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# Blackwood convention
## Variations not based on 4NT {#variations_not_based_on_4nt}
### Kickback
\"Kickback\" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful Space Principle. The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT. Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit; i.e.:
--------------------------- ----------------------
4`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} -- RKCB for clubs
4`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} -- RKCB for diamonds
4`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} -- RKCB for hearts
4NT -- RKCB for spades
--------------------------- ----------------------
Kickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required key cards are missing. Because the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds). The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain:
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| West | East |
+===================================+===================================+
| 1`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} | 1`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 2`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} | 3`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 4`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} | 4`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| Pass | |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
East intended 4`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values. As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed.
An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener\'s rebid, 4`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds.
### Redwood
\"Redwood\" is a variation of Kickback that is only used when a minor suit is trumps. A 4 level bid in the suit above the agreed trump suit is the ace / key card ask and the name comes from the fact that this bid will always be a red suit:
4`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki}-- RKCB for clubs
4`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki}-- RKCB for diamonds
Once key cards have been identified the next step bid (other than trumps) can be used to ask for Kings.
One advantage of this approach is that it avoids the potential for misunderstanding that can occur when using Minorwood but one disadvantage is that it uses up one more bid (than Minorwood) and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.
Using \"Redwood,\" the ace/key card ask of 4NT is still used when the trump suit is a major (hearts or spades).
### Minorwood
\"Minorwood\" is a variation of Blackwood, in which the minor suit which the partners agree will be trumps is itself used as the ace/key card ask. The ask will be at the four level. Hence:
4`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki}-- RKCB for clubs
4`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki}-- RKCB for diamonds
One disadvantage to this convention is that either the partnership must agree to lose the natural 4 level bid in trumps or have clear agreement on which sequences are slam seeking and which are natural bids. The advantage of this approach is that it conserves bidding space. For example, the use of Redwood reduces the risk of a misunderstanding but uses up one more bid and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.
### Exclusion Blackwood {#exclusion_blackwood}
**Exclusion Blackwood** or **Voidwood**. was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void. In that case, he is not interested in the partner\'s ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner\'s ace would present a duplicated value in that case. Many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement.
It is usually played as the Roman Key Card Blackwood, with only four key cards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps. However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit --- Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example:
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| West | East |
+===================================+===================================+
| 1`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} | 3`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
| 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+
Bids of 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki}, 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} and 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} present a Voidwood, denoting the void in the suit bid and asking for other key cards
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# Battle of El Alamein
*The Battle of El Alamein* (film)}}
There were two **Battles of El Alamein** in World War II, both fought in 1942. The battles occurred during the North African campaign in Egypt, in and around an area named after a railway stop called El Alamein.
- First Battle of El Alamein: 1--27 July 1942. the advance of Axis troops on Alexandria was blunted by the Allies, stopping the Italian and German forces that were trying to outflank the Allies\' position
```{=html}
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```
- Second Battle of El Alamein: 23 October -- 4 November 1942. This was an Allied Victory that broke the Axis line, forced them all the way back to Tunisia and led Winston Churchill to remark in 1950 that \"It may almost be said, \'Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein we never had a defeat\'\"
In addition, the Battle of Alam el Halfa (30 August -- 5 September 1942) was fought during the same period and in the same location
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# Bain-marie
A **bain-marie** (`{{IPAc-en|lang|ˌ|b|æ|n|m|ə|ˈ|r|iː}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|BAN|mə|REE}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|fr|bɛ̃ maʁi|lang}}`{=mediawiki}), also known as a **water bath** or **double boiler**, a type of heated bath, is a piece of equipment used in science, industry, and cooking to heat materials gently or to keep materials warm over a period of time. A *bain-marie* is also used to melt ingredients for cooking.
## History
The name comes from the French *bain de Marie* or *bain-marie*, in turn derived from the medieval Latin *balneum Mariae* and the Arabic *حمام ماري* `{{Transliteration|ar|ḥammām Māriyya}}`{=mediawiki}, all meaning \'Mary\'s bath\'. In his books, the 300 AD alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis credits for the invention of the device Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist. However, the water bath was known many centuries earlier (Hippocrates and Theophrastus), and the *balneum Mariae* attributed to Mary the Jewess was used to heat its contents above `{{val|100|ul=degC}}`{=mediawiki}, while the bain-marie that continues to be used today only heats its contents up to a gentle heat of less than `{{val|100|ul=degC}}`{=mediawiki}.
## Description
The double boiler comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and types, but traditionally is a wide, cylindrical, usually metal container made of three or four basic parts: a handle, an outer (or lower) container that holds the working fluid, an inner (or upper), smaller container that fits inside the outer one and which holds the material to be heated or cooked, and sometimes a base underneath. Under the outer container of the bain-marie (or built into its base) is a heat source.
Typically, the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid.
The inner container, filled with the substance to be heated, fits inside the outer container filled with the working fluid (often water, but alternatively steam or oil). The outer container is heated at or below the base, causing the temperature of the working fluid to rise and thus transferring heat to the inner container. The maximum obtainable temperature of the working fluid is dictated by its composition and boiling point at the ambient pressure. Since the surface of the inner container is always in contact with the working fluid, the double boiler serves as a constant-temperature heat source for the substance being heated, without hot or cold spots that can affect its properties.
When the working fluid is water and the bain-marie is used at sea level, the maximum temperature of the material in the lower container will not exceed 100 C, the boiling point of water at sea level. Using different working fluids such as oil in the outer container, or pressurizing the outer container, will result in different maximum temperatures obtainable in the inner container.
## Alternatives
A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric \"dry-heat\" bain-marie, heated by elements below both pots. The dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are often much less expensive than their traditional counterparts.
Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using either hot water or vapor, or steam, in the heating process. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub (or \"bath\"), and the vapour-type bain-marie heats with scalding-hot steam.
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# Bain-marie
## Culinary applications {#culinary_applications}
In cooking applications, a bain-marie usually consists of a pan or pot of water in which another container or containers of food to be cooked is/are placed.
- Chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting (separation of cocoa butter and cocoa solids, breaking emulsion) and caking onto the pot. Special dessert bains-marie usually have a thermally insulated container and can be used as a chocolate fondue for the purposes of dipping foods (typically fruits) at the table.
- Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre.
- Baked custard desserts such as custard tarts may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. In the case of the crème brûlée, placing the ramekins in a roasting pan and filling the pan with hot water until it is half to two-thirds of the way up the sides of the ramekins transfers the heat to the custard gently, which prevents the custard from curdling. The humidity from the steam that rises as the water heats helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry.
- Classic warm high-fat sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, are often cooked using a double-boiler bain-marie as they require enough heat to emulsify the mixture of fats and water but not enough to curdle or split the sauce. Similarly, the classic Italian dessert zabaglione (in French, sabayon), consisting of egg yolks, sugar and sweet wine, is made in a double boiler bain-marie to avoid over-cooking the egg yolks while whisking the mixture into a stable froth.
- Some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an \"oven-type\" bain-marie.
- The making of clotted cream.
- Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is done in a bain-marie.
- Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings.
- Bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful.
- A simple or impromptu bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened or \"sugared\" honey in a glass jar by placing the opened jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a partially-full pot of gently boiling water.
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# Bain-marie
## Other uses {#other_uses}
In small scale soap-making, a bain-marie\'s inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars. It offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration. Similarly, using a water bath, traditional wood glue can be melted and kept in a stable liquid state over many hours without damage to the animal proteins it incorporates.
In luthiery, pure beeswax or a mixture of wax and paraffin is used for pickup potting. As the substance is flammable, a bain-marie is used to slow the rate of heating and prevent the creation of hotspots which could lead to a fire
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# Ballu tundu
***Ballu tundu*** or ***ballu sardu*** is a traditional Sardinian folk dance which is typically danced in a closed or open circle. The dance was described as early as 1805 by Mameli and by La Marmora in 1825. In northern and central Sardinia, the dance is lively and animated with leaps and agile movements and usually accompanied by a choir of three or more singers in the center of the circle. In other areas, the dance is done to launeddas and the shepherd\'s *sulittu*, but the accordion had also made its appearance by the 19th century. The introduction is in `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki} time but the dance itself is done in `{{music|time|6|8}}`{=mediawiki}.
At least in the past, the manner of holding hands was very important and followed strict rules. Married or engaged couples could hold hands palm to palm with fingers entwined, but a man could not do this with a young girl or another man\'s wife. If a stranger entered the circle, he had to do so to the woman\'s right so as not to come between her and her husband
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# Barbagia
**Barbagia** (`{{IPA|it|barˈbaːdʒa|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; *Barbàgia* or *Barbàza*) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif.
The name comes from Cicero, who described the land as inhabited by barbarians; Roman domination over this part of the island was in fact never more than nominal as a result of the Roman-Sardinian Wars. This word shares its etymology with the now antiquated *Barbary*.
The Sardinians, many of whose revolts came from this area, were also mocked by the ancient Romans with the pejorative term *latrones mastrucati* \'thieves wearing rough woolen garments\'.
In 594, Pope Gregory the Great wrote a letter to Hospito, a Christian whom he calls the \"leader of the Barbaricini\" (*dux barbaricinorum*). Hospito apparently permitted the evangelisation of pagan Barbagia by Christian missionaries.
The area is usually divided into five Barbagias: the Barbagia of Ollolai, the Barbagia of Seulo, the Barbagia of Belvì, the Mandrolisai, and finally the *Barbagia Trigònia*, the historical name by which the area of Ogliastra was once referred to. The latter two are named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages.
The area comprises mainly rocky and steep hills and mountains, and there is little human presence. Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe, which has allowed Barbagia to preserve better the island\'s cultural and natural treasures. According to a thesis by the archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, Sardinian history has always been characterised by what he called the \"constant of Sardinian resistance\", opposed to the invaders who attempted at various times to lord over the indigenous inhabitants. Barbagia is one of the few Sardinian regions where the Sardinian language in its own varieties, both Nuorese and Campidanese, is still spoken on an everyday basis, while the rest of the island has already mostly undergone thorough Italianization and language shift to Italian.
One of the most important villages is Gavoi. Orgosolo was famous for its bandits and kidnappers and typical murals. Oliena is well known for its wines (especially the *Nepente*, a wine made with Cannonau grapes). Another well known town is Fonni, the highest town in Sardinia at more than 1,000 meters above sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system.
The economy consists of agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry
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# Brabham
**Motor Racing Developments Ltd.**, commonly known as **Brabham** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|æ|b|əm}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|BRAB|əm}}`{=mediawiki}), was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team. It was founded in 1960 by the Australian driver Jack Brabham and the British-Australian designer Ron Tauranac. The team had a successful thirty-year history, winning four FIA Formula One World Drivers\' Championships and two World Constructors\' Championships.
Under Brabham and Tauranac, Brabham won double world championships in 1966 and 1967, with the 1966 drivers\' title going to Jack Brabham and the 1967 title going to Denny Hulme. Jack Brabham is the only Formula One driver to win a Drivers\' Championship in a car bearing his own name. Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to design cars. It became the world\'s largest manufacturer of open-wheel racing cars sold to customer teams, having built more than 500 cars by 1970. Teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three. The cars also competed in events like the Indianapolis 500 and Formula 5000 racing.
The businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s, and later became responsible for administering the commercial aspects of Formula One. Under Ecclestone and chief designer Gordon Murray, the team won two more Drivers\' Championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet. During this period, the team withdrew from manufacturing customer cars but introduced innovations such as carbon brakes and hydropneumatic suspension; it also reintroduced in-race refuelling. Its unique \'fan car\' won its only race, in `{{F1|1978}}`{=mediawiki}, before being withdrawn. Piquet won his first championship in `{{f1|1981}}`{=mediawiki} in the ground effect BT49-Ford. In `{{f1|1983}}`{=mediawiki}, he became the first driver to win a title with a turbocharged car, the Brabham BT52, which was powered by BMW\'s M12 straight-four engine and won four Grands Prix that season. Ecclestone sold the team in 1988.
Midway through the 1992 season, the team collapsed financially and was investigated for fraud, as its new owner, Japanese engineering firm Middlebridge, failed to make its loan repayments. In 2009, a German organisation unsuccessfully attempted to enter the 2010 Formula One season using the Brabham name.
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# Brabham
## Origins
thumb\|left\|upright=0.8\|alt=Photograph of Jack Brabham in 1966\|Jack Brabham was 40 when he won the F1 drivers\' title in a Brabham car The Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac, who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia. Brabham, who had been a highly successful dirt oval speedway Speedcar driver with multiple Australian national and state titles to his credit before moving full-time into road racing in 1953, was the more successful driver. He went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career. There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team. By 1958, he had progressed with them to Formula One, the highest category of open-wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l\'Automobile (FIA), motorsport\'s world governing body. In 1959 and 1960, Brabham won the Formula One World Drivers\' Championship in Cooper\'s revolutionary mid-engined cars.
Despite their innovation of placing the engine behind the driver, the Coopers and their chief designer, Owen Maddock, were generally resistant to developing their cars. Brabham pushed for further advances, and played a significant role in developing Cooper\'s highly successful 1960 T53 \"lowline\" car, with input from his friend Tauranac. Brabham was confident he could do better than Cooper. In late 1959, he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him. Initially, they produced upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors. However, their long-term aim was to design racing cars. Brabham described Tauranac as \"absolutely the only bloke I\'d have gone into partnership with\". Later, Brabham offered a Coventry-Climax FWE-engined version of the Herald, with 83 hp and uprated suspension to match the extra power.
To meet that aim, Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (MRD), deliberately avoiding the use of either man\'s name. The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer-built racing cars. As Brabham was still employed by Cooper, Tauranac produced the first **MRD car**, for the entry level Formula Junior class, in secrecy. Unveiled in the summer of 1961, the \"MRD\" was soon renamed. Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that \"\[the\] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials---written phonetically, \'em air day\'---sounded perilously like the French word\... *merde.*\" Gavin Youl achieved a second-place finish at Goodwood and another at Mallory Park in the MRD-Ford. The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for \"Brabham Tauranac\".
By the 1961 Formula One season, the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper. Brabham had a poor season, scoring only four points, and---having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961---left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments. The team was based at Chessington, England and held the British licence.
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# Brabham
## Racing history---Formula One {#racing_historyformula_one}
### Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961--1970) {#jack_brabham_and_ron_tauranac_19611970}
Motor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae, so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season. The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the year fielding a customer Lotus chassis, which was delivered at 3am to keep it a secret. Brabham took two points finishes in Lotuses, before the turquoise-liveried Brabham BT3 car made its debut at the 1962 German Grand Prix. It retired with a throttle problem after 9 of the 15 laps, but went on to take a pair of fourth places at the end of the season.
From the 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia\'s racing colours of green and gold. Brabham took the team\'s first win at the non-championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963. Gurney took the marque\'s first two wins in the world championship, at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix. Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the 1964 season. The 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins. Brabham finished third or fourth in the Constructors\' Championship for three years running, but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions. Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Tauranac.
The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce. Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off-the-shelf parts. Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving (of Vincent Motorcycle fame) was the project engineer responsible for producing the initial version of the engine. Few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season. At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name. Only his former teammate, Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement. It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran. Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (*cf* Surtees, Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive). In 1967, the title went to Brabham\'s teammate, New Zealander Denny Hulme. Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Brabham\'s desire to try new parts first. The Brabham team took the Constructors\' World Championship in both years.
For 1968, Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme, who had left to join McLaren. Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford\'s new Cosworth DFV, but it proved very unreliable. Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult. The car was fast---Rindt set pole position twice during the season---but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year with only ten points.
Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season, Rindt left to join Lotus. His replacement, Jacky Ickx, had a strong second half to the season, winning in Germany and Canada, after Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident. Ickx finished second in the Drivers\' Championship, with 37 points to Jackie Stewart\'s 63. Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top-3 finishes, but did not finish half the races. The team were second in the Constructors\' Championship, aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad.
Brabham took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year, although mechanical failures blunted his challenge. After losing secured victories in the last corner at both Monaco and England, Jack decided he had had enough, and sold his part in the company to former Jochen Rindt manager, a businessman named Bernie Ecclestone, at the end of the year. Aided by number-two driver Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the Constructors\' Championship.
### Ron Tauranac (1971) {#ron_tauranac_1971}
Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season. Tauranac designed the unusual \'lobster claw\' BT34, featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill. Although Hill, no longer a front-runner since his 1969 accident, took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone, the team scored only seven championship points.
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# Brabham
## Racing history---Formula One {#racing_historyformula_one}
### Bernie Ecclestone (1972--1988) {#bernie_ecclestone_19721988}
Tauranac left Brabham early in the 1972 season after Ecclestone changed the way the company was organised without consulting him. Ecclestone has since said \"In retrospect, the relationship was never going to work\", noting that \"\[Tauranac and I\] both take the view: \'Please be reasonable, do it my way\'\". The highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models, were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix. For the 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted the young South African engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer and moved Herbie Blash from the Formula Two programme to become the Formula One team manager. Both would remain with the team for the next 15 years. For 1973, Murray produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the Drivers\' Championship.
In the 1974 season, Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham\'s first since 1970. The team finished a close fifth in the Constructors\' Championship, fielding the much more competitive BT44s. After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title. The year started well, with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo. However, as the season progressed, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races, and the team was constantly outperformed by Ferrari and McLaren. Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while Reutemann had five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix, and finished third in the Drivers\' Championship. The team likewise ranked second in the Constructors\' Championship at the end of the year.
While rival teams Lotus and McLaren relied on the Cosworth DFV engine from the late 1960s to the early 1980s, Ecclestone sought a competitive advantage by investigating other options. Despite the success of Murray\'s Cosworth-powered cars, Ecclestone signed a deal with Italian motor manufacturer Alfa Romeo to use their large and powerful flat-12 engine from the 1976 season. The engines were free, but they rendered the new BT45s, now in red Martini Racing livery, unreliable and overweight. At that time, designer David North was hired to work alongside Murray. The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again. Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari. Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977. Watson lost near certain victory in the French Grand Prix (Dijon) of that year when his car ran low on fuel on the last lap and was passed by Mario Andretti\'s Lotus, with Watson\'s second place being the team\'s best result of the season. The car often showed at the head of races, but the unreliability of the Alfa Romeo engine was a major problem. The team lost Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident.
For the 1978 season, Murray\'s BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa Romeo engines. Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda from Ferrari through a deal with Italian dairy products company Parmalat which met the cost of Lauda ending his Ferrari contract and made up his salary to the £200,000 Ferrari was offering. 1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 \"wing car\", which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial \"B\" or \"fan car\" version.Details of BT46 and 1978 season: Henry (1985) p. 171, pp. 179--189
- Lauda\'s move and salary: Lovell (2004) p. 98
The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season, the team\'s first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet. Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective \"carbon-carbon braking\" system---a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976. However, unexpected movement of the car\'s aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable. The team dropped to eighth in the Constructors\' Championship by the end of the season. Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being \"like having a holiday\". The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later saying that he \"was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles\".
The team used the BT49 over four seasons. In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took third in the Constructors\' Championship with Piquet second in the Drivers\' Championship. This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team\'s demise in 1992. With a better understanding of ground effect, the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce. Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray, took the drivers\' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating. The team finished second in the Constructors\' Championship, behind the Williams team.
Renault had introduced turbocharged engines to Formula One in 1977. Brabham had tested a BMW four-cylinder M12 turbocharged engine in the summer of 1981. For the 1982 season the team designed a new car, the BT50, around the BMW engine which, like the Repco engine 16 years before, was based on a road car engine block, the BMW M10. Brabham continued to run the Cosworth-powered BT49D in the early part of the season while reliability and driveability issues with the BMW units were resolved. The relationship came close to ending, with the German manufacturer insisting that Brabham use their engine. The turbo car took its first win at the Canadian Grand Prix. In the Constructors\' Championship, the team finished fifth, the drivers Riccardo Patrese, who scored the last win of the Brabham-Ford combination in the Monaco Grand Prix, 10th and World Champion Piquet a mere 11th in the Drivers\' Championship. In the 1983 season, Piquet took the championship lead from Renault\'s Alain Prost at the last race of the year, the South African Grand Prix to become the first driver to win the Formula One Drivers\' World Championship with a turbo-powered car. The team did not win the Constructors\' Championship in either 1981 or 1983, despite Piquet\'s success. Patrese was the only driver other than Piquet to win a race for Brabham in this period---the drivers in the second car contributed only a fraction of the team\'s points in each of these championship seasons. Patrese finished ninth in the Drivers\' Championship with 13 points, dropping the team behind Ferrari and Renault to third in the Constructors\' Championship.
Piquet took the team\'s last wins: two in 1984 by winning the seventh and eighth races of that season, the Canadian Grand Prix and the Detroit Grand Prix, and one in 1985 by winning the French Grand Prix. He finished fifth in 1984 and a mere eighth in 1985 in the respective Drivers\' Championships. After seven years and two world championships, Piquet felt he was worth more than Ecclestone\'s salary offer for 1986, and reluctantly left for the Williams team at the end of the season.
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# Brabham
## Racing history---Formula One {#racing_historyformula_one}
### Bernie Ecclestone (1972--1988) {#bernie_ecclestone_19721988}
For the 1986 season, Patrese returned to Brabham, and was joined by Elio de Angelis. The season was a disaster for Brabham, scoring only two points. Murray\'s radical long and low BT55, with its BMW M12 engine tilted over to improve its aerodynamics and lower its centre of gravity, had severe reliability issues, and the Pirelli tyres performed poorly. De Angelis became the Formula One team\'s only fatality when he died in a testing accident at the Paul Ricard circuit. Derek Warwick, who replaced de Angelis, was close to scoring two points for fifth in the British Grand Prix, but a problem on the last lap dropped him out of the points.
In August, BMW after considering running their own in-house team, announced their departure from Formula One at the end of the season. Murray, who had largely taken over the running of the team as Ecclestone became more involved with his role at the Formula One Constructors Association, felt that \"the way the team had operated for 15 years broke down\". He left Brabham in November to join McLaren.
Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season, but the German company would only supply the laydown engine. The upright units, around which Brabham had designed their new car, were sold for use by the Arrows team. Senior figures at Brabham, including Murray, have admitted that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team. The 1987 season was only slightly more successful than the previous year---Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them, including two third places at the Belgian Grand Prix and the Mexican Grand Prix. Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team\'s withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988. During the season-ending Australian Grand Prix, Ecclestone announced he had sold MRD to EuroBrun team owner Walter Brun for an unknown price.
### Joachim Lüthi (1989) {#joachim_lüthi_1989}
Brun soon sold the team on, this time to Swiss financier Joachim Lüthi, who brought it back into Formula One for the 1989 season. The new Brabham BT58, powered by a Judd V8 engine (originally another of Jack Brabham\'s companies), was produced for the 1989 season. Italian driver Stefano Modena, who had driven for the team in the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in a one off drive for the team, drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle who was returning to Formula One after spending 1988 winning the World Sportscar Championship for Jaguar. Modena took the team\'s last podium: a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix (Brundle, who had only just scraped through pre-qualifying by 0.021 seconds before qualifying a brilliant 4th, had been running third but was forced to stop to replace a flat battery, finally finishing sixth). The team also failed to make the grid sometimes: Brundle failed to prequalify at the Canadian Grand Prix and the French Grand Prix. The team finished 9th in the Constructors\' Championship at the end of the season.
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# Brabham
## Racing history---Formula One {#racing_historyformula_one}
### Middlebridge Racing (1989--1992) {#middlebridge_racing_19891992}
After Lüthi\'s arrest on tax fraud charges in mid-1989, several parties disputed the ownership of the team. Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm owned by billionaire Koji Nakauchi, was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing and gained control of Brabham for the 1990 season. Herbie Blash had returned to run the team in 1989 and continued to do so in 1990. Middlebridge paid for its purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing, but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons.
Jack Brabham\'s youngest son, David, raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990 including the season-ending Australian Grand Prix (the first time a Brabham had driven a Brabham car in an Australian Grand Prix since 1968). 1990 was another disastrous year, with Modena\'s fifth place in the season-opening United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish. The team finished ninth in the Constructors\' Championship. Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell, scored only three points during the 1991 season. Due to poor results in the first half of 1991, they had to prequalify in the second half of the season; Blundell failed to do so in Japan, as did Brundle in Australia. The team finished 10th in the Constructors\' Championship, behind another struggling British team, Lotus. The 1992 season started with Eric van de Poele and Giovanna Amati after Japanese Formula 3000 driver Akihiko Nakaya was denied a superlicense. Damon Hill, the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion, debuted in the team after Amati was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise. Amati, the fifth and last (`{{as of|April 2025|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}) woman to race in Formula One, ended her career with three DNQs.
Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team\'s final cars around Judd engines, except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars. In the 1992 season the cars (which were updated versions of the 1991 car) rarely qualified for races. Hill gave the team its final finish, at the Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line 11th and last, four laps behind the winner, Ayrton Senna. After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed.
Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into administration. The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case. Landhurst\'s managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge. It was one of four teams to leave Formula One that year. (*cf* March Engineering, Fondmetal and Andrea Moda Formula). Although there was talk of reviving the team for the following year, its assets passed to Landhurst Leasing and were auctioned by the company\'s receivers in 1993. Among these was the team\'s old factory in Chessington, which was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports and used to house Activa Technology Limited, a company manufacturing composite components for race and road cars run by Herbie Blash. The factory was bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006.
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# Brabham
## Motor Racing Developments {#motor_racing_developments}
Brabham cars were also widely used by other teams, and not just in Formula One. Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build formula racing cars to customer teams Motor Racing Developments (MRD), and this company had a large portfolio of other activities. Initially, Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 per cent of the shares. Tauranac was responsible for design and running the business, while Brabham was the test driver and arranged corporate deals like the Repco engine supply and the use of the MIRA wind tunnel. He also contributed ideas to the design process and often machined parts and helped build the cars.
From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One, and often ran works cars in other formulae. A separate company, Jack Brabham\'s Brabham Racing Organisation, ran the Formula One works entry. Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, although it did not pay for development parts. Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement. Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category. After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD.
Despite only building its first car in 1961, by the mid-1960s MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, and by 1970 had built over 500 cars. Of the other Formula One teams which used Brabhams, Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful. The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season. The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966. Brabham had the reputation of providing customers with cars of a standard equal to those used by the works team, which worked \"out of the box\". The company provided a high degree of support to its customers---including Jack Brabham helping customers set up their cars. During this period the cars were usually known as \"Repco Brabhams\", not because of the Repco engines used in Formula One between 1966 and 1968, but because of a smaller-scale sponsorship deal through which the Australian company had been providing parts to Jack Brabham since his Cooper days.
At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD. He retained the Brabham brand, as did subsequent owners. Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Ecclestone\'s ownership, he believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed. The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and the Formula Three BT41 of 1973, although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976.
In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo. The Formula One team did not compete that year, but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype \"Procar\"---a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon (the Alfa Romeo 164) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid-mounted race engine. This was intended for a racing series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix, and was designated the Brabham BT57.
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# Brabham
## Racing history---other categories {#racing_historyother_categories}
### IndyCar
Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s. After an abortive project in 1962, MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an IndyCar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine. The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the \"Zink-Urschel Trackburner\" at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem. The car was entered again in 1966, taking a third place for Jim McElreath. From 1968 to 1970, Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2-litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One---with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969---before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970. The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian, finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II. Although no Brabham car ever won at Indianapolis, McElreath won four United States Automobile Club (USAC) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12. The \"Dean Van Lines Special\" in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car, made with permission from Brabham by Andretti\'s crew chief Clint Brawner. Revson took Brabham\'s final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969, using the Repco engine.
### Formula Two {#formula_two}
In the 1960s and early 1970s, drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two. In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component. The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme. Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier.
### Formula Three {#formula_three}
The first Formula Three Brabham, the BT9, won only four major races in 1964. The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design. 58 cars were sold, which won 42 major races. Further developments of the same concept, including wings by the end of the decade, were highly competitive up until 1971. The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham\'s first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac. Although 40 were ordered, it was less successful than its predecessors. The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham.
### Formula 5000 {#formula_5000}
Brabham made one car for Formula 5000 racing, the Brabham BT43. Rolled out in late 1973 it was tested in early 1974 by John Watson at Silverstone before making its debut at the Rothmans F5000 Championship Round at Monza on 30 June 1974, driven by Martin Birrane. Former Australian Drivers\' Champion Kevin Bartlett used the Chevrolet powered Brabham BT43 to finish 3rd in the 1978 Australian Drivers\' Championship including finishing 5th in the 1978 Australian Grand Prix.
### Sports cars {#sports_cars}
Tauranac did not enjoy designing sports cars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD\'s very successful single-seater business. Only 14 sports car models were built between 1961 and 1972, out of a total production of almost 600 chassis. The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. The design was \"stretched\" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3-litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing. It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident.
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# Brabham
## Technical innovation {#technical_innovation}
Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962. Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD\'s customers. His \"old fashioned\" cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970.
Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone its designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed. The practice became the norm in only the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars. Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars\' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high-speed corners. At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham was the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect.
The team\'s most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon\'s greater coefficient of friction. The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon \"pucks.\" The technology was not reliable at first; in 1976, Carlos Pace crashed at 180 mi/h at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads.
Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid-1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus\'s development of a ground effect car in 1977. The Brabham BT46B \"Fan car\" of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling. The car raced only once in the Formula One World Championship---Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix---before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA.
Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham\'s aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques. Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis. The team did not follow McLaren\'s 1981 MP4/1 with its own fully composite chassis until the \"lowline\" BT55 in 1986, the last team to do so. This technology is now used in all top level single seater racing cars.
For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a 6 cm minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect. Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham was accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects.
At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car\'s tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow its drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team was able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race. In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than \"get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning,\" but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic. Refuelling was banned for 1984, although it reappeared between 1994 and 2009, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One.
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# Brabham
## Controversy
The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s, Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet\'s first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham\'s management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against it by the sporting authorities.
From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests. This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon its new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months. At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the Drivers\' Championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) 102.4 of the team\'s fuel was above the legal limit of 102. The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit.
## Later use of the Brabham name {#later_use_of_the_brabham_name}
### Revival attempts {#revival_attempts}
On 4 June 2009, Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost-capped team under the new budget cap regulations. The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name. The team\'s entry was not accepted, and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand.
### Brabham Racing {#brabham_racing}
In September 2014, David Brabham---the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham---announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham, with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model. The company also expressed interest in returning to Formula One, but did not have the financial capacity to do so.
In 2019, Brabham Automotive announced its goal to enter the 2021 FIA World Endurance Championship using a BT62 in the GTE class. The team competed in the 2019 GT Cup Championship. It also entered the final two races of the 2019 Britcar Endurance Championship, winning on its debut.
In 2021, Brabham Automotive debuted their BT63 GT2 car at the season finale of the 2021 GT2 European Series.
## Championship results {#championship_results}
Results achieved by the \"works\" Brabham team. **Bold** results indicate a championship win
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# Trieste (bathyscaphe)
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# Bjørn Lomborg
**Bjørn Lomborg** (`{{IPA|da|ˈpjɶɐ̯ˀn ˈlɔmˌpɒˀ|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; born 6 January 1965) is a Danish political scientist, author, and the president of the think tank Copenhagen Consensus Center. He is the former director of the Danish government\'s Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI) in Copenhagen. He became internationally known for his best-selling book *The Skeptical Environmentalist* (2001).
In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus. In 2004, he was listed as one of *Time\'s* 100 most influential people.
In his subsequent book, *Cool It* (2007), and its film adaptation, Lomborg outlined his views on global warming, many of which contradict the scientific consensus on climate change. These views include the claim that the negative impacts are overstated and the opinion that too much emphasis is put on climate change mitigation at the expense of climate change adaptation. Lomborg agrees that global warming is real and man-made and will have a serious impact but enumerates other disagreements with the scientific consensus. In 2009, *Business Insider* cited Lomborg as one of \"The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics\".
Lomborg\'s views and work have attracted scrutiny from the scientific community. He was formally accused of scientific misconduct over the book *The Skeptical Environmentalist*. The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DSCD) concluded in an evaluation of the book that \"one couldn\'t prove that Lomborg had deliberately been scientifically dishonest, although he had broken the rules of scientific practice in that he interpreted results beyond the conclusions of the authors he cited.\" The Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation criticised the procedural aspects of the DCSD investigation. His positions on climate change have been challenged by experts and characterized as cherry picking.
## Education
Lomborg was an undergraduate at the University of Georgia, earned an M.A. degree in political science at the Aarhus University in 1991, and a PhD degree in political science at the University of Copenhagen in 1994.
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Career
Lomborg lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the Aarhus University as an assistant professor (1994--1996) and associate professor (1997--2005). He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an adjunct professor in Policy-making, Scientific Knowledge and the Role of Experts at the Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School.
Early in his career, his professional areas of interest lay in the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, and the use of surveys in public administration. In 1996, Lomborg\'s paper, \"Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner\'s Dilemma\", was published in the academic journal *American Sociological Review*.
Later, Lomborg\'s interests shifted to the use of statistics in the environmental arena. In 1998, Lomborg published four essays about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper *Politiken*, which according to him \"resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers.\"`{{Primary source inline|date=September 2022}}`{=mediawiki} This led to the *Skeptical Environmentalist*, whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. The book brought him international prominence as an opponent of the scientific consensus on climate change. He later edited *Global Crises, Global Solutions*, which presented the first conclusions of the Copenhagen Consensus, published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press. In 2007, he authored a book entitled *Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist\'s Guide to Global Warming.* In March 2002, the newly elected center-right prime minister, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, appointed Lomborg to run Denmark\'s new Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI). On 22 June 2004, Lomborg announced his decision to resign from this post to go back to the Aarhus University, saying his work at the institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector. As of 2020, Lomborg is a visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank. In 2023 he was a mainstage speaker at the inaugural Alliance for Responsible Citizenship.
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Books
### *The Skeptical Environmentalist* {#the_skeptical_environmentalist}
In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing *The Skeptical Environmentalist*, a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong. The book received negative reviews among the scientific community, including from the Union of Concerned Scientists, *Nature* and *Scientific American*, with many scientists criticising its assertions as poorly supported, selectively using data and misrepresenting sources. However, it was well received in popular media and brought Lomborg to international attention.
#### Formal accusations of scientific dishonesty {#formal_accusations_of_scientific_dishonesty}
After the publication of *The Skeptical Environmentalist*, Lomborg was formally accused of scientific dishonesty by a group of environmental scientists, who brought a total of three complaints against him to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark\'s Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI). Lomborg was asked whether he regarded the book as a \"debate\" publication, and thereby not under the purview of the DCSD, or as a scientific work; he chose the latter, clearing the way for the inquiry that followed. The charges claimed that *The Skeptical Environmentalist* contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions. Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation.
In January 2003, the DCSD released a ruling that sent a mixed message, finding the book to be scientifically dishonest through misrepresentation of scientific facts, but Lomborg himself not guilty due to his lack of expertise in the fields in question. That February, Lomborg filed a complaint against the decision with the MSTI, which had oversight over the DCSD. In December, 2003, the Ministry annulled the DCSD decision, citing procedural errors, including lack of documentation of errors in the book, and asked the DCSD to re-examine the case. In March 2004, the DCSD formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion.
The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition signed by 287 Danish academics, primarily social scientists, who criticized the DCSD for evaluating the book as a work of science, whereas the petitioners considered it clearly an opinion piece by a non-scientist. The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency (DRA) to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices. In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures, primarily from the medical and natural sciences community, to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the DRA.
### *Cool It* {#cool_it}
Lomborg\'s follow-up to *The Skeptical Environmentalist*, *Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist\'s Guide to Global Warming*, was published in 2007. In it, Lomborg expanded on his views of climate change. Lomborg starts with the premise \"Global warming is real and man-made. It will have a serious impact on humans and the environment toward the end of this century.\" Lomborg argues at length that warming will result in *reducing* total deaths from extreme temperatures, due to warming in cold climates. The main theme is that then-current approaches for addressing climate change, such as the Kyoto Protocol on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, were not economically cost-effective.
*The Lomborg Deception*, a 2010 Yale University Press book by Howard Friel, analyzed the ways in which Lomborg has \"selectively used (and sometimes distorted) the available evidence\", and alleged that the sources Lomborg provided in the footnotes did not support and, in some cases directly contradicted, Lomborg\'s assertions in the text of the book. Lomborg denied those claims in a 27-page argument-by-argument response. Friel wrote a reply to that response, in which he admitted two errors but otherwise rejected Lomborg\'s arguments.
#### Documentary film {#documentary_film}
Bjørn Lomborg was the subject of documentary feature film *Cool It*, adapted from his book of the same name. It was released on 12 November 2010 in the US. The film in part explicitly challenged Al Gore\'s 2006 Oscar-winning environmental awareness documentary, *An Inconvenient Truth*.\" The film received a media critic collective rating of 51% from Rotten Tomatoes and 61% from Metacritic.
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Copenhagen Consensus {#copenhagen_consensus}
Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus in 2002, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years. The project was funded largely by the Danish government and was co-sponsored by *The Economist*. A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists\' first assessment, *Global Crises, Global Solutions*, edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press.
In 2006, Lomborg became director of the newly established Copenhagen Consensus Center, a Danish government-funded institute intended to build on the mandate of the EAI, and expand on the original Copenhagen Consensus conference. Denmark withdrew its funding in 2012 and the Center faced imminent closure. Lomborg left the country and reconstituted the Center as a non-profit organization in the United States. The Center was based out of a \"Neighborhood Parcel Shipping Center\" in Lowell, Massachusetts, though Lomborg himself was based in Prague in the Czech Republic. In 2015, Lomborg described the center\'s funding as \"a little more than \$1m a year \... from private donations\", of which Lomborg himself was paid \$775,000 in 2012.
### Australian Consensus Centre {#australian_consensus_centre}
In 2014, the Australian Government offered the University of Western Australia \$4 million to establish a \"consensus centre\", with Lomborg as director. The university accepted the offer, setting off a firestorm of opposition from its faculty and students, and from climate scientists around the world. In April 2015, the university reversed the decision and rejected the offer. The government continued to seek a sponsor for the proposed institution. On 21 October 2015, the offered funding was withdrawn. In April 2015, it was announced that an alliance between the Copenhagen Consensus Center and the University of Western Australia would see the establishment of the Australian Consensus Centre, a new policy research center at the UWA Business School. The university described the center\'s goals as a \"focus on applying an economic lens to proposals to achieve good for Australia, the region and the world, prioritizing those initiatives which produce the most social value per dollar spent.\". This appointment came under intense scrutiny, particularly when leaked documents revealed that the Australian government had approached UWA and offered to fund the Consensus Centre, information subsequently confirmed by a senior UWA lecturer. Reports indicated that Prime Minister Tony Abbott\'s office was directly responsible for Lomborg\'s elevation. \$4 million of the total funding for the center was to be provided by the Australian federal government, with UWA not contributing any funding for the centre.
On 8 May 2015, UWA cancelled the contract for hosting the Australian Consensus Centre as \"the proposed centre was untenable and lacked academic support\". The Australian federal education minister, Christopher Pyne, said that he would find another university to host the ACC.
In July 2015, Flinders University senior management began quietly canvassing its staff about a plan to host the renamed Lomborg Consensus Centre at the university, likely in the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences. A week later the story was broken on Twitter by the NTEU (National Tertiary Education Union) and Scott Ludlam. The story appeared the next day in *The Australian*, but described as \"academic conversations\" with no mention of Bjorn Lomborg\'s involvement and portrayed as a grassroots desire for the centre by the university. The following week, a story appeared in *The Guardian* quoting two Flinders University academics and an internal document demonstrating staff\'s withering rejection of the idea. Flinders staff and students vowed to fight against the establishment of any Centre or any partnership with Lomborg, citing his lack of scientific credibility, his lack of academic legitimacy and the political nature of the process of establishing the centre with the Abbott federal government. The Australian Youth Climate Coalition and 350.org launched a national campaign to support staff and students in their rejection of Lomborg.
On 21 October 2015, education minister Simon Birmingham told a senate committee the offered funding had been withdrawn. It was subsequently unclear whether the Australian Government would honour its original commitment and transfer the funds directly to the centre to cover the costs incurred.
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Views on climate change {#views_on_climate_change}
Lomborg has set out his views on climate change in several books, articles, interviews, and opinion pieces. Lomborg knows that climate change is occurring and humans are responsible, but disputes that the effects and economic impacts will be negative. He argues that finances should be spent elsewhere, rather than on mitigation. He does not support solar panels, saying they are \"inefficient\", which is \"why you have to subsidise them\", despite fossil fuels also being subsidized. According to Reuters, \"many nations, especially in the developing world where food and water supplies are most vulnerable to climate shifts projected by the U.N. panel of climate scientists, reject Lomborg's views\" that investment into technology is an adequate response to climate change. He has opposed the Kyoto Protocol and called the Paris Agreement a \"charade\". He has been accused of exaggerating the economic costs of climate change mitigation policies.
Several of Lomborg\'s articles, in newspapers such as *The Wall Street Journal* and *The Daily Telegraph*, have been checked by Climate Feedback, a worldwide network of scientists who assess the credibility of influential climate change media coverage. The Climate Feedback reviewers assessed that the scientific credibility of the articles ranged between \"low\" and \"very low\". The Climate Feedback reviewers came to the conclusion that in one case, Lomborg \"practices cherry picking\"; in a second case, he \"had reached his conclusions through cherry-picking from a small subset of the evidence, misrepresenting the results of existing studies, and relying on flawed reasoning\"; in a third case, \"\[his\] article \[is in\] blatant disagreement with available scientific evidence, while the author does not offer adequate evidence to support his statements\"; and in a fourth case, \"The author, Bjorn Lomborg, cherry-picks this specific piece of research and uses it in support of a broad argument against the value of climate policy. He also misrepresents the Paris Agreement to downplay its potential to curb future climate change.\"
## Personal life {#personal_life}
Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian. As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that \"Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility. It\'s important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies in boardrooms, as well as everything in between\".
## Recognition and awards {#recognition_and_awards}
- The Global Leaders of Tomorrow (Class 2002) -- World Economic Forum (2002)
- The Stars of Europe (category: Agenda Setters) -- *BusinessWeek* (17 June 2002): \"No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core.\"
- The 2004 *Time* 100 (in Scientists & Thinkers) -- *Time* (26 April 2004): \"Our list of the most influential people in the world today: He just might be the Martin Luther of the environmental movement.\"
- Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#14) *Foreign Policy* and *Prospect* (2005)
- Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#41) *Foreign Policy* and *Prospect* (2008)
- 50 people who could save the planet -- *The Guardian* (5 January 2008)
- Glocal Hero Award -- Transatlantyk -- Poznań International Film and Music Festival (2011)
- FP Top 100 Global Thinkers -- *Foreign Policy* (2012): \"For taking the black and white out of climate politics\"
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Discussions in the media {#discussions_in_the_media}
After the release of *The Skeptical Environmentalist* in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media. As in the scientific community, his scientific qualifications and integrity were criticized, although some popular media outlets supported him. The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fueled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international mass media. By the end of 2003 Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances on radio, television and print media around the world. He is also a regular contributor to Project Syndicate since 2005.
- *Scientific American* published criticism of Lomborg\'s book. Lomborg responded on his own website, quoting the article at such length that *Scientific American* threatened to sue for copyright infringement. Lomborg eventually removed the rebuttal from his website; it was later published in PDF format on *Scientific American*{{\'}}s site. The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal.
- *The Economist* defended Lomborg, claiming the panel of experts that had criticized Lomborg in *Scientific American* was both biased and did not actually counter Lomborg\'s book. *The Economist* argued that the panel\'s opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg\'s responses had not been reported.
- *Penn & Teller: Bullshit!* --- the U.S. Showtime television programme featured an episode entitled \"Environmental Hysteria\" in which Lomborg criticized what he claimed was environmentalists\' refusal to accept a cost--benefit analysis of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others.
- *Rolling Stone* stated, \"Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty\'s concern for the fate of the planet.\"
- The Union of Concerned Scientists criticized *The Skeptical Environmentalist*, claiming it to be \"seriously flawed and failing to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis\", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature. The review was conducted by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Edward O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeff Harvey, and Stuart Pimm.
- *The New York Times* criticized *False Alarm*, stating \"This book proves the aphorism that a little knowledge is dangerous. It\'s nominally about air pollution. It\'s really about mind pollution.\" The review was conducted by Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz.
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# Bjørn Lomborg
## Publications
- \"Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner\'s Dilemma\", *American Sociological Review*, 1996.
-
- *Global Crises, Global Solutions*, Copenhagen Consensus, Cambridge University Press, 2004. `{{ISBN|0521606144}}`{=mediawiki}, as editor
- *How to Spend \$50 Billion to Make the World a Better Place*, Cambridge University Press, 2006. `{{ISBN|978-0521685719}}`{=mediawiki}, as editor
- *Solutions for the World\'s Biggest Problems -- Costs and Benefits*, Cambridge University Press, 2007. `{{ISBN|978-0521715973}}`{=mediawiki}, as editor
-
- *Smart Solutions to Climate Change, Comparing Costs and Benefits*, Cambridge University Press, 2010, `{{ISBN|978-0521763424}}`{=mediawiki}.
- *The Nobel Laureates Guide to the Smartest Targets for the World 2016--2030*, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2015. `{{ISBN|978-1940003115}}`{=mediawiki}
- *Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations\' Sustainable Development Goals* Cambridge University Press, 2018, `{{ISBN|1108415458}}`{=mediawiki}, as editor
-
-
- *Best Things First: The 12 Most Efficient Solutions for the World\'s Poorest and Our Global SDG Promises*, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2023
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# List of Olympic medalists in biathlon
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# Burns supper
A **Burns supper** is a celebration of the life and poetry of the poet Robert Burns (25 January 1759`{{spaced ndash}}`{=mediawiki}21 July 1796), the author of many Scots poems. The suppers are usually held on or near the poet\'s birthday, 25 January, known as **Burns Night** (*Burns Nicht*; *Oidhche na Taigeise*) also called **Robert Burns Day** or **Rabbie Burns Day** (or **Robbie Burns Day** in Canada). Sometimes, celebrations are also held at other times of the year. Burns suppers are held all around the world.
## History
The first supper was held *in memoriam* at Burns Cottage in Ayrshire by Burns\'s friends, on 21 July 1801, the fifth anniversary of his death. The first still extant Burns Club was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants who were born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. They held the first Burns supper on what they thought was his birthday, 29 January 1802, but in 1803, they discovered the Ayr parish records that noted his date of birth was actually 25 January 1759. Since then, suppers have been held on or about 25 January.
The Scottish Parliament considers the celebration of Burns Night each year to be a key cultural heritage event.
> The Parliament welcomes the annual celebration of Scotland's national poet, Robert Burns, which is held on 25 January each year to mark the Bard's birthday; considers that Burns was one of the greatest poets and that his work has influenced thinkers across the world; notes that Burns\' first published collection, Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, also known as the \"Kilmarnock Edition\", published in 1786, did much to popularise and champion the Scots language, and considers that this is one of his most important legacies; believes that the celebration of Burns Night is an opportunity to raise awareness of the cultural significance of Scots and its status as one of the indigenous languages of Scotland, and further believes in the importance of the writing down of the Scots language to ensure its continuation through written documentation, as well as oral tradition.
Burns suppers can be formal or informal. Both typically include haggis (a traditional Scottish dish celebrated by Burns in *Address to a Haggis*), Scotch whisky and the recitation of Burns\'s poetry. Formal dinners are hosted by organisations such as universities, sporting clubs, Burns Clubs, the Freemasons or St. Andrew\'s Societies; they occasionally end with dancing or a cèilidh. During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Burns Night celebrations moved online and were popular amongst families eating at home. Formal suppers follow a standard order.
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# Burns supper
## Standard order {#standard_order}
### Piping in guests {#piping_in_guests}
A bagpiper sometimes greets the guests, who gather and mix as at any informal party. At less formal gatherings, traditional Scottish music is played.
### Host\'s welcoming speech {#hosts_welcoming_speech}
The host welcomes the guests to the supper and states the occasion.
Sometimes, the song \"O Flower of Scotland\" is sung at the beginning.
All the guests are then seated and grace is said, usually using the \"Selkirk Grace\", a thanksgiving said before meals that uses the Scots language. Although attributed to Burns, the *Selkirk Grace* was already known in the 17th century as the \"Galloway Grace\" or the \"Covenanters\' Grace\". It came to be called the *Selkirk Grace* because Burns was said to have delivered it at a dinner given by the 4th Earl of Selkirk.
#### Selkirk Grace {#selkirk_grace}
:
:
:
:
### Soup course {#soup_course}
The supper starts with the soup course, such as Scotch broth, potato soup, cullen skink, or cock-a-leekie.
### Haggis
#### Piping in the haggis {#piping_in_the_haggis}
Guests are asked to stand as the haggis is brought in. Haggis is a meat dish but in recent decades, a vegetarian alternative is often available. It is usually brought in by the cook on a large dish, generally while a bagpiper leads the way to the host\'s table, where the haggis is laid down. \"A Man\'s A Man for A\' That\", \"Robbie Burns Medley\" or \"The Star O\' Robbie Burns\" can be played. The host or a guest then recites the Address to a Haggis*.*
#### \"Address to a Haggis\" {#address_to_a_haggis}
*Main article: Address to a Haggis*
At the line **His knife see rustic Labour dicht**, the speaker normally draws and sharpens a knife. At the line **An\' cut you up wi\' ready slicht**, he plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end. When done properly, the \"ceremony\" is a highlight of the evening.
### Main course {#main_course}
At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis, and the company will sit down to the meal. The haggis is traditionally served with mashed potatoes (tatties) and mashed swede turnip (neeps).
### Other courses {#other_courses}
A dessert course, cheese courses, and coffee may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes. For instance, dessert may be cranachan or tipsy laird (whisky trifle), followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with the \"water of life\" (*uisge beatha*), Scotch whisky.
### Toasts
When the meal reaches the coffee stage, speeches and toasts are given.
#### Immortal memory {#immortal_memory}
The main speaker gives a speech remembering some aspect of Burns\'s life or poetry. It may be either light-hearted or serious, and may include the recitation of a poem or a song by Burns. A toast to the Immortal Memory of Robert Burns then follows.
#### Address to the Lassies {#address_to_the_lassies}
This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to the women who had prepared the meal. However, it is now much more wide-ranging and generally covers the male speaker\'s view on women. The men drink a toast to the women\'s health.
#### Reply to the Laddies {#reply_to_the_laddies}
This is occasionally (and humorously) called the \"Toast to the Laddies\". Like the previous toast, it is generally now quite wide-ranging. A female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker. Quite often, the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other.
### Works by Burns {#works_by_burns}
After the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns (such as \"Ae Fond Kiss\", \"Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation\", and \"A Man\'s A Man for A\' That\") and more poetry (such as \"To a Mouse\", \"To a Louse\", \"Tam o\' Shanter\", \"The Twa Dogs\", and \"Holy Willie\'s Prayer\").
That may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts. It may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots.
### Closing
Finally, the host will call on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks. Then, everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing \"*italic=no*\"
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# Bentley
**Bentley Motors Limited** is a British designer, manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs. Headquartered in Crewe, England, the company was founded by W. O. Bentley (1888--1971) in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and became widely known for winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1924, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930 and 2003. Bentley has been a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998 and consolidated under VW\'s premium brand arm Audi since 2022.
Prominent models extend from the historic sports-racing Bentley 4½ Litre and Bentley Speed Six; the more recent Bentley R Type Continental, Bentley Turbo R, and Bentley Arnage; to its current model line, including the Flying Spur, Continental GT and Bentayga which are marketed worldwide, with China as its largest market as of November 2012.
Today most Bentley models are assembled at the company\'s Crewe factory, with a small number assembled at Volkswagen\'s Dresden factory, Germany, and with bodies for the Continental manufactured in Zwickau and for the Bentayga manufactured at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant.
The joining and eventual separation of Bentley and Rolls-Royce followed a series of mergers and acquisitions, beginning with the 1931 purchase by Rolls-Royce of Bentley, then in receivership. In 1971, Rolls-Royce itself was forced into receivership and the UK government nationalised the company---splitting it into an aerospace company (Rolls-Royce Plc) and an automotive company (Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, including Bentley). Rolls-Royce Motors was subsequently sold to engineering conglomerate Vickers, and in 1998 Vickers sold Rolls-Royce to Volkswagen AG, including Bentley with its name and logos (but not the name \"Rolls Royce\").
## History
### Cricklewood (1919--1931) {#cricklewood_19191931}
Before World War I, Walter Owen Bentley and his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, sold French DFP cars in Cricklewood, North London, but W.O, as Walter was known, always wanted to design and build his own cars. At the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminium paperweight and thought that aluminium might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons. The first Bentley aluminium pistons were fitted to Sopwith Camel aero engines during the First World War.
The same day that the Paris Peace Conference to end World War I started, Walter Owen (\"W.O.\") Bentley founded Bentley Motors Limited, on 18 January 1919 and registered Bentley Motors Ltd. in August 1919. In October he exhibited a car chassis (with a dummy engine) at the London Motor Show. Ex--Royal Flying Corps officer Clive Gallop designed an innovative four-valves-per-cylinder engine for the chassis. By December the engine was built and running. Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, but development took longer than estimated so the date was extended to September 1921. The durability of the first Bentley cars earned widespread acclaim, and they competed in hill climbs and raced at Brooklands.
Bentley\'s first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race dominated by specialized cars with Duesenberg racing chassis. They entered a modified road car driven by works driver Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic H. S. \"Bertie\" Browning. Hawkes completed the full 500 mi and finished 13th with an average speed of 74.95 mph after starting in 19th position. The team was then rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy.
#### Captain Woolf Barnato {#captain_woolf_barnato}
In an ironic reference to his heavyweight boxer\'s stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed \"Babe\". In 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre. With this car, he won numerous Brooklands races. Just a year later, he acquired the Bentley business itself.
The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato agreed to finance Bentley\'s business. Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle. Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business and its workforce. A financial reorganisation of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000. Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, or 5% of their original value. Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman. Barnato injected further cash into the business: £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927; £40,000 in 1928; £25,000 in 1929. With renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars.
#### The Bentley Boys {#the_bentley_boys}
The Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Barnato, Sir Henry \"Tim\" Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H. \"Sammy\" Davis, and Dudley Benjafield. The Bentley Boys favoured Bentley cars. Many were independently wealthy and many had a military background. They kept the marque\'s reputation for high performance alive; Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, from 1927 to 1930.
Birkin developed the 4½-litre, lightweight Blower Bentley at Welwyn Garden City in 1929 and produced five racing specials, starting with Bentley Blower No.1 which was optimised for the Brooklands racing circuit. Birkin overruled Bentley and put the model on the market before it was fully developed. As a result, it was unreliable.
During the March 1930 Blue Train Races, Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beaten *Le Train Bleu* for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100. He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover, and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won.
Barnato drove his H.J. Mulliner--bodied formal saloon in the race against the Blue Train. Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a Speed Six with streamlined fastback \"sportsman coupé\" by Gurney Nutting. Both cars became known as the \"Blue Train Bentleys\"; the latter is regularly mistaken for, or erroneously referred to as being, the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race. A painting by Terence Cuneo depicts the Gurney Nutting coupé racing along a road parallel to the Blue Train, which scenario never occurred as the road and railway did not follow the same route.
#### Cricklewood Bentleys {#cricklewood_bentleys}
- 1921--1929 3-litre
- 1926--1930 4½-litre & \"Blower Bentley\"
- 1926--1930 6½-litre
- 1928--1930 6½-litre Speed Six
- 1930--1931 8-litre
- 1931 4-litre
The original model was the three-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed. Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre \"Blower Bentley\", with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was, though in 1930 Birkin remarkably finished second in the French Grand Prix at Pau in a stripped-down racing version of the Blower Bentley, behind Philippe Etancelin in a Bugatti Type 35.
The 4½-litre model later became famous in popular media as the vehicle of choice of James Bond in the original novels, but this has been seen only briefly in the films. John Steed in the television series *The Avengers* also drove a Bentley.
The new eight-litre was such a success that when Barnato\'s money seemed to run out in 1931 and Napier was planning to buy Bentley\'s business, Rolls-Royce purchased Bentley Motors to prevent it from competing with their most expensive model, the Phantom II.
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# Bentley
## History
### Cricklewood (1919--1931) {#cricklewood_19191931}
#### Performance at Le Mans {#performance_at_le_mans}
#### 24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix d\'Endurance {#hours_of_le_mans_grand_prix_dendurance}
- *1923 4th (private entry)* (3-Litre)
- 1924 1st (3-Litre)
- *1925 did not finish*
- *1926 did not finish*
- 1927 1st 15th 17th (3-Litre)
- 1928 1st 5th (4½-litre)
- 1929 1st (Speed Six); 2nd 3rd 4th: (4½-litre)
- 1930 1st 2nd (Speed Six)
Bentley withdrew from motor racing just after winning at Le Mans in 1930, claiming that they had learned enough about speed and reliability.
#### Liquidation
The Wall Street crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression throttled the demand for Bentley\'s expensive motor cars. In July 1931 two mortgage payments were due which neither the company nor Barnato, the guarantor, were able to meet. On 10 July 1931 a receiver was appointed.
Napier offered to buy Bentley with the purchase to be final in November 1931. Instead, British Central Equitable Trust made a winning sealed bid of £125,000. British Central Equitable Trust later proved to be a front for Rolls-Royce Limited. Not even Bentley himself knew the identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed.
Barnato received £42,000 for his shares in Bentley Motors. In 1934 he was appointed to the board of the new Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. In the same year Bentley confirmed that it would continue racing.
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# Bentley
## History
### Rolls-Royce (1931--1970) {#rolls_royce_19311970}
#### Derby
Rolls-Royce took over the assets of Bentley Motors (1919) Ltd and formed a subsidiary, Bentley Motors (1931) Ltd. Rolls-Royce had acquired the Bentley showrooms in Cork Street, the service station at Kingsbury, the complex at Cricklewood and the services of Bentley himself. This last was disputed by Napier in court without success. Bentley had neglected to register their trademark so Rolls-Royce immediately did so. They also sold the Cricklewood factory in 1932. Production stopped for two years, before resuming at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby. Unhappy with his role at Rolls-Royce, when his contract expired at the end of April 1935 W. O. Bentley left to join Lagonda.
When the new Bentley 3½ litre appeared in 1933, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25, which disappointed some traditional customers yet was well received by many others. W. O. Bentley was reported as saying, \"Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name\". Rolls-Royce\'s advertisements for the `{{fraction|3|1|2}}`{=mediawiki} Litre called it \"the silent sports car\", a slogan Rolls-Royce continued to use for Bentley cars until the 1950s.
All Bentleys produced from 1931 to 2004 used inherited or shared Rolls-Royce chassis, and adapted Rolls-Royce engines, and are described by critics as badge-engineered Rolls-Royces.
##### Derby Bentleys {#derby_bentleys}
- 1933--1937 3½-litre
- 1936--1939 4¼-litre
- 1939--1941 Mark V
- 1939 Mark V
#### Crewe
In preparation for war, Rolls-Royce and the British Government searched for a location for a shadow factory to ensure production of aero-engines. Crewe, with its excellent road and rail links, as well as being located in the northwest away from the aerial bombing starting in mainland Europe, was a logical choice. Crewe also had extensive open farming land. Construction of the factory started on a 60-acre area on the potato fields of Merrill\'s Farm in July 1938, with the first Rolls-Royce Merlin aero-engine rolling off the production line five months later. 25,000 Merlin engines were produced and at its peak, in 1943 during World War II, the factory employed 10,000 people. With the war in Europe over and the general move towards the then new jet engines, Rolls-Royce concentrated its aero-engine operations at Derby and moved motor car operations to Crewe.
##### Standard Steel saloons {#standard_steel_saloons}
Until some time after World War II, most high-end motorcar manufacturers like Bentley and Rolls-Royce did not supply complete cars. They sold rolling chassis, near-complete from the instrument panel forward. Each chassis was delivered to the coachbuilder of the buyer\'s choice. The biggest specialist car dealerships had coachbuilders build standard designs for them which were held in stock awaiting potential buyers.
To meet post-war demand, particularly UK Government pressure to export and earn overseas currency, Rolls-Royce developed an all-steel body using pressings made by Pressed Steel to create a \"standard\" ready-to-drive complete saloon car. The first steel-bodied model produced was the Bentley Mark VI: these started to emerge from the newly reconfigured Crewe factory early in 1946. Some years later, initially only for export, the Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn was introduced, a standard steel Bentley but with a Rolls-Royce radiator grille for a small extra charge, and this convention continued.
Chassis remained available to coachbuilders until the end of production of the Bentley S3, which was replaced for October 1965 by the chassis-less monocoque construction T series.
##### Bentley Continental {#bentley_continental}
The Continental fastback coupé was aimed at the UK market, most cars, 164 plus a prototype, being right-hand drive. The chassis was produced at the Crewe factory and shared many components with the standard R type. Other than the R-Type standard steel saloon, R-Type Continentals were delivered as rolling chassis to the coachbuilder of choice. Coachwork for most of these cars was completed by H. J. Mulliner & Co. who mainly built them in fastback coupe form. Other coachwork came from Park Ward (London) who built six, later including a drophead coupe version. Franay (Paris) built five, Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) built three, one of them later altered by Köng (Basel, Switzerland), and Pininfarina made one. James Young (London) built in 1954 a Sports Saloon for the owner of James Young\'s, James Barclay.
The early R Type Continental has essentially the same engine as the standard R Type, but with modified carburation, induction and exhaust manifolds along with higher gear ratios. After July 1954 the car was fitted with an engine, having now a larger bore of 94.62 mm with a total displacement of 4887 cc. The compression ratio was raised to 7.25:1.
##### Crewe Rolls-Royce Bentleys {#crewe_rolls_royce_bentleys}
<File:1951> Bentley MK VI HJM 2-door saloon 8160965887.jpg \|\"The silent sports car\"\
1952 4¼-litre 2-door by H J Mulliner <File:Bentley> S2.JPG \|Bentley S-series Standard Saloon <File:Bentley> T2 reg 1977 6750 cc.JPG\|Bentley T-series Standard Saloon (l.w.b.)
- Standard-steel saloon
- 1946--1952 Mark VI
- 1952--1955 R Type
- Continental
- 1952--1955 R Type Continental
- S-series
- 1955--1959 S1 and Continental
- 1959--1962 S2 and Continental
- 1962--1965 S3 and Continental
- T-series
- 1965--1977 T1
- 1977--1980 T2
- 1971--1984 Corniche
- 1975--1986 Camargue
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# Bentley
## History
### Vickers (1970--1998) {#vickers_19701998}
The problems of Bentley\'s owner with Rolls-Royce aero engine development, the RB211, brought about the financial collapse of its business in 1970.
The motorcar division was made a separate business, Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, which remained independent until bought by Vickers plc in August 1980. By the 1970s and early 1980s Bentley sales had fallen badly; at one point less than 5% of combined production carried the Bentley badge. Under Vickers, Bentley set about regaining its high-performance heritage, typified by the 1980 Mulsanne. Bentley\'s restored sporting image created a renewed interest in the name and Bentley sales as a proportion of output began to rise. By 1986 the Bentley:Rolls-Royce ratio had reached 40:60; by 1991 it achieved parity.
#### Crewe Vickers Bentleys {#crewe_vickers_bentleys}
- 1984--1995 Continental: convertible
- 1992--1995 Continental Turbo
- 1980--1992 Bentley Mulsanne
- 1984--1988 Mulsanne L: limousine
- 1982--1985 Mulsanne Turbo
- 1987--1992 Mulsanne S
- 1984--1992 Eight: basic model
- 1985--1995 Turbo R: turbocharged performance version
- 1991--2002 Continental R: turbocharged 2-door model
- 1994--1995 Continental S: intercooled
- 1996--2002 Continental T
- 1999--2003 Continental R Mulliner: performance model
- 1992--1998 Brooklands: improved Eight
- 1996--1998 Brooklands R: performance Brooklands
- 1994--1995 Turbo S: limited-edition sports model
- 1994--1995 Continental S: to order only version of Continental R with features of Turbo S incorporated
- 1995--1997 New Turbo R: updated 96MY Turbo R with revised bumpers, single front door glazing, new door mirrors, spare in trunk, engine cover, new seat design, auto lights, auto wipers etc.
- 1995--2003 Azure: convertible Continental R
- 1996--2002 Continental T: short-wheelbase performance model
- 1997--1998 Turbo RL: \"new\" Turbo R LWB (Long Wheel Base)
- 1997--1998 Bentley Turbo RT: replacement for the Turbo RL
- 1997--1998 RT Mulliner: Ultra exclusive performance model
### Volkswagen (1998--present) {#volkswagen_1998present}
In October 1997, Vickers announced that it had decided to sell Rolls-Royce Motors. BMW AG seemed to be a logical purchaser because BMW already supplied engines and other components for Bentley and Rolls-Royce branded cars and because of BMW and Vickers joint efforts in building aircraft engines. BMW made a final offer of £340m, but was outbid by Volkswagen AG, which offered £430m. Volkswagen AG acquired the vehicle designs, model nameplates, production and administrative facilities, the Spirit of Ecstasy and Rolls-Royce grille shape trademarks, but not the rights to the use of the Rolls-Royce name or logo, which are owned by Rolls-Royce Holdings plc. In 1998, BMW started supplying components for the new range of Rolls-Royce and Bentley cars---notably V8 engines for the Bentley Arnage and V12 engines for the Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph, however, the supply contract allowed BMW to terminate its supply deal with Rolls-Royce with 12 months\' notice, which would not be enough time for Volkswagen to re-engineer the cars.
BMW paid Rolls-Royce plc £40m to license the Rolls-Royce name and logo. After negotiations, BMW and Volkswagen AG agreed that, from 1998 to 2002, BMW would continue to supply engines and components and would allow Volkswagen temporary use of the Rolls-Royce name and logo. All BMW engine supply ended in 2003 with the end of Silver Seraph production.
From 1 January 2003 forward, Volkswagen AG would be the sole provider of cars with the \"Bentley\" marque. BMW established a new legal entity, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited, and built a new administrative headquarters and production facility for Rolls-Royce branded vehicles in Goodwood, West Sussex, England.
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# Bentley
## History
### Volkswagen (1998--present) {#volkswagen_1998present}
#### Investment and company development {#investment_and_company_development}
After acquiring the business, Volkswagen spent £500 million (about US\$845 million) to modernise the Crewe factory and increase production capacity. As of early 2010, there are about 3,500 working at Crewe, compared with about 1,500 in 1998 before being taken over by Volkswagen. It was reported that Volkswagen invested a total of nearly US\$2 billion in Bentley and its revival. As a result of upgrading facilities at Crewe the bodywork now arrives fully painted at the Crewe facility for final assembly, with the parts coming from Germany---similarly Rolls-Royce body shells are painted and shipped to the UK for assembly only.
Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9,500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory (Germany), where the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car was also assembled. This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1,000 cars, with all car production reverting to the Crewe plant.
Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine in 2002 to celebrate her Golden Jubilee. Production of the two-door convertible Bentley Azure finished in 2003. It was replaced by a large luxury coupé powered by a W12 engine built in Crewe and named Bentley Continental GT.
It was confirmed in April 2005 a four-seat convertible Azure derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupé prototype would begin at Crewe in 2006. By the autumn of 2005, a convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented in the autumn of 2005. These two models were launched in late 2006.
A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed \"GTZ\".
A new version of the Bentley Continental was introduced at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show: The Continental Supersports. This new Bentley is a supercar combining extreme power with environmentally friendly FlexFuel technology, capable of using petrol (gasoline) and biofuel (E85 ethanol).
Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 in the United States. In 2007, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time with sales of 10,014. For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced. Bentley reported a sale of about 7,600 units in 2008. However, its global sales plunged 50 percent to 4,616 vehicles in 2009 (with the U.S. deliveries dropped 49% to 1,433 vehicles) and it suffered an operating loss of €194 million, compared with an operating profit of €10 million in 2008. As a result of the slump in sales, production at Crewe was shut down during March and April 2009. Though vehicle sales increased by 11% to 5,117 in 2010, operating loss grew by 26% to €245 million. In Autumn 2010, workers at Crewe staged a series of protests over proposal of compulsory work on Fridays and mandatory overtime during the week.
Vehicle sales in 2011 rose 37% to 7,003 vehicles, with the new Continental GT accounting for over one-third of total sales. The current workforce is about 4,000 people.
The business earned a profit in 2011 after two years of losses as a result of the following sales results:
On 23 March 2020, Bentley announced to halt production due to COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, Bentley announced that it will cut around 1,000 (one quarter of 4,200) job places in the UK as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.
On 3 November 2020, Bentley announced that all new cars sold will be electric by 2030. This announcement also follows after the United Kingdom Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced in February 2020 that he approved legislation that will ban and phase out non-electric vehicles (including Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid vehicles) from the UK by 2030 with hybrids being banned by 2035.
##### Deliveries, profits and staff {#deliveries_profits_and_staff}
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><p>Year</p></th>
<th><p>Profit or loss<br />
€ million</p></th>
<th><p>Staff</p></th>
<th><p>Total<br />
deliveries</p></th>
<th><p>Americas</p></th>
<th><p>China</p></th>
<th><p>Europe<br />
exc UK</p></th>
<th><p>UK</p></th>
<th><p>Middle<br />
East</p></th>
<th><p>Asia<br />
Pacific</p></th>
<th><p>Japan</p></th>
<th><p>Other</p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>1998</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1500</p></td>
<td><p>414</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>1999</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1001</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2000</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1469</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2001</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1429</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2002</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1157</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>36</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2003</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1017</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2004</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>7411</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2005</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>8627</p></td>
<td><p>3654</p></td>
<td><p>500</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>4473</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2006</p></td>
<td><p>+137</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>9387</p></td>
<td><p>4035</p></td>
<td><p>175</p></td>
<td><p>2024</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>3153</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2007</p></td>
<td><p>+155</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>10014</p></td>
<td><p>4196</p></td>
<td><p>338</p></td>
<td><p>2166</p></td>
<td><p>2079</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1235</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2008</p></td>
<td><p>+10</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>7605</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2009</p></td>
<td><p>−194</p></td>
<td><p>3500</p></td>
<td><p>4616</p></td>
<td><p>1433</p></td>
<td><p>489</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>897</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>1797</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2010</p></td>
<td><p>−245</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>5117</p></td>
<td><p>1525</p></td>
<td><p>910</p></td>
<td><p>776</p></td>
<td><p>982</p></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>924</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2011</p></td>
<td><p>8</p></td>
<td><p>4000</p></td>
<td><p>7003</p></td>
<td><p>2021</p></td>
<td><p>1839</p></td>
<td><p>1187</p></td>
<td><p>1031</p></td>
<td><p>566</p></td>
<td><p>249</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>110</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>2012</p></td>
<td><p>100</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>8510</p></td>
<td><p>2457</p></td>
<td><p>2253</p></td>
<td><p>1333</p></td>
<td><p>1104</p></td>
<td><p>815</p></td>
<td><p>358</p></td>
<td><p>190</p></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><p>2013</p></td>
<td><p>176</p></td>
<td></td>
<td><p>10120</p></td>
<td><p>3140</p></td>
<td><p>2191</p></td>
<td><p>1480</p></td>
<td><p>1381</p></td>
<td><p>1185</p></td>
<td><p>452</p></td>
<td><p>291</p></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
Sources Volkswagen AG Annual Reports and press releases
Bentley recorded a 31% rise in global sales in FY21 despite shutdowns caused by the global coronavirus pandemic.
##### Production
Year Bentayga CGT Coupé CGT Cabrio Flying Spur Mulsanne Arnage Brooklands Azure Continental Other Bentley Rolls-Royce Total
------ ---------- ----------- ------------ ------------- ---------- -------- ------------ ------- ------------- --------------- ------------- -------
2000 1243 131 93 2 469 1938
2001 1049 205 114 61 352 1781
2002 883 69 50 61 147 1210
2003 107 607 62 16 792
2004 6896 790 7686
2005 4733 4271 556 9560
2006 3611 1742 4042 464 177 10036
2007 2140 4847 2270 357 8 350 9972
2008 2699 2408 1813 277 312 165 7674
2009 1211 722 1358 147 106 93 3637
2010 1735 843 1914 354 6 2 4854
2011 3416 677 2354 1146 7593
2012 3536 2638 1764 1169 9107
2013 3602 2197 3960 1117 10876
2014 3442 2151 4556 884 11033
2015 96 3997 2216 3660 919 10888
2016 5586 2272 1600 1731 628 11817
2017 4849 1345 1468 2295 595 10552
2018 4072 2841 28 1627 547 9115
2019 5232 3903 2760 102 443 12440
2020 3946 1905 1244 3381 127 10603
Sources [Volkswagen AG Annual Reports](https://annualreport2020.volkswagenag.com/divisions/bentley.html)
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# Bentley
## List of Bentley vehicles {#list_of_bentley_vehicles}
Model Name Introduced Discontinued Class
----------------- ------------ -------------- -----------------------------------------
3 Litre 1921 1929 Sports car
3.5 Litre 1933 1939 Luxury car
4 Litre 1931 1931 Luxury car
4 1/2 Litre 1927 1931 Sports car
Speed Six 1926 1930 \"Rolling chassis\"
8 Litre 1930 1932 Luxury car
Arnage 1998 2009 Luxury car
Azure 1995 2009 Grand tourer
Bentayga 2015 Luxury SUV
Brooklands 1992 2011 Luxury car Grand tourer
Continental 1952
Continental GT 2003 Grand tourer
Eight 1984 1992 Luxury car
Flying Spur 2005 Luxury car Ultra-luxury car
Mark V 1939 1941 Luxury car
Mark VI 1946 1952 Luxury car
Mulsanne 1980 1992 Luxury car
Mulsanne 2010 2020 Luxury car
R Type 1952 1955 Luxury car
S1 1955 1959 Luxury car
S2 1959 1962
S3 1962 1965 Luxury car
State Limousine 2002 2002 Luxury car Limousine Official state car
T-Series 1965 1980 Luxury car
Turbo R 1985 1999
### Crewe Volkswagen Bentleys {#crewe_volkswagen_bentleys}
#### Car models in current production {#car_models_in_current_production}
- 2016--present: Bentayga
- 2024--present: Continental GT (Gen 4)
- 2019--present: Flying Spur (Gen 3)
#### Car models formerly in production {#car_models_formerly_in_production}
- 1998--2009: Arnage
- 2003--2011: Continental GT
- 2005--2013: Continental Flying Spur (Gen 1)
- 2006--2009: Azure (Gen 2)
- 2008--2011: Bentley Brooklands (Gen 2)
- 2010--2020: Mulsanne
- 2011--2018: Continental GT (Gen 2)
- 2013--2019: Flying Spur (Gen 2)
- 2018--2024: Continental GT (Gen 3)
#### Special edition car models {#special_edition_car_models}
- 1999: Hunaudières Concept
- 2002: State Limousine
### Motorsport
A Bentley Continental GT3 entered by the M-Sport factory team won the Silverstone round of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series. This was Bentley\'s first official entry in a British race since the 1930 RAC Tourist Trophy
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# Classics
**Classics**, also **classical studies** or **Ancient Greek and Roman studies**, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, *classics* traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek and Roman literature and their original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics may also include as secondary subjects Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, architecture, art, mythology, and society.
In Western civilization, the study of the Ancient Greek and Roman classics was considered the foundation of the humanities, and they traditionally have been the cornerstone of an elite higher education.
## Etymology
The word *classics* is derived from the Latin adjective *classicus*, meaning \"belonging to the highest class of citizens.\" The word was originally used to describe the members of the Patricians, the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality. For example, Aulus Gellius, in his *Attic Nights*, contrasts \"classicus\" and \"proletarius\" writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Thus, the two modern meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality and the standard texts used as part of a curriculum, were both derived from Roman use.
## History
### Middle Ages {#middle_ages}
In the Middle Ages, classics and education were tightly intertwined; according to Jan Ziolkowski, there is no era in history in which the link was tighter. Medieval education taught students to imitate earlier classical models, and Latin continued to be the language of scholarship and culture, despite the increasing difference between literary Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe during the period.
While Latin was hugely influential, according to thirteenth-century English philosopher Roger Bacon, \"there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars.\" Greek was rarely studied in the West, and Greek literature was known almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, along with most of Plato, were unavailable in Christian Europe. Some were rediscovered through Arabic translations; a School of Translators was set up in the border city of Toledo, Spain, to translate from Arabic into Latin.
Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were other differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages. Catullus, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period. The popularity of different authors also waxed and waned throughout the period: Lucretius, popular during the Carolingian Renaissance, was barely read in the twelfth century, while for Quintilian the reverse is true.
### Renaissance
The Renaissance led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history, as well as a revival of classical styles of Latin. From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, Renaissance Humanism, an intellectual movement that \"advocated the study and imitation of classical antiquity\", developed. Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch (1304--1374) and Boccaccio (1313--1375) who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems. This humanist educational reform spread from Italy, in Catholic countries as it was adopted by the Jesuits, and in countries that became Protestant such as England, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order to ensure that future clerics were able to study the New Testament in the original language.
### Neoclassicism
The late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so highly prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines, and these \"improved\" versions were performed throughout the 18th century. In the United States, the nation\'s Founders were strongly influenced by the classics, and they looked in particular to the Roman Republic for their form of government.
From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin. In this period Johann Winckelmann\'s claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing \"returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement\". In the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have been one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. In the United States, philhellenism began to emerge in the 1830s, with a turn \"from a love of Rome and a focus on classical grammar to a new focus on Greece and the totality of its society, art, and culture.\"
### 19th century {#th_century}
The 19th century saw the influence of the classical world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the United States, where the subject was often criticised for its elitism. By the 19th century, little new literature was still being written in Latin -- a practice which had continued as late as the 18th century -- and a command of Latin declined in importance. Correspondingly, classical education from the 19th century onwards began to increasingly de-emphasise the importance of the ability to write and speak Latin. In the United Kingdom this process took longer than elsewhere. Composition continued to be the dominant classical skill in England until the 1870s, when new areas within the discipline began to increase in popularity. In the same decade came the first challenges to the requirement of Greek at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, though it would not be finally abolished for another 50 years.
Though the influence of classics as the dominant mode of education in Europe and North America was in decline in the 19th century, the discipline was rapidly evolving in the same period. Classical scholarship was becoming more systematic and scientific, especially with the \"new philology\" created at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. Its scope was also broadening: it was during the 19th century that ancient history and classical archaeology began to be seen as part of classics, rather than separate disciplines.
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# Classics
## History
### 20th century to present {#th_century_to_present}
During the 20th century, the study of classics became less common. In England, for instance, Oxford and Cambridge universities stopped requiring students to have qualifications in Greek in 1920, and in Latin at the end of the 1950s. When the National Curriculum was introduced in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1988, it did not mention the classics. By 2003, only about 10% of state schools in Britain offered any classical subjects to their students at all. In 2016, AQA, the largest exam board for A-Levels and GCSEs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History. This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject. The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with Natalie Haynes of *The Guardian* stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students.
However, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe. In 2009, a review of *Meeting the Challenge*, a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools. The same may also be said in the case of France or Greece. Indeed, Ancient Greek is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools. Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as Latin.
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# Classics
## Subdisciplines
One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern Africa and parts of the Middle East.
### Philology
Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources; **classical philology** is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek. The roots of classical philology lie in the Renaissance, as humanist intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of Cicero, and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts. Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period; for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by Angelo Poliziano. Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by Jean Le Clerc.
The modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century. It was during this period that scientific principles of philology began to be put together into a coherent whole, in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate. This \"new philology\", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed.
### Archaeology
Classical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology, with its roots going back to J. J. Winckelmann\'s work on Herculaneum in the 1760s. It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship. It was included as part of Cambridge University\'s Classical Tripos for the first time after the reforms of the 1880s, though it did not become part of Oxford\'s Greats until much later.
The second half of the 19th century saw Schliemann\'s excavations of Troy and Mycenae; the first excavations at Olympia and Delos; and Arthur Evans\' work in Crete, particularly on Knossos. This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g. the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879), including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1881, British School at Athens in 1886, American Academy in Rome in 1895, and British School at Rome in 1900).
More recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline, largely ignoring the popularity of \"New Archaeology\", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s. New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques.
### Art history {#art_history}
Some art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, ancient Greek architecture gave us the classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world.
Greek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias.
### Ancient history {#ancient_history}
With philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta\'s principal rival; likewise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans.
### Philosophy
The English word *philosophy* comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning \"love of wisdom\", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West \"philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation\". Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics. However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle\'s *Rhetoric* and *Poetics* have been traditionally classified in the West as \"ethics\", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category.
From the last decade of the eighteenth century, scholars of ancient philosophy began to study the discipline historically. Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls \"New Philosophy\", this changed.
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# Classics
## Subdisciplines
### Reception studies {#reception_studies}
Another discipline within the classics is \"reception studies\", which developed in the 1960s at the University of Konstanz. Reception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them. As such, reception studies is interested in a two-way interaction between reader and text, taking place within a historical context.
Though the idea of an \"aesthetics of reception\" was first put forward by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this. As early as 1920, T. S. Eliot wrote that \"the past \[is\] altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past\"; Charles Martindale describes this as a \"cardinal principle\" for many versions of modern reception theory.
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# Classics
## Classical Greece {#classical_greece}
Ancient Greece was the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period, beginning in the eighth century BC, to the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC. The Classical period, during the fifth and fourth centuries BC, has traditionally been considered the height of Greek civilisation. The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece at the start of the Greco-Persian wars, and to have ended with the death of Alexander the Great.
Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization.
### Language
*Main article: Ancient Greek, Mycenaean Greek language, Koine Greek*
Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic (c. 8th to 6th centuries BC), Classical (c. 5th to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (\"common\") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects.
Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology.
### Literature
The earliest surviving works of Greek literature are epic poetry. Homer\'s *Iliad* and *Odyssey* are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC. These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing. Around the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the Greek alphabet was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC.
European drama was invented in ancient Greece. Traditionally this was attributed to Thespis, around the middle of the sixth century BC, though the earliest surviving work of Greek drama is Aeschylus\' tragedy *The Persians*, which dates to 472 BC. Early Greek tragedy was performed by a chorus and two actors, but by the end of Aeschylus\' life, a third actor had been introduced, either by him or by Sophocles. The last surviving Greek tragedies are the *Bacchae* of Euripides and Sophocles\' Oedipus at Colonus, both from the end of the fifth century BC.
Surviving Greek comedy begins later than tragedy; the earliest surviving work, Aristophanes\' *Acharnians*, comes from 425 BC. However, comedy dates back as early as 486 BC, when the Dionysia added a competition for comedy to the much earlier competition for tragedy. The comedy of the fifth century is known as Old Comedy, and it comes down to us solely in the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, along with a few fragments. Sixty years after the end of Aristophanes\' career, the next author of comedies to have any substantial body of work survive is Menander, whose style is known as New Comedy.
### Mythology and religion {#mythology_and_religion}
Greek mythology is the body of myths and legends belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. They were a part of religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece and its civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.
Greek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or \"cults\" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands.
Many Greek people recognized the major gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Ares, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Athena, Hermes, Demeter, Hestia and Hera; though philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to posit a transcendent single deity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.
### Philosophy {#philosophy_1}
The earliest surviving philosophy from ancient Greece dates back to the 6th century BC, when according to Aristotle Thales of Miletus was considered to have been the first Greek philosopher. Other influential pre-Socratic philosophers include Pythagoras and Heraclitus. The most famous and significant figures in classical Athenian philosophy, from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC, are Socrates, his student Plato, and Aristotle, who studied at Plato\'s Academy before founding his own school, known as the Lyceum. Later Greek schools of philosophy, including the Cynics, Stoics, and Epicureans, continued to be influential after the Roman annexation of Greece, and into the post-Classical world.
Greek philosophy dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, and logic, as well as disciplines which are not today thought of as part of philosophy, such as biology and rhetoric.
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# Classics
## Classical Rome {#classical_rome}
### Language {#language_1}
The language of ancient Rome was Latin, a member of the Italic family of languages. The earliest surviving inscription in Latin comes from the 7th century BC, on a brooch from Palestrina. Latin from between this point and the early 1st century BC is known as Old Latin. Most surviving Latin literature is Classical Latin, from the 1st century BC to the 2nd century AD. Latin then evolved into Late Latin, in use during the late antique period. Late Latin survived long after the end of classical antiquity, and was finally replaced by written Romance languages around the 9th century AD. Along with literary forms of Latin, there existed various vernacular dialects, generally known as Vulgar Latin, in use throughout antiquity. These are mainly preserved in sources such as graffiti and the Vindolanda tablets.
### Literature {#literature_1}
Latin literature seems to have started in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a play adapted from the Greek by Livius Andronicus. Andronicus also translated Homer\'s *Odyssey* into Saturnian verse. The poets Ennius, Accius, and Patruvius followed. Their work survives only in fragments; the earliest Latin authors whose work we have full examples of are the playwrights Plautus and Terence. Much of the best known and most highly thought of Latin literature comes from the classical period, with poets such as Virgil, Horace, and Ovid; historians such as Julius Caesar and Tacitus; orators such as Cicero; and philosophers such as Seneca the Younger and Lucretius. Late Latin authors include many Christian writers such as Lactantius, Tertullian and Ambrose; non-Christian authors, such as the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, are also preserved.
### History {#history_1}
According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC; in reality, there had been a settlement on the site since around 1000 BC, when the Palatine Hill was settled. The city was originally ruled by kings, first Roman, and then Etruscan`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}according to Roman tradition, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, ruled from 616 BC. Over the course of the 6th century BC, the city expanded its influence over the entirety of Latium. Around the end of the 6th century -- traditionally in 510 BC`{{Snd}}`{=mediawiki}the kings of Rome were driven out, and the city became a republic.
Around 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls following the Battle of the Allia. It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of Tusculum in Latium were made Roman citizens. This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way. Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule. Soon afterwards, in 264, the First Punic War began; it lasted until 241. The Second Punic War began in 218, and by the end of that year, the Carthaginian general Hannibal had invaded Italy. The war saw Rome\'s worst defeat to that point at Cannae; the largest army Rome had yet put into the field was wiped out, and one of the two consuls leading it was killed. However, Rome continued to fight, annexing much of Spain and eventually defeating Carthage, ending her position as a major power and securing Roman preeminence in the Western Mediterranean.
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# Classics
## Legacy of the classical world {#legacy_of_the_classical_world}
The classical languages of the ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application. Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the *international lingua franca* in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century. Long before this, Latin had evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects. In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of Latin and Greek is notable. Ecclesiastical Latin, the Roman Catholic Church\'s official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world.
Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman Empire. The modern Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Galician, Catalan) all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture.
The legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages. The Roman Empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the Spanish and British empires. Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods -- medieval Romanesque architecture and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature were both influenced by classical models, to take but two examples, while James Joyce\'s *Ulysses* is one of the most influential works of twentieth-century literature
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# Geography of Canada
Canada has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing a land border with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is to the northeast with a shared border on Hans Island. To the southeast Canada shares a maritime boundary with France\'s overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige of New France. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world\'s largest proportion of fresh water lakes. Of Canada\'s thirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans.
Canada is home to the world\'s northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island---latitude 82.5°N---which lies 817 km from the North Pole. Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243042 km; additionally, its border with the United States is the world\'s longest land border, stretching 8891 km. Three of Canada\'s Arctic islands, Baffin Island, Victoria Island and Ellesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world.
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago. Canada is also divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones, encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield; 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world\'s forested land), made up mostly of spruce, poplar and pine. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes---563 greater than 100 km2---which is more than any other country, containing much of the world\'s fresh water. There are also freshwater glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera. A recent global remote sensing analysis also suggested that there were 6,477 km^2^ of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there. Protected areas of Canada and National Wildlife Areas have been established to preserve ecosystems.
Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably the Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range from Arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.
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# Geography of Canada
## Physiography `{{anchor|Physical geography}}`{=mediawiki}
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago. Canada covers 9984670 km2 and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions. Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world\'s longest coastline of 243042 km. The physical geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly Arctic regions and through the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada\'s population.
The National Topographic System is used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. These maps are used by all levels of government and industry for forest fire and flood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.
### Appalachian Mountains {#appalachian_mountains}
The Appalachian mountain range extends from Alabama in southern United States through the Gaspé Peninsula and the Atlantic Provinces, creating rolling hills indented by river valleys. It also runs through parts of southern Quebec.
The Appalachian Mountains (more specifically the Chic-Choc, Notre Dame, and Long Range Mountains) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include Mount Jacques-Cartier (Quebec, 1268 m), Mount Carleton (New Brunswick, 817 m), The Cabox (Newfoundland, 814 m). Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich endemic flora and fauna and are considered to have been nunataks during the last glaciation era.
### Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands {#great_lakes_and_st._lawrence_lowlands}
thumb\|right\|upright=1.4\|A map of the Great Lakes Basin showing the five sub-basins within. Left to right they are: Superior, including Nipigon\'s basin, (magenta); Michigan (cyan); Huron (pale green); Erie (yellow); Ontario (light coral). `{{excerpt|Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands| hat=no}}`{=mediawiki}
### Canadian Shield {#canadian_shield}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Canadian Shield is a broad region of Precambrian rock (pictured in shades of red) The northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec, all of Labrador and the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, eastern mainland Northwest Territories, most of Nunavut\'s mainland and, of its Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vast rock base known as the Canadian Shield. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for hydroelectric production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The Shield also encloses an area of wetlands around the Hudson Bay. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains.
The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. Boreal forest covers much of the shield, with a mix of conifers that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the Central Canadian Shield forests ecoregion that covers much of Northern Ontario.
The Canadian Shield is known for its vast mineral reserves such as emeralds, diamonds and copper, and is there also called the \"mineral house\".
### Canadian Interior Plains {#canadian_interior_plains}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Palliser\'s Triangle, delineating prairie soil types in the Prairie provinces. `{{excerpt|Canadian Prairies| hat=no}}`{=mediawiki}
### Canadian Arctic {#canadian_arctic}
While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endless permafrost and tundra north of the tree line, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the Arctic Cordillera (with the British Empire Range and the United States Range on Ellesmere Island) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The Arctic Lowlands and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.
The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of Nunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador. The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than 130 km2, and cover a total area of 1400000 km2.
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# Geography of Canada
## Physiography `{{anchor|Physical geography}}`{=mediawiki}
### Western Cordillera {#western_cordillera}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Map of the Hart Ranges in British Columbia The Coast Mountains in British Columbia run from the lower Fraser River and the Fraser Canyon northwestward, separating the Interior Plateau from the Pacific Ocean. Its southeastern end is separated from the North Cascades by the Fraser Lowland, where nearly a third of Western Canada\'s population reside.
The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network of fjords and associated islands, very similar to the Norwegian coastline in Northern Europe; while their inland side transitions to the high plateau with dryland valleys notable for a series of large alpine lakes similar to those in southern Switzerland, beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland. They are subdivided in three main groups, the Pacific Ranges between the Fraser River and Bella Coola, the Kitimat Ranges from there northwards to the Nass River , and the Boundary Ranges from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon at Champagne Pass and Chilkat Pass northwest of Haines, Alaska. The Saint Elias Mountains lie to their west and northwest, while the Yukon Ranges and Yukon Basin lie to their north. On the inland side of the Boundary Ranges are the Tahltan and Tagish Highlands and also the Skeena Mountains, part of the Interior Mountains system, which also extend southwards on the inland side of the Kitimat Ranges.
The terrain of the main spine of the Coast Mountains is typified by heavy glaciation, including several very large icefields of varying elevation. Of the three subdivisions, the Pacific Ranges are the highest and are crowned by Mount Waddington, while the Boundary Ranges contain the largest icefields, the Juneau Icefield being the largest. The Kitimat Ranges are lower and less glacier-covered than either of the other two groupings, but are extremely rugged and dense.
The Coast Mountains are made of igneous and metamorphic rock from an episode of arc volcanism related to subduction of the Kula and Farallon Plates during the Laramide orogeny about 100 million years ago. The widespread granite forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of the Coast Range Arc whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produce schist.
The Insular Mountains extend from Vancouver Island in the south to the Haida Gwaii in the north on the British Columbia Coast. It contains two main mountain ranges, the Vancouver Island Ranges on Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Mountains on Haida Gwaii.
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# Geography of Canada
## Physiography `{{anchor|Physical geography}}`{=mediawiki}
### Hudson Bay Lowlands {#hudson_bay_lowlands}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|The Hudson Bay Lowlands approximately coincide with the Southern Hudson Bay taiga ecoregion of North America. `{{excerpt|Hudson Bay Lowlands |hat=no|only=paragraphs}}`{=mediawiki}
#### Extreme points {#extreme_points}
thumb\|upright=1.2\|Topographic map The northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada is Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 83.111 N 69.972 W name=Cape Columbia, Nunavut. The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Zenith Point on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut 72.002 N 94.655 W name=Zenith Point, Nunavut. The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie, Ontario (41°41′N 82°40′W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario--Ohio border (41°40′35″N). The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Point Pelee, Ontario 41.909 N 82.509 W name=Point Pelee, Ontario. The lowest point is sea level at 0 m, whilst the highest point is Mount Logan, Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft 60.567 N 140.405 W name=Mount Logan, Yukon.
The westernmost point is Boundary Peak 187 (60°18′22.929″N 141°00′7.128″W) at the southern end of the Yukon--Alaska border, which roughly follows 141°W but leans very slightly east as it goes North 60.301 N 141.010 W name=Boundary Peak 187. The easternmost point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland (47°31′N 52°37′W) 47.523 N 52.619 W name=Cape Spear, Newfoundland. The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point, Cape St. Charles, Labrador (52°13′N 55°37′W) 52.217 N 55.621 W name=Elijah Point, Labrador.
The Canadian pole of inaccessibility is allegedly near Jackfish River, Alberta (59°2′N 112°49′W). The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip of Kluane National Park and Reserve (next to Mount Saint Elias) and Cripple Cove, Newfoundland (near Cape Race) at a distance of 3005.60 nmi.
## Climatology `{{Anchor|Climate}}`{=mediawiki}
thumb\|upright=1.4\|Köppen climate classification types of Canada
Climate varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near -15 C, but can drop below -40 °C with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C.
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada\'s annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 C-change, with changes ranging from 1.1 to in various regions, since 1948. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States---caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions---has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.
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# Geography of Canada
## Biogeography
thumb\|right\|upright=1.4\|ELC Ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada Canada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones, that are further subdivided into 53 ecoprovinces, 194 ecoregions, and 1,027 ecodistricts. These eco-areas encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Due to pollution, loss of biodiversity, over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than 800 wild life species at risk of being lost.
Canada\'s major biomes are the tundra, boreal forest, grassland, and temperate deciduous forest. British Columbia contains several smaller biomes, including; mountain forest which extends to Alberta, and a small temperate rainforest along the Pacific coast, the semi arid desert located in the Okanagan and alpine tundra in the higher mountainous regions.
Over half of Canada\'s landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around 2.4 sqkm. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with around 3,000,00 km2 undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. The Canadian Arctic tundra is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses and lichens.
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation\'s landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.
## Palaeogeography
## Hydrography
thumb\|right\|upright=1.4\|Rivers of Canada Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world\'s renewable water supply, Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes---563 greater than 100 km2---which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount of glacier water. Canada is also home to about twenty five percent (134.6 million ha) of the world\'s wetlands that support a vast array of local ecosystems.
Canada\'s waterways host forty-seven rivers of at least 600 km in length, with the two longest being the Mackenzie River, that begins at Great Slave Lake and ends in the Arctic Ocean, with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and the Saint Lawrence River, which drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ending in the Atlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over 4200 km in length and lies within the second largest drainage basin of North America, while the St. Lawrence 3058 km in length, drains the world\'s largest system of freshwater lakes.
The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean continental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the Saguenay, Manicouagan, and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon are also drained by the St. Lawrence. The Churchill River and Saint John River are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada. right\|upright=1.4\|Drainage basins of Canada\|thumb The Hudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half of Baffin Island. This basin is most important in fighting drought in the prairies and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan Rivers, Assiniboine River, and Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island. Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and drains into both. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.
The continental divide in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as the Okanagan and Kootenay valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon, Columbia and Fraser rivers.
The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River. The Peace, Athabasca and Liard Rivers, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.
The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the Milk River and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by the Missouri River. A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by Battle Creek, which empties into the Milk River.
## Environmental issues {#environmental_issues}
Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affects lakes and damages forests. Metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity. Ocean waters are also becoming contaminated by agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.
Global climate change and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of the polar bear, the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the Panama Canal through the Northwest Passage.
Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible.
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# Geography of Canada
## Political geography {#political_geography}
thumb\|upright=1.4\|alt=Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories\|A political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories\|link=Provinces and territories of Canada
Canada is divided into ten provinces and three territories. According to Statistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within 150 km of the nation\'s southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the 49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between Windsor, Ontario, and Quebec City. This leaves the vast majority of Canada\'s territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada\'s population density is 3.5 /km2, among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada\'s population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.
Canada shares with the U.S. the world\'s longest binational border at 8893 km; 2477 km are with Alaska. The Danish island dependency of Greenland lies to Canada\'s northeast, separated from the Canadian Arctic islands by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island. The French islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast of Newfoundland in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada\'s exclusive economic zone.
Canada\'s geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada\'s position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada\'s Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage
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# Telecommunications in Canada
Present-day **telecommunications in Canada** include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage. In the past, telecommunications included telegraphy available through Canadian Pacific and Canadian National. `{{TOC right}}`{=mediawiki}
## History
The history of telegraphy in Canada dates back to the Province of Canada. While the first telegraph company was the Toronto, Hamilton and Niagara Electro-Magnetic Telegraph Company, founded in 1846, it was the Montreal Telegraph Company, controlled by Hugh Allan and founded a year later, that dominated in Canada during the technology\'s early years.
Following the 1852 Telegraph Act, Canada\'s first permanent transatlantic telegraph link was a submarine cable built in 1866 between Ireland and Newfoundland. Telegrams were sent through networks built by Canadian Pacific and Canadian National.
In 1868 Montreal Telegraph began facing competition from the newly established Dominion Telegraph Company. 1880 saw the Great North Western Telegraph Company established to connect Ontario and Manitoba but within a year it was taken over by Western Union, leading briefly to that company\'s control of almost all telegraphy in Canada. In 1882, Canadian Pacific transmitted its first commercial telegram over telegraph lines they had erected alongside its tracks, breaking Western Union\'s monopoly. Great North Western Telegraph, facing bankruptcy, was taken over in 1915 by Canadian Northern.
By the end of World War II, Canadians communicated by telephone more than any other country. In 1967 the CP and CN networks were merged to form CNCP Telecommunications.
As of 1951, approximately 7000 messages were sent daily from the United States to Canada. An agreement with Western Union required that U.S. company to route messages in a specified ratio of 3:1, with three telegraphic messages transmitted to Canadian National for every message transmitted to Canadian Pacific. The agreement was complicated by the fact that some Canadian destinations were served by only one of the two networks.
## Fixed-line telephony {#fixed_line_telephony}
*Main article: List of Canadian telephone companies* Telephones - fixed lines: total subscriptions: 13.926 million (2020)
::\* Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 36.9 (2020 est.)
Telephones - mobile cellular: 36,093,021 (2020)
::\* Subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 95.63 (2020 est.)
Telephone system: (2019)
::\* Domestic: Nearly 37 per 100 fixed-line and 96 per 100 mobile-cellular teledensity; domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations (2020)
::\* International: country code - +1; submarine cables provide links within the Americas and Europe; satellite earth stations - 7 (5 Intelsat - 4 trans-Atlantic Ocean and 1 trans-Pacific Ocean, and 2 Intersputnik - (Atlantic Ocean region)
## Call signs {#call_signs}
ITU prefixes: Letter combinations available for use in Canada as the first two letters of a television or radio station\'s call sign are **CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CK, CY, CZ, VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, VO, VX, VY, XJ, XK, XL, XM, XN** and **XO**. Only **CF, CH, CI, CJ** and **CK** are currently in common use, although four radio stations in St. John\'s, Newfoundland and Labrador retained call letters beginning with **VO** when Newfoundland joined Canadian Confederation in 1949. Stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use **CB** through a special agreement with the government of Chile. Some codes beginning with **VE** and **VF** are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters.
## Radio
As of 2016, there were over 1,100 radio stations and audio services broadcasting in Canada. Of these, 711 are private commercial radio stations. These commercial stations account for over three quarters of radio stations in Canada. The remainder of the radio stations are a mix of public broadcasters, such as CBC Radio, as well as campus, community, and Aboriginal stations.
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# Telecommunications in Canada
## Television
As of 2018, 762 TV services were broadcasting in Canada. This includes both conventional television stations and discretionary services.
Cable and satellite television services are available throughout Canada. The largest cable providers are Bell Canada, Rogers Cable, Vidéotron, Telus and Cogeco, while the two licensed satellite providers are Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct.
## Internet
Bell, Rogers, Telus, and Shaw are among the bigger ISPs in Canada. Depending on your location, Bell and Rogers would be the big internet service providers in Eastern provinces, while Shaw and Telus are the main players competing in western provinces.
- Internet service providers: there are more than 44 ISPs in Canada.
- Internet Exchange Points: There are multiple Internet Exchange Points in Canada, the largest of which are in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver. Most ISP\'s peer at one or more of these Exchanges, except for Bell Canada. The Toronto Internet Exchange ranks as one of the largest internet exchanges in the world.
- Country codes: .CA, CDN, 124
- Internet users: 33 million users
- Internet hosts: 8.7 million (2012--2017)
- Percentage of households with Internet access: 87(2016)
- Total households with high speed connection: 67% (2014)
- Total users of home online banking: 68% (2016)
## Mobile networks {#mobile_networks}
The three major mobile network operators are Rogers Wireless (13.7 million subscribers), Bell Mobility (10.29 million) and Telus Mobility (9.5 million), which have a combined 86% of market share.
## Administration and Government {#administration_and_government}
Federally, telecommunications are overseen by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (*Conseil de la Radiodiffusion et des Télécommunications Canadiennes*)--CRTC as outlined under the provisions of both the Telecommunications Act and Radiocommunication Acts. CRTC further works with Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (formerly Industry Canada) on various technical aspects including: allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment. As Canada comprises a part of the North American Numbering Plan for area codes, the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium within Canada is responsible for allocating and managing area codes in Canada
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# Cheirogaleidae
The **Cheirogaleidae** are the family of strepsirrhine primates containing the various dwarf and mouse lemurs. Like all other lemurs, **cheirogaleids** live exclusively on the island of Madagascar.
## Characteristics
Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates. They have soft, long fur, colored grey-brown to reddish on top, with a generally brighter underbelly. Typically, they have small ears, large, close-set eyes, and long hind legs. Like all strepsirrhines, they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs. They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body. They weigh no more than 500 grams, with some species weighing as little as 60 grams.
Dwarf and mouse lemurs are nocturnal and arboreal. They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tails for balance. When on the ground (a rare occurrence), they move by hopping on their hind legs. They spend the day in tree hollows or leaf nests. Cheirogaleids are typically solitary, but sometimes live together in pairs.
Their eyes possess a tapetum lucidum, a light-reflecting layer that improves their night vision. Some species, such as the lesser dwarf lemur, store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail, and hibernate. Unlike lemurids, they have long upper incisors, although they do have the comb-like teeth typical of all strepsirhines. They have the dental formula: `{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.3|lower=2.1.3.3}}`{=mediawiki}
Cheirogaleids are omnivores, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes nectar), as well as insects, spiders, and small vertebrates.
The females usually have three pairs of nipples. After a meager 60-day gestation, they will bear two to four (usually two or three) young. After five to six weeks, the young are weaned and become fully mature near the end of their first year or sometime in their second year, depending on the species. In human care, they can live for up to 15 years, although their life expectancy in the wild is probably significantly shorter.
## Classification
The five genera of cheirogaleids contain 42 species.
- Infraorder Lemuriformes
- **Family Cheirogaleidae**
- Genus *Cheirogaleus*: dwarf lemurs
- Montagne d\'Ambre dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus andysabini*
- Furry-eared dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus crossleyi*
- Groves\' dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus grovesi*
- Lavasoa dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus lavasoensis*
- Greater dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus major*
- Fat-tailed dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus medius*
- Lesser iron-gray dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus minusculus*
- Ankarana dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus shethi*
- Sibree\'s dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus sibreei*
- Thomas\' dwarf lemur, *Cheirogaleus thomasi*
- Genus *Microcebus*: mouse lemurs`{{ref label|not_recognized|b|b}}`{=mediawiki}
- Arnhold\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus arnholdi*
- Madame Berthe\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus berthae*
- Bongolava mouse lemur *Microcebus bongolavensis*
- Boraha mouse lemur *Microcebus boraha*
- Danfoss\' mouse lemur *Microcebus danfossi*
- Ganzhorn\'s mouse lemur. *Microcebus ganzhorni*
- Gerp\'s mouse lemur. *Microcebus gerpi*
- Reddish-gray mouse lemur, *Microcebus griseorufus*
- Jolly\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus jollyae*
- Jonah\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus jonahi*
- Goodman\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus lehilahytsara*
- MacArthur\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus macarthurii*
- Claire\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus mamiratra*, synonymous to *M. lokobensis*`{{ref label|not_recognized|b|b}}`{=mediawiki}
- Bemanasy mouse lemur, *Microcebus manitatra*
- Margot Marsh\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus margotmarshae*
- Marohita mouse lemur, *Microcebus marohita*
- Mittermeier\'s mouse lemur, *Microcebus mittermeieri*
- Gray mouse lemur, *Microcebus murinus*
- Pygmy mouse lemur, *Microcebus myoxinus*
- Golden-brown mouse lemur, *Microcebus ravelobensis*
- Brown mouse lemur, *Microcebus rufus*
- Sambirano mouse lemur, *Microcebus sambiranensis*
- Simmons\' mouse lemur, *Microcebus simmonsi*
- Anosy mouse lemur
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# Callitrichidae
The **Callitrichidae** (also called **Arctopitheci** or **Hapalidae**) are a family of New World monkeys, including marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins. At times, this group of animals has been regarded as a subfamily, called the **Callitrichinae**, of the family Cebidae.
This taxon was traditionally thought to be a primitive lineage, from which all the larger-bodied platyrrhines evolved. However, some works argue that callitrichids are actually a dwarfed lineage.
Ancestral stem-callitrichids likely were \"normal-sized\" ceboids that were dwarfed through evolutionary time. This may exemplify a rare example of insular dwarfing in a mainland context, with the \"islands\" being formed by biogeographic barriers during arid climatic periods when forest distribution became patchy, and/or by the extensive river networks in the Amazon Basin.
All callitrichids are arboreal. They are the smallest of the simian primates. They eat insects, fruit, and the sap or gum from trees; occasionally, they take small vertebrates. The marmosets rely quite heavily on tree exudates, with some species (e.g. *Callithrix jacchus* and *Cebuella pygmaea*) considered obligate exudativores.
Callitrichids typically live in small, territorial groups of about five or six animals. Their social organization is unique among primates, and is called a \"cooperative polyandrous group\". This communal breeding system involves groups of multiple males and females, but only one female is reproductively active. Females mate with more than one male and each shares the responsibility of carrying the offspring.
They are the only primate group that regularly produces twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied. Unlike other male primates, male callitrichids generally provide as much parental care as females. Parental duties may include carrying, protecting, feeding, comforting, and even engaging in play behavior with offspring. In some cases, such as in the cotton-top tamarin (*Saguinus oedipus*), males, particularly those that are paternal, even show a greater involvement in caregiving than females. The typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young
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# Cebidae
The **Cebidae** are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. These species are found throughout tropical and subtropical South and Central America.
## Characteristics
Cebid monkeys are arboreal animals that only rarely travel on the ground. They are generally small monkeys, ranging in size up to that of the brown capuchin, with a body length of 33 to 56 cm, and a weight of 2.5 to 3.9 kilograms. They are somewhat variable in form and coloration, but all have the wide, flat, noses typical of New World monkeys.
They are omnivorous, mostly eating fruit and insects, although the proportions of these foods vary greatly between species. They have the dental formula:`{{DentalFormula|upper=2.1.3.2-3|lower=2.1.3.2-3}}`{=mediawiki}
Females give birth to one or two young after a gestation period of between 130 and 170 days, depending on species. They are social animals, living in groups of between five and forty individuals, with the smaller species typically forming larger groups. They are generally diurnal in habit.
## Classification
Previously, New World monkeys were divided between Callitrichidae and this family. For a few recent years, marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins were placed as a subfamily (Callitrichinae) in Cebidae, while moving other genera from Cebidae into the families Aotidae, Pitheciidae and Atelidae. The most recent classification of New World monkeys again splits the callitrichids off, leaving only the capuchins and squirrel monkeys in this family
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# Lists of universities and colleges
This is a list of **lists of universities and colleges**
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# Common descent
**Common descent** is a concept in evolutionary biology applicable when one species is the ancestor of two or more species later in time. According to modern evolutionary biology, all living beings could be descendants of a unique ancestor commonly referred to as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all life on Earth.
Common descent is an effect of speciation, in which multiple species derive from a single ancestral population. The more recent the ancestral population two species have in common, the more closely they are related. The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about 3.9 billion years ago. The two earliest pieces of evidence for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. All currently living organisms on Earth share a common genetic heritage, though the suggestion of substantial horizontal gene transfer during early evolution has led to questions about the monophyly (single ancestry) of life. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.
Universal common descent through an evolutionary process was first proposed by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in the concluding sentence of his 1859 book *On the Origin of Species*:
## History
The idea that all living things (including things considered non-living by science) are related is a recurring theme in many indigenous worldviews across the world. Later on, in the 1740s, the French mathematician Pierre Louis Maupertuis arrived at the idea that all organisms had a common ancestor, and had diverged through random variation and natural selection.
In 1790, the philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote in *Kritik der Urteilskraft* (*Critique of Judgment*) that the similarity of animal forms implies a common original type, and thus a common parent.
In 1794, Charles Darwin\'s grandfather, Erasmus Darwin asked:
> \[W\]ould it be too bold to imagine, that in the great length of time, since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind, would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which `{{Smallcaps |the great First Cause}}`{=mediawiki} endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions, and associations; and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down those improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end?
Charles Darwin\'s views about common descent, as expressed in *On the Origin of Species*, were that it was probable that there was only one progenitor for all life forms:
> Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.
But he precedes that remark by, \"Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype. But analogy may be a deceitful guide.\" And in the subsequent edition, he asserts rather,
> \"We do not know all the possible transitional gradations between the simplest and the most perfect organs; it cannot be pretended that we know all the varied means of Distribution during the long lapse of years, or that we know how imperfect the Geological Record is. Grave as these several difficulties are, in my judgment they do not overthrow the theory of descent from a few created forms with subsequent modification\".
Common descent was widely accepted amongst the scientific community after Darwin\'s publication. In 1907, Vernon Kellogg commented that \"practically no naturalists of position and recognized attainment doubt the theory of descent.\"
In 2008, biologist T. Ryan Gregory noted that:
> No reliable observation has ever been found to contradict the general notion of common descent. It should come as no surprise, then, that the scientific community at large has accepted evolutionary descent as a historical reality since Darwin\'s time and considers it among the most reliably established and fundamentally important facts in all of science.
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# Common descent
## Evidence
### Common biochemistry {#common_biochemistry}
All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organization: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein- and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by (highly similar) ribosomes, with ATP, NADPH and others as energy sources. Analysis of small sequence differences in widely shared substances such as cytochrome c further supports universal common descent. Some 23 proteins are found in all organisms, serving as enzymes carrying out core functions like DNA replication. The fact that only one such set of enzymes exists is convincing evidence of a single ancestry. 6,331 genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.
### Common genetic code {#common_genetic_code}
----------------- ---------- ------- ------- -------- -- ------------
**Amino acids** nonpolar polar basic acidic Stop codon
----------------- ---------- ------- ------- -------- -- ------------
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1st\ | 2nd base |
| base | |
+=========================+=======================================================================+
| `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} | |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} | `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}C |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}A |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | `{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}G |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| C | C`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | C`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}C |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | C`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}A |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | C`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}G |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| A | A`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | A`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}C |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | A`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}A |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | A`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}G |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| G | G`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki} |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | G`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}C |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | G`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}A |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | G`{{{T|T}}}`{=mediawiki}G |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | |
+-------------------------+-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
: Standard genetic code
The genetic code (the \"translation table\" according to which DNA information is translated into amino acids, and hence proteins) is nearly identical for all known lifeforms, from bacteria and archaea to animals and plants. The universality of this code is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of universal common descent.
The way that codons (DNA triplets) are mapped to amino acids seems to be strongly optimised. Richard Egel argues that in particular the hydrophobic (non-polar) side-chains are well organised, suggesting that these enabled the earliest organisms to create peptides with water-repelling regions able to support the essential electron exchange (redox) reactions for energy transfer.
### Selectively neutral similarities {#selectively_neutral_similarities}
Similarities which have no adaptive relevance cannot be explained by convergent evolution, and therefore they provide compelling support for universal common descent. Such evidence has come from two areas: amino acid sequences and DNA sequences. Proteins with the same three-dimensional structure need not have identical amino acid sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent. In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code redundantly for the same amino acid. Since many species use the same codon at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for their sharing a recent common ancestor. Had the amino acid sequences come from different ancestors, they would have been coded for by any of the redundant codons, and since the correct amino acids would already have been in place, natural selection would not have driven any change in the codons, however much time was available. Genetic drift could change the codons, but it would be extremely unlikely to make all the redundant codons in a whole sequence match exactly across multiple lineages. Similarly, shared nucleotide sequences, especially where these are apparently neutral such as the positioning of introns and pseudogenes, provide strong evidence of common ancestry.
### Other similarities {#other_similarities}
Biologists often`{{quantify|date=March 2018}}`{=mediawiki} point to the universality of many aspects of cellular life as supportive evidence to the more compelling evidence listed above. These similarities include the energy carrier adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the fact that all amino acids found in proteins are left-handed. It is, however, possible that these similarities resulted because of the laws of physics and chemistry - rather than through universal common descent - and therefore resulted in convergent evolution. In contrast, there is evidence for homology of the central subunits of transmembrane ATPases throughout all living organisms, especially how the rotating elements are bound to the membrane. This supports the assumption of a LUCA as a cellular organism, although primordial membranes may have been semipermeable and evolved later to the membranes of modern bacteria, and on a second path to those of modern archaea also.
### Phylogenetic trees {#phylogenetic_trees}
Another important piece of evidence is from detailed phylogenetic trees (i.e., \"genealogic trees\" of species) mapping out the proposed divisions and common ancestors of all living species. In 2010, Douglas L. Theobald published a statistical analysis of available genetic data, mapping them to phylogenetic trees, that gave \"strong quantitative support, by a formal test, for the unity of life.\"
Traditionally, these trees have been built using morphological methods, such as appearance, embryology, etc. Recently, it has been possible to construct these trees using molecular data, based on similarities and differences between genetic and protein sequences. All these methods produce essentially similar results, even though most genetic variation has no influence over external morphology. That phylogenetic trees based on different types of information agree with each other is strong evidence of a real underlying common descent.
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# Common descent
## Objections
### Gene exchange clouds phylogenetic analysis {#gene_exchange_clouds_phylogenetic_analysis}
Theobald noted that substantial horizontal gene transfer could have occurred during early evolution. Bacteria today remain capable of gene exchange between distantly-related lineages. This weakens the basic assumption of phylogenetic analysis, that similarity of genomes implies common ancestry, because sufficient gene exchange would allow lineages to share much of their genome whether or not they shared an ancestor (monophyly). This has led to questions about the single ancestry of life. However, biologists consider it very unlikely that completely unrelated proto-organisms could have exchanged genes, as their different coding mechanisms would have resulted only in garble rather than functioning systems. Later, however, many organisms all derived from a single ancestor could readily have shared genes that all worked in the same way, and it appears that they have.
### Convergent evolution {#convergent_evolution}
If early organisms had been driven by the same environmental conditions to evolve similar biochemistry convergently, they might independently have acquired similar genetic sequences. Theobald\'s \"formal test\" was accordingly criticised by Takahiro Yonezawa and colleagues for not including consideration of convergence. They argued that Theobald\'s test was insufficient to distinguish between the competing hypotheses. Theobald has defended his method against this claim, arguing that his tests distinguish between phylogenetic structure and mere sequence similarity. Therefore, Theobald argued, his results show that \"real universally conserved proteins are homologous.\"
### RNA world {#rna_world}
The possibility is mentioned, above, that all living organisms may be descended from an original single-celled organism with a DNA genome, and that this implies a single origin for life. Although such a universal common ancestor may have existed, such a complex entity is unlikely to have arisen spontaneously from non-life and thus a cell with a DNA genome cannot reasonably be regarded as the origin of life. To understand the origin of life, it has been proposed that DNA based cellular life descended from relatively simple pre-cellular self-replicating RNA molecules able to undergo natural selection. During the course of evolution, this RNA world was replaced by the evolutionary emergence of the DNA world. A world of independently self-replicating RNA genomes apparently no longer exists (RNA viruses are dependent on host cells with DNA genomes). Because the RNA world is apparently gone, it is not clear how scientific evidence could be brought to bear on the question of whether there was a single origin of life event from which all life descended
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# Celtic music
**Celtic music** is a broad grouping of music genres that evolved out of the folk music traditions of the Celtic people of Northwestern Europe (the modern Celtic nations). It refers to both orally-transmitted traditional music and recorded music and the styles vary considerably to include everything from traditional music to a wide range of hybrids.
## Description and definition {#description_and_definition}
`{{Multiple issues|{{confusing section|date=September 2021}}
{{Disputed section|date=September 2021}}
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2021}}|section=yes}}`{=mediawiki}*Celtic music* means two things mainly. First, it is the music of the people that identify themselves as Celts. Secondly, it refers to whatever qualities may be unique to the music of the Celtic nations. Many notable Celtic musicians such as Alan Stivell and Paddy Moloney claim that the different Celtic music genres have a lot in common.
These styles are known because of the importance of Irish and Scottish people in the English speaking world, especially in the United States, where they had a profound impact on American music, particularly bluegrass and country music. The music of Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, Galician traditional music (Spain) and music of Portugal are also considered Celtic music, the tradition being particularly strong in Brittany, where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year, and in Wales, where the ancient eisteddfod tradition has been revived and flourishes. Additionally, the musics of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are vibrant, especially in Canada and the United States. In Canada the provinces of Atlantic Canada are known for being a home of Celtic music, most notably on the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island. The traditional music of Atlantic Canada is heavily influenced by the Irish, Scottish and Acadian ethnic makeup of much of the region\'s communities. In some parts of Atlantic Canada, such as Newfoundland, Celtic music is as or more popular than in the old country. Further, some older forms of Celtic music that are rare in Scotland and Ireland today, such as the practice of accompanying a fiddle with a piano, or the Gaelic spinning songs of Cape Breton remain common in the Maritimes. Much of the music of this region is Celtic in nature, but originates in the local area and celebrates the sea, seafaring, fishing and other primary industries.
Instruments associated with Celtic Music include the Celtic harp, uilleann pipes or Great Highland bagpipe, fiddle, tin whistle, flute, bodhrán, bones, concertina, accordion and a recent addition, the Irish bouzouki.
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# Celtic music
## Divisions
In *Celtic Music: A Complete Guide*, June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage. The Q-Celtic nationalities are the Irish, Scottish and Manx peoples, while the P-Celtic groups are the Cornish, Bretons and Welsh peoples. Musician Alan Stivell uses a similar dichotomy, between the Gaelic (Irish/Scottish/Manx) and the Brythonic (Breton/Welsh/Cornish) branches, which differentiate \"mostly by the extended range (sometimes more than two octaves) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies (often reduced to a half-octave), and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music.\"
There is also tremendous variation between *Celtic* regions. Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany have living traditions of language and music, and there has been a recent major revival of interest in Celtic heritage in the Isle of Man. Galicia has a Celtic language revival movement to revive the Q-Celtic *Gallaic language* used into Roman times, which is not an attested language, unlike Celtiberian. A Brythonic language may have been spoken in parts of Galicia and Asturias into early Medieval times brought by Britons fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain via Brittany., but here again there are several hypotheses and very little traces of it : lack of archeological, linguistic evidence and documents. The Romance language currently spoken in Galicia, Galician (*Galego*) is closely related to the Portuguese language used mainly in Brazil and Portugal and in many ways closer to Latin than other Romance languages. Galician music is claimed to be *Celtic*. The same is true of the music of Asturias, Cantabria, and that of Northern Portugal (some say even traditional music from Central Portugal can be labeled Celtic).
Breton artist Alan Stivell was one of the earliest musicians to use the word *Celtic* and *Keltia* in his marketing materials, starting in the early 1960s as part of the worldwide folk music revival of that era with the term quickly catching on with other artists worldwide. Today, the genre is well established and incredibly diverse.
## Forms
There are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country, due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages:
- Celtic traditional music
- Music of Ireland
- Music of Scotland
- Music of Wales
- Strathspeys are specific to Highland Scotland and Cape Breton, for example, and it has been hypothesized that they mimic the rhythms of the Scottish Gaelic language.
- Reels
- Pibroch
- Cerdd Dant (string music) or *Canu Penillion* (verse singing) is the art of vocal improvisation over a given melody in Welsh musical tradition. It is an important competition in eisteddfodau. The singer or (small) choir sings a counter melody over a harp melody.
- Waulking song
- Puirt à beul
- Kan ha diskan
- Sean-nós singing
- Celtic hip hop
- Celtic rock
- Celtic metal
- Celtic punk
- Celtic fusion
- Progressive music
- Folk music
## Festivals
: *See **list of Celtic festivals** for a more complete list of Celtic festivals by country, including music festivals. Festivals focused largely or partly on Celtic music can be found at **:Category:Celtic music festivals**.*
The modern Celtic music scene involves a large number of music festivals, as it has traditionally. Some of the most prominent festivals focused solely on music include:
- Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira (Ortigueira, Galicia, Spain)
- Festival Intercéltico de Avilés (Avilés, Asturies, Spain)
- Folixa na Primavera (Mieres, Asturies, Spain)
- Festival Celta Internacional Reino de León, (León, Spain)
- Festival Internacional de Música Celta de Collado Villalba (Collado Villalba, Spain)
- Yn Chruinnaght (Isle of Man)
- Celtic Connections (Glasgow, Scotland)
- Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway, Scotland)
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- Fleadh ceol na hÉireann (Tullamore, Ireland)
- Festival Intercéltico de Sendim (Sendim, Portugal)
- Galaicofolia (Esposende, Portugal)
- Festival Folk Celta Ponte da Barca (Ponte da Barca, Portugal)
- Douro Celtic Fest (Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal)
- Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Lorient, France)
- Festival del Kan ar Bobl (Lorient, France)
- Festival de Cornouaille (Quimper, France)
- Les Nuits Celtiques du Stade de France (Paris, France)
- Montelago Celtic Night (Colfiorito, Macerata, Italy)
- Triskell International Celtic Festival (Trieste, Italy)
- Festival celtique de Québec or Québec city celtic festival, (Quebec City, Quebec, Canada)
- Festival Mémoire et Racines (Saint-Charles-Borromée, Quebec, Canada)
- Celtic Colours (Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Canada)
- Paganfest (Tour through Europe)
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# Celtic music
## Celtic fusion {#celtic_fusion}
The oldest musical tradition which fits under the label of Celtic fusion originated in the rural American south in the early colonial period and incorporated English, Scottish, Irish, Welsh, German, and African influences. Variously referred to as roots music, American folk music, or old-time music, this tradition has exerted a strong influence on all forms of American music, including country, blues, and rock and roll. In addition to its lasting effects on other genres, it marked the first modern large-scale mixing of musical traditions from multiple ethnic and religious communities within the Celtic diaspora.
In the 1960s several bands put forward modern adaptations of Celtic music pulling influences from several of the Celtic nations at once to create a modern pan-celtic sound. A few of those include bagadoù (Breton pipe bands), Fairport Convention, Pentangle, Steeleye Span and Horslips.
In the 1970s Clannad made their mark initially in the folk and traditional scene, and then subsequently went on to bridge the gap between traditional Celtic and pop music in the 1980s and 1990s, incorporating elements from new-age, smooth jazz, and folk rock. Traces of Clannad\'s legacy can be heard in the music of many artists, including Altan, Anúna, Capercaillie, the Corrs, Dexys Midnight Runners, Enya, Loreena McKennitt, Riverdance, Donna Taggart, and U2. The solo music of Clannad\'s lead singer, Moya Brennan (often referred to as the First Lady of Celtic Music) has further enhanced this influence.
Later, beginning in 1982 with the Pogues\' invention of Celtic folk-punk and Stockton\'s Wing blend of Irish traditional and Pop, Rock and Reggae, there has been a movement to incorporate Celtic influences into other genres of music. Bands like Flogging Molly, Black 47, Dropkick Murphys, the Young Dubliners, the Tossers introduced a hybrid of Celtic rock, punk, reggae, hardcore and other elements in the 1990s that has become popular with Irish-American youth.
Today there are Celtic-influenced subgenres of virtually every type of popular music including electronica, rock, metal, punk, hip hop, reggae, new-age, Latin, Andean and pop. Collectively these modern interpretations of Celtic music are sometimes referred to as Celtic fusion.
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# Celtic music
## Other modern adaptations {#other_modern_adaptations}
Outside of America, the first deliberate attempts to create a \"Pan-Celtic music\" were made by the Breton Taldir Jaffrennou, having translated songs from Ireland, Scotland, and Wales into Breton between the two world wars. One of his major works was to bring \"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau\" (the Welsh national anthem) back in Brittany and create lyrics in Breton. Eventually this song became \"*Bro goz va zadoù*\" (\"Old land of my fathers\") and is the most widely accepted Breton anthem. In the 70s, the Breton Alan Cochevelou (future Alan Stivell) began playing a mixed repertoire from the main Celtic countries on the Celtic harp his father created.\
Probably the most successful all-inclusive Celtic music composition in recent years is Shaun Daveys composition *The Pilgrim*. This suite depicts the journey of St. Colum Cille through the Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and Galicia. The suite which includes a Scottish pipe band, Irish and Welsh harpists, Galician gaitas, Irish uilleann pipes, the bombardes of Brittany, two vocal soloists and a narrator is set against a background of a classical orchestra and a large choir.
Modern music may also be termed \"Celtic\" because it is written and recorded in a Celtic language, regardless of musical style. Many of the Celtic languages have experienced resurgences in modern years, spurred on partly by the action of artists and musicians who have embraced them as hallmarks of identity and distinctness. In 1971, the Irish band *Skara Brae* recorded its only LP (simply called *Skara Brae*), all songs in Irish. In 1978 Runrig recorded an album in Scottish Gaelic. In 1992 Capercaillie recorded \"A Prince Among Islands\", the first Scottish Gaelic language record to reach the UK top 40. In 1996, a song in Breton represented France in the 41st Eurovision Song Contest, the first time in history that France had a song without a word in French. Since about 2005, Oi Polloi (from Scotland) have recorded in Scottish Gaelic. Mill a h-Uile Rud (a Scottish Gaelic punk band from Seattle) recorded in the language in 2004.
Several contemporary bands have Welsh language songs, such as Ceredwen, which fuses traditional instruments with trip hop beats, the Super Furry Animals, Fernhill, and so on (see the Music of Wales article for more Welsh and Welsh-language bands). The same phenomenon occurs in Brittany, where many singers record songs in Breton, traditional or modern (hip hop, rap, and so on.)
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# STS-51-F
s payload bay \| mission_type = Astronomical observations \| operator = NASA \| COSPAR_ID = \| SATCAT = \| mission_duration = `{{time interval|July 29, 1985, 21:00:00|August 6, 1985, 19:45:26|show=dhms|sep=,}}`{=mediawiki} \| distance_travelled = 5284350 km \| orbits_completed = 127 \| spacecraft = `{{OV|099}}`{=mediawiki} \| launch_mass = 114693 kg \| landing_mass = 98309 kg \| payload_mass = 16309 kg \| crew_size = 7 \| crew_members = `{{Unbulleted list|[[C. Gordon Fullerton]]|[[Roy D. Bridges Jr.]]|[[Karl Gordon Henize|Karl G. Henize]]|[[Story Musgrave|F. Story Musgrave]]|[[Anthony W. England]]|[[Loren Acton|Loren W. Acton]]|[[John-David F. Bartoe]]}}`{=mediawiki} \| launch_date = `{{Start date|1985|7|29|21|00|00|Z}}`{=mediawiki} (5:00 pm EDT) \| launch_site = Kennedy, LC-39A \| launch_contractor = Rockwell International \| landing_date = `{{End date text|August 6, 1985, 19:45:26|timezone=yes}}`{=mediawiki} UTC (12:45:26 pm PDT) \| landing_site = Edwards, Runway 23 \| orbit_reference = Geocentric orbit \| orbit_regime = Low Earth orbit \| orbit_periapsis = 312 km \| orbit_apoapsis = 320 km \| orbit_inclination = 49.49° \| orbit_period = 90.90 minutes \| apsis = gee \| instruments = `{{ubl|Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation|Infrared telescope (IRT)|Instrument Pointing System (IPS)|Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP)|Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment}}`{=mediawiki} \| insignia = STS-51-F patch.svg \| insignia_caption = STS-51-F mission patch \| crew_photo = STS-51-F crew.jpg \| crew_photo_caption = Front row (seated): C. Gordon Fullerton, Roy D. Bridges Jr.\
Back row (standing): Anthony W. England, Karl G. Henize, F. Story Musgrave, Loren W. Acton, John-David F. Bartoe \| programme = Space Shuttle program \| previous_mission = STS-51-G (18) \| next_mission = STS-51-I (20) }}
**STS-51-F** (also known as **Spacelab 2**) was the 19th flight of NASA\'s Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle *Challenger*. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on July 29, 1985, and landed eight days later on August 6, 1985.
While STS-51-F\'s primary payload was the Spacelab 2 laboratory module, the payload that received the most publicity was the Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation, which was an experiment in which both Coca-Cola and Pepsi tried to make their carbonated drinks available to astronauts. A helium-cooled infrared telescope (IRT) was also flown on this mission, and while it did have some problems, it observed 60% of the galactic plane in infrared light.
During launch, *Challenger* experienced multiple sensor failures in its Engine 1 Center SSME engine, which led to it shutting down and the shuttle had to perform an \"Abort to Orbit\" (ATO) emergency procedure. It is the only Shuttle mission to have carried out an abort after launching. As a result of the ATO, the mission was carried out at a slightly lower orbital altitude.
## Crew
### Crew seat assignments {#crew_seat_assignments}
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| Seat | Launch | Landing | \ |
| | | | Seats 1--4 are on the flight deck.\ |
| | | | Seats 5--7 are on the mid-deck. |
+======+===========+=========+=====================================+
| 1 | Fullerton | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 2 | Bridges | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 3 | Henize | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 4 | Musgrave | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 5 | England | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 6 | Acton | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
| 7 | Bartoe | | |
+------+-----------+---------+-------------------------------------+
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## Launch
thumb\|upright=1.0\|left\|Aborted launch attempt at T−3 seconds on July 12, 1985. thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|The control panel of the Shuttle on the STS-51-F mission, showing the selection of the Abort-to-Orbit (ATO) option.
STS-51-F\'s first launch attempt on July 12, 1985, was halted with the countdown at T−3 seconds after main engine ignition, when a malfunction of the number two RS-25 coolant valve caused an automatic launch abort. *Challenger* launched successfully on its second attempt on July 29, 1985, at 17:00 p.m. EDT, after a delay of 1 hour 37 minutes due to a problem with the table maintenance block update uplink.
At 3 minutes 31 seconds into the ascent, one of the center engine\'s two high-pressure fuel turbopump turbine discharge temperature sensors failed. Two minutes and twelve seconds later, the second sensor failed, causing the shutdown of the center engine. This was the only in-flight RS-25 failure of the Space Shuttle program. Approximately 8 minutes into the flight, one of the same temperature sensors in the right engine failed, and the remaining right-engine temperature sensor displayed readings near the redline for engine shutdown. Booster Systems Engineer Jenny M. Howard acted quickly to recommend that the crew inhibit any further automatic RS-25 shutdowns based on readings from the remaining sensors, preventing the potential shutdown of a second engine and a possible abort mode that may have resulted in the loss of crew and vehicle (LOCV).
The failed RS-25 resulted in an Abort to Orbit (ATO) trajectory, whereby the shuttle achieved a lower-than-planned orbital altitude. The plan had been for a 385 km by 382 km orbit, but the mission was carried out at 265 km by 262 km.
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# STS-51-F
## Mission summary {#mission_summary}
thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) grappled by the Canadarm. thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|Space art for the Spacelab 2 mission, showing some of the various experiments in the payload bay. thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|Tony England drinks soda in space. thumb\|upright=1.0\|right\|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit, taken on the STS-51-F mission.
STS-51-F\'s primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the \"igloo\", which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by *Challenger*{{\'}}s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.
The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.
### Spacelab Infrared Telescope {#spacelab_infrared_telescope}
The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission. The IRT was a 15.2 cm aperture helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm. It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle would corrupt long-wavelength data, however it still returned useful astronomical data. Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope. IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane. (see also List of largest infrared telescopes) A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was *Gaia* astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.
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# STS-51-F
## Mission summary {#mission_summary}
### Other payloads {#other_payloads}
The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth\'s ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours. During this time, *Challenger* maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.
In a heavily publicized marketing experiment, astronauts aboard STS-51-F drank carbonated beverages from specially designed cans from Cola Wars competitors Coca-Cola and Pepsi. According to Acton, after Coke developed its experimental dispenser for an earlier shuttle flight, Pepsi insisted to American president Ronald Reagan that Coke should not be the first cola in space. The experiment was delayed until Pepsi could develop its own system, and the two companies\' products were assigned to STS-51-F.`{{r|as20101118}}`{=mediawiki}
Blue Team tested Coke, and Red Team tested Pepsi. As part of the experiment, each team was photographed with the cola logo. Acton said that while the sophisticated Coke system \"dispensed soda kind of like what we\'re used to drinking on Earth\", the Pepsi can was a shaving cream can with the Pepsi logo on a paper wrapper, which \"dispensed soda filled with bubbles\" that was \"not very drinkable\". Acton said that when he gives speeches in schools, audiences are much more interested in hearing about the cola experiment than in solar physics.`{{r|as20101118}}`{=mediawiki} Post-flight, the astronauts revealed that they preferred Tang, in part because it could be mixed on-orbit with existing chilled-water supplies, whereas there was no dedicated refrigeration equipment on board to chill the cans, which also fizzed excessively in microgravity.
In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two \"holes\" -- plasma depletion regions -- in the ionosphere. A worldwide group of geophysicists collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.
An eggshell and the bone of a baby Maiasaura (a hadrosaurid dinosaur from Cretaceous North America), were brought along on the mission by Acton. They became the first dinosaur fossils to have ever been brought into space.
## Landing
*Challenger* landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on August 6, 1985, at 12:45:26 p.m. PDT. Its rollout distance was 2612 m. The mission had been extended by 17 orbits for additional payload activities due to the Abort to Orbit. The orbiter arrived back at Kennedy Space Center on August 11, 1985.
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# STS-51-F
## Mission insignia {#mission_insignia}
The mission insignia was designed by Houston, Texas, artist Skip Bradley. `{{OV|99}}`{=mediawiki} is depicted ascending toward the heavens in search of new knowledge in the field of solar and stellar astronomy, with its Spacelab 2 payload. The constellations Leo and Orion are shown in the positions they were in relative to the Sun during the flight. The nineteen stars indicate that the mission is the 19th shuttle flight.
## Legacy
One of the purposes of the mission was to test how suitable the Shuttle was for conducting infrared observations, and the IRT was operated on this mission. However, the orbiter was found to have some draw-backs for infrared astronomy, and this led to later infrared telescopes being free-flying from the Shuttle orbiter
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# On the Consolation of Philosophy
***On the Consolation of Philosophy*** (*De consolatione philosophiae*), often titled as ***The Consolation of Philosophy*** or simply the ***Consolation***, is a philosophical work by the Roman philosopher Boethius. Written in 523 while he was imprisoned and awaiting execution by the Ostrogothic King Theodoric, it is often described as the last great Western work of the Classical Period. Boethius\'s *Consolation* heavily influenced the philosophy of late antiquity, as well as Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity.
## Description
*On the Consolation of Philosophy* was written in AD 523 during a one-year imprisonment Boethius served while awaiting trial---and eventual execution---for the alleged crime of treason under the Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great. Boethius was at the very heights of power in Rome, holding the prestigious office of *magister officiorum*, and was brought down by treachery. This experience inspired the text, which reflects on how evil can exist in a world governed by God (an example of theodicy), and how happiness is still attainable amidst fickle fortune, while also considering the nature of happiness and God. In 1891, the academic Hugh Fraser Stewart described the work as \"by far the most interesting example of prison literature the world has ever seen.\"
Boethius writes the book as a conversation between himself and a female personification of philosophy, referred to as \"Lady Philosophy\". Philosophy consoles Boethius by discussing the transitory nature of wealth, fame, and power (\"no man can ever truly be secure until he has been forsaken by Fortune\"), and the ultimate superiority of things of the mind, which she calls the \"one true good\". She contends that happiness comes from within, and that virtue is all that one truly has because it is not imperiled by the vicissitudes of fortune.
Boethius engages with the nature of predestination and free will, the problem of evil and the \"problem of desert\", human nature, virtue, and justice. He speaks about the nature of free will and determinism when he asks whether God knows and sees all, or whether man has free will. On human nature, Boethius says that humans are essentially good, and only when they give in to \"wickedness\" do they \"sink to the level of being an animal.\" On justice, he says criminals are not to be abused, but rather treated with sympathy and respect, using the analogy of doctor and patient to illustrate the ideal relationship between prosecutor and criminal.
### Outline
*On the Consolation of Philosophy* is laid out as follows:
- **Book I:** Boethius laments his imprisonment before he is visited by Philosophy, personified as a woman.
- **Book II:** Philosophy illustrates the capricious nature of Fate by discussing the \"wheel of Fortune\"; she further argues that true happiness lies in the pursuit of wisdom.
- **Book III:** Building on the ideas laid out in the previous book, Philosophy explains how wisdom has a divine source; she also demonstrates how many earthly goods (e.g., wealth and beauty) are fleeting at best.
- **Book IV:** Philosophy and Boethius discuss the nature of good and evil, with Philosophy offering several explanations concerned with evil events and why the wicked can never attain true happiness.
- **Book V:** Boethius asks Philosophy about the role Chance plays in the order of everything. Philosophy argues that Chance is guided by Providence. Boethius then asks Philosophy about the compatibility of an omniscient God and free will.
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# On the Consolation of Philosophy
## Interpretation
In the *Consolation*, Boethius answered religious questions without reference to Christianity, relying solely on natural philosophy and the Classical Greek tradition. He believed in the correspondence between faith and reason. The truths found in Christianity would be no different from the truths found in philosophy. In the words of Henry Chadwick, \"If the *Consolation* contains nothing distinctively Christian, it is also relevant that it contains nothing specifically pagan either\...\[it\] is a work written by a Platonist who is also a Christian.\"
Boethius repeats the Macrobius model of the Earth in the center of a spherical cosmos.
The philosophical message of the book fits well with the religious piety of the Middle Ages. Boethius encouraged readers not to pursue worldly goods such as money and power, but to seek internalized virtues. Evil had a purpose, to provide a lesson to help change for good; while suffering from evil was seen as virtuous. Because God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God and the application of Love would lead to true happiness. The Middle Ages, with their vivid sense of an overruling fate, found in Boethius an interpretation of life closely akin to the spirit of Christianity. The *Consolation* stands, by its note of fatalism and its affinities with the Christian doctrine of humility, midway between the pagan philosophy of Seneca the Younger and the later Christian philosophy of consolation represented by Thomas à Kempis.
The book is heavily influenced by Plato and his dialogues (as was Boethius himself). Its popularity can in part be explained by its Neoplatonic and Christian ethical messages, although current scholarly research is still far from clear exactly why and how the work became so vastly popular in the Middle Ages.
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# On the Consolation of Philosophy
## Influence
From the Carolingian epoch to the end of the Middle Ages and beyond, *The Consolation of Philosophy* was one of the most popular and influential philosophical works, read by statesmen, poets, historians, philosophers, and theologians. It is through Boethius that much of the thought of the Classical period was made available to the Western Medieval world. It has often been said Boethius was the \"last of the Romans and the first of the Scholastics\".
Translations into the vernacular were done by famous notables, including King Alfred (Old English), Jean de Meun (Old French), Geoffrey Chaucer (Middle English), Queen Elizabeth I (Early Modern English), Richard Graham, 1st Viscount Preston (English, 1695--1696), and Notker Labeo (Old High German). Other English translators include George Colville (1556), Henry Rosher (H. J.) James (1897), Walter John (W. J.) Sedgefield (1899), and Richard H. Green (1962). Boethius\'s *Consolation of Philosophy* was translated into Italian by Alberto della Piagentina (1332), Anselmo Tanso (Milan, 1520), Lodovico Domenichi (Florence, 1550), Benedetto Varchi (Florence, 1551), Cosimo Bartoli (Florence, 1551) and Tommaso Tamburini (Palermo, 1657).
Found within the *Consolation* are themes that have echoed throughout the Western canon: the female figure of wisdom that informs Dante, the ascent through the layered universe that is shared with Milton, the reconciliation of opposing forces that find their way into Chaucer in *The Knight\'s Tale*, and the Wheel of Fortune so popular throughout the Middle Ages.
Citations from it occur frequently in Dante\'s *Divina Commedia*. Of Boethius, Dante remarked: \"The blessed soul who exposes the deceptive world to anyone who gives ear to him.\"
Boethian influence can be found nearly everywhere in Geoffrey Chaucer\'s poetry, e.g. in *Troilus and Criseyde*, *The Knight\'s Tale*, *The Clerk\'s Tale*, *The Franklin\'s Tale*, *The Parson\'s Tale* and *The Tale of Melibee*, in the character of Lady Nature in *The Parliament of Fowls* and some of the shorter poems, such as *Truth*, *The Former Age* and *Lak of Stedfastnesse*. Chaucer translated the work in his *Boece*.
The Italian composer Luigi Dallapiccola used some of the text in his choral work *Canti di prigionia* (1938). The Australian composer Peter Sculthorpe quoted parts of it in his opera or music theatre work *Rites of Passage* (1972--73), which was commissioned for the opening of the Sydney Opera House but was not ready in time.
Tom Shippey in *The Road to Middle-earth* says how \"Boethian\" much of the treatment of evil is in Tolkien\'s *The Lord of the Rings*. Shippey says that Tolkien knew well the translation of Boethius that was made by King Alfred and he quotes some \"Boethian\" remarks from Frodo, Treebeard, and Elrond.
Boethius and *Consolatio Philosophiae* are cited frequently by the main character Ignatius J. Reilly in the Pulitzer Prize-winning *A Confederacy of Dunces* (1980).
It is a prosimetrical text, meaning that it is written in alternating sections of prose and metered verse. In the course of the text, Boethius displays a virtuosic command of the forms of Latin poetry. It is classified as a Menippean satire, a fusion of allegorical tale, platonic dialogue, and lyrical poetry.
Edward Gibbon described the work as \"a golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully.\"
In the 20th century, there were close to four hundred manuscripts still surviving, a testament to its popularity.
Of the work, C. S. Lewis wrote: \"To acquire a taste for it is almost to become naturalised in the Middle Ages.\"
In 2024, under the high patronage of the European Parliament, the Italian composer Mirco De Stefani published *Cori di Boezio*, for twelve male voices a cappella, on seven poems from *De Consolatione Philosophiae*, in the 15th centenary of the work.
### Reconstruction of lost songs {#reconstruction_of_lost_songs}
Hundreds of Latin songs were recorded in neumes from the ninth century through to the thirteenth century, including settings of the poetic passages from Boethius\'s *The Consolation of Philosophy*. The music of this song repertory had long been considered irretrievably lost because the notational signs indicated only melodic outlines, relying on now-lapsed oral traditions to fill in the missing details. However, research conducted by Sam Barrett at the University of Cambridge, extended in collaboration with Medieval music ensemble Sequentia, has shown that principles of musical setting for this period can be identified, providing crucial information to enable modern realisations. Sequentia performed the world premiere of the reconstructed songs from Boethius\'s *The Consolation of Philosophy* at Pembroke College, Cambridge, in April 2016, bringing to life music not heard in over 1,000 years; a number of the songs were subsequently recorded on the CD *Boethius: Songs of Consolation. Metra from 11th-Century Canterbury* (Glossa, 2018). The detective story behind the recovery of these lost songs is told in a documentary film, and a website launched by the University of Cambridge in 2018 provides further details of the reconstruction process, bringing together manuscripts, reconstructions, and video resources
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# Character encodings in HTML
While Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) has been in use since 1991, HTML 4.0 from December 1997 was the first standardized version where international characters were given reasonably complete treatment. When an HTML document includes special characters outside the range of seven-bit ASCII, two goals are worth considering: the information\'s integrity, and universal browser display.
## Specifying the document\'s character encoding {#specifying_the_documents_character_encoding}
There are two general ways to specify which character encoding is used in the document.
First, the web server can include the character encoding or \"`charset`\" in the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) `Content-Type` header, which would typically look like this:
``` http
Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8
```
This method gives the HTTP server a convenient way to alter document\'s encoding according to content negotiation; certain HTTP server software can do it, for example Apache with the module `mod_charset_lite`.
Second, a declaration can be included within the document itself.
For HTML it is possible to include this information inside the `head` element near the top of the document:
``` html
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
```
HTML5 also allows the following syntax to mean exactly the same:
``` html
<meta charset="utf-8">
```
XHTML documents have a third option: to express the character encoding via XML declaration, as follows:
``` xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
```
With this second approach, because the character encoding cannot be known until the declaration is parsed, there is a problem knowing which character encoding is used in the document up to and including the declaration itself. If the character encoding is an ASCII extension then the content up to and including the declaration itself should be pure ASCII and this will work correctly. For character encodings that are not ASCII extensions (i.e. not a superset of ASCII), such as UTF-16BE and UTF-16LE, a processor of HTML, such as a web browser, should be able to parse the declaration in some cases through the use of heuristics.
### Encoding detection algorithm {#encoding_detection_algorithm}
As of HTML5 the recommended charset is UTF-8. An \"encoding sniffing algorithm\" is defined in the specification to determine the character encoding of the document based on multiple sources of input, including:
1. Explicit user instruction
2. An explicit meta tag within the first 1024 bytes of the document
3. A byte order mark (BOM) within the first three bytes of the document
4. The HTTP Content-Type or other transport layer information
5. Analysis of the document bytes looking for specific sequences or ranges of byte values, and other tentative detection mechanisms.
Characters outside of the printable ASCII range (32 to 126) usually appear incorrectly. This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but other languages regularly---in some cases, always---require characters outside that range. In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (CJK) language environments where there are several different multi-byte encodings in use, auto-detection is also often employed. Finally, browsers usually permit the user to override *incorrect* charset label manually as well.
It is increasingly common for multilingual websites and websites in non-Western languages to use UTF-8, which allows use of the same encoding for all languages. UTF-16 or UTF-32, which can be used for all languages as well, are less widely used because they can be harder to handle in programming languages that assume a byte-oriented ASCII superset encoding, and they are less efficient for text with a high frequency of ASCII characters, which is usually the case for HTML documents.
Successful viewing of a page is not necessarily an indication that its encoding is specified correctly. If the page\'s creator and reader are both assuming some platform-specific character encoding, and the server does not send any identifying information, then the reader will nonetheless see the page as the creator intended, but other readers on different platforms or with different native languages will not see the page as intended.
## Permitted encodings {#permitted_encodings}
The WHATWG Encoding Standard, referenced by recent HTML standards (the current WHATWG HTML Living Standard, as well as the formerly competing W3C HTML 5.0 and 5.1) specifies a list of encodings which browsers must support. The HTML standards forbid support of other encodings. The Encoding Standard further stipulates that new formats, new protocols (even when existing formats are used) and authors of new documents are required to use UTF-8 exclusively.
Besides UTF-8, the following encodings are explicitly listed in the HTML standard itself, with reference to the Encoding Standard: `{{notelist}}`{=mediawiki}
The following additional encodings are listed in the Encoding Standard, and support for them is therefore also required: `{{notelist}}`{=mediawiki}
The following encodings are listed as explicit examples of forbidden encodings: `{{columns-list|colwidth=12em|
* [[CESU-8]]
* [[UTF-7]]
* [[Binary Ordered Compression for Unicode|BOCU-1]]
* [[Standard Compression Scheme for Unicode|SCSU]]
* [[EBCDIC]]
* [[UTF-32]]
}}`{=mediawiki}
The standard also defines a \"replacement\" decoder, which maps all content labelled as certain encodings to the replacement character (�), refusing to process it at all. This is intended to prevent attacks (e.g. cross site scripting) which may exploit a difference between the client and server in what encodings are supported in order to mask malicious content. Although the same security concern applies to ISO-2022-JP and UTF-16, which also allow sequences of ASCII bytes to be interpreted differently, this approach was not seen as feasible for them since they are comparatively more frequently used in deployed content
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# Politics of Chad
The **politics of Chad** take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic, whereby the President of Chad is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Chad is one of the most corrupt countries in the world.
In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against the President Idriss Deby that had been in preparation for several months. In April 2021, President Déby was injured by the rebel group Front Pour l\'Alternance et La Concorde au Tchad (FACT). He succumbed to his injuries on April 20, 2021. His presidency was taken by his family member Mahamat Déby in April 2021. This resulted in both the National Assembly and Chadian Government being dissolved and replaced with a Transitional Military Council.
The National Transitional Council will oversee the transition to democracy. On 23 May 2024, Mahamat Idriss Déby was sworn in as President of Chad. He had won the disputed 6 May election outright, with 61 per cent of the vote.
## Executive branch {#executive_branch}
\|President \|Mahamat Déby \|Patriotic Salvation Movement \|20 April 2021 \|} Chad\'s executive branch is headed by the President and dominates the Chadian political system. Following the military overthrow of Hissène Habré in December 1990, Idriss Déby won the presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. The constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 constitution, under which the president was limited to two terms of office until Déby had that provision repealed in 2005. The president has the power to appoint the Council of State (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad\'s parastatal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of emergency. Most of the key advisors for former president Déby were members of the Zaghawa clan, although some southern and opposition personalities were represented in his government.
## Legislative branch {#legislative_branch}
According to the 1996 constitution, the National Assembly deputies are elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; once passed by the Assembly, the president must take action to either sign or reject the law within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister\'s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no-confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch\'s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party structure.
## Judicial branch {#judicial_branch}
Despite the constitution\'s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive branch, the president names most key judicial officials. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councilors chosen by the president and National Assembly; appointments are for life. The Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power to review all legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. The constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens.
## Political parties and elections {#political_parties_and_elections}
### Presidential elections {#presidential_elections}
{{#section-h:2016 Chadian presidential election\|Results}}
### Parliamentary elections {#parliamentary_elections}
{{#section-h:2011 Chadian parliamentary election\|Results}}
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# Politics of Chad
## International organization participation {#international_organization_participation}
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
## 2021 government shakeup {#government_shakeup}
On 20 April 2021, following the death of longtime Chad President Idriss Déby, the Military of Chad released a statement confirming that both the Government of Chad and the nation\'s National Assembly had been dissolved and that a Transitional Military Council led by Déby\'s son Mahamat would lead the nation for at least 18 months. Among the 40-member transitional government were nine women including Lydie Beassemda, Fatime Goukouni Weddeye and Isabelle Housna Kassire.
Following protests on 14 May 2022, the authorities in Chad detained several members of civil society organizations. The protests were organized in N'Djamena, and other cities across the country by Chadian civil society organizations, united under the coalition Wakit Tamma
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# Telecommunications in Chad
**Telecommunications in Chad** include radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet.
## Radio and television {#radio_and_television}
**Radio stations:**
- state-owned radio network, Radiodiffusion Nationale Tchadienne (RNT), operates national and regional stations; about 10 private radio stations; some stations rebroadcast programs from international broadcasters (2007);
- 2 AM, 4 FM, and 5 shortwave stations (2001).
**Radios:** 1.7 million (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|10}}`{=mediawiki}
**Television stations:**
- 1 state-owned TV station, Tele Tchad (2007);
- 1 station (2001).
**Television sets:** 10,000 (1997).`{{update after|2014|2|10}}`{=mediawiki}
Radio is the most important medium of mass communication. State-run Radiodiffusion Nationale Tchadienne operates national and regional radio stations. Around a dozen private radio stations are on the air, despite high licensing fees, some run by religious or other non-profit groups. The BBC World Service (FM 90.6) and Radio France Internationale (RFI) broadcast in the capital, N\'Djamena. The only television station, Tele Tchad, is state-owned.
State control of many broadcasting outlets allows few dissenting views. Journalists are harassed and attacked. On rare occasions journalists are warned in writing by the High Council for Communication to produce more \"responsible\" journalism or face fines. Some journalists and publishers practice self-censorship. On 10 October 2012, the High Council on Communications issued a formal warning to La Voix du Paysan, claiming that the station\'s live broadcast on 30 September incited the public to \"insurrection against the government.\" The station had broadcast a sermon by a bishop who criticized the government for allegedly failing to use oil wealth to benefit the region.
## Telephones
**Calling code:** +235
**International call prefix:** 00
**Main lines:**
- 29,900 lines in use, 176th in the world (2012);
- 13,000 lines in use, 201st in the world (2004).
**Mobile cellular:**
- 4.2 million lines, 119th in the world (2012);
- 210,000 lines, 155th in the world (2005).
**Telephone system:** inadequate system of radiotelephone communication stations with high costs and low telephone density; fixed-line connections for less than 1 per 100 persons coupled with mobile-cellular subscribership base of only about 35 per 100 persons (2011).
**Satellite earth stations:** 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).
## Internet
**Top-level domain:** .td
**Internet users:**
- 230,489 users, 149th in the world; 2.1% of the population, 200th in the world (2012);
- 168,100 users, 145th in the world (2009);
- 35,000 users, 167th in the world (2005).
**Fixed broadband:** 18,000 subscriptions, 132nd in the world; 0.2% of the population, 161st in the world (2012).
**Wireless broadband:** Unknown (2012).
**Internet hosts:**
- 6 hosts, 229th in the world (2012);
- 9 hosts, 217th in the world (2006).
**IPv4:** 4,096 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.4 addresses per 1000 people (2012).
### Internet censorship and surveillance {#internet_censorship_and_surveillance}
There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms. However, in September 2023 the government has banned Starlink on the country\'s territory. Illegal use, sale or purchase is punishable by imprisonment or penalty from 100 000 000 to 200 000 000 francs CFA (around 152 000 - €304 000 ).
The constitution provides for freedom of opinion, expression, and press, but the government does not always respect these rights. Private individuals are generally free to criticize the government without reprisal, but reporters and publishers risk harassment from authorities when publishing critical articles. The 2010 media law abolished prison sentences for defamation and insult, but prohibits \"inciting racial, ethnic, or religious hatred,\" which is punishable by one to two years in prison and a fine of one to three million CFA francs (\$2,000 to \$6,000)
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# Coitus interruptus
***Coitus interruptus***, also known as **withdrawal**, **pulling out** or the **pull-out method**, is an act of birth control during sexual intercourse, whereby the penis is withdrawn from a vagina prior to ejaculation so that the ejaculate (semen) may be directed away in an effort to avoid insemination.
This method was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991. *Coitus interruptus* does not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
## History
Perhaps the oldest description of the use of the withdrawal method to avoid pregnancy is the story of Onan in the Torah and the Bible. This text is believed to have been written over 2,500 years ago. Societies in the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome preferred small families and are known to have practiced a variety of birth control methods. There are references that have led historians to believe withdrawal was sometimes used as birth control. However, these societies viewed birth control as a woman\'s responsibility, and the only well-documented contraception methods were female-controlled devices (both possibly effective, such as pessaries, and ineffective, such as amulets).
After the decline of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, contraceptive practices fell out of use in Europe; the use of contraceptive pessaries, for example, is not documented again until the 15th century. If withdrawal was used during the Roman Empire, knowledge of the art may have been lost during its decline.
From the 18th century until the development of modern methods, withdrawal was one of the most popular methods of birth-control practised globally.
## Effects
Like many methods of birth control, reliable effect is achieved only by correct and consistent use. Observed failure rates of withdrawal vary depending on the population being studied: American studies have found actual failure rates of 15--28% per year., which cites:
-
- One US study, based on self-reported data from the 2006--2010 cycle of the National Survey of Family Growth, found significant differences in failure rate based on parity status. Women with 0 previous births had a 12-month failure rate of only 8.4%, which then increased to 20.4% for those with 1 prior birth and again to 27.7% for those with 2 or more.
An analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys in 43 developing countries between 1990 and 2013 found a median 12-month failure rate across subregions of 13.4%, with a range of 7.8--17.1%. Individual countries within the subregions were even more varied. A large scale study of women in England and Scotland during 1968--1974 to determine the efficacy of various contraceptive methods found a failure rate of 6.7 per 100 woman-years of use. This was a "typical use" failure rate, including user failure to use the method correctly. In comparison, the combined oral contraceptive pill has an actual use failure rate of 2--8%, while intrauterine devices (IUDs) have an actual use failure rate of 0.1--0.8%. Condoms have an actual use failure rate of 10--18%. However, some authors suggest that actual effectiveness of withdrawal could be similar to the effectiveness of condoms; this area needs further research. (See Comparison of birth control methods.)
For couples that use *coitus interruptus* consistently and correctly at every act of intercourse, the failure rate is 4% per year. This rate is derived from an educated guess based on a modest chance of sperm in the pre-ejaculate. In comparison, the pill has a perfect-use failure rate of 0.3%, IUDs a rate of 0.1--0.6%, and internal condoms a rate of 2%.
It has been suggested that the pre-ejaculate (\"Cowper\'s fluid\") emitted by the penis prior to ejaculation may contain spermatozoa (sperm cells), which would compromise the effectiveness of the method. However, several small studies have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid. While no large conclusive studies have been done, it is believed by some that the cause of method (correct-use) failure is the pre-ejaculate fluid picking up sperm from a previous ejaculation. For this reason, it is recommended that the male partner urinate between ejaculations, to clear the urethra of sperm, and wash any ejaculate from objects that might come near the woman\'s vulva (such as hands and penis).
However, recent research suggests that this might not be accurate. A contrary, yet non-generalizable study that found mixed evidence, including individual cases of a high sperm concentration, was published in March 2011. A noted limitation to these previous studies\' findings is that pre-ejaculate samples were analyzed after the critical two-minute point. That is, looking for motile sperm in small amounts of pre-ejaculate via microscope after two minutes -- when the sample has most likely dried -- makes examination and evaluation \"extremely difficult\". Thus, in March 2011 a team of researchers assembled 27 male volunteers and analyzed their pre-ejaculate samples within two minutes after producing them. The researchers found that 11 of the 27 men (41%) produced pre-ejaculatory samples that contained sperm, and 10 of these samples (37%) contained a \"fair amount\" of motile sperm (in other words, as few as 1 million to as many as 35 million). This study therefore recommends, in order to minimize unintended pregnancy and disease transmission, the use of condoms from the first moment of genital contact. As a point of reference, a study showed that, of couples who conceived within a year of trying, only 2.5% included a male partner with a total sperm count (per ejaculate) of 23 million sperm or less. However, across a wide range of observed values, total sperm count (as with other identified semen and sperm characteristics) has weak power to predict which couples are at risk of pregnancy. Regardless, this study introduced the concept that some men may consistently have sperm in their pre-ejaculate, due to a \"leakage,\" while others may not.
Similarly, another robust study performed in 2016 found motile sperm in the pre-ejaculate of 16.7% (7/42) healthy men. What more, this study attempted to exclude contamination of sperm from ejaculate by drying the pre-ejaculate specimens to reveal a fern-like pattern, characteristics of true pre-ejaculate. All pre-ejaculate specimens were examined within an hour of production and then dried; all pre-ejaculate specimens were found to be true pre-ejaculate. It is widely believed that urinating after an ejaculation will flush the urethra of remaining sperm. However, some of the subjects in the March 2011 study who produced sperm in their pre-ejaculate did urinate (sometimes more than once) before producing their sample. Therefore, some males can release the pre-ejaculate fluid containing sperm without a previous ejaculation.
## Advantages
The advantage of *coitus interruptus* is that it can be used by people who have objections to, or do not have access to, other forms of contraception. Some people prefer it so they can avoid possible adverse effects of hormonal contraceptives or so that they can have a full experience and be able to \"feel\" their partner. Other reasons for the popularity of this method are its anecdotal increase in male sexual deftness, it has no direct monetary cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, can be practiced without a prescription or medical consultation, and provides no barriers to stimulation.
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# Coitus interruptus
## Disadvantages
Compared to the other common reversible methods of contraception such as IUDs, hormonal contraceptives, and male condoms, *coitus interruptus* is less effective at preventing pregnancy. As a result, it is also less cost-effective than many more effective methods: although the method itself has no direct cost, users have a greater chance of incurring the risks and expenses of either child-birth or abortion. Only models that assume all couples practice perfect use of the method find cost savings associated with the choice of withdrawal as a birth control method.
The method is largely ineffective in the prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), like HIV, since pre-ejaculate may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner if this fluid comes in contact with mucous membranes. However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission compared to using no method due to the smaller number of pathogens present.
## Prevalence
Based on data from surveys conducted during the late 1990s, 3% of women of childbearing age worldwide rely on withdrawal as their primary method of contraception. Regional popularity of the method varies widely, from a low of 1% in Africa to 16% in Western Asia.
In the United States, according to the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) in 2014, 8.1% of reproductive-aged women reported using withdrawal as a primary contraceptive method. This was a significant increase from 2012 when 4.8% of women reported the use of withdrawal as their most effective method. However, when withdrawal is used in addition to or in rotation with another contraceptive method, the percentage of women using withdrawal jumps from 5% for sole use and 11% for any withdrawal use in 2002, and for adolescents from 7.1% of sole withdrawal use to 14.6% of any withdrawal use in 2006--2008.
When asked if withdrawal was used at least once in the past month by women, use of withdrawal increased from 13% as sole use to 33% ever use in the past month. These increases are even more pronounced for adolescents 15 to 19 years old and young women 20 to 24 years old Similarly, the NSFG reports that 9.8% of unmarried men who have had sexual intercourse in the last three months in 2002 used withdrawal, which then increased to 14.5% in 2006--2010, and then to 18.8% in 2011--2015. The use of withdrawal varied by the unmarried man\'s age and cohabiting status, but not by ethnicity or race. The use of withdrawal decreased significantly with increasing age groups, ranging from 26.2% among men aged 15--19 to 12% among men aged 35--44. The use of withdrawal was significantly higher for never-married men (23.0%) compared with formerly married (16.3%) and cohabiting (13.0%) men.
For 1998, about 18% of married men in Turkey reported using withdrawal as a contraceptive method
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# Country code
A **country code** is a short alphanumeric identification code for countries and dependent areas. Its primary use is in data processing and communications. Several identification systems have been developed.
The term *country code* frequently refers to ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, as well as the telephone country code, which is embodied in the E.164 recommendation by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
## ISO 3166-1 {#iso_3166_1}
The standard ISO 3166-1 defines short identification codes for most countries and dependent areas:
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-2: two-letter code
- ISO 3166-1 alpha-3: three-letter code
- ISO 3166-1 numeric: three-digit code
The two-letter codes are used as the basis for other codes and applications, for example,
- for ISO 4217 currency codes
- with deviations, for country code top-level domain names (ccTLDs) on the Internet: list of Internet TLDs.
Other applications are defined in ISO 3166-1 alpha-2.
## ITU
### Telephone country codes {#telephone_country_codes}
Telephone country codes are telephone number prefixes for international direct dialing (IDD), a system for reaching subscribers in foreign areas via international telecommunication networks. Country codes are defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in ITU-T standards E.123 and E.164.
Country codes constitute the international telephone numbering plan. They are dialed before the national telephone number of a destination in a foreign country or area, but typically require at least one additional prefix, the international call prefix which is an exit code from the national numbering plan to the international one. ITU standards recommend the digit sequence *00* for the prefix, and most countries comply.
### Other ITU codes {#other_itu_codes}
The ITU also maintains the following other country codes:
- The E.212 mobile country codes (MCC), for mobile/wireless phone addresses.
- The ITU prefix, the first few characters of call signs of radio and television stations (maritime, aeronautical, broadcasting, and other types) to identify their country of origin
- ITU prefix - amateur and experimental stations, specific prefixes for amateur and experimental radio use, so that operators can be identified by their country of origin. These prefixes are legally administered by the national entity to which prefix ranges are assigned.
- Maritime identification digits, to identify countries in maritime mobile radio transmissions.
- ITU letter codes, to identify ITU member-countries.
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# Country code
## Other country codes {#other_country_codes}
The developers of ISO 3166 intended that in time it would replace other coding systems.
### Other general-purpose systems {#other_general_purpose_systems}
- **FIPS country codes**: Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 10-4 defined two-letter codes used by the U.S. government and in the CIA World Factbook. On September 2, 2008, FIPS 10-4 was one of ten standards withdrawn by NIST as a Federal Information Processing Standard.
- **GOST 7.67**: country codes in Cyrillic from the GOST standards committee.
- **NATO country codes**: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) initially used two-letter codes largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned above. In 2003, the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement (STANAG) adopted the ISO 3166 three-letter codes with one exception (the code for Macedonia). With the ninth edition, NATO is transitioning to four- and six-letter codes based on ISO 3166 with a few exceptions and additions.
- The **first-level** of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics of the European Union, mostly focusing on EU member states.
- **UNDP country codes**, used by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
- **World Area Codes**, used by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, part of the United States Department of Transportation.
### Business
- **GS1 country codes**, defined by the nonprofit international organization GS1 for its Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) and other standards for barcodes and the corresponding issue company prefixes.
- **WIPO ST.3**, defined by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to identify both countries and regional intellectual property organizations.
### Sport
- **IOC country codes**, defined by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to identify member countries, specifically National Olympic Committees.
- **FIFA country codes**, to identify member and non-member countries of FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association).
### Transport
- **International vehicle registration codes**, under the 1949 Geneva Convention on Road Traffic and the 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic to identify the country that issued a motor vehicle\'s vehicle registration plate.
- After the 2004 EU enlargement, the EU began instead using the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for license plate codes, but with two modifications: EL for Greece (instead of GR) and (formerly) UK for United Kingdom (instead of GB)[1](https://web.archive.org/web/20190628014602/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/4904.pdf)
- Diplomatic license plates in the United States, issued by the U.S. State Department to accredited diplomats, include a two-letter country code to identify that representative\'s country.
- **ICAO aircraft registration prefixes**, defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to identify an aircraft\'s country of registration.
- **ICAO airport code prefixes**, defined by the ICAO to identify an airport\'s country.
- **UIC country codes**, to identify members of the International Union of Railways (UIC).
### Other specific-purpose codes {#other_specific_purpose_codes}
- **Country code top-level domain** (ccTLD), an Internet top-level domain. Originally defined by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), it was initially based on ISO 3166-1 alpha-2.
- **World Meteorological Organization** (WMO) maintains its own list of country codes in reporting meteorological observations.
## Other codings {#other_codings}
Country identities may be encoded in the following coding systems:
- The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN) are group identifiers for countries, areas, or language regions
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# Conversion of units
**Conversion of units** is the conversion of the unit of measurement in which a quantity is expressed, typically through a multiplicative **conversion factor** that changes the unit without changing the quantity. This is also often loosely taken to include replacement of a quantity with a corresponding quantity that describes the same physical property.
Unit conversion is often easier within a metric system such as the SI than in others, due to the system\'s coherence and its metric prefixes that act as power-of-10 multipliers.
## Overview
The definition and choice of units in which to express a quantity may depend on the specific situation and the intended purpose. This may be governed by regulation, contract, technical specifications or other published standards. Engineering judgment may include such factors as:
- the precision and accuracy of measurement and the associated uncertainty of measurement
- the statistical confidence interval or tolerance interval of the initial measurement
- the number of significant figures of the measurement
- the intended use of the measurement, including the engineering tolerances
- historical definitions of the units and their derivatives used in old measurements; e.g., international foot vs. US survey foot.
For some purposes, conversions from one system of units to another are needed to be exact, without increasing or decreasing the precision of the expressed quantity. An *adaptive conversion* may not produce an exactly equivalent expression. Nominal values are sometimes allowed and used.
## Factor--label method {#factorlabel_method}
The **factor--label method**, also known as the **unit--factor method** or the **unity bracket method**, is a widely used technique for unit conversions that uses the rules of algebra.
The factor--label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, 10 miles per hour can be converted to metres per second by using a sequence of conversion factors as shown below: $\frac{\mathrm{10~\cancel{mi}}}{\mathrm{1~\cancel{h}}} \times \frac{\mathrm{1609.344~m}}{\mathrm{1~\cancel{mi}}} \times \frac{\mathrm{1~\cancel{h}}}{\mathrm{3600~s}} = \mathrm{4.4704~\frac{m}{s}}.$
Each conversion factor is chosen based on the relationship between one of the original units and one of the desired units (or some intermediary unit), before being rearranged to create a factor that cancels out the original unit. For example, as \"mile\" is the numerator in the original fraction and `{{tmath|1= \mathrm{1~mi} = \mathrm{1609.344~m} }}`{=mediawiki}, \"mile\" will need to be the denominator in the conversion factor. Dividing both sides of the equation by 1 mile yields `{{tmath|1= \frac{\mathrm{1~mi} }{\mathrm{1~mi} } = \frac{\mathrm{1609.344~m} }{\mathrm{1~mi} } }}`{=mediawiki}, which when simplified results in the dimensionless `{{tmath|1= 1 = \frac{\mathrm{1609.344~m} }{\mathrm{1~mi} } }}`{=mediawiki}. Because of the identity property of multiplication, multiplying any quantity (physical or not) by the dimensionless 1 does not change that quantity. Once this and the conversion factor for seconds per hour have been multiplied by the original fraction to cancel out the units *mile* and *hour*, 10 miles per hour converts to 4.4704 metres per second.
As a more complex example, the concentration of nitrogen oxides (NO~*x*~) in the flue gas from an industrial furnace can be converted to a mass flow rate expressed in grams per hour (g/h) of NO~*x*~ by using the following information as shown below:
NO~*x*~ concentration := 10 parts per million by volume = 10 ppmv = 10 volumes/10^6^ volumes\
NO~*x*~ molar mass := 46 kg/kmol = 46 g/mol\
Flow rate of flue gas := 20 cubic metres per minute = 20 m^3^/min
: The flue gas exits the furnace at 0 °C temperature and 101.325 kPa absolute pressure.
: The molar volume of a gas at 0 °C temperature and 101.325 kPa is 22.414 m^3^/kmol.
```{=html}
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```
:
\\frac{1000\\ \\ce{g\\ NO}\_x}{1 \\cancel{\\ce{kg\\ NO}\_x}} \\times \\frac{46\\ \\cancel{\\ce{kg\\ NO}\_x}}{1\\ \\cancel{\\ce{kmol\\ NO}\_x}} \\times \\frac{1\\ \\cancel{\\ce{kmol\\ NO}\_x}}{22.414\\ \\cancel{\\ce{m}\^3\\ \\ce{NO}\_x}} \\times \\frac{10\\ \\cancel{\\ce{m}\^3\\ \\ce{NO}\_x}}{10\^6\\ \\cancel{\\ce{m}\^3\\ \\ce{gas}}} \\times \\frac{20\\ \\cancel{\\ce{m}\^3\\ \\ce{gas}}}{1\\ \\cancel{\\ce{minute}}} \\times \\frac{60\\ \\cancel{\\ce{minute}}}{1\\ \\ce{hour}} = 24.63\\ \\frac{\\ce{g\\ NO}\_x}{\\ce{hour}}
After cancelling any dimensional units that appear both in the numerators and the denominators of the fractions in the above equation, the NO~*x*~ concentration of 10 ppm~v~ converts to mass flow rate of 24.63 grams per hour.
### Checking equations that involve dimensions {#checking_equations_that_involve_dimensions}
The factor--label method can also be used on any mathematical equation to check whether or not the dimensional units on the left hand side of the equation are the same as the dimensional units on the right hand side of the equation. Having the same units on both sides of an equation does not ensure that the equation is correct, but having different units on the two sides (when expressed in terms of base units) of an equation implies that the equation is wrong.
For example, check the universal gas law equation of `{{nowrap|1=''PV'' = ''nRT''}}`{=mediawiki}, when:
- the pressure *P* is in pascals (Pa)
- the volume *V* is in cubic metres (m^3^)
- the amount of substance *n* is in moles (mol)
- the universal gas constant *R* is 8.3145 Pa⋅m^3^/(mol⋅K)
- the temperature *T* is in kelvins (K)
$\mathrm{Pa{\cdot}m^3} = \frac{\cancel{\mathrm{mol}}}{1} \times
\frac{\mathrm{Pa{\cdot}m^3}}{\cancel{\mathrm{mol}}\ \cancel{\mathrm{K}}} \times \frac{\cancel{\mathrm{K}}}{1}$
As can be seen, when the dimensional units appearing in the numerator and denominator of the equation\'s right hand side are cancelled out, both sides of the equation have the same dimensional units. Dimensional analysis can be used as a tool to construct equations that relate non-associated physico-chemical properties. The equations may reveal undiscovered or overlooked properties of matter, in the form of left-over dimensions -- dimensional adjusters -- that can then be assigned physical significance. It is important to point out that such \'mathematical manipulation\' is neither without prior precedent, nor without considerable scientific significance. Indeed, the Planck constant, a fundamental physical constant, was \'discovered\' as a purely mathematical abstraction or representation that built on the Rayleigh--Jeans law for preventing the ultraviolet catastrophe. It was assigned and ascended to its quantum physical significance either in tandem or post mathematical dimensional adjustment -- not earlier.
### Limitations
The factor--label method can convert only unit quantities for which the units are in a linear relationship intersecting at 0 (ratio scale in Stevens\'s typology). Most conversions fit this paradigm. An example for which it cannot be used is the conversion between the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale (or the Fahrenheit scale). Between degrees Celsius and kelvins, there is a constant difference rather than a constant ratio, while between degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit there is neither a constant difference nor a constant ratio. There is, however, an affine transform (`{{tmath|1= x \mapsto ax+b }}`{=mediawiki}, rather than a linear transform `{{tmath|1= x \mapsto ax }}`{=mediawiki}) between them.
For example, the freezing point of water is 0 °C and 32 °F, and a 5 °C change is the same as a 9 °F change. Thus, to convert from units of Fahrenheit to units of Celsius, one subtracts 32 °F (the offset from the point of reference), divides by 9 °F and multiplies by 5 °C (scales by the ratio of units), and adds 0 °C (the offset from the point of reference). Reversing this yields the formula for obtaining a quantity in units of Celsius from units of Fahrenheit; one could have started with the equivalence between 100 °C and 212 °F, which yields the same formula.
Hence, to convert the numerical quantity value of a temperature *T*\[F\] in degrees Fahrenheit to a numerical quantity value *T*\[C\] in degrees Celsius, this formula may be used:
: *T*\[C\] = (*T*\[F\] − 32) × 5/9.
To convert *T*\[C\] in degrees Celsius to *T*\[F\] in degrees Fahrenheit, this formula may be used:
: *T*\[F\] = (*T*\[C\] × 9/5) + 32.
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# Conversion of units
## Factor--label method {#factorlabel_method}
### Example
Starting with:
: $Z = n_i \times [Z]_i$
replace the original unit `{{tmath|1= [Z]_i }}`{=mediawiki} with its meaning in terms of the desired unit `{{tmath|1= [Z]_j }}`{=mediawiki}, e.g. if `{{tmath|1= [Z]_i = c_{ij} \times [Z]_j }}`{=mediawiki}, then:
: $Z = n_i \times (c_{ij} \times [Z]_j) = (n_i \times c_{ij}) \times [Z]_j$
Now `{{tmath|1= n_i }}`{=mediawiki} and `{{tmath|1= c_{ij} }}`{=mediawiki} are both numerical values, so just calculate their product.
Or, which is just mathematically the same thing, multiply *Z* by unity, the product is still *Z*:
: $Z = n_i \times [Z]_i \times ( c_{ij} \times [Z]_j/[Z]_i )$
For example, you have an expression for a physical value *Z* involving the unit *feet per second* (`{{tmath|1= [Z]_i }}`{=mediawiki}) and you want it in terms of the unit *miles per hour* (`{{tmath|1= [Z]_j }}`{=mediawiki}):
{5280\\,\\mathrm{ft}}\\quad \\mathrm{and}\\quad 1 = \\frac{3600\\,\\mathrm{s}}{1\\,\\mathrm{h}}
\|3= Last, multiply the original expression of the physical value by the fraction, called a *conversion factor*, to obtain the same physical value expressed in terms of a different unit. Note: since valid conversion factors are dimensionless and have a numerical value of one, multiplying any physical quantity by such a conversion factor (which is 1) does not change that physical quantity.
: 52.8\\,\\frac{\\mathrm{ft}}{\\mathrm{s}} =
`52.8\,\frac{\mathrm{ft}}{\mathrm{s}}`\
`\frac{1\,\mathrm{mi}}{5280\,\mathrm{ft}}`\
`\frac{3600\,\mathrm{s}}{1\,\mathrm{h}} =`\
`\frac {52.8 \times 3600}{5280}\,\mathrm{mi/h}`\
`= 36\,\mathrm{mi/h}`
}}
Or as an example using the metric system, you have a value of fuel economy in the unit *litres per 100 kilometres* and you want it in terms of the unit *microlitres per metre*:
: \\mathrm{\\frac{9\\,\\rm{L}}{100\\,\\rm{km}}} =
`\mathrm{\frac{9\,\rm{L}}{100\,\rm{km}}}`\
`\mathrm{\frac{1000000\,\rm{\mu L}}{1\,\rm{L}}}`\
`\mathrm{\frac{1\,\rm{km}}{1000\,\rm{m}}} =`\
`\frac {9 \times 1000000}{100 \times 1000}\,\mathrm{\mu L/m} =`\
`90\,\mathrm{\mu L/m}`
## Calculation involving non-SI Units {#calculation_involving_non_si_units}
In the cases where non-SI units are used, the numerical calculation of a formula can be done by first working out the factor, and then plug in the numerical values of the given/known quantities.
For example, in the study of Bose--Einstein condensate, atomic mass `{{math|''m''}}`{=mediawiki} is usually given in daltons, instead of kilograms, and chemical potential `{{math|''μ''}}`{=mediawiki} is often given in the Boltzmann constant times nanokelvin. The condensate\'s healing length is given by: $\xi=\frac{\hbar}{\sqrt{2m\mu}}\,.$
For a ^23^Na condensate with chemical potential of (the Boltzmann constant times) 128 nK, the calculation of healing length (in micrometres) can be done in two steps:
### Calculate the factor {#calculate_the_factor}
Assume that `{{tmath|1= m=1 \,\text{Da},\mu = k_\text{B}\cdot 1\,\text{nK} }}`{=mediawiki}, this gives $\xi=\frac{\hbar}{\sqrt{2m\mu}} = 15.574 \,\mathrm{\mu m}\,,$ which is our factor.
### Calculate the numbers {#calculate_the_numbers}
Now, make use of the fact that `{{tmath|1= \xi\propto\frac{1}{\sqrt{m\mu} } }}`{=mediawiki}. With `{{tmath|1= m=23 \,\text{Da},\mu=128\,k_\text{B}\cdot\text{nK} }}`{=mediawiki}, `{{tmath|1= \xi=\frac{15.574}{\sqrt{23 \cdot 128} } \,\text{μm}=0.287\,\text{μm} }}`{=mediawiki}.
This method is especially useful for programming and/or making a worksheet, where input quantities are taking multiple different values; For example, with the factor calculated above, it is very easy to see that the healing length of ^174^Yb with chemical potential 20.3 nK is
: .
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# Conversion of units
## Software tools {#software_tools}
There are many conversion tools. They are found in the function libraries of applications such as spreadsheets databases, in calculators, and in macro packages and plugins for many other applications such as the mathematical, scientific and technical applications.
There are many standalone applications that offer the thousands of the various units with conversions. For example, the free software movement offers a command line utility GNU units for GNU and Windows. The Unified Code for Units of Measure is also a popular option
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# Chervil
**Chervil** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|tʃ|ɜr|,|v|ɪ|l}}`{=mediawiki}; ***Anthriscus cerefolium***), sometimes called **French parsley** or **garden chervil** (to distinguish it from similar plants also called chervil), is a delicate annual herb related to parsley. It was formerly called myrhis due to its volatile oil with an aroma similar to the resinous substance myrrh. It is commonly used to season mild-flavoured dishes and is a constituent of the French herb mixture *\[\[fines herbes\]\]*.
## Name
The name *chervil* is from Anglo-Norman, from Latin *chaerephylla* or *choerephyllum*, meaning \"leaves of joy\"; the Latin is formed, as from an Ancient Greek word *χαιρέφυλλον* (*chairephyllon*).
## Description
The plants grow to 40 -, with tripinnate leaves that may be curly. The small white flowers form small umbels, 2.5 - across. The fruit is about 1 cm long, oblong-ovoid with a slender, ridged beak.
## Distribution and habitat {#distribution_and_habitat}
A member of the Apiaceae, chervil is native to the Caucasus but was spread by the Romans through most of Europe, where it is now naturalised. It is also grown frequently in the United States, where it sometimes escapes cultivation. Such escape can be recognized, however, as garden chervil is distinguished from all other Anthriscus species growing in North America (i.e., *A. caucalis* and *A. sylvestris*) by its having lanceolate-linear bracteoles and a fruit with a relatively long beak.
## Cultivation
Transplanting chervil can be difficult, due to the long taproot. It prefers a cool and moist location; otherwise, it rapidly goes to seed (also known as bolting). It is usually grown as a cool-season crop, like lettuce, and should be planted in early spring and late fall or in a winter greenhouse. Regular harvesting of leaves also helps to prevent bolting. If plants bolt despite precautions, the plant can be periodically re-sown throughout the growing season, thus producing fresh plants as older plants bolt and go out of production.
Chervil grows to a height of 12 to, and a width of 6 to.
## Uses
### Culinary
Chervil is used, particularly in France, to season poultry, seafood, young spring vegetables (such as carrots), soups, and sauces. More delicate than parsley, it has a faint taste of liquorice or aniseed. It is used by some cooks as a garnish.
Chervil is one of the four traditional French *\[\[fines herbes\]\]*, along with tarragon, chives, and parsley, which are essential to French cooking. Unlike the more pungent, robust herbs such as thyme and rosemary, which can take prolonged cooking, the *fines herbes* are added at the last minute, to salads, omelettes, and soups.
### Chemical constituents {#chemical_constituents}
Essential oil obtained via water distillation of wild Turkish Anthriscus cerefolium was analyzed by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry identifying 4 compounds: methyl chavicol (83.10%), 1-allyl-2,4-dimethoxybenzene (15.15%), undecane (1.75%) and β-pinene (\<0.01%).
### Horticulture
According to some, slugs are attracted to chervil and the plant is sometimes used to bait them.
### Health
Chervil has had various uses in folk medicine. It was claimed to be useful as a digestive aid, for lowering high blood pressure, and, infused with vinegar, for curing hiccups. Besides its digestive properties, it is used as a mild stimulant.
Chervil has also been implicated in \"strimmer dermatitis\", another name for phytophotodermatitis, due to spray from weed trimmers and similar forms of contact. Other plants in the family Apiaceae can have similar effects
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# Critical philosophy
**Critical philosophy** (*kritische Philosophie*) is a movement inaugurated by Immanuel Kant (1724--1804). It is dedicated to the self-examination of reason with the aim of exposing its inherent limitations, that is, to defining the possibilities of knowledge as a prerequisite to advancing to knowledge itself. According to Kant, only after such self-criticism does it become possible to develop metaphysics in a non-dogmatic way.
The three critical texts of the Kantian corpus are the *Critique of Pure Reason*, *Critique of Practical Reason* and *Critique of Judgement*, published between 1781 and 1790 and primarily concerned, respectively, with metaphysics, morality, and teleology.
Contemporaries of Kant such as Johann Georg Hamann and Johann Gottfried Herder rejected the notion of \"pure\" reason upon which this project depends. They claim that reason depends upon language, which always introduces historical contingencies
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# Commelinales
**Commelinales** is an order of flowering plants. It comprises five families: Commelinaceae, Haemodoraceae, Hanguanaceae, Philydraceae, and Pontederiaceae. All the families combined contain over 885 species in about 70 genera; the majority of species are in the Commelinaceae. Plants in the order share a number of synapomorphies that tie them together, such as a lack of mycorrhizal associations and tapetal raphides. Estimates differ as to when the Commelinales evolved, but most suggest an origin and diversification sometime during the mid- to late Cretaceous. Depending on the methods used, studies suggest a range of origin between 123 and 73 million years, with diversification occurring within the group 110 to 66 million years ago. The order\'s closest relatives are in the Zingiberales, which includes ginger, bananas, cardamom, and others.
## Taxonomy
According to the most recent classification scheme, the APG IV of 2016, the order includes five families:
- Commelinaceae
- Haemodoraceae
- Hanguanaceae
- Philydraceae
- Pontederiaceae
This is unchanged from the APG III of 2009 and the APG II of 2003, but different from the older APG system of 1998, which did not include Hanguanaceae.
### Previous classification systems {#previous_classification_systems}
The older Cronquist system of 1981, which was based purely on morphological data, placed the order in subclass Commelinidae of class Liliopsida and included the families Commelinaceae, Mayacaceae, Rapateaceae and Xyridaceae. These families are now known to be only distantly related. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Commelinales were one of four orders in the superorder Commeliniflorae (also called Commelinanae), and contained five families, of which only Commelinaceae has been retained by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
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# Cucurbitales
The **Cucurbitales** are an order of flowering plants, included in the rosid group of dicotyledons. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropical and temperate regions. The order includes shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbers. One major characteristic of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, mostly pentacyclic, with thick pointed petals (whenever present). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but wind pollination is also present (in Coriariaceae and Datiscaceae).
The order consists of roughly 2600 species in eight families. The largest families are Begoniaceae (begonia family) with around 1500 species and Cucurbitaceae (gourd family) with around 900 species. These two families include the only economically important plants. Specifically, the Cucurbitaceae (gourd family) include some food species, such as squash, pumpkin (both from *Cucurbita*), watermelon (*Citrullus vulgaris*), and cucumber and melons (*Cucumis*). The Begoniaceae are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130 with many more varieties.
## Overview
The Cucurbitales are an order of plants with a cosmopolitan distribution, particularly diverse in the tropics. Most are herbs, climber herbs, woody lianas or shrubs but some genera include canopy-forming evergreen lauroid trees. Members of the Cucurbitales form an important component of low to montane tropical forest with greater representation in terms of the number of species. Although not known with certainty the total number of species in the order, conservative estimates indicate about 2600 species worldwide, distributed in 109 genera. Compared to other flowering plant orders, the taxonomy is poorly understood due to their great diversity, difficulty in identification, and limited study.
The order Cucurbitales in the eurosid I clade comprises almost 2600 species in 109 or 110 genera in eight families, tropical and temperate, of very different sizes, morphology, and ecology. It is a case of divergent evolution. In contrast, there is convergent evolution with other groups not related due to ecological or physical drivers toward a similar solution, including analogous structures. Some species are trees that have similar foliage to the true laurels due to convergent evolution.
The patterns of speciation in the Cucurbitales are diversified in a high number of species. They have a pantropical distribution with centers of diversity in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. They most likely originated in West Gondwana 67--107 million years ago, so the oldest split could relate to the break-up of Gondwana in the middle Eocene to late Oligocene, 45--24 million years ago. The group reached their current distribution by multiple intercontinental dispersal events. One factor was product of aridification, other groups responded to favorable climatic periods and expanded across the available habitat, occurring as opportunistic species across wide distribution; other groups diverged over long periods within isolated areas.
The Cucurbitales comprise the families: Apodanthaceae, Anisophylleaceae, Begoniaceae, Coriariaceae, Corynocarpaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Tetramelaceae, and Datiscaceae. Some of the synapomorphies of the order are: leaves in spiral with secondary veins palmated, calyx or perianth valvate, and the elevated stomatal calyx/perianth bearing separate styles. The two whorls are similar in texture.
*Tetrameles nudiflora* is a tree of immense proportions of height and width; Tetramelaceae, Anisophylleaceae, and Corynocarpaceae are tall canopy trees in temperate and tropical forests. The genus *Dendrosicyos*, with the only species being the cucumber tree, is adapted to the arid semidesert island of Socotra. Deciduous perennial Cucurbitales lose all of their leaves for part of the year depending on variations in rainfall. The leaf loss coincides with the dry season in tropical, subtropical and arid regions. In temperate or polar climates, the dry season is due to the inability of the plant to absorb water available in the form of ice. Apodanthaceae are obligatory endoparasites that only emerge once a year in the form of small flowers that develop into small berries, however taxonomists have not agreed on the exact placement of this family within the Cucurbitales. Over half of the known members of this order belong to the greatly diverse begonia family Begoniaceae, with around 1500 species in two genera. Before modern DNA-molecular classifications, some Cucurbitales species were assigned to orders as diverse as Ranunculales, Malpighiales, Violales, and Rafflesiales. Early molecular studies revealed several surprises, such as the nonmonophyly of the traditional Datiscaceae, including *Tetrameles* and *Octomeles*, but the exact relationships among the families remain unclear. The lack of knowledge about the order in general is due to many species being found in countries with limited economic means or unstable political environments, factors unsuitable for plant collection and detailed study. Thus the vast majority of species remain poorly determined, and a future increase in the number of species is expected.
## Classification
Under the Cronquist system, the families Begoniaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Datiscaceae were placed in the order Violales, within the subclass Dilleniidae, with the Tetramelaceae subsumed into the Datiscaceae. Corynocarpaceae was placed in order Celastrales, and Anisophylleaceae in order Rosales, both under subclass Rosidae. Coriariaceae was placed in Ranunculaceae, subclass Magnoliidae. Apodanthaceae was not recognised as a family, its genera being assigned to another parasitic plant family, the Rafflesiaceae. The present classification is due to APG III (2009)
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# Contra dance
**Contra dance** (also **contradance**, **contra-dance** and other variant spellings) is a form of folk dancing made up of long lines of couples. It has mixed origins from English country dance, Scottish country dance, and French dance styles in the 17th century. Sometimes described as New England folk dance or Appalachian folk dance, contra dances can be found around the world, but are most common in the United States (periodically held in nearly every state), Canada, and other Anglophone countries.
A contra dance event is a social dance that one can attend without a partner. The dancers form couples, and the couples form sets of two couples in long lines starting from the stage and going down the length of the dance hall. Throughout the course of a dance, couples progress up and down these lines, dancing with each other couple in the line. The dance is led by a caller who teaches the sequence of moves, called \"figures,\" in the dance before the music starts. In a single dance, a caller may include anywhere from six to twelve figures, which are repeated as couples progress up and down the lines. Each time through the dance takes 64 beats, after which the pattern is repeated. The essence of the dance is in following the pattern with your set and your line; since there is no required footwork, many people find contra dance easier to learn than other forms of social dancing.
Almost all contra dances are danced to live music. The music played includes, but is not limited to, Irish, Scottish, old-time, bluegrass and French-Canadian folk tunes. The fiddle is considered the core instrument, though other stringed instruments can be used, such as the guitar, banjo, bass and mandolin, as well as the piano, accordion, flute, clarinet and more. Techno contra dances are done to techno music, typically accompanied by DJ lighting. Music in a dance can consist of a single tune or a medley of tunes, and key changes during the course of a dance are common.
Many callers and bands perform for local contra dances, and some are hired to play for dances around the U.S. and Canada. Many dancers travel regionally (or even nationally) to contra dance weekends and week-long contra dance camps, where they can expect to find other dedicated and skilled dancers, callers, and bands.
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# Contra dance
## History
thumb\|upright=1.25\|A contra dance called by Dudley Laufman in Richmond, New Hampshire, in 1964 or 1965 thumb\|upright=1.25\|Contra dancers at a ball in Peterborough, New Hampshire, United States (silent video) Contra dance has European origins, and over 100 years of cultural influences from many different sources.
At the end of the 17th century, English country dances were taken up by French dance masters. The French called these dances *contredanses* (which roughly translated by sound \"countrydance\" to \"contredanse\"), as indicated in a 1706 dance book called *Recueil de Contredances*. Over time these dances returned to England and were spread and reinterpreted in the United States, and eventually the French form of the name came to be associated with the American folk dances, where they were alternatively called \"country dances\" or in some parts of New England such as New Hampshire, \"contradances\".`{{cite encyclopedia| url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50048899?single=1&query_type=word&queryword=contra+dance&first=1&max_to_show=10| title = Contre-dance, -danse, contra-dance| encyclopedia = Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed| publisher = Oxford University Press| year= 1989| access-date = 2006-11-01}}`{=mediawiki}
: *(as access to the* OED *online is not free, the relevant excerpt is provided)* \"Littré\'s theory, that there was already in 17th c. a French *contre-danse* with which the English word was confused and ran together, is not tenable; no trace of the name has been found in French before its appearance as an adaptation of the English. But new dances of this type were subsequently brought out in France, and introduced into England with the Frenchified form of the name, which led some Englishmen to the erroneous notion that the French was the original and correct form, and the English a corruption of it.\"
Contra dances were fashionable in the United States and were considered one of the most popular social dances across class lines in the late 18th century, though these events were usually referred to as \"country dances\" until the 1780s, when the term contra dance became more common to describe these events. In the mid-19th century, group dances started to decline in popularity in favor of quadrilles, lancers, and couple dances such as the waltz and polka.
By the late 19th century, contras were mostly confined to rural settings. This began to change with the square dance revival of the 1920s, pioneered by Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company, in part as a response in opposition to modern jazz influences in the United States. In the 1920s, Ford asked his friend Benjamin Lovett, a dance coordinator in Massachusetts, to come to Michigan to begin a dance program. Initially, Lovett could not as he was under contract at a local inn; consequently, Ford bought the property rights to the inn. Lovett and Ford initiated a dance program in Dearborn, Michigan that included several folk dances, including contras. Ford also published a book titled *Good Morning: After a Sleep of Twenty-Five Years, Old-Fashioned Dancing Is Being Revived* in 1926 detailing steps for some contra dances.
In the 1930s and 1940s, the popularity of jazz, swing, and big band music caused contra dance to decline in several parts of the US; the tradition carried on primarily in towns within the northeastern portions of North America, such as Ohio, the Maritime provinces of Canada, and particularly in New England. Ralph Page almost single-handedly maintained the New England tradition until it was revitalized in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly by Ted Sannella and Dudley Laufman.
The New England contra dance tradition was also maintained in Vermont by the Ed Larkin Old Time Contra Dancers, formed by Edwin Loyal Larkin in 1934. The group Larkin founded is still performing, teaching the dances, and holding monthly open house dances in Tunbridge, Vermont.
By then, early dance camps, retreats, and weekends had emerged, such as Pinewoods Camp, in Plymouth, Massachusetts, which became primarily a music and dance camp in 1933, and NEFFA, the New England Folk Festival, also in Massachusetts, which began in 1944. Pittsburgh Contra Dance celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2015. These and others continue to be popular and some offer other dances and activities besides contra dancing.
thumb\|upright=1.25\|A BIDA contra dance in Cambridge, Massachusetts, during the COVID-19 pandemic In the 1970s, Sannella and other callers introduced dance moves from English Country Dance, such as heys and gypsies, to the contra dances. New dances, such as *Shadrack\'s Delight* by Tony Parkes, featured symmetrical dancing by all couples. (Previously, the actives and inactives -- see Progression -- had significantly different roles). Double progression dances, popularized by Herbie Gaudreau, added to the aerobic nature of the dances, and one caller, Gene Hubert, wrote a quadruple progression dance, *Contra Madness*. Becket formation was introduced, with partners starting the dance next to each other in the line instead of opposite each other. The Brattleboro Dawn Dance started in 1976, and continues to run semiannually.
In the early 1980s, Tod Whittemore started the first Saturday dance in the Peterborough Town House, which remains one of the more popular regional dances. The Peterborough dance influenced Bob McQuillen, who became a notable musician in New England. As musicians and callers moved to other locations, they founded contra dances in Michigan, Washington, Oregon, California, Texas, and elsewhere.
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# Contra dance
## Events
Contra dances take place in more than 200 cities and towns across the U.S. (`{{As of|2020|lc=y}}`{=mediawiki}), as well as in other countries.
Contra dance events are typically open to all, regardless of experience, unless explicitly stated otherwise. It is common to see dancers with a wide range of ages, from children to the elderly. Most dancers are white and middle or upper-middle class. Contra dances are family-friendly, and alcohol consumption is not part of the culture. Many events offer beginner-level instructions prior to the dance. A typical evening of contra dance is three hours long, including an intermission. The event consists of a number of individual *contra dances*, each lasting about 15 minutes, and typically a band intermission with some waltzes, schottisches, polkas, or Swedish hambos. In some places, square dances are thrown into the mix, sometimes at the discretion of the caller. Music for the evening is typically performed by a live band, playing jigs and reels from Ireland, Scotland, Canada, or the USA. The tunes may range from traditional originating a century ago, to modern compositions including electric guitar, synth keyboard, and driving percussion -- so long as the music fits the timing for contra dance patterns. Sometimes, a rock tune will be woven in.
Generally, a leader, known as a caller, will teach each individual dance just before the music for that dance begins. During this introductory walk-through, participants learn the dance by walking through the steps and formations, following the caller\'s instructions. The caller gives the instructions orally, and sometimes augments them with demonstrations of steps by experienced dancers in the group. The walk-through usually proceeds in the order of the moves as they will be done with the music; in some dances, the caller may vary the order of moves during the dance, a fact that is usually explained as part of the caller\'s instructions.
After the walk-through, the music begins and the dancers repeat that sequence many times before that dance ends, often 10 to 15 minutes, depending on the length of the contra lines. Calls are normally given at least the first few times through, and often for the last. At the end of each dance, the dancers thank their partners. In North America, the norm at contra dances is to change partners after each dance. In the short break between individual dances, the dancers invite each other to dance. Booking ahead by asking partner or partners ahead of time for each individual dance is common at some venues, but has been discouraged by some.
thumb\|left\|upright=1.3\|A pandemic era New Year\'s Eve contra dance in Greenfield, Massachusetts Most contra dances do not have an expected dress code. No special outfits are worn, but comfortable and loose-fitting clothing that does not restrict movement is usually recommended. Women usually wear skirts or dresses as they are cooler than wearing trousers; some men also dance in kilts or skirts. Low heeled, broken-in, soft-soled, non-marking shoes, such as dance shoes, sneakers, or sandals, are recommended and, in some places, required. As dancing can be aerobic, dancers are sometimes encouraged to bring a change of clothes.
As in any social dance, cooperation is vital to contra dancing. Since over the course of any single dance individuals interact with not just their partners but everyone else in the set, contra dancing might be considered a group activity. As will necessarily be the case when beginners are welcomed in by more practiced dancers, mistakes are made; most dancers are willing to help beginners in learning the steps. However, because the friendly, social nature of the dances can be misinterpreted or even abused, some groups have created anti-harassment policies.
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# Contra dance
## Form
### Formations
Contra dances are arranged in long lines of couples. A pair of lines is called a *set*. Sets are generally arranged so they run the length of the hall, with the *top* of the set being the end closest to the band and caller, and the *bottom* of the set being the end farthest from the caller.
Couples consist of two people, traditionally one male and one female, though same-sex pairs are increasingly common. Traditionally the dancers are referred to as the *lady* and *gent*, though various other terms have been used: some dances have used *men* and *women*, rejecting *ladies* and *gents* as elitist; others have used gender-neutral role terms such as *bares* and *bands*, *jets* and *rubies* or *larks* and *robins*. Couples interact primarily with an adjacent couple for each round of the dance. Each sub-group of two interacting couples is known to choreographers as a *minor set* and to dancers as a *foursome* or *hands four*. Couples in the same minor set are *neighbors*. Minor sets originate at the head of the set, starting with the topmost dancers as the *ones* (the *active couple* or *actives*); the other couple are *twos* (or *inactives*). The ones are said to be *above* their neighboring twos; twos are *below*. If there is an uneven number of couples dancing, the bottom-most couple will wait out the first time through the dance.
There are four common ways of arranging couples in the minor sets: *proper*, *improper*, *Becket*, and *triple* formations. Traditionally, most dances were in the proper formation, with all the gents in one line and all the ladies in the other. Until the end of the nineteenth century, minor sets were most commonly triples. In the twentieth century, duple-minor dances became more common. Since the mid twentieth century, there has been a shift towards improper dances, in which gents and ladies alternate on each side of the set, being the most common formation. Triple dances have also lost popularity in modern contras, while Becket formation, in which dancers stand next to their partners, facing another couple, is a modern innovation.
### Progression
A fundamental aspect of contra dancing is that, during a single dance, each dancer has one partner, but interacts with many different people. During a single dance, the same pattern is repeated over and over (one time through lasts roughly 30 seconds), but each time, a pair of dancers will dance with new neighbors (moving on to new neighbors is called *progressing*). Dancers do not need to memorize these patterns in advance, since the dance leader, or caller, will generally explain the pattern for this dance before the music begins, and give people a chance to walk through the pattern so dancers can learn the moves. The walk through also helps dancers understand how the dance pattern leads them toward new people each time. Once the music starts, the caller continues to describe each move until the dancers are comfortable with that dance pattern. The dance progression is built into the contra dance pattern as continuous motion with the music, and does not interrupt the dancing. While all dancers in the room are part of the same dance pattern, half of the couples in the room are moving toward the band at any moment and half are moving away, so when everybody steps forward, they find new people to dance with. Once a couple reaches the end of the set, they switch direction, dancing back along the set the other way.
A single dance runs around ten minutes, long enough to progress at least 15--20 times. If the sets are short to medium length the caller often tries to run the dance until each couple has danced with every other couple both as a one and a two and returned to where they started. A typical room of contra dancers may include about 120 people; but this varies from 30 people in smaller towns, to over 300 people in cities like Washington DC, Los Angeles, or New York. With longer sets (more than 60 people), one dance typically does not allow dancing with every dancer in the group.
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# Contra dance
## Choreography
*Main article: Contra dance choreography* Contra dance choreography specifies the dance formation, the figures, and the sequence of those figures in a dance. Contra dance figures (with a few exceptions) do not have defined footwork; within the limits of the music and the comfort of their fellow dancers, individuals move according to their own taste.
Most contra dances consist of a sequence of about 6 to 12 individual figures, prompted by the caller in time to the music as the figures are danced. As the sequence repeats, the caller may cut down his or her prompting, and eventually drop out, leaving the dancers to each other and the music.
A *figure* is a pattern of movement that typically takes eight *counts*, although figures with four or 16 counts are also common. Each dance is a collection of figures assembled to allow the dancers to progress along the set (see \"Progression\", above).
A *count* (as used above) is one half of a musical measure, such as one quarter note in `{{music|time|2|4}}`{=mediawiki} time or three eighth notes in `{{music|time|6|8}}`{=mediawiki} time. A count may also be called a *step*, as contra dance is a walking form, and each count of a dance typically matches a single physical step in a figure.
Typical contra dance choreography comprises four *parts*, each 16 counts (8 measures) long. The parts are called A1, A2, B1 and B2. This nomenclature stems from the music: Most contra dance tunes (as written) have two parts (A and B), each 8 measures long, and each fitting one part of the dance. The A and B parts are each played twice in a row, hence, A1, A2, B1, B2. While the same music is generally played in, for example, parts A1 and A2, distinct choreography is followed in those parts. Thus, a contra dance is typically 64 counts, and goes with a 32 measure tune. Tunes of this form are called \"square\"; tunes that deviate from this form are called \"crooked\".
Sample contra dances:
- Traditional -- the actives do most of the movement
: *Chorus jig* (proper duple minor)
: A1 (16) Actives down the outside and back. (The inactives stand still or substitute a swing).
: A2 (16) Actives down the center, turn individually, come back, and cast off. (The inactives stand still for the first `{{music|time|3|4}}`{=mediawiki}, take a step up the hall, and then participate in the cast).
: B1 (16) Actives turn contra corners. (The inactives participate in half the turns.)
: B2 (16) Actives meet in the middle for a balance and swing, end swing facing up. (The inactives stand still.)
: *Note:* inactives will often clog in place or otherwise participate in the dance, even though the figures do not call for them to move.
- Modern -- the dance is symmetrical for actives and inactives
: \"Hay in the Barn\" by Chart Guthrie (improper duple minor)
: A1 (16) Neighbors balance and swing
: A2 (8) Ladies chain across, (8) half hey, ladies pass right shoulders to start.
: B1 (16) Partners balance and swing.
: B2 (8) Ladies chain across, (8) half hey, ladies pass right shoulders to start.
Many modern contra dances have these characteristics:
- longways for as many as will
- first couples improper, or Becket formation
- flowing choreography
- no-one stationary for more than 16 beats (e.g. first couple balance and swing, finish facing down to make lines of four)
- containing at least one swing and normally both a partner swing and a neighbor swing
- the vast majority of the moves from a set of well-known moves that the dancers know already
- composed mostly of moves that keep all dancers connected
- generally danced to 32 bar jigs or reels played at between 110 and 130 bpm
- danced with a smooth walk with many spins and twirls
An event which consists primarily (or solely) of dances in this style is sometimes referred to as a \"modern urban contra dance\".
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# Contra dance
## Music
thumb\|upright=1.5\|thumbtime=60\|Calluna plays Money Musk at Youth Dance Weekend 2019 in Weston, Vermont The most common contra dance repertoire is rooted in the Anglo-Celtic tradition as it developed in North America. Irish, Scottish, French Canadian, and Old-time tunes are common, and Klezmer tunes have also been used. The old-time repertoire includes very few of the jigs common in the others.
Tunes used for a contra dance are nearly always \"square\" 64-beat tunes, in which one time through the tune is each of two 16-beat parts played twice (this is notated AABB). However, any 64-beat tune will do; for instance, three 8-beat parts could be played AABB AACC, or two 8-beat parts and one 16-beat part could be played AABB CC. Tunes not 64 beats long are called \"crooked\" and are almost never used for contra dancing, although a few crooked dances have been written as novelties. Contra tunes are played at a narrow range of tempos, between 108 and 132 bpm.
Fiddles are considered to be the primary melody instrument in contra dancing, though other stringed instruments can also be used, such as the mandolin or banjo, in addition to a few wind instruments; for example, the accordion. The piano, guitar, and double bass are frequently found in the rhythm section of a contra dance band. Occasionally, percussion instruments are also used in contra dancing, such as the Irish bodhran or less frequently, the dumbek or washboard. The last few years have seen some of the bands incorporate the Quebecois practice of tapping feet on a board while playing an instrument (often the fiddle).
Until the 1970s it was traditional to play a single tune for the duration of a contra dance (about 5 to 10 minutes). Since then, contra dance musicians have typically played tunes in sets of two or three related (and sometimes contrasting) tunes, though single-tune dances are again becoming popular with some northeastern bands. In the Celtic repertoires it is common to change keys with each tune. A set might start with a tune in G, switch to a tune in D, and end with a tune in Bm. Here, D is related to G as its dominant (5th), while D and Bm share a key signature of two sharps. In the old-time tradition the musicians will either play the same tune for the whole dance, or switch to tunes in the same key. This is because the tunings of the five-string banjo are key-specific. An old-time band might play a set of tunes in D, then use the time between dances to retune for a set of tunes in A. (Fiddlers also may take this opportunity to retune; tune- or key-specific fiddle tunings are uncommon in American Anglo-Celtic traditions other than old-time.)
In the Celtic repertoires it is most common for bands to play sets of reels and sets of jigs. However, since the underlying beat structure of jigs and reels is the same (two \"counts\" per bar) bands will occasionally mix jigs and reels in a set.
Some of the most popular contra dance bands in recent years are Great Bear, Perpetual E-Motion, Buddy System, Crowfoot, Elixir, the Mean Lids, Nor\'easter, Nova, Pete\'s Posse, the Stringrays, the Syncopaths, and Wild Asparagus.
### Techno contras {#techno_contras}
thumb\|upright=1.3\|A BIDA techno contra dance in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S., in 2022 In recent years, younger contra dancers have begun establishing \"crossover contra\" or \"techno contra\" -- contra dancing to techno, hip-hop, and other modern forms of music. While challenging for DJs and callers, the fusion of contra patterns with moves from hip-hop, tango, and other forms of dance has made this form of contra dance a rising trend since 2008. Techno differs from other contra dancing in that it is usually done to recorded music, although there are some bands that play live for techno dances. Techno has become especially prevalent in Asheville, North Carolina, but regular techno contra dance series are spreading up the East Coast to locales such as Charlottesville, Virginia; Washington, D.C.; Amherst, Massachusetts; Greenfield, Massachusetts; and various North Carolina dance communities, with one-time or annual events cropping up in locations farther west, including California, Portland, Oregon, and Washington state. They also sometimes appear as late night events during contra dance weekends. In response to the demand for techno contra, a number of contra dance callers have developed repertoires of recorded songs to play that go well with particular contra dances; these callers are known as DJs. A kind of techno/traditional contra fusion has arisen, with at least one band, Buddy System, playing live music melded with synth sounds for techno contra dances
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# Coin collecting
thumb\|upright=1.35\|A coin collection, featuring coins loose and in various storage mediums. `{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} `{{Numismatics}}`{=mediawiki}
**Coin collecting** is the collecting of coins or other forms of minted legal tender. Coins of interest to collectors include beautiful, rare, and historically significant pieces. Collectors may be interested, for example, in complete sets of a particular design or denomination, coins that were in circulation for only a brief time, or coins with errors. Coin collecting can be differentiated from numismatics, in that the latter is the systematic study of currency as a whole, though the two disciplines are closely interlinked.
Many factors determine a coin\'s value including grade, rarity, and popularity. Commercial organizations offer grading services and will grade, authenticate, attribute, and encapsulate most coins.
## History
`{{See also|List of coin collectors}}`{=mediawiki} People have hoarded coins for their bullion value for as long as coins have been minted. However, the collection of coins for their artistic value was a later development. Evidence from the archaeological and historical record of Ancient Rome and medieval Mesopotamia indicates that coins were collected and catalogued by scholars and state treasuries. It also seems probable that individual citizens collected old, exotic or commemorative coins as an affordable, portable form of art. According to Suetonius in his *De vita Caesarum* (*The Lives of the Twelve Caesars*), written in the first century AD, the emperor Augustus sometimes presented old and exotic coins to friends and courtiers during festivals and other special occasions. While the literary sources are scarce, it\'s evident that collecting of ancient coins persisted in the Western World during the Middle Ages among rulers and high nobility.
Contemporary coin collecting and appreciation began around the fourteenth century. During the Renaissance, it became a fad among some members of the privileged classes, especially kings and queens. The Italian scholar and poet Petrarch is credited with being the pursuit\'s first and most famous aficionado. Following his lead, many European kings, princes, and other nobility kept collections of ancient coins. Some notable collectors were Pope Boniface VIII, Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire, Louis XIV of France, Ferdinand I of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV of France and Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, who started the Berlin Coin Cabinet (German: *Münzkabinett Berlin*). Perhaps because only the very wealthy could afford the pursuit, in Renaissance times coin collecting became known as the \"Hobby of Kings\".
During the 17th and 18th centuries coin collecting remained a pursuit of the well-to-do. But rational, Enlightenment thinking led to a more systematic approach to accumulation and study. Numismatics as an academic discipline emerged in these centuries at the same time as a growing middle class, eager to prove their wealth and sophistication, began to collect coins. During the 19th and 20th centuries, coin collecting increased further in popularity. The market for coins expanded to include not only antique coins, but foreign or otherwise exotic currency. Coin shows, trade associations, and regulatory bodies emerged during these decades. The first international convention for coin collectors was held 15--18 August 1962, in Detroit, Michigan, and was sponsored by the American Numismatic Association and the Royal Canadian Numismatic Association. Attendance was estimated at 40,000. As one of the oldest and most popular world pastimes, coin collecting is now often referred to as the \"King of Hobbies\".
## Motivations
\[\[<File:Two> 20kr gold coins.png\|thumb\|Two 20 kronor gold coins from the Scandinavian
Monetary Union\]\]
The motivations for collecting vary. Possibly the most common type of collectors are the hobbyists, who amass a collection primarily for the pleasure of it without the intention of making a profit.
Another frequent reason for purchasing coins is as an investment. As with stamps, precious metals, or other commodities, coin prices vary based on supply and demand. Prices drop for coins that are not in long-term demand, and increase along with a coin\'s perceived or intrinsic value. Investors buy with the expectation that the value of their purchase will increase over the long term. As with all types of investment, the principle of *caveat emptor* applies, and study is recommended before buying. Likewise, as with most collectibles, a coin collection does not produce income until it is sold, and may even incur costs (for example, the cost of safe deposit box storage) in the interim.
Some people collect coins for patriotic reasons and mints from various countries create coins specifically for patriotic collectors. One example of a patriotic coin was minted in 1813 by the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. One of the first pieces of legislation the new country enacted (after the revolution that freed it from Spanish rule) was to mint coins to replace the Spanish currency that had been in use. Another example is the U.S. 2022 Purple Heart Commemorative Coin Program.
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# Coin collecting
## Collector types {#collector_types}
Some coin collectors are generalists and accumulate examples from a broad variety of historical or geographically significant coins, but most collectors focus on a narrower, specialist interest. For example, some collectors focus on coins based on a common theme, such as coins from a country (often the collector\'s own), a coin each year from a series, or coins with a common mint mark.
There are also completists who seek an example of every type of coin within a certain category. One of the most famous of this type of collector is Louis E. Eliasberg, the only collector thus far to assemble a complete set of known coins of the United States. Foreign coin collecting is another type of collection that numismatics enjoy collecting.
Coin hoarders are similar to investors in the sense that they accumulate coins for potential long-term profit. However, they typically do not take into account aesthetic considerations. This is most common with coins whose metal value exceeds their spending value.
Speculators, be they amateurs or commercial buyers, may purchase coins in bulk or in small batches, and often act with the expectation of delayed profit. They may wish to take advantage of a spike in demand for a particular coin (for example, during the annual release of Canadian numismatic collectibles from the Royal Canadian Mint). The speculator might hope to buy the coin in large lots and sell at a profit within weeks or months. Speculators may also buy common circulation coins for their intrinsic metal value. Coins without collectible value may be melted down or distributed as bullion for commercial purposes. Typically they purchase coins that are composed of rare or precious metals, or coins that have a high purity of a specific metal.
A final type of collector is the inheritor, an accidental collector who acquires coins from another person as part of an inheritance. The inheritor type may not necessarily have an interest in or know anything about numismatics at the time of the acquisition.
## Grade and value {#grade_and_value}
In coin collecting, the condition of a coin (its grade) is key to its value; a high-quality example with minimal wear is often worth many times more than a poor example. Collectors have created systems to describe the overall condition of coins. Any damage, such as wear or cleaning, can substantially decrease a coin\'s value.
By the mid 20th century, with the growing market for rare coins, the American Numismatic Association helps identify most coins in North America, numbering coins from 1 (poor) to 70 (mint state), and setting aside a separate category for proof coinage. This system is often shunned by coin experts in Europe and elsewhere, who prefer to use adjectival grades. Nevertheless, most grading systems use similar terminology, and values and remain mutually intelligible.
## Certification services {#certification_services}
Third-party grading (TPG), aka *coin certification services*, emerged in the 1980s with the goals of standardizing grading, exposing alterations, and eliminating counterfeits. For tiered fees, certification services grade, authenticate, attribute, and encapsulate coins in clear plastic holders.
Coin certification has greatly reduced the number of counterfeits and grossly over graded coins, and improved buyer confidence. Certification services can sometimes be controversial because grading is subjective; coins may be graded differently by different services or even upon resubmission to the same service. The numeric grade alone does not represent all of a coin\'s characteristics, such as toning, strike, brightness, color, luster, and attractiveness. Due to potentially large differences in value over slight differences in a coin\'s condition, some submitters will repeatedly resubmit a coin to a grading service in the hope of receiving a higher grade. Because fees are charged for certification, submitters must funnel money away from purchasing additional coins.
## Clubs
Coin collector clubs offer a variety of benefits to members. They usually serve as a source of information and unification of people interested in coins. Collector clubs are popular both offline and online
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# Geography of Cambodia
Cambodia is a country in mainland Southeast Asia. It borders Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, the Gulf of Thailand and covers a total area of approximately 181,035 km2. The country is situated in its entirety inside the tropical Indomalayan realm and the Indochina Time zone (ICT).
Cambodia\'s main geographical features are the low lying Central Plain that includes the Tonlé Sap basin, the lower Mekong River flood-plains and the Bassac River plain surrounded by mountain ranges to the north, east, in the south-west and south. The central lowlands extend into Vietnam to the south-east. The south and south-west of the country constitute a 443 km long coast at the Gulf of Thailand, characterized by sizable mangrove marshes, peninsulas, sandy beaches and headlands and bays. Cambodia\'s territorial waters account for over 50 islands. The highest peak is Phnom Aural, sitting 1810 m above sea level.
The landmass is bisected by the Mekong River, which at 486 km is the longest river in Cambodia. After extensive rapids, turbulent sections and cataracts in Laos, the river enters the country at Stung Treng province, is predominantly calm and navigable during the entire year as it widens considerably in the lowlands. The Mekong\'s waters disperse into the surrounding wetlands of central Cambodia and strongly affect the seasonal nature of the Tonlé Sap lake.
Two third of the country\'s population live in the lowlands, where the rich sediment deposited during the Mekong\'s annual flooding makes the agricultural lands highly fertile. As deforestation and over-exploitation affected Cambodia only in recent decades, forests, low mountain ranges and local eco-regions still retain much of their natural potential and although still home to the largest areas of contiguous and intact forests in mainland Southeast Asia, multiple serious environmental issues persist and accumulate, which are closely related to rapid population growth, uncontrolled globalization and inconsequential administration.
The majority of the country lies within the Tropical savanna climate zone, as the coastal areas in the South and West receive noticeably more and steady rain before and during the wet season. These areas constitute the easternmost fringes of the south-west monsoon, determined to be inside the Tropical monsoon climate. Countrywide there are two seasons of relatively equal length, defined by varying precipitation as temperatures and humidity are generally high and steady throughout the entire year.
## Geological development {#geological_development}
Mainland Southeast Asia consists of allochthonous continental blocks from Gondwanaland. These include the South China, Indochina, Sibumasu, and West Burma blocks, which amalgamated to form the Southeast Asian continent during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods.
The current geological structure of South China and South-East Asia is determined to be the response to the \"Indo-sinian\" collision in South-East Asia during the Carboniferous. The Indo-Sinian orogeny was followed by extension of the Indo-Chinese block, the formation of rift basins and thermal subsidence during the early Triassic.
The Indochina continental block, which is separated from the South China Block by the Jinshajiang-Ailaoshan Suture zone, is an amalgamation of the Viet-Lao, Khorat-Kontum, Uttaradit (UTD), and Chiang Mai-West Kachin terranes, all of which are separated by suture zones or ductile shear zones. The Khorat-Kontum terrane, which includes western Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam, consists of the Kontum metamorphic complex, Paleozoic shallow marine deposits, upper Permian arc volcanic rocks and Mesozoic terrigenous sedimentary rocks.
The central plains consist mainly of Quaternary sands, loam and clay, as most of the northern mountain regions and the coastal region are largely composed of Cretaceous granite, Triassic stones and Jurassic sandstone formations.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## General topography {#general_topography}
Bowl- or saucer-shaped, Cambodia covers 181035 km2 in the south-western part of the Indochinese peninsula as its landmass and marine territory is situated entirely within the tropics.
The bowl\'s bottom represents Cambodia\'s interior, about 75 percent, consisting of alluvial flood-plains of the Tonlé Sap basin, the lower Mekong River and the Bassac River plain, whose waters feed the large and almost centrally located wetlands. As humans preferably settle in these fertile and easily accessible central lowlands, major transformations and widespread cultivation through wet-rice agriculture have over the centuries shaped the landscape into distinctive regional cultivated lands.
Domestic plants, such as sugar palms, Coconut trees and banana groves almost exclusively skirt extensive rice paddies, as natural vegetation is confined to elevated lands and near waterways. The Mekong traverses the north to south-east portions of the country, where the low-lying plains extend into Vietnam and reach the South China Sea at the Mekong Delta region.
Cambodia\'s low mountain ranges - representing the walls of the bowl - remain as the result of only rather recent substantial infrastructural development and economic exploitation - in particular in remote areas - formidably forested. The country is fringed to the north by the Dangrek Mountains plateau, bordering Thailand and Laos, to the north-east by the Annamite Range, in the south-west by the Cardamom Mountains and in the South by the Elephant Mountains. Highlands to the north-east and to the east merge into the Central Highlands and the Mekong Delta lowlands of Vietnam.
A heavily indented coastline at the Gulf of Thailand of 443 km length and 60 offshore islands, that dot the territorial waters and locally merge with tidal mangrove marshes - the environmental basis for a remarkable range of marine and coastal eco-regions.
### Soils
\"Sandy materials cover a large proportion of the landscape of Cambodia, on account of the siliceous sedimentary formations that underlie much of the Kingdom. Mesozoic sandstone dominates most of the basement geology in Cambodia and hence has a dominating influence on the properties of upland soils. Arenosols (sandy soils featuring very weak or no soil development) are mapped on only 1.6% of the land area.\"
\"Sandy surface textures are more prevalent than the deep sandy soils that fit the definition for Arenosols. Sandy textured profiles are common amongst the most prevalent soil groups, including Acrisols and Leptosols. The Acrisols are the most prevalent soil group occupying the lowlands - nearly half of the land area of Cambodia. Low fertility and toxic amounts of aluminium pose limitations to its agricultural use, crops that can be successfully cultivated include rubber tree, oil palm, coffee and sugar cane. The main subgroups are: Gleyic Acrisols (20.5%, Haplic Acrisols (13.3%), Plinthic Acrisol (8.7%) and Ferric Acrisol (6.3%).\"
### Geographical extremes {#geographical_extremes}
- **Northernmost point**: Ta Veaeng District, Rattanakiri Province (14 41 N 107 32 E display=inline type:landmark)
- **Southernmost point**: Koh Poulo Wai, Kampot Province (9 54 N 102 53 E display=inline type:landmark)
- **Easternmost point**: Ou Ya Dav District, Rattanakiri Province (13 22 N 107 37 E display=inline type:landmark)
- **Westernmost point**: Malai District, Banteay Meanchey Province (13 53 N 102 33 E display=inline type:landmark)
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Regions
### Central plain {#central_plain}
The vast alluvial and lacustrine interconnected Cambodian flood-plain is a geologically relatively recent depression where the sediments of the Mekong and its tributaries accumulate as waters are subject to frequent course changes. The area covers 25069 km2. The Tonlé Sap lake and - river system occupies the lowest area. The Tonlé Sap River is a waterway that branches off the Mekong near Phnom Penh in the north-westerly direction and meets the Tonle Sap lake after around 115 km. Its waters\' flow reverses direction every year, caused by greatly varying amounts of water carried by the Mekong over the course of a year and the impact of monsoonal rains, that coincides with the river\'s maximum.
The plains of the Mekong and Tonle Sap basin are confined in the North by the Dangrek and Central Annamite Mountains, and to the South by the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Mountains. The plains completely surround the Tonle Sap Lake in the western half of the country and wind their way through the middle of the country following the course of the Mekong River. The two basins actually form a single body of water, the whole of which effects about 75% of Cambodia's land cover.
### Flow reversal {#flow_reversal}
The Mekong river and its tributaries increase water volumes in spring (May) on the northern hemisphere, mainly caused by melting snows. As the Mekong enters Cambodia (over 95% of its waters have already joined the river) it widens and inundates large areas.
The plain\'s deepest point - the Tonle Sap - flooded area varies from a low of around 2700 km2 with a depth of around 1 meter at the end of the dry season (April) to 26000 km2 and a depth of up to 9 meters in October/November. This figure rose to 45000 km2 during 2000 when some of the worst flood conditions recorded caused over 800 deaths in Cambodia and Vietnam.
Inflow starts in May/June with maximum rates of flow of around 10,000 m^3^/s by late August and ends in October/November, amplified by precipitation of the annual monsoon. In November the lake reaches its maximum size. The annual monsoon coincides to cease around this time of the year. As the Mekong river begins its minimum around this time of the year and its water level falls deeper than the inundated Tonle Sap lake, Tonle Sap river and surrounding wetlands, waters of the lake\'s basin now drains via the Tonle Sap river into the Mekong.
As a result the Tonle Sap River (length around 115 km) flows 6 months a year from South-East (Mekong) to North-West (lake) and 6 month a year in the opposite direction. The mean annual reverse flow volume in the Tonle Sap is 30 km3, or about half of the maximum lake volume. A further 10% is estimated to enter the system by overland flow from the Mekong. The Mekong branches off into several arms near Phnom Penh and reaches Vietnamese territory south of Koh Thom and Loek Daek districts of Kandal Province.
### Southern Mountains {#southern_mountains}
This region represents the eastern parts of the original extent of the wet evergreen forests that cover the Cardamom - and Elephant Mountains in South-West Cambodia and along the mountains east of Bangkok in Thailand.
The densely wooded hills receive rainfall of 3000 to annually on their western slopes (which are subject to the South-West monsoons) but only 1020 to on their eastern - rain shadow - slopes.
**The Cardamom/Krâvanh Mountains** *Main article: Cardamom Mountains*
Occupying Koh Kong Province and Kampong Speu Province, running in a north-western to south-eastern direction and rising to more than 1500 m. The highest mountain of Cambodia, Phnom Aural, at 1810 m is located in Aoral District in Kampong Speu Province. The Cardamom Mountains form - including the north-western part of Chanthaburi Province, Thailand, the \'Soi Dao Mountains\' - *the Cardamom Mountains Moist Forests Ecoregion*, that is considered to be one of the most species-rich and intact natural habitats in the region. The climate, size inaccessibility and seclusion of the mountains have allowed a rich variety of wildlife to thrive. The Cardamom and Elephant Mountains remain to be fully researched and documented.
**The Elephant Mountains** *Main article: Dâmrei Mountains*
Chuŏr Phnum Dâmrei - A north-south-trending range of high hills, an extension of the Cardamom/Krâvanh Mountains, in south-eastern Cambodia, rising to elevations of between 500 and 1,000 meters. Extending 110 km north from the Gulf of Thailand, they reach a high point in the Bok Koŭ ridge at Mount Bokor 1081 m near the sea.
To the south-west of the Southern mountain ranges extends a narrow coastal plain that contains the Kampong Saom Bay area and the Sihanoukville peninsula, facing the Gulf of Thailand.
### Northern Mountains {#northern_mountains}
**The Dangrek Mountains** *Main article: Dângrêk Mountains*
A forested range of hills averaging 450 to, dividing Thailand from Cambodia, mainly formed of massive sandstone with slate and silt. A few characteristic basalt hills are located on the northern side of the mountain chain. This east--west-trending range extends from the Mekong River westward for approximately 320 km, merging with the highland area near San Kamphaeng, Thailand. Essentially the southern escarpment of the sandstone Khorat Plateau of northeastern Thailand, the Dângrêk range slopes gradually northward to the Mun River in Thailand but falls more abruptly in the south to the Cambodian plain. Its highest point is 761 m.
The watershed along the escarpment in general terms marks the boundary between Thailand and Cambodia, however there are exceptions. The region is covered in dry evergreen forest, mixed dipterocarp forest, and deciduous dipterocarp forests. Tree species like Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Shorea siamensis and Xylia xylocarpa var. kerrii dominate. Illegal logging are issues on both, the Thai as well as on the Cambodian side, leaving large hill stretches denuded, vulnerable tree species such as Dalbergia cochinchinensis have been affected. Forest fires are common during the dry season.
**Annamite Range** *Main article: Annamite Range*
Lying to the east of the Mekong River, the long chain of mountains called the Annamite Mountains of Indochina and the lowlands that surround them make up the Greater Annamites ecoregion. Levels of rainfall vary from 1500 to annually. Mean annual temperatures are about 20 C. This eco-region contains some of the last relatively intact moist forests in Indochina. Moisture-laden monsoon winds, that blow in from the Gulf of Tonkin ensure permanent high air humidity. Plants and animals adapted to moist conditions, to seek refuge here and evolve into highly specialized types that are found nowhere else on Earth.
**Ethnically diverse** More than 30 ethnic groups of indigenous people live in the Annamites, each with their distinctive and traditional music, language, dress and customs. The natural resources of the Greater Annamites are vital to all of these people.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Regions
### Eastern Highlands {#eastern_highlands}
Tall grasses and deciduous forests cover the ground east of the Mekong River in Mondulkiri, where the transitional plains merge with the eastern highlands at altitudes from 200 to. The landscape has suffered from rubber farming, logging and particularly mining, although sizable areas of pristine jungle survive, which are home to rare and endemic wildlife.
### Coast
Cambodia\'s coastal area covers 17237 km2, distributed among four provinces: Sihanoukville province, Kampot province, Koh Kong province, and Kep province. The total length of the Cambodian coastal area has been disputed. The most widely accepted length is 440 km, a 1997 survey by the DANIDA organization announced a length at 435 km, and in 1973 the *Oil Authority* found the coast to be 450 km long. The Food and Agriculture Organization claims a length of 557 km in one of its studies.
The southern mountain ranges drain to the south and west towards the shallow sea. Sediments on the continental shelf are the basis for extensive mangroves marshes, in particular in the Koh Kong province and the Ream National Park.
### Islands
Cambodia's islands fall under administration of the 4 coastal provinces. \"There are 60 islands in Cambodia\'s coastal waters. They include 23 in Koh Kong province, 2 in Kampot province, 22 in Sihanoukville and 13 in Kep city.\[sic\]\" Most islands are, apart from the two small groups of the outer islands, in relative proximity to the coast. The islands and the coastal region of Koh Kong Province are mainly composed of upper Jurassic and lower Cretaceous sandstone massives. The north-westernmost islands near and around the Kaoh Pao river delta (Prek Kaoh Pao) area are to a great extent sediments of estuaries and rivers, very flat and engulfed in contiguous mangrove marshes.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Climate
Cambodia\'s climate, like that of much of the rest of mainland Southeast Asia is dominated by monsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences. The monsoonal air-flows are caused by annual alternating high pressure and low pressure over the Central Asian landmass. In summer, moisture-laden air---the southwest monsoon---is drawn landward from the Indian Ocean.
The flow is reversed during the winter, and the northeast monsoon sends back dry air. The southwest monsoon brings the rainy season from mid-May to mid-September or to early October, and the northeast monsoon flow of drier and cooler air lasts from early November to March. Temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the Tonlé Sap Basin area, with only small variations from the average annual mean of around 25 °C.
The maximum mean is about 30 °C ; the minimum mean, about 24 °C. Maximum temperatures of higher than 32 °C, however, are common and, just before the start of the rainy season, they may rise to more than 38 °C. Minimum night temperatures sporadically fall below 20 °C. in January, the coldest month. May is the warmest month - although strongly influenced by the beginning of the wet season, as the area constitutes the easternmost fringe of the south-west monsoon. Tropical cyclones only rarely cause damage in Cambodia.
The total annual rainfall average is between 1000 and, and the heaviest amounts fall in the southeast. Rainfall from April to September in the Tonlé Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands area averages 1300 to annually, but the amount varies considerably from year to year. Rainfall around the basin increases with elevation. It is heaviest in the mountains along the coast in the southwest, which receive from 2500 mm to more than 5000 mm of precipitation annually as the southwest monsoon reaches the coast.
This area of greatest rainfall drains mostly to the sea; only a small quantity goes into the rivers flowing into the basin. Relative humidity is high throughout the entire year; usually exceeding 90%. During the dry season daytime humidity rates average around 50 percent or slightly lower, climbing to about 90% during the rainy season.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Hydrology
The Mekong River and its tributaries comprise one of the largest river systems in the world. The central Tonle Sap, the *Great Lake* has several input rivers, the most important being the Tonle Sap River, which contributes 62% of the total water supply during the rainy season. Direct rainfall on the lake and the other rivers in the sub-basin contribute the remaining 38%. Major rivers are the Sen river, Sreng River, Stung Pouthisat River, Sisophon River, Mongkol Borei River, and Sangkae River.
Smaller rivers in the southeast, the Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Range form separate drainage divides. To the east the rivers flow into the Tonle Sap, as in the south-west rivers flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Toward the southern slopes of the Elephant Mountains, small rivers flow south-eastward on the eastern side of the divide.
The Mekong River flows southward from the Cambodia-Laos border to a point south of Kratié (town), where it turns west for about 50 km and then turns southwest towards Phnom Penh. Extensive rapids run north of Kratie city. From Kampong Cham Province the gradient slopes very gently, and inundation of areas along the river occurs at flood stage. From June through November---through breaks in the natural levees that have built up along its course. At Phnom Penh four major water courses meet at a point called the Chattomukh (Four Faces). The Mekong River flows in from the northeast and the Tonle Sap river emanates from the Tonle Sap---flows in from the northwest. They divide into two parallel channels, the Mekong River proper and the Bassac River, and flow independently through the delta areas of Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea.
The flow of water into the Tonle Sap is seasonal. In spring, the flow of the Mekong River, fed by monsoon rains, increases to a point where its outlets through the delta can\'t handle the enormous volume of water. At this point, the water pushes northward up the Tonle Sap river and empties into the Tonle Sap lake, thereby increasing the size of the lake from about 2590 km2 to about 24605 km2 at the height of the flooding. After the Mekong\'s waters crest --- when its downstream channels can handle the volume of water --- the flow reverses, and water flows out of the engorged lake.
As the level of the Tonle Sap retreats, it deposits a new layer of sediment. The annual flooding, combined with poor drainage immediately around the lake, transforms the surrounding area into marshlands, unusable for agricultural purposes during the dry season. The sediment deposited into the lake during the Mekong\'s flood stage appears to be greater than the quantity carried away later by the Tonle Sap River. Gradual silting of the lake would seem to be occurring; during low-water level, it is only about 1.5 m deep, while at flood stage it is between 10 and deep.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Vegetation & ecoregions {#vegetation_ecoregions}
Cambodia has one of the highest levels of forest cover in the region as the interdependence of Cambodia's geography and hydrology makes it rich in natural resources and biological diversity - among the bio-richest countries in Southeast Asia.
In Cambodia forest cover is around 46% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,068,370 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 11,004,790 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 7,464,400 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 603,970 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 4% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity). For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership. The Royal Government of Cambodia estimates Cambodia contains approximately 10.36 million hectares of forest cover, representing approximately 57.07% of Cambodia's land area (2011). On the contrary, international observers and independent sources provide rather different numbers. Consensus permeates, as most sources agree, that deforestation in Cambodia, loss of seasonal wetlands and habitat destruction - among countless minor factors - correlates with the absence of strict administrative control and indifference in law enforcement - not only in Cambodia but the entire region.
Figures and assessments are numerous as are available sources. as seen in numbers below, which provide a wide range for interpretation. About 69000 ha (1%) of forest cover is planted forest. Overall Cambodia's forests contain an estimated 464 million metric tonnes of carbon stock in living forest biomass. Approximately 40% of Cambodia's Forests have some level of protection, while one of the Cambodia Millennium Development Goals targets is to achieve a 60% forest cover by 2015.
-----------------------------
Cambodia Forest Cover, 2002
Forest Types
Evergreen Forest
Semi-evergreen forest
Deciduous forest
Other forest
Non-forest
Source: United Nations
-----------------------------
-------------------------------------------------
Cambodia Forest Cover, 2002
Forest Types
forests - commercially unattractive
forests - commercially attractive
flooded forest - cut and/or converted
flooded forest - healthy
lost area
Source: CAMBODIA DEVELOPMENT RESOURCE INSTITUTE
-------------------------------------------------
According to the *Forestry Administration* statistics, a total of 380,000 hectares of forest were cleared between 2002 and 2005/2006 - a deforestation rate of 0.5% per year. The main cause of deforestation has been determined to be large-scale agricultural expansions.
### Southern Annamites Montane Rain Forests ecoregion {#southern_annamites_montane_rain_forests_ecoregion}
The Southern Annamites Montane Rain Forests ecoregion of the montane forests of Kontuey Nea, \"the dragon\'s tail\" in the remote north-west of Cambodia, where the boundaries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam meet \[this is in the northeast, not the northwest?\], is remarkably rich in biodiversity. The relatively intact forests occupy a broad topographic range - from lowlands with wet evergreen forests to montane habitats with evergreen hardwood and conifer forests. The complex geological, topographic and climatic ( rainfall and temperature ) facets that characterize the region make forest structure and composition unique and very variable. There is an unusually high number of near-endemic and endemic species among the many species to be found in the area. The entire eco-region has a size of 94000 km2.
### The Great Lake ecosystem {#the_great_lake_ecosystem}
The Tonle Sap, also known as the Great Lake in central Cambodia is the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia and one of the richest inland fishing grounds in the world. The Lake functions as a natural flood water reservoir for the Mekong system as a whole and therefore is an important source of water for the Mekong Delta during the dry season. The ecosystem has developed as a result of the Mekong's seasonal flow fluctuations.
A belt of freshwater mangroves known as the \"flooded forest\" surrounds the lake. The floodplains in turn are surrounded by low hills, covered with evergreen seasonal tropical forest with substantial dipterocarp vegetation or deciduous dry forest. The eco-region consists of a mosaic of habitats for a great number of species. The forest gradually yields to bushes and finally grassland with increasing distance from the lake.
Henri Mouhot: \"Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China\" 1864
On higher quality soils or at higher elevation, areas of mixed deciduous forest and semi-evergreen forests occur. This variety of vegetation types accounts for the quantity and diversity of species of the Great Lake ecosystem. Interlocking forest, - grassland and marshland patches provide the many facets and refugia for the abundant local wildlife.
The lake's flooded forest and the surrounding floodplains are of utmost importance for Cambodia\'s agriculture as the region represents the cultural heart of Cambodia, the center of the national freshwater fishery industry - the nation\'s primary protein source. Threats to the lake include widespread pollution, stress through growth of the local population which is dependent on the lake for subsistence and livelihood, over-harvesting of fish and other aquatic - often endangered - species, habitat destruction and potential changes in the hydrology, such as the construction and operation of dams, that disrupt the lake\'s natural flood cycle. However, concerns that the lake is rapidly filling with sediment seem - according to studies - to be unfounded at the present time.
### Wetlands
Wetlands cover more than 30% of Cambodia. In addition to the Mekong River and the Tonle Sap floodplain there are the Stung Sen River and the coastal Stung Koh Pao - and Stung Kep estuaries of Koh Kong Province and Kep Province. The freshwater wetlands of Cambodia represent one of the most diverse ecosystems worldwide. The area's extensive wetland habitats are the product of the annual Mekong maximum, the simultaneous wet season and the drainage paths of a number of minor rivers. See also:Geography of Cambodia#Hydrology The numerous and varied wetlands are Cambodia\'s central and traditional settlement area, the productive environments for rice cultivation, freshwater fisheries, other forms of agriculture and aquaculture and the constantly growing tourism sector. Considering the eco-region\'s importance, a variety of plans for local wetland management consolidation exist with varying degrees of completion.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Vegetation & ecoregions {#vegetation_ecoregions}
### Coastal habitats {#coastal_habitats}
The Cambodian coastline consists of 60000 ha of over 30 species of mangroves - among the most biologically diverse wetlands on earth. The most pristine mangrove forests are found in Koh Kong Province. In addition to mangroves, sea-grass beds extend throughout the coastal areas, especially in Kampot Province, the Sihanoukville Bay Delta and the Kep municipal waters. The meadows are highly productive, but few animals feed directly on the grasses. Those that do tend to be vertebrates such as sea turtles, dabbling ducks and geese.
\"With their roots deep in mud, jagged and gnarled mangrove trees are able to grow in the brackish wetlands between land and sea where other plant life cannot survive. The trees offer refuge and nursery grounds for fish, crabs, shrimp, and mollusks. They are nesting - and migratory sites for hundreds of bird species. They also provide homes for monkeys, lizards, sea turtles, and many other animals as well as countless insects.\"
\"Until relatively recently, the mangroves of Koh Kong, Cambodia have remained relatively intact. This is partly because of the region's location --- it is an isolated, inaccessible place --- and because decades of war and conflict perversely protected the forests from over-exploitation. Local people, however, tended to use the forest\'s sustainability, for food, fuel, medicine, building materials, and other basic needs.\"
## Fauna
*Main article: Wildlife of Cambodia*
Cambodia is home to a wide array of wildlife. There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species, 176 reptile species (including 89 subspecies), 850 freshwater fish species (Tonlé Sap Lake area), and 435 marine fish species. Many of the country\'s species are recognized by the IUCN or World Conservation Union as threatened, endangered, or critically endangered due to deforestation and habitat destruction, poaching, illegal wildlife trade, farming, fishing, and unauthorized forestry concessions. Intensive poaching may have already driven Cambodia\'s national animal, the Kouprey, to extinction. Wild tigers, Eld\'s deer, wild water buffaloes and hog deer are at critically low numbers.
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# Geography of Cambodia
## Protected areas {#protected_areas}
\"The 1993 Royal Decree on the Protection of Natural Areas recognized 23 protected areas, which at the time covered more than 18% of the country's total land area.\"
- Natural parks (sometimes described as 'national parks')
- Wildlife reserves
- Protected scenic view areas (sometimes described as 'protected landscapes')
- Multi-purpose areas
## Political and human geography {#political_and_human_geography}
Cambodia borders Vietnam over a length of 1228 km, Thailand over a length of 803 km and Laos over a length of 541 km, with 2572 km in total and an additional 443 km of coastline. The capital (*reach thani*) and provinces (*khaet*) of Cambodia are first-level administrative divisions. Cambodia is divided into 25 provinces including the capital.
Municipalities and districts are the second-level administrative divisions of Cambodia. The provinces are subdivided into 159 districts and 26 municipalities. The districts and municipalities in turn are further divided into communes (*khum*) and quarters (*sangkat*).
### Land use {#land_use}
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam have experienced major changes in land use and land cover over the last two decades. The emergence from cold war rivalries and recent major economic reforms result in a shift from subsistence agrarian modes of production to market-based agricultural production and industrialized economies, which are heavily integrated into regional and global trade systems.
Land Use in Cambodia - Sources: World Bank, FAO UN
----------------------------------------------------
Agricultural land (km^2^) in Cambodia
Agricultural land (% of land area) in Cambodia
Arable land (hectares) in Cambodia
Arable land (hectares per person) in Cambodia
Arable land (% of land area) in Cambodia
Permanent cropland (% of land area) in Cambodia
Forest area (km^2^) in Cambodia
Forest area (% of land area) in Cambodia
### Regional divisions {#regional_divisions}
Cambodia\'s boundaries were for the most part based upon those recognized by France and by neighboring countries during the colonial period. The 800 km boundary with Thailand runs along the watershed of the Dangrek Mountains, although only in its northern sector. The 541 km border with Laos and the 1228 km border with Vietnam result from French administrative decisions and do not follow major natural features. Border disputes have broken out in the past and do persist between Cambodia and Thailand as well as between Cambodia and Vietnam.
Image:Cambodia, administrative divisions - de - colored, 2013.svg\|right\|550px
poly 355 962 361 973 371 973 375 962 381 964 376 955 378 931 390 921 397 905 398 898 393 885 420 844 437 832 442 848 436 855 440 868 431 885 444 902 443 930 436 937 431 933 426 934 407 951 410 955 407 966 413 981 408 996 411 1008 416 1009 418 1015 415 1030 404 1037 379 1090 222 1125 178 1097 257 1035 304 1035 320 1012 350 1008 345 1002 349 991 355 988 360 980 Sihanoukville poly 471 1081 492 1033 523 1030 528 1070 524 1095 Kep poly 399 1053 422 1024 412 996 413 941 457 926 440 896 472 913 491 922 515 904 526 907 532 926 548 931 548 938 555 968 590 968 609 1006 591 1033 589 1064 554 1070 542 1103 529 1083 537 1017 492 1028 468 1082 Kampot poly 518 909 550 969 555 975 590 960 593 998 589 1022 590 1049 600 1070 652 1066 665 1025 687 1006 666 957 672 919 666 889 641 870 638 857 595 855 585 929 Takéo poly 606 779 613 845 666 825 645 770 Phnom Penh poly 611 725 573 831 614 832 595 856 652 860 655 885 675 898 667 932 673 968 707 964 727 868 712 819 680 799 655 809 654 823 647 829 628 834 617 837 608 826 613 814 615 807 612 798 613 782 623 779 641 780 650 791 656 808 686 799 696 766 667 756 671 740 663 727 643 741 622 735 Kandal poly 684 805 683 763 724 740 760 736 772 757 820 759 837 776 846 796 838 810 821 820 817 846 812 876 811 889 806 918 808 933 806 950 783 954 759 956 749 981 705 961 722 909 737 867 724 829 Prey Veng poly 870 805 830 807 821 864 816 897 800 930 802 954 852 925 864 974 874 995 886 966 906 986 940 998 940 963 940 949 944 929 925 914 921 914 905 899 884 881 873 869 873 854 Svay Rieng poly 713 751 688 766 672 756 676 735 662 723 639 735 630 741 621 728 625 704 642 687 646 623 714 639 694 604 746 595 762 575 797 575 829 574 834 618 865 645 900 659 924 681 936 696 934 706 970 713 1014 711 1005 725 1008 761 1014 781 1005 793 965 766 927 751 879 782 862 787 827 762 790 753 762 752 741 728 Kampong Cham poly 476 695 458 633 513 609 521 547 584 549 625 574 636 607 635 634 632 668 635 699 622 718 609 736 599 746 565 751 547 760 507 749 Kampong Chhnang poly 366 738 471 680 511 755 565 759 597 736 601 744 576 830 611 838 597 860 583 921 553 920 519 900 497 918 473 926 446 899 435 894 438 853 435 815 410 805 386 781 Kampong Speu poly 355 964 343 946 342 922 328 920 316 902 302 906 286 954 290 969 275 976 269 966 248 964 240 975 263 1018 251 1029 234 1007 207 972 199 955 214 943 211 926 216 918 208 889 201 889 190 881 187 870 184 842 192 838 185 816 174 796 170 785 169 755 155 736 149 720 139 700 139 691 180 691 191 693 216 706 229 707 252 696 265 696 283 668 293 671 300 665 315 670 345 700 354 701 360 710 379 711 394 732 375 733 379 743 375 747 373 760 379 772 379 786 413 811 420 808 429 808 432 813 441 816 437 835 421 842 392 888 394 897 395 903 388 923 377 932 377 955 380 965 373 963 372 974 362 974 360 964 Koh Kong poly 60 448 86 450 113 418 129 434 135 490 132 523 111 535 83 537 72 533 70 507 77 489 Pailin poly 189 134 241 173 247 216 273 197 295 239 371 175 532 213 545 185 557 171 560 106 485 90 424 97 389 95 351 81 310 81 241 96 Oddar Meanchey poly 565 106 557 177 533 203 524 255 533 291 543 312 587 321 576 355 581 395 621 371 641 389 655 428 668 437 761 358 802 327 798 274 776 239 798 231 871 218 852 185 809 167 781 174 747 172 726 151 704 116 697 131 674 147 648 109 635 97 594 89 Preah Vihear poly 286 212 290 358 171 361 125 346 123 321 29 324 33 301 90 298 93 273 138 248 163 183 186 142 219 177 239 177 242 217 275 201 Banteay Meanchey poly 285 352 280 229 377 183 417 200 493 206 529 209 518 245 524 271 525 287 527 314 587 312 566 382 539 401 536 442 483 502 439 472 402 433 372 389 Siem Reap poly 35 321 115 326 121 354 171 355 239 356 296 363 363 369 408 430 369 453 347 489 341 540 336 573 282 559 243 558 205 565 179 574 164 593 146 595 82 536 149 515 129 418 100 417 92 438 89 446 67 440 46 430 30 407 Battambang poly 127 594 127 696 214 707 279 685 304 669 379 711 401 733 482 681 454 633 514 610 518 566 474 519 440 471 391 420 363 467 344 498 341 552 339 581 296 561 277 551 260 564 212 560 199 564 189 581 Pursat poly 466 510 528 566 537 549 561 544 603 557 627 571 635 590 641 609 641 621 640 631 708 647 693 591 748 610 753 568 841 571 792 335 648 440 633 404 643 367 564 380 543 408 533 452 Kampong Thom poly 810 390 846 635 928 696 980 722 1084 709 1086 635 1006 592 982 545 1052 492 1041 427 998 414 968 359 961 337 898 400 870 426 836 403 Kratie poly 781 230 794 297 795 364 803 412 863 420 926 367 1002 364 1037 367 1048 361 1028 294 1054 249 1046 202 1085 190 1069 93 1022 62 975 83 909 116 939 171 943 211 922 228 859 214 Stung Tren poly 1071 98 1077 187 1042 209 1050 256 1028 315 1044 359 1055 389 1132 416 1161 404 1163 369 1288 374 1254 254 1226 202 1220 178 1227 119 1246 89 1261 34 1239 54 1234 69 1222 59 1211 62 1191 82 1176 103 1145 93 1135 110 1108 120 Ratanakkiri poly 981 350 988 397 1010 424 1046 427 1045 493 1007 517 991 566 1006 585 1029 629 1096 640 1090 683 1150 685 1185 618 1232 627 1250 644 1272 594 1280 530 1260 464 1262 417 1276 378 1227 372 1183 365 1156 370 1142 399 1116 412 1074 398 1045 375 1026 352 988 354 Mondulkiri desc top-left
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| Number Province Capital Area (km²) Population |
| -------- ------------------ ----------------- ------------ ------------ |
| 1 Banteay Meanchey Serei Saophoan 6,679 678,033 |
| 2 Battambang Battambang 11,702 1,036,523 |
| 3 Kampong Cham Kampong Cham 4,549 1,010,098 |
| 4 Kampong Chhnang Kampong Chhnang 5,521 472,616 |
| 5 Kampong Speu Kampong Speu 7,017 718,008 |
| 6 Kampong Thom Kampong Thom 13,814 908,398 |
| 7 Kampot Kampot 4,873 585,110 |
| 8 Kandal Ta Khmau 3,568 1,265,805 |
| 9 Kep Kep 336 80,208 |
| 10 Koh Kong Koh Kong 11,160 139,722 |
| 11 Kratié Kratié 11,094 318,523 |
| 12 Mondulkiri Senmonorom 14,288 60,811 |
| 13 Oddar Meanchey Samraong 6,158 185,443 |
| 14 Pailin Pailin 803 70,482 |
| 15 Phnom Penh Phnom Penh 758 2,234,566 |
| 16 Preah Sihanouk Sihanoukville 2,536.68 199,902 |
| 17 Preah Vihear Tbeng Meanchey 13,788 170,852 |
| 18 Pursat Pursat 12,692 397,107 |
| 19 Prey Veng Prey Veng 4,883 947,357 |
| 20 Ratanakiri Banlung 10,782 217,453 |
| 21 Siem Reap Siem Reap 10,229 1,000,309 |
| 22 Stung Treng Stung Treng 11,092 111,734 |
| 23 Svay Rieng Svay Rieng 2,966 498,785 |
| 24 Takéo Doun Kaev 3,563 843,931 |
| 25 Tboung Khmum Suong 4,928 754,000 |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| 1,817 |
Geography of Cambodia
| 8 |
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