\]ryptozoologists have often promoted \'Professor Roy Mackal, PhD.\' as one of their leading figures and one of the few with a legitimate doctorate in biology. What is rarely mentioned, however, is that he had no training that would qualify him to undertake competent research on exotic animals. This raises the specter of \'credential mongering\', by which an individual or organization feints a person\'s graduate degree as proof of expertise, even though his or her training is not specifically relevant to the field under consideration.\" Besides Heuvelmans, Sanderson, and Mackal, other notable cryptozoologists with academic backgrounds include Grover Krantz, Karl Shuker, and Richard Greenwell. In a 2025 interview with science writer Sharon Hill \"Cryptids have become cutified\" \... The reason why cryptids are seeing a resurgence are because of the Internet, for example, the Flatwoods monster is seen in over 33 video games, but the real reason according to Hill is because for a while cryptids were thought to be real animals that some people had assigned magical powers to, and with some investigation the hope was that the magic could be stripped away and they would discover a real, perhaps unknown animal. "One of the reasons why I think that fell apart completely was because the International Society of Cryptozoology fell apart completely, so there were no longer any gatekeepers as of the early 1990's to say 'a cryptid is these animals that we are studying because we think it's got a zoological basis', those people were gone \... they were quite old, they died and there was nobody there to take over that gatekeeping aspect although some people tried. \... Then you saw an explosion of amateurs in the 2000s \... they became researchers that connected via the Internet. Now they start making media they can publish themselves \... it started to hit a younger and younger generation \... who love these creatures \... now everything can be a cryptid." Historically, notable cryptozoologists have often identified instances featuring \"irrefutable evidence\" (such as Sanderson and Krantz), only for the evidence to be revealed as the product of a hoax. This may occur during a closer examination by experts or upon confession of the hoaxer. ### Expeditions Cryptozoologists have often led unsuccessful expeditions to find evidence of cryptids. Bigfoot researcher René Dahinden led searches into caves to find evidence of sasquatch, as early sasquatch legends claimed they lived in rocky areas. Despite the failure of these searches, he spent years trying to find proof of bigfoot. Lensgrave Adam Christoffer Knuth led an expedition into Lake Tele in the Congo to find the Mokele-mbembe in 2018. While the expedition was a failure, they discovered a new species of green algae.	1,077	Cryptozoology	0
5,828	# Cryptozoology ## Terminology, history, and approach {#terminology_history_and_approach} ### Young Earth creationism {#young_earth_creationism} A subset of cryptozoology promotes the pseudoscience of Young Earth creationism, rejecting conventional science in favor of a literal Biblical interpretation and promoting concepts such as \"living dinosaurs\". Science writer Sharon Hill observes that the Young Earth creationist segment of cryptozoology is \"well-funded and able to conduct expeditions with a goal of finding a living dinosaur that they think would invalidate evolution\". Anthropologist Jeb J. Card says that \"\[\[Creationism\\|\[c\]reationists\]\] have embraced cryptozoology and some cryptozoological expeditions are funded by and conducted by creationists hoping to disprove evolution.\" In a 2013 interview, paleontologist Donald Prothero notes an uptick in creationist cryptozoologists. He observes that \"\[p\]eople who actively search for Loch Ness monsters or Mokele Mbembe do it entirely as creationist ministers. They think that if they found a dinosaur in the Congo it would overturn all of evolution. It wouldn\'t. It would just be a late-occurring dinosaur, but that\'s their mistaken notion of evolution.\" Citing a 2013 exhibit at the Petersburg, Kentucky-based Creation Museum, which claimed that dragons were once biological creatures who walked the earth alongside humanity and is broadly dedicated to Young Earth creationism, religious studies academic Justin Mullis notes that \"\[c\]ryptozoology has a long and curious history with Young Earth Creationism, with this new exhibit being just one of the most recent examples\". Academic Paul Thomas analyzes the influence and connections between cryptozoology in his 2020 study of the Creation Museum and the creationist theme park Ark Encounter. Thomas comments that, \"while the Creation Museum and the Ark Encounter are flirting with pseudoarchaeology, coquettishly whispering pseudoarchaeological rhetoric, they are each fully in bed with cryptozoology\" and observes that \"\[y\]oung-earth creationists and cryptozoologists make natural bed fellows. As with pseudoarchaeology, both young-earth creationists and cryptozoologists bristle at the rejection of mainstream secular science and lament a seeming conspiracy to prevent serious consideration of their claims.\" ### Lack of critical media coverage {#lack_of_critical_media_coverage} Media outlets have often uncritically disseminated information from cryptozoologist sources, including newspapers that repeat false claims made by cryptozoologists or television shows that feature cryptozoologists as monster hunters (such as the popular and purportedly nonfiction American television show MonsterQuest, which aired from 2007 to 2010). Media coverage of purported \"cryptids\" often fails to provide more likely explanations, further propagating claims made by cryptozoologists.	389	Cryptozoology	1
5,828	# Cryptozoology ## Reception and pseudoscience {#reception_and_pseudoscience} There is a broad consensus among academics that cryptozoology is a pseudoscience. The subculture is regularly criticized for reliance on anecdotal information and because in the course of investigating animals that most scientists believe are unlikely to have existed, cryptozoologists do not follow the scientific method. No academic course of study nor university degree program grants the status of cryptozoologist and the subculture is primarily the domain of individuals without training in the natural sciences. Anthropologist Jeb J. Card summarizes cryptozoology in a survey of pseudoscience and pseudoarchaeology: `{{blockquote\|Cryptozoology purports to be the study of previously unidentified animal species. At first glance, this would seem to differ little from zoology. New species are discovered by field and museum zoologists every year. Cryptozoologists cite these discoveries as justification of their search but often minimize or omit the fact that the discoverers do not identify as cryptozoologists and are academically trained zoologists working in an ecological paradigm rather than organizing expeditions to seek out supposed examples of unusual and large creatures.<ref name="CARD-23-32">Card (2016: 23–32).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Card notes that \"cryptozoologists often show their disdain and even hatred for professional scientists, including those who enthusiastically participated in cryptozoology\", which he traces back to Heuvelmans\'s early \"rage against critics of cryptozoology\". He finds parallels with cryptozoology and other pseudosciences, such as ghost hunting and ufology, and compares the approach of cryptozoologists to colonial big-game hunters, and to aspects of European imperialism. According to Card, \"\[m\]ost cryptids are framed as the subject of indigenous legends typically collected in the heyday of comparative folklore, though such legends may be heavily modified or worse. Cryptozoology\'s complicated mix of sympathy, interest, and appropriation of indigenous culture (or non-indigenous construction of it) is also found in New Age circles and dubious \"Indian burial grounds\" and other legends \[\...\] invoked in hauntings such as the \"Amityville\" hoax \[\...\]\". In a 2011 foreword for The American Biology Teacher, then National Association of Biology Teachers president Dan Ward uses cryptozoology as an example of \"technological pseudoscience\" that may confuse students about the scientific method. Ward says that \"Cryptozoology \[\...\] is not valid science or even science at all. It is monster hunting.\" Historian of science Brian Regal includes an entry for cryptozoology in his Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia (2009). Regal says that \"as an intellectual endeavor, cryptozoology has been studied as much as cryptozoologists have sought hidden animals\". In a 1992 issue of Folklore, folklorist Véronique Campion-Vincent says: `{{blockquote\|Unexplained appearances of mystery animals are reported all over the world today. Beliefs in the existence of fabulous and supernatural animals are ubiquitous and timeless. In the continents discovered by Europe indigenous beliefs and tales have strongly influenced the perceptions of the conquered confronted by a new natural environment. In parallel with the growing importance of the scientific approach, these traditional mythical tales have been endowed with sometimes highly artificial precision and have given birth to contemporary legends solidly entrenched in their territories. The belief self-perpetuates today through multiple observations enhanced by the media and encouraged (largely with the aim of gain for touristic promotion) by the local population, often genuinely convinced of the reality of this profitable phenomenon."<ref name="CAMPION-VINCENT-173">Campion-Vincent (1992: 160–183).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Campion-Vincent says that \"four currents can be distinguished in the study of mysterious animal appearances\": \"Forteans\" (\"compiler\[s\] of anomalies\" such as via publications like the Fortean Times), \"occultists\" (which she describes as related to \"Forteans\"), \"folklorists\", and \"cryptozoologists\". Regarding cryptozoologists, Campion-Vincent says that \"this movement seems to deserve the appellation of parascience, like parapsychology: the same corpus is reviewed; many scientists participate, but for those who have an official status of university professor or researcher, the participation is a private hobby\". In her Encyclopedia of American Folklore, academic Linda Watts says that \"folklore concerning unreal animals or beings, sometimes called monsters, is a popular field of inquiry\" and describes cryptozoology as an example of \"American narrative traditions\" that \"feature many monsters\". In his analysis of cryptozoology, folklorist Peter Dendle says that \"cryptozoology devotees consciously position themselves in defiance of mainstream science\" and that: `{{blockquote\|The psychological significance of cryptozoology in the modern world [...] serves to channel guilt over the decimation of species and destruction of the natural habitat; to recapture a sense of mysticism and danger in a world now perceived as fully charted and over-explored; and to articulate resentment of and defiance against a scientific community perceived as monopolising the pool of culturally acceptable beliefs.<ref name="DENDLE-2006-190-206">Dendle (2006: 190–206).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} In a paper published in 2013, Dendle refers to cryptozoologists as \"contemporary monster hunters\" that \"keep alive a sense of wonder in a world that has been very thoroughly charted, mapped, and tracked, and that is largely available for close scrutiny on Google Earth and satellite imaging\" and that \"on the whole the devotion of substantial resources for this pursuit betrays a lack of awareness of the basis for scholarly consensus (largely ignoring, for instance, evidence of evolutionary biology and the fossil record).\" According to historian Mike Dash, few scientists doubt there are thousands of unknown animals, particularly invertebrates, awaiting discovery; however, cryptozoologists are largely uninterested in researching and cataloging newly discovered species of ants or beetles, instead focusing their efforts towards \"more elusive\" creatures that have often defied decades of work aimed at confirming their existence. Paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson (1984) lists cryptozoology among examples of human gullibility, along with creationism: `{{blockquote\|Humans are the most inventive, deceptive, and gullible of all animals. Only those characteristics can explain the belief of some humans in creationism, in the arrival of UFOs with extraterrestrial beings, or in some aspects of cryptozoology. [...] In several respects the discussion and practice of cryptozoology sometimes, although not invariably, has demonstrated both deception and gullibility. An example seems to merit the old Latin saying 'I believe because it is incredible,' although Tertullian, its author, applied it in a way more applicable to the present day creationists.<ref name="SIMPSON-1984-1-16">Simpson (1984: 1–19).</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Paleontologist Donald Prothero (2007) cites cryptozoology as an example of pseudoscience and categorizes it, along with Holocaust denial and UFO abductions claims, as aspects of American culture that are \"clearly baloney\". In Scientifical Americans: The Culture of Amateur Paranormal Researchers (2017), Hill surveys the field and discusses aspects of the subculture, noting internal attempts at creating more scientific approaches and the involvement of Young Earth creationists and a prevalence of hoaxes. She concludes that many cryptozoologists are \"passionate and sincere in their belief that mystery animals exist. As such, they give deference to every report of a sighting, often without critical questioning. As with the ghost seekers, cryptozoologists are convinced that they will be the ones to solve the mystery and make history. With the lure of mystery and money undermining diligent and ethical research, the field of cryptozoology has serious credibility problems.\"	1,128	Cryptozoology	2
5,828	# Cryptozoology ## Organizations There have been several organizations, of varying types, dedicated or related to cryptozoology. These include: - International Fortean Organization -- a network of professional Fortean researchers and writers based in the United States - International Society of Cryptozoology -- an American organisation that existed from 1982 to 1998 - Kosmopoisk -- a Russian organisation whose interests include cryptozoology and Ufology - The Centre for Fortean Zoology- an English organization centered around hunting for unknown animals ## Museums and exhibitions {#museums_and_exhibitions} The zoological and cryptozoological collection and archive of Bernard Heuvelmans is held at the Musée Cantonal de Zoologie in Lausanne and consists of around \"1,000 books, 25,000 files, 25,000 photographs, correspondence, and artifacts\". In 2006, the Bates College Museum of Art held the \"Cryptozoology: Out of Time Place Scale\" exhibition, which compared cryptozoological creatures with recently extinct animals like the thylacine and extant taxa like the coelacanth, once thought long extinct (living fossils). The following year, the American Museum of Natural History put on a mixed exhibition of imaginary and extinct animals, including the elephant bird Aepyornis maximus and the great ape Gigantopithecus blacki, under the name \"Mythic Creatures: Dragons, Unicorns and Mermaids\". In 2003, cryptozoologist Loren Coleman opened the International Cryptozoology Museum in Portland, Maine. The museum houses more than 3000 cryptozoology related artifacts	219	Cryptozoology	3
5,836	# Geography of Colombia The Republic of Colombia is situated largely in the north-west of South America, with some territories falling within the boundaries of Central America. It is bordered to the north-west by Panama; to the east by Brazil and Venezuela; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. Colombia has a land size of 1141748 km2 and it is the 25th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America (after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru). Colombia\'s population is not evenly distributed, and most of the people live in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as along the northern coastline; the highest number live in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are sparsely inhabited, consisting of tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains that contain large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities, and indigenous tribes with their territories. Colombia has the 35th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of 808,158 km2. ## Main Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region, shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is one of only two South American countries that have coastline on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the other being Chile. The World Factbook does not differentiate between the Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). It suggests dividing the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains. The chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 15,000 ft (4,670 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 17000 ft. The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia\'s other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country\'s total land area. This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia\'s regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciénagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid and is occupied primarily by indigenous peoples. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Here can be found the highest peak of the country, named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m).	595	Geography of Colombia	0
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Main ### Andean region {#andean_region} Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 18700 ft, and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country\'s population lived in the Andean highlands. The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core. The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 9840 ft above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 4985 ft above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical. The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 124 mi of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge reaching to the Caribbean lowlands. The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes that is 500 mi long. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 10825 ft. The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 17602 ft above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast. Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River. This 1600 km river rises near a point some 180 km north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but it is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 km from the river\'s mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 m. In the Cordillera Oriental, at elevations between 2500 and, three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish encountered the regional Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2650 m above sea level. To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, the highest point of this range, rises to 5493 m above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier for residents here to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia. The basic plantation of Colombia is grassy and is near the equator which allows many tropical-like plants.	710	Geography of Colombia	1
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Main ### Caribbean region {#caribbean_region} The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira--Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5700 m and slopes generally too steep for cultivation. The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country\'s commerce moves through the cities of Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations for major commodity crops, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches. The city of Cartagena is a petrochemical, seaport (#1 in the country), and tourist city (#1 in the country). Santa Marta is also a seaport and tourist city but it is smaller scale city in comparison. Barranquilla is located some 25 mi from the Caribbean coastline but it is a more developed city, with a greater number of industries and commercial places, widely known for its skilled workers in producing all forms of metalwork and accomplishing construction. Its inhabitants have the highest education level of the region. The city is famous as the starting point and focus of the region and the country\'s development: it was the first city in the nation to install and use telephones, public lighting, air mail, planes, and industrial works. The Caribbean region merges next to and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second-most important region in terms of economic activity. Approximately 17% of the country\'s population lived in this region in the late 1980s. The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua. However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid foreign invasion. The islands are fortified with two important bases for defense and custom controls. These were formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance; the local universities often conduct research in the areas of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics and immunology. Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, breast implant development, or prosthetics, and immunology. These facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories. The Insular Region is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia. It comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean Sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona islands in the Pacific Ocean. Its subregions include other groups of islands: - Archipiélago de San Bernardo (in the Morrosquillo Gulf, Caribbean). - Islas del Rosario (Caribbean) - Isla Fuerte (Caribbean) - Isla Barú (Caribbean) - Isla Tortuguilla (Caribbean) - Isla Tierra Bomba (Caribbean)	554	Geography of Colombia	2
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Main ### Pacific region {#pacific_region} The western third of the country is the most geographically complex. Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered. In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia\'s mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland. In 1855, William Kennish, an engineer and veteran of the British Royal Navy, who had immigrated to the United States and was working for a New York City firm, studied the area and proposed an inter-oceanic river aqueduct and tunnel to connect the Rio Atrato, with its mouth at the Atlantic Ocean, with tributaries and through a tunnel and aqueduct through Nerqua Pass, to flow into Bahía Humboldt at the Pacific Ocean. This was his alternative to the canal that was eventually built further west on the isthmus of what became Panama after it gained independence in the early 20th century. Although the US sent an expedition to explore Kennish\'s proposal, the concept was not developed at the time. Colombia refused a later US offer to build a canal. After independence, in 1903 Panama made a treaty with the US to support construction of the Panama Canal. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity, sharing a bit with Venezuela; the range splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border. In the 1980s, only three percent of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Later in the 20th century, it was threatened by mining-related deforestation, as gold mining proceeded by both major companies and artisan miners. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. To the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá. Its river settlements have access to the major Atlantic ports and consequently are commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest. The Atrato Swamp, in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama, is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width. For years it has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted, is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project in Chocó Department has been proposed. A second inter-oceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and tributary streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile, tropical forest environment. ### Orinoquía region {#orinoquía_region} The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers or three-fifths of the country\'s total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only two percent of the country\'s population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the Piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced. The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes. ### Amazon region {#amazon_region} Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, a river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flows into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south.	739	Geography of Colombia	3
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Climate The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15 °C, and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 °C (1.8 °F). More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5 °C at night to 17 °C during the day. Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 m in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1980 m to about 3500 m constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4500 m are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado). About 86% of the country\'s total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24 and, and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation. Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 7600 mm annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with 13299 mm. In eastern Colombia, it decreases from 6350 mm in portions of the Andean Piedmont to 2540 mm eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October. The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1487 m) and Cali (1030 m) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19 and, depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons. The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about one fourth of the country\'s total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10 and, and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone. Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of 350 mm recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts. Colombia\'s geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined \"ethnocultural\" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Colombia\'s proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about 3.5 F-change for every 1000 ft increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in per year. Colombia\'s rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.	853	Geography of Colombia	4
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Vegetation Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude. The \"tierra caliente\" (hot land), below 1000 m, is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 1000 to, is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the \"tierra fría\" (cold land), at altitudes from 2000 to. In the \"zona forestada\" (forested zone), which is located between 3200 and, many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 4000 to. Above 4500 m, where temperatures are below freezing, is the \"tierra helada\", a zone of permanent snow and ice. Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. ## Relief The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name. The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called the Llanos, is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía. At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west. A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 553km² of tidal flats in Colombia, making it the 46th ranked country in terms of tidal flat area. Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó). The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas. In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó. In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield. ## Protected areas {#protected_areas}	534	Geography of Colombia	5
5,836	# Geography of Colombia ## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues} The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas. ## Extreme points {#extreme_points} Highest points: Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the 4700 m elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s. Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the \"Little Ice Age\" in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades. ## Facts Land size: total: 1138910 km2 Land boundaries: total: 6,672 km Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km) Exclusive Economic Zone: total: 808,158 km2 Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower Land use: arable land: 1.43% permanent crops: 1.68% other: 96.89% (2012) Irrigated land: 10,870 km^2^ (2011) Total renewable water resources: 2,132 km^3^ (2011) Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 12.65 km^3^ (55%/4%/41%) per capita: 308 m^3^/yr (2010) Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea ## Hydrology Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively	401	Geography of Colombia	6
5,838	# Politics of Colombia Colombia is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system, where the President of Colombia is both head of state and head of government. The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The legislative power is held by the two chambers of the Congress of Colombia, the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, with the four high courts for each jurisdiction of law: the Constitutional Court of Colombia, Supreme Court of Justice of Colombia, Council of State, and Superior Council of Judicature. ## Constitution The current Colombian Constitution of 1991, enacted on July 5, 1991, strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an adversarial system, which entirely replaced the existing Napoleonic Code. Other significant reforms under the new constitution included civil divorce, dual nationality, the office of Vice President of Colombia, and the election of Departmental Governors. Additionally, the constitution expanded citizens\' fundamental rights, including the right of \"tutela,\" which allows individuals to request immediate court action if they feel their constitutional rights are being violated and if no other legal recourse is available. ## Executive branch {#executive_branch} The President of Colombia is elected to a single four-year term. The 1991 constitution reestablished the position of the Vice President of Colombia, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president\'s resignation, illness, or death. Since 2015, the president has been barred from running for reelection, even for a nonconsecutive term. ## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch} Colombia\'s bicameral congress consists of a 108-member senate and a 172-member chamber of representatives. Senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multi member districts co-located within the 32 national departments. The country\'s capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives. Members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the pre-1991 constitution system, there are no alternate congressmen. Congress meets twice a year, and the president has the power to call it into special session when needed. ## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch} The civilian judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government. Guidelines and the general structure for Colombia\'s administration of justice are set out in Law 270 of March 7, 1996. After the 1991 Constitution, Colombia\'s legal system began incorporating elements of an oral, accusatory system. The judicial branch\'s general structure comprises four distinct jurisdictions: ordinary, administrative, constitutional, and special. Colombia\'s highest judicial organs are the Supreme Court, the Council of State, the Constitutional Court, and the Superior Judicial Council. Although all the high courts technically oversee separate jurisdictions, the Constitutional Court has a broad spectrum of judicial oversight, often allowing it to rule on issues overseen by different jurisdictions and even weigh in directly on the rulings of other high courts	483	Politics of Colombia	0

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