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# William M. Tweed ## Imprisonment, escape, and death {#imprisonment_escape_and_death} Tweed was released on \$1 million bail, and Tammany set to work to recover its position through the ballot box. Tweed was re-elected to the state senate in November 1871, due to his personal popularity and largesse in his district, but in general Tammany did not do well, and the members of the Tweed Ring began to flee the jurisdiction, many going overseas. Tweed was re-arrested, forced to resign his city positions, and was replaced as Tammany\'s leader. Once again, he was released on bail---\$8 million this time---but Tweed\'s supporters, such as Jay Gould, felt the repercussions of his fall from power. Tweed\'s first trial before Judge Noah Davis, in January 1873, ended when the jury was unable to deliver a verdict. Tweed\'s defense counsel included David Dudley Field II and Elihu Root. His retrial, again before Judge Noah Davis in November resulted in convictions on 204 of 220 counts, a fine of \$12,750 (the equivalent of \$`{{formatnum:{{inflation|US|12750|1873|r=-4}}}}`{=mediawiki} today) and a prison sentence of 12 years; a higher court, however, reduced Tweed\'s sentence to one year. After his release from The Tombs prison, New York State filed a civil suit against Tweed, attempting to recover \$6 million in embezzled funds. Unable to put up the \$3 million bail, Tweed was locked up in the Ludlow Street Jail, although he was allowed home visits. During one of these on December 4, 1875, Tweed escaped and fled to Spain, where he worked as a common seaman on a Spanish ship. The U.S. government discovered his whereabouts and arranged for his arrest once he reached the Spanish border, where he was recognized from Nast\'s political cartoons. He was turned over to an American warship, the `{{USS|Franklin|1864|6}}`{=mediawiki}, which delivered him to authorities in New York City on November 23, 1876, and he was returned to prison. Desperate and broken, Tweed now agreed to testify about the inner workings of the Tweed Ring to a special committee set up by the Board of Aldermen in return for his release. However, after he did so, Tilden, now governor of New York, refused to abide by the agreement, and Tweed remained incarcerated. ### Death and burial {#death_and_burial} He died in the Ludlow Street Jail on April 12, 1878, from severe pneumonia, and was buried in Brooklyn\'s Green-Wood Cemetery. Mayor Smith Ely Jr. would not allow the flag at City Hall to be flown at half staff.
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# William M. Tweed ## Evaluations According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman: > It\'s hard not to admire the skill behind Tweed\'s system \... The Tweed ring at its height was an engineering marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points: the courts, the legislature, the treasury and the ballot box. Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure: money-laundering, profit sharing and organization. A minority view that Tweed was mostly innocent is presented in a scholarly biography by history professor Leo Hershkowitz. He states: > Except for Tweed\'s own very questionable \"confession,\" there really was no evidence of a \"Tweed Ring,\" no direct evidence of Tweed\'s thievery, no evidence, excepting the testimony of the informer contractors, of \"wholesale\" plunder by Tweed\....\[Instead there was\] a conspiracy of self-justification of the corruption of the law by the upholders of that law, of a venal irresponsible press and a citizenry delighting in the exorcism of witchery. In depictions of Tweed and the Tammany Hall organization, most historians have emphasized the thievery and conspiratorial nature of Boss Tweed, along with lining his own pockets and those of his friends and allies. The theme is that the sins of corruption so violated American standards of political rectitude that they far overshadow Tweed\'s positive contributions to New York City. Although he held numerous important public offices and was one of a handful of senior leaders of Tammany Hall, as well as the state legislature and the state Democratic Party, Tweed was never the sole \"boss\" of New York City. He shared control of the city with numerous less famous people, such as the villains depicted in Nast\'s famous circle of guilt cartoon shown above. Seymour J. Mandelbaum has argued that, apart from the corruption he engaged in, Tweed was a modernizer who prefigured certain elements of the Progressive Era in terms of more efficient city management. Much of the money he siphoned off from the city treasury went to needy constituents who appreciated the free food at Christmas time and remembered it at the next election, and to precinct workers who provided the muscle of his machine. As a legislator he worked to expand and strengthen welfare programs, especially those by private charities, schools, and hospitals. With a base in the Irish Catholic community, he opposed efforts of Protestants to require the reading of the King James Bible in public schools, which was done deliberately to keep out Catholics. He facilitated the founding of the New York Public Library, even though one of its founders, Samuel Tilden, was Tweed\'s sworn enemy in the Democratic Party. Tweed recognized that the support of his constituency was necessary for him to remain in power, and as a consequence he used the machinery of the city\'s government to provide numerous social services, including building more orphanages, almshouses and public baths. Tweed also fought for the New York State Legislature to donate to private charities of all religious denominations, and subsidize Catholic schools and hospitals. From 1869 to 1871, under Tweed\'s influence, the state of New York spent more on charities than for the entire time period from 1852 to 1868 combined. During Tweed\'s regime, the main business thoroughfare Broadway was widened between 34th Street and 59th Street, land was secured for the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Upper East Side and Upper West Side were developed and provided the necessary infrastructure -- all to the benefit of the purses of the Tweed Ring. Hershkowitz blames the implications of Thomas Nast in *Harper\'s Weekly* and the editors of *The New York Times*, which both had ties to the Republican party. In part, the campaign against Tweed diverted public attention from Republican scandals such as the Whiskey Ring. Tweed himself wanted no particular recognition of his achievements, such as they were. When it was proposed, in March 1871, when he was at the height of his power, that a statue be erected in his honor, he declared: \"Statues are not erected to living men \... I claim to be a live man, and hope (Divine Providence permitting) to survive in all my vigor, politically and physically, some years to come.\" One of Tweed\'s unwanted legacies is that he has become \"the archetype of the bloated, rapacious, corrupt city boss\". ## Middle name {#middle_name} Tweed never signed his middle name with anything other than a plain \"M.\", and his middle name is often mistakenly listed as \"Marcy\". His actual middle name was Magear, his mother\'s maiden name. Confusion derived from a Nast cartoon with a picture of Tweed supplemented with a quote from William L. Marcy, the former governor of New York.
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# William M. Tweed ## In popular culture {#in_popular_culture} - Arthur Train featured Tweed in his 1940 novel of life in Gilded Age New York, *Tassels On Her Boots*. Tweed is portrayed as having contempt for the people he rules, at one point saying that once he would have been a Baron, with a castle, levying tribute on the people. But now, \"\'Boss\', they call me -- and they are glad to have me.\" - In 1945, Tweed was portrayed by Noah Beery Sr. in the Broadway production of *Up in Central Park*, a musical comedy with music by Sigmund Romberg. The role was played by Malcolm Lee Beggs for a revival in 1947. In the 1948 film version, Tweed is played by Vincent Price. - On the 1963--1964 CBS TV series *The Great Adventure*, which presented one-hour dramatizations of the lives of historical figures, Edward Andrews portrayed Tweed in the episode \"The Man Who Stole New York City\", about the campaign by *The New York Times* to bring down Tweed. The episode aired on December 13, 1963. - In John Varley\'s 1977 science-fiction novel, *The Ophiuchi Hotline*, a crooked politician in a 27th-century human settlement on the Moon assumes the name \"Boss Tweed\" in emulation of the 19th-century politician, and names his lunar headquarters \"Tammany Hall\". - Tweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie *Liberty*. According to a review of the film in *The New York Times*, it was Tweed who made the suggestion to call the Statue of Liberty by that name, instead of its formal name *Liberty Enlightening the World*, in order to read better in newspaper headlines. - Andrew O\'Hehir of *The New York Times* notes that *Forever*, a 2003 novel by Pete Hamill, and *Gangs of New York*, a 2002 film, both \"offer a significant supporting role to the legendary Manhattan political godfather Boss Tweed\", among other thematic similarities. In a review of the latter work, Chuck Rudolph praised Jim Broadbent\'s portrayal of Tweed as \"giving the role a masterfully heartless composure\". - Tweed appears as an antagonist in the 2016 novel, *Assassin\'s Creed Last Descendants* where he is the Grand Master of the American Templars during the American Civil War
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# Balsall Heath **Balsall Heath** is an inner-city area of Birmingham, West Midlands, England. It has a diverse cultural mix of people and is the location of the Balti Triangle. ## History The name is first found as Bordeshale in 1275, which is derived from the Old English words *Bord\'s healh* meaning \'Bord\'s heath\' or \'Bord\'s nook\' implying a corner or small area of land, perhaps a sheltered hollow in the landscape, protected by trees, possibly within a river-bend. The name stems from the Anglian personal name of one *Bord*, who held property in the area, and in this way shares its origin with that of neighbouring Bordesley, first record as Bordesleie or Bordeslea meaning \'Bord\'s clearing\'. Balsall Heath was largely agricultural and park land between Moseley village and the city of Birmingham until the 1850s when expansion along Moseley Road joined the two. Balsall Heath was formerly a chapelry in the parish of King\'s Norton, in Worcestershire, it was added to the county borough of Birmingham in Warwickshire on 1 October 1891. On 31 December 1894 Balsall Heath became a separate civil parish being formed from the part of King\'s Norton in the County Borough of Birmingham, on 1 April 1912 the parish was abolished and merged with Birmingham. In 1911 the parish had a population of 39,884. During negotiations in the previous year it had been promised a public baths and a free library. In 1895, the library was opened on Moseley Road and, in 1907, Balsall Heath Baths were opened in an adjoining building. In 1900, the city\'s College of Art was also opened on Moseley Road. By this time the small lake (\"Lady Pool\" on old maps) at the end of Ladypool Road had been filled in to create a park. Balsall Heath initially had a reasonably affluent population, which can still be seen in the dilapidated grandeur of some of the larger houses. Brighton Road railway station led to further expansion, and the end of the 19th century saw a proliferation of high-density small terraced houses. A Muslim community was started in June 1940 when two Yemenis purchased an artisan cottage on Mary Street. With the mosque being located in the area, more Muslim immigrants began to move into private lodgings in Balsall Heath. Today, Balsall Heath has one of the largest Muslim communities in Birmingham. It is also home to diverse communities from across the Commonwealth. By the 1980s, many of Balsall Heath\'s houses were in a dilapidated condition; some still lacked bathrooms or indoor toilets. The local council considered demolishing these properties but chose to refurbish them as part of an urban renewal scheme. Most of these Victorian terraces still exist and, along with more modern social housing, characterise the area today. The area\'s traditional \'brick\' pavements were replaced at this time by the more modern and conventional paving slabs. Balsall Heath\'s low rents also attracted a bohemian student population. Its proximity to the University of Birmingham, the city centre and the \"trendy\" area of Moseley were all contributing factors. There was little conflict between the students and locals despite their vastly differing lifestyles. However, a knife-incident in 1991 led to an article in *Redbrick* warning students not to live in the area. In July 2005, Balsall Heath was hit by a tornado, which devastated many buildings around Church Road and Ladypool Road. Birmingham City Council offered loans to those who would otherwise be unable to repair their properties, and the area has now made a full recovery. ### Red light era {#red_light_era} Street prostitution first appeared in Balsall Heath during the 1950s. Property values fell, attracting Birmingham\'s poorer migrants. By the 1970s, the area was notorious for street robberies and drug dealing. Cheddar Road was the centre of a red-light district worked by 450 women. About half of the 50 houses on this road had prostitutes advertising themselves in the windows, similar to Amsterdam. It was labelled Britain\'s busiest cul-de-sac. This period of the area\'s history is depicted in the 1980 film *Prostitute*. In 1986, an organisation called ANAWIM was formed by the Sisters of Charity to provide outreach support to the prostitutes. In September 1992, a report was published encouraging the formation of a zone of tolerance towards prostitution in Balsall Heath. This was opposed by residents and a local police inspector. In the following year Samo Paull, a woman working as a prostitute, was abducted from Balsall Heath and murdered. In 1994, residents began to organise street patrols forcing the prostitutes and street criminals out of the area. These patrols had the qualified support of the police but were regarded as vigilantes by some. There was an immediate two-thirds reduction in street and window prostitution. By November 1995, they had been almost eliminated. The area has enjoyed a slow revival. House prices are now similar to those in other inner-city areas, while the crime rate is among the lowest. ## Politics and governance {#politics_and_governance} Balsall Heath is divided by two wards for elections to Birmingham City Council; Balsall Heath West and Sparkbrook and Balsall Heath East. Balsall Heath West is part of the Birmingham Ladywood constituency for general elections to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, whereas Sparkbrook and Balsall Heath East is Part of the Birmingham Hall Green Constituency.
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# Balsall Heath ## Notable buildings {#notable_buildings} - Moseley Road Baths - Moseley School of Art - St Barnabas\' Church - St Paul\'s Church ## Notable residents {#notable_residents} - Donnaleigh Bailey, Michelle Corrigan in the Birmingham-based soap *Doctors* - Alderman John Bowen, JP - Percy Bullock, Worcestershire cricketer - Howard R. Davies, racing motorcyclist - Alan Deakin, former Aston Villa captain - Oscar Deutsch, founder of the Odeon cinema chain - David Edgar, playwright - John Kenneally VC - Don Maclean, comedian - Conroy Maddox, surrealist artist - William Mosedale, George Cross recipient - Sir Robert Howson Pickard FRS stereochemist and vice-chancellor of the University of London 1937--1939 - Anthony E
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# Bunge & Born **Bunge & Born** was a multinational corporation based in Buenos Aires, Argentina, whose diverse interests included food processing and international trade in grains and oilseeds. It is now known as Bunge Limited. ## History Bunge & Born was founded in 1883 by Ernesto Bunge, a German Argentine whose uncle, Karl Bunge, had been Consul General in Argentina for both the Netherlands and Prussia, and his brother-in-law, Jorge Born, who had recently arrived from Antwerp. The company superseded the Bunge Company founded in Amsterdam by Johan Bunge, in 1817. Following the purchase of 60000 ha of prime pampas wheat fields, Bunge & Born established *Centenera*, their first food processing plant, in 1898. They had one of the largest wheat mills in the country built on a Puerto Madero lot in 1901, and with it, established *Molinos Río de la Plata* (later a leader in the local retail foods market). The company started Argentina\'s first burlap bag manufacturer, following which they successfully lobbied government policy makers for protective tariffs on the then-critical commercial staple. They established a mortgage bank, the *Banco Hipotecario Franco Argentino*, and a subsidiary in Brazil in 1904, and by 1911, they reportedly controlled 79% of Argentine cereal exports (Argentina was, by then, the world\'s third-largest grain exporter). They later established paint manufacturer *Alba* (1925), chemical and fertilizer maker *Compañía Química*, and textile maker *Grafa* (1932), among others; by the late 1920s, the company\'s annual export receipts alone reached US\$300 million. The company inaugurated its neo-Gothic Buenos Aires headquarters on Leandro Alem Avenue, designed by local architect Pablo Naeff, in 1926. Bunge & Born\'s near-monopoly on cereal and flour exports ended with populist President Juan Perón\'s 1946 establishment of the IAPI, a state agricultural purchasing and export agent. The company responded by extending its reach into the country fast-growing retail processed foods market, and though its prominence as the nation\'s chief exporter was partly restored by Perón\'s 1955 ousting and the IAPI\'s liquidation, its focus remained domestic over the next three decades. A privately held company, Bunge & Born did not release periodical financial statements, though it did report US\$2bn in gross receipts in 1962; by then it had become an agribusiness leader, operating 110 offices worldwide. The Bunge, Born, Hirsch, Engels and De La Tour families remained the company\'s chief stockholders, and by extension, leaders in the domestic textile, paint, chemical, fertilizer, and food processing industries. On September 19, 1974, however, the consortium was shaken by the kidnapping of siblings Jorge and Juan Born by the far-left terrorist group, Montoneros. Freed for a US\$60 million ransom (the largest on record at that time), the ordeal triggered the company headquarters\' relocation to São Paulo, Brazil, and contributed to the March 1976 coup. Retaining their Argentine interests (44 companies, by the 1980s), the families continued to suffer from ongoing disputes, and in 1988, CEO Mario Hirsch died from tripping. The election of Carlos Menem to the Argentine Presidency in May 1988, however, resulted in an agreement between the President-elect and Jorge Born that gave the company partial control over national economic policy. Bunge & Born provided the Menem government with its first two economy ministers, and the combination of large rate increases on public services (around 500%), a simplified exchange rate and a massive, mandatory wage hike led to a sharp economic turnaround between July and November 1989. This foray into government policy making, however, ended in a new currency crisis that December and the failure (compounded by the company\'s lackluster business performance) resulted in Born\'s 1991 ouster from the board; he was replaced by Chief Operations Officer Octavio Caraballo. Beset by the rift between Jorge Born and his brother, Juan, the prior unity between the shareholders disintegrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company. Family frictions intensified when Jorge Born formed a business partnership with one of his former kidnappers, erstwhile Montonero strategist Rodolfo Galimberti. ## Bunge International {#bunge_international} The company was converted into the Bermuda-registered Bunge International in 1994, retaining the Bunge y Born name only in Argentina. Bunge remained a privately held company of 180 shareholders (including the longtime controlling family interests) and divested itself in 1998, of almost all its retail foods interests in favor of a greater role in international agribusiness and commodity markets; by then the company\'s gross annual turnover had reached US\$13 billion. Bunge ultimately went public on the NYSE in 2001, becoming *Bunge Limited*
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# Bob Jones University **Bob Jones University** (**BJU**) is a private university in Greenville, South Carolina, United States. It is known for its conservative and evangelical cultural and religious positions. The university, with approximately 2,900 students, is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC) and the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools. In 2017, the university estimated the number of its graduates at 40,184. ## History During the Fundamentalist-Modernist controversy of the 1920s, Christian evangelist Bob Jones Sr. grew increasingly concerned about what he perceived to be the secularization of higher education and the influence of religious liberalism in denominational colleges. Jones recalled that in 1924, his friend William Jennings Bryan leaned over to him at a Bible conference service in Winona Lake, Indiana, and said, \"If schools and colleges do not quit teaching evolution as a fact, we are going to become a nation of atheists.\" Though Jones was not a college graduate, he was determined to found a college. On September 12, 1927, Jones opened Bob Jones College in Lynn Haven, Florida, with 88 students. Jones said that although he had been averse to naming the school after himself, his friends overcame his reluctance \"with the argument that the school would be called by that name because of my connection with it, and to attempt to give it any other name would confuse the people\". Bob Jones took no salary from the college. He supported the school with personal savings and income from his evangelistic campaigns. The Florida land boom had peaked in 1925, and a hurricane in September 1926 further reduced land values. Bob Jones College barely survived bankruptcy and its move to Cleveland, Tennessee, in 1933. In the same year, the college also ended participation in intercollegiate sports. Bankrupt at the nadir of the Depression, without a home and with barely enough money to move its library and office furniture, the college became the largest liberal arts college in Tennessee thirteen years later. With the enactment of the GI Bill at the end of World War II, the need for campus expansion to accommodate increased enrollment led to a relocation to South Carolina. Though Jones had served as acting president as early as 1934, his son, Bob Jones Jr. became the school\'s second president in 1947 before the college moved to Greenville, South Carolina, and became Bob Jones University. In Greenville, the university more than doubled in size within two years and started an AM radio station in 1949 (1260 WMUU with 94.5 WMUU-FM signing on in 1960), film department, and art gallery---the latter of which eventually became one of the largest collections of religious art in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 1950s, BJU and alumnus Billy Graham, who had attended Bob Jones College for one semester in 1936 and received an honorary degree from the university in 1948, had a dispute over the propriety of theological conservatives cooperating with theological liberals to support evangelistic campaigns, a controversy that widened an already growing rift between separatist fundamentalists and other evangelicals. Negative publicity caused by the dispute precipitated a decline in BJU enrollment of about 10% in the years 1956--59, and seven members of the university board (of about a hundred) also resigned in support of Graham, including Graham himself and two of his staff members. When, in 1966, Graham held his only American campaign in Greenville, the university forbade BJU dormitory students to attend under penalty of expulsion. Enrollment quickly rebounded, and by 1970, there were 3,300 students, approximately 60% more than in 1958. In 1971, Bob Jones III became president at age 32, though his father, with the title of Chancellor, continued to exercise considerable administrative authority into the late 1990s. At the 2005 commencement, Stephen Jones was installed as the fourth president, and Bob Jones III assumed the title of chancellor. Stephen Jones resigned in 2014 for health reasons, and evangelist Steve Pettit was named president, the first president unrelated to the Jones family. In 2011, the university became a member of the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools (TRACS) and reinstated intercollegiate athletics. In March 2017, the university regained its federal tax exemption after a complicated restructuring divided the organization into for-profit and non-profit entities, and in June 2017, it was granted accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. In March 2023, Pettit resigned, effective May 5, citing his inability to work with the chairman of the university\'s board of trustees. Shortly thereafter, the president of the board also resigned. Vice President Alan Benson was appointed interim president for the 2023--24 school year. In May 2024, Baptist pastor and BJU alumnus Joshua Crockett was elected the university\'s sixth president. After he returned to his former pastorate in 2025, the Board of Trustees named Bruce McAllister, Vice President for Ministry, as the seventh president.
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# Bob Jones University ## Academics The university comprises seven colleges and schools offering more than 60 undergraduate majors, including fourteen associate degree programs. Many of the university employees consider their positions as much ministries as jobs.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} It is common for retiring professors to have served the university for more than forty years, a circumstance that has contributed to the stability and conservatism of an institution that has virtually no endowment and at which faculty salaries are \"sacrificial\".`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} ### Religious education {#religious_education} #### School of Religion {#school_of_religion} The School of Religion includes majors for both men and women, although only men train as ministerial students. In 1995, 1,290 BJU graduates were serving as senior or associate pastors in churches across the United States. In 2017 more than 100 pastors in the Upstate (South Carolina) alone were BJU graduates. ### Fine arts {#fine_arts} The Division of Fine Arts has the largest faculty of the university\'s six undergraduate schools. Each year, the university presents an opera in the spring semester and Shakespearean plays in both the fall and spring semesters. The Division of Fine Arts includes an RTV department with a campus radio and television station, WBJU. More than a hundred concerts, recitals, and laboratory theater productions are also presented annually. Each fall, as a recruiting tool, the university sponsors a \"High School Festival\" in which students compete in music, art, and speech (including preaching) contests with their peers from around the country. In the spring, a similar competition sponsored by the American Association of Christian Schools, and hosted by BJU since 1977, brings thousands of national finalists to the university from around the country. In 2005, 120 of the finalists from previous years returned to BJU as freshmen. ### Science Bob Jones University supports young-earth creationism, all their biology faculty are young Earth creationists and the university rejects evolution, calling it \"at best an unsupportable and unworkable hypothesis\". ### Accreditation and rankings {#accreditation_and_rankings} Bob Jones Sr. was leery of academic accreditation almost from the founding of the college, and by the early 1930s, he had publicly stated his opposition to holding regional accreditation. Jones and the college were criticized for this stance, and academic recognition, as well as student and faculty recruitment, were hindered.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In 1944, Jones wrote to John Walvoord of Dallas Theological Seminary that while the university had \"no objection to educational work highly standardized.... We, however, cannot conscientiously let some group of educational experts or some committee of experts who may have a behavioristic or atheistic slant on education control or even influence the administrative policies of our college.\"`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Five years later, Jones reflected that \"it cost us something to stay out of an association, but we stayed out. We have lived up to our convictions.\"`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Because graduates did not benefit from accredited degrees, the faculty felt an increased responsibility to prepare their students.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Early in the history of the college, there had been some hesitancy on the part of other institutions to accept BJU credits at face value, but by the 1960s, BJU alumni were being accepted by most of the major graduate and professional schools in the United States.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In 2004, the university began the process of joining the Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools. Candidate status---effectively, accreditation---was obtained in April 2005, and full membership in the Association was conferred in November 2006. In December 2011, BJU announced its intention to apply for regional accreditation with the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACSCOC), and it received that accreditation in 2017. In 2025, *US News* ranked BJU as #17 (tie) in Regional Universities South and #4 in Best Value Schools.
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# Bob Jones University ## Academics ### Political involvement {#political_involvement} As a twelve-year-old, Bob Jones Sr. made a twenty-minute speech in defense of the Populist Party. Jones was a friend and admirer of William Jennings Bryan but also campaigned throughout the South for Herbert Hoover (and against Al Smith) during the 1928 presidential election. The authorized history of BJU notes that both Bob Jones Sr. and Bob Jones Jr. \"played political hardball\" when dealing with the three municipalities in which the school was successively located. For instance, in 1962, Bob Jones Sr. warned the Greenville City Council that he had \"four hundred votes in his pocket and in any election he would have control over who would be elected.\"`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Bob Jones Sr.\'s April 17, 1960, Easter Sunday sermon, broadcast on the radio, entitled \"Is Segregation Scriptural?\" served as the university position paper on race in the 60s, 70s, and 80s. The transcript was sent in pamphlet form in fund-raising letters and sold in the university bookstore. In the sermon, Jones states, \"If you are against segregation and against racial separation, then you are against God Almighty.\" The school began a long history of supporting politicians who were considered aligned with racial segregation. #### Republican Party ties {#republican_party_ties} From nearly the inception of Bob Jones College, a majority of students and faculty were from the northern United States, where there was a larger ratio of Republicans to Democrats than in the South (which was solidly Democratic). Therefore, almost from its founding year, BJU had a larger portion of Republicans than the surrounding community. After South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond switched his allegiance to the Republican Party in 1964, BJU faculty members became increasingly influential in the new state Republican party. BJU alumni were elected to local political and party offices. In 1976, candidates supported by BJU faculty and alumni captured the local Republican party with unfortunate short-term political consequences, but by 1980 the religious right and the \"country club\" Republicans had joined forces. From then on, most Republican candidates for local and statewide offices sought the endorsement of Bob Jones III and greeted faculty/staff voters at the University Dining Common. National Republicans soon followed. Ronald Reagan spoke at the school in 1980, although the Joneses supported his opponent, John Connally, in the South Carolina primary. Later, Bob Jones III denounced Reagan as \"a traitor to God\'s people\" for choosing George H. W. Bush---whom Jones called a \"devil\"---as his vice president. Even later, Jones III shook Bush\'s hand and thanked him for being a good president. In the 1990s, other Republicans such as Dan Quayle, Pat Buchanan, Phil Gramm, Bob Dole, and Alan Keyes also spoke at BJU. Democrats were rarely invited to speak at the university, in part because they took political and social positions (especially support for abortion rights) opposed by the Religious Right.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} #### 2000 election On February 2, 2000, then Texas Governor George W. Bush, as a candidate for president, spoke during school\'s chapel hour. His political opponents quickly noted his non-mention of the university\'s ban on interracial dating. During the Michigan primary, Bush was also criticized for not stating his opposition to the university\'s anti-Catholicism. The McCain campaign targeted Catholics with \"Catholic Voter Alert\" phone calls, reminding voters of Bush\'s visit to BJU. New York Republican Representative Peter King, who was supporting John McCain in the presidential primary, called Bush a tool of \"anti-Catholic bigoted forces\", after the visit. King described BJU as \"an institution that is notorious in Ireland for awarding an honorary doctorate to Northern Ireland\'s tempestuous Protestant leader, Ian Paisley.\" Bush denied that he either knew of or approved what he regarded as BJU\'s intolerant policies. On February 26, Bush issued a formal letter of apology to Cardinal John Joseph O\'Connor of New York for failing to denounce Bob Jones University\'s history of anti-Catholic statements. Bush said at a news conference following the letter\'s release, \"I make no excuses. I had an opportunity and I missed it. I regret that\....I wish I had gotten up then and seized the moment to set a tone, a tone that I had set in Texas, a positive and inclusive tone.\" Also during the 2000 Republican primary campaign in South Carolina, Richard Hand, a BJU professor, spread a false e-mail rumor that John McCain had fathered an illegitimate child. The McCains have an adopted daughter from Bangladesh, and later push polling also implied that the child was biracial. #### Withdrawal from politics {#withdrawal_from_politics} Although the March 2007 issue of *Foreign Policy* listed BJU as one of \"The World\'s Most Controversial Religious Sites\" because of its past influence on American politics, BJU has seen little political controversy since Stephen Jones became president. When asked by a *Newsweek* reporter if he wished to play a political role, Stephen Jones replied, \"It would not be my choice.\" Further, when asked if he felt ideologically closer to his father\'s engagement with politics or to other evangelicals who have tried to avoid civic involvement, Jones answered, \"The gospel is for individuals. The main message we have is to individuals. We\'re not here to save the culture.\" In a 2005 *Washington Post* interview, Jones dodged political questions and even admitted that he was embarrassed by \"some of the more vitriolic comments\" made by his predecessors. \"I don\'t want to get specific,\" Jones said, \"But there were things said back then that I wouldn\'t say today.\" In October 2007, when Bob Jones III, as \"a private citizen,\" endorsed Mitt Romney for the Republican nomination for president, Stephen Jones made it clear that he wished \"to stay out of politics\" and that neither he nor the university had endorsed anyone. Despite a hotly contested South Carolina primary, none of the candidates appeared on the platform of BJU\'s Founders\' Memorial Amphitorium during the 2008 election cycle. In April 2008, Stephen Jones told a reporter, \"I don\'t think I have a political bone in my body.\" #### Renewed political engagement {#renewed_political_engagement} In 2015 BJU reemerged as a campaign stop for conservative Republicans. Ben Carson and Ted Cruz held large on-campus rallies on two successive days in November. BJU president Steve Pettit met with Marco Rubio, Rick Perry, Mike Huckabee, and Scott Walker. Jeb Bush, Carson, Cruz, and Rubio also appeared at a 2016 Republican presidential forum at BJU. Chip Felkel, a Greenville Republican consultant, noted that some candidates closely identified \"with the folks at Bob Jones. So it makes sense for them to want to be there.\" Nevertheless, unlike BJU\'s earlier periods of political involvement, Pettit did not endorse a candidate. According to Furman University political science professor Jim Guth, because Greenville has grown so much recently, it is unlikely BJU will ever again have the same political influence it had between the 1960s and the 1980s. Nevertheless, about a quarter of all BJU graduates continue to live in the Upstate, and as long-time mayor Knox White has said, \"The alumni have had a big impact on every profession and walk of life in Greenville.\"
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# Bob Jones University ## Campus The university occupies 205 acres at the eastern city limit of Greenville. The institution moved into its initial 25 buildings during the 1947--48 school year, and later buildings were also faced with the light yellow brick chosen for the originals. ### Museum and gallery {#museum_and_gallery} Bob Jones Jr. was a connoisseur of European art from his teen years and began collecting after World War II on about \$30,000 a year authorized by the University Board of Directors.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} Jones first concentrated on the Italian Baroque, a style then out of favor and relatively inexpensive in the years immediately following the war. The museum\'s collection currently includes more than 400 European paintings from the 14th through the 19th centuries, period furniture, and a notable collection of Russian icons.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The museum also includes a variety of Holy Land antiquities. The gallery is strong in Baroque paintings and includes notable works by Rubens, Tintoretto, Veronese, Cranach, Gerard David, Murillo, Mattia Preti, Ribera, van Dyck, and Gustave Doré. Included in the Museum & Gallery collection are seven large canvases, part of a series by Benjamin West painted for George III, called \"The Progress of Revealed Religion\", which are displayed in the War Memorial Chapel.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The museum also includes a variety of Holy Land antiquities collected in the early 20th century by missionaries Frank and Barbara Bowen. Every Easter, the university and the Museum & Gallery present the *Living Gallery*, a series of tableaux vivants recreating noted works of religious art using live models disguised as part of two-dimensional paintings. BJU has been criticized by some fundamentalists for promoting \"false Catholic doctrine\" through its art gallery because much of Baroque art was created for the Counter-Reformation. A painting by Lucas van Leyden that had been displayed in the gallery\'s collection for more than ten years and had been consigned to Sotheby\'s for sale was recognized by Interpol as art that had been stolen by the Nazis from the Mittelrhein-Museum in Koblenz. The painting was eventually returned to Germany after months of negotiations between the Mittelrhein-Museum and Julius H. Weitzner, a dealer in Old Master paintings. After the death of Bob Jones Jr., Erin Jones, the wife of BJU president Stephen Jones, became director. According to David Steel, curator of European art at the North Carolina Museum of Art, Erin Jones \"brought that museum into the modern era\", employing \"a top-notch curator, John Nolan\", and following \"best practices in conservation and restoration\". The museum cooperates with other institutions, lending works for outside shows such as a Rembrandt exhibit in 2011. In 2008, the BJU Museum & Gallery opened a satellite location, the Museum & Gallery at Heritage Green near downtown Greenville, which featured rotating exhibitions from the main museum and interactive children\'s activities. In February 2017, the Museum & Gallery closed both locations permanently. In 2018, the museum announced that a new home would be built at a yet undetermined located off the BJU campus. In 2021, Erin Jones said the museum was exploring a permanent home near the proposed downtown conference center. ### Library The 90000 sqft Mack Library (named for John Sephus Mack) holds a collection of more than 300,000 books and includes seating for 1,200 as well as a computer lab and a computer classroom.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} (Its ancillary, a music library, is included in the Gustafson Fine Arts Center.) Mack Library\'s Special Collections includes an American Hymnody Collection of about 700 titles.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The \"Jerusalem Chamber\" is a replica of the room in Westminster Abbey in which work on the King James Version of the Bible was conducted, and it displays a collection of rare Bibles.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} An adjoining Memorabilia Room commemorates the life of Bob Jones Sr. and the history of the university.`{{Self-published source|date=May 2025}}`{=mediawiki} The library\'s Fundamentalism File collects periodical articles and ephemera about social and religious matters of interest to evangelicals and fundamentalists. The University Archives holds copies of all university publications, oral histories of faculty and staff members, surviving remnants of university correspondence, and pictures and artifacts related to the Jones family and the history of the university.
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# Bob Jones University ## Ancillary ministries {#ancillary_ministries} ### *Unusual Films* {#unusual_films} Both Bob Jones Sr. and Bob Jones Jr. believed that film could be an excellent medium for mass evangelism, and in 1950, the university established *Unusual Films* within the School of Fine Arts. (The studio name derives from a former BJU promotional slogan, \"The World\'s Most Unusual University\".) Bob Jones Jr. selected a speech teacher, Katherine Stenholm, as the first director. Although she had no experience in cinema, she took summer courses at the University of Southern California and received personal instruction from Hollywood specialists, such as Rudolph Sternad. Unusual Films has produced seven feature-length films, each with an evangelistic emphasis: *Wine of Morning*, *Red Runs the River*, *Flame in the Wind*, *Sheffey*, *Beyond the Night*, *The Printing*, and *Milltown Pride*. *Wine of Morning* (1955), based on a novel by Bob Jones Jr., represented the United States at the Cannes Film Festival. The first four films are historical dramas set, respectively, in the time of Christ, the U.S. Civil War, 16th-century Spain, and the late 19th-century South---the latter a fictionalized treatment of the life of Methodist evangelist, Robert Sayers Sheffey. *Beyond the Night* closely follows an actual 20th-century missionary saga in Central Africa, and *The Printing* uses composite characters to portray the persecution of believers in the former Soviet Union. According to The Dove Foundation, *The Printing* \"no doubt will urge Christian believers everywhere to appreciate the freedoms they enjoy. It is inspiring!\" In 1999, Unusual Films began producing feature films for children, including *The Treasure Map*, *Project Dinosaur*, and *Appalachian Trial*. ### BJU Press {#bju_press} BJU Press originated from the need for textbooks for the burgeoning Christian school movement. The press publishes a full range of K--12 textbooks. BJU Press also offers distance learning courses online, via DVD and hard drive. Another ancillary, the Academy of Home Education, is a \"service organization for homeschooling families\" that maintains student records, administers achievement testing, and issues high school diplomas. The press sold its music division, SoundForth, to Lorenz Publishing on October 1, 2012. ### Pre-college programs {#pre_college_programs} The university operates Bob Jones Academy, which enrolls students from preschool through 12th grade. With about 1100 students, the school\'s demographic makeup leans heavily white (90.3%), with non-Black minorities making up the bulk of other ethnicities. Black students make up 0.5% of enrollment.
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# Bob Jones University ## Controversies ### Sexual abuse reports {#sexual_abuse_reports} In December 2011, in response to accusations of mishandling of student reports of sexual abuse (most of which had occurred in their home churches when the students were minors) and a concurrent reporting issue at a church pastored by a university board member, the BJU board of trustees hired an independent ombudsman, GRACE (Godly Response to Abuse in the Christian Environment), to investigate. Released in December 2014, the GRACE report suggested that BJU had discouraged students from reporting past sexual abuse, and though the university declined to implement many of the report\'s recommendations, President Steve Pettit formally apologized \"to those who felt they did not receive from us genuine love, compassion, understanding, and support after suffering sexual abuse or assault\". The university\'s mishandling of sexual abuse in the past came into light again in August 2020 when a student filed a lawsuit against Bob Jones University and Furman University alleging both administrations ignored the sexual assault report and expelled the student for consuming alcohol, which is against the Student Code of Conduct handbook. ### Racial policies and ban on interracial dating {#racial_policies_and_ban_on_interracial_dating} Although BJU had admitted Asian students and other ethnic groups from its inception, it did not enroll Black students until 1971. From 1971 to 1975, BJU admitted only married Black people. However, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) had already determined in 1970 that \"private schools with racially discriminatory admissions policies\" were not entitled to federal tax exemption. In 1975, the University Board of Trustees authorized a policy change to admit Black students, a move that occurred shortly before the announcement of the Supreme Court decision in *Runyon v. McCrary* (427 U.S. 160 \[1976\]), which prohibited racial exclusion in private schools. In May 1975, BJU expanded rules against interracial dating and marriage. In 1976, the Internal Revenue Service revoked the university\'s tax exemption retroactively to December 1, 1970, because it practiced racial discrimination. The case was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1982. After BJU lost the decision in *Bob Jones University v. United States* (461 U.S. 574)\[1983\], the university chose to maintain its interracial dating policy and pay a million dollars in back taxes. The year following the Court decision, contributions to the university declined by 13 percent. In 2000, following a media uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate George W. Bush to the university, Bob Jones III dropped the university\'s interracial dating rule, announcing the change on CNN\'s *Larry King Live*. In the same year, Bob Jones III drew criticism after reposting a letter on the university\'s web page referring to Mormons and Catholics as being members of \"cults which call themselves Christian\". In 2005, Stephen Jones, great-grandson of the founder, became BJU\'s president. Bob Jones III then took the title Chancellor. In 2008, the university declared itself \"profoundly sorry\" for having allowed \"institutional policies to remain in place that were racially hurtful\". That year, BJU said it had enrolled students from fifty states and nearly fifty countries,`{{Primary source inline|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} claimed that these represented diverse ethnicities and cultures,`{{Unreliable source?|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki}`{{POV statement|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} and that the BJU administration declared itself \"committed to maintaining on the campus the racial and cultural diversity and harmony characteristic of the true Church of Jesus Christ throughout the world\".`{{Better source needed|reason=I mean, it is Bob Jones University itself saying these things, and [[WP:MANDY|of course they would]]|date=April 2025}}`{=mediawiki} In his first meeting with the university cabinet in 2014, the fifth president Steve Pettit said it was appropriate for BJU to regain its tax-exempt status because BJU no longer held its earlier positions about race. \"The Bible is clear,\" said Pettit, \"We are made of one blood.\" By February 17, 2017, the IRS website had listed the university as a 501(c)(3) organization, and by May 2017, BJU had forged a working relationship with Greenville\'s Phillis Wheatley Center. In 2017, 9% of the student body was \"from the American minority population\".
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# Bob Jones University ## Student life {#student_life} ### Religious atmosphere {#religious_atmosphere} -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- \"I believe in the inspiration of the Bible (both the Old and the New Testaments); the creation of man by the direct act of God; the incarnation and virgin birth of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ; His identification as the Son of God; His vicarious atonement for the sins of mankind by the shedding of His blood on the cross; the resurrection of His body from the tomb; His power to save men from sin; the new birth through the regeneration by the Holy Spirit; and the gift of eternal life by the grace of God.\" --- BJU Creed -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Religion is a major aspect of life and curriculum at BJU. The BJU Creed, written in 1927 by journalist and prohibitionist Sam Small, is recited by students and faculty four days a week at chapel services. The university also encourages church planting in areas of the United States \"in great need of fundamental churches\", and it has provided financial and logistical assistance to ministerial graduates in starting more than a hundred new churches. Bob Jones III has also encouraged non-ministerial students to put their career plans on hold for two or three years to provide lay leadership for small churches. Students of various majors participate in Missions Advance (formerly Mission Prayer Band), an organization that prays for missionaries and attempts to stimulate campus interest in world evangelism. During summers and Christmas breaks, about 150 students participate in teams that promote Christian missions around the world. Although a separate nonprofit corporation, Gospel Fellowship Association, an organization founded by Bob Jones Sr. and associated with BJU, is one of the largest fundamentalist mission boards in the country. Through its \"Timothy Fund\", the university also sponsors international students who are training for the ministry. The university requires the use of the King James Version (KJV) of the Bible in its services and classrooms, but it does not hold that the KJV is the only acceptable English translation or that it has the same authority as the original Hebrew and Greek manuscripts. The university\'s position has been criticized by some other fundamentalists, including fellow conservative university Pensacola Christian College, which in 1998 produced a widely distributed videotape which argued that this \"defiling leaven in fundamentalism\" was passed from the 19th-century Princeton theologian Benjamin B. Warfield through Charles Brokenshire to current BJU faculty members and graduates.
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# Bob Jones University ## Student life {#student_life} ### Rules of conduct {#rules_of_conduct} Strict rules govern student life at BJU. The 2015--16 Student Handbook states, \"Students are to avoid any types of entertainment that could be considered immodest or that contain profanity, scatological realism, sexual perversion, erotic realism, lurid violence, occultism and false philosophical or religious assumptions.\" Grounds for immediate dismissal include stealing, immorality (including sex between unmarried students), possession of hard-core pornography, use of alcohol or drugs, and participating in a public demonstration for a cause the university opposes. Similar \"moral failures\" are grounds for terminating the employment of faculty and staff. In 1998, a homosexual alumnus was threatened with arrest if he visited the campus. Men are allowed to wear polo shirts or dress shirts on weekdays until 17:00. Effective in 2018, women are no longer required to wear skirts or dresses and can now wear pants. They are also required to attend chapel three days a week, as well as at least two services per week at an approved \"local fundamental church\". Other rules are not based on a specific biblical passage. For instance, the Handbook notes that \"there is no specific Bible command that says, \'Thou shalt not be late to class\', but a student who wishes to display orderliness and concern for others will not come in late to the distraction of the teacher and other students.\" In 2008 a campus spokesperson said that one goal of the dress code was \"to teach our young people to dress professionally\" on campus while giving them \"the ability to\...choose within the biblically accepted options of dress\" when they were off campus. Additional rules include requiring resident hall students to abide by a campus curfew of 11:00 pm on class days and 12:00 am on weekends. Students are requested to not go to movie theaters while in residence; however, they may watch movies rated G or PG while in the residence halls. Students are requested not to listen to popular contemporary music. Male students and graduate students may have facial hair that is neatly trimmed and well maintained at approximately ½ inch or less. Women are expected to dress modestly and wear business casual style clothing to class and religious services. ### Extracurriculars After BJU abandoned intercollegiate sports in 1933, its intramural sports program included competition in soccer, basketball, softball, volleyball, tennis, badminton, flag football, table tennis, racquetball, and water polo. The university also competed in intercollegiate debate within the National Educational Debate Association, in intercollegiate mock trial and computer science competitions, and participated at South Carolina Student Legislature. In 2012, BJU joined Division I of National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA) and in 2014 participated in intercollegiate soccer, basketball, cross-country, and golf. The teams are known as the Bruins. The university requires all unmarried incoming first-year students under 23 to join one of 33 \"societies\". Societies meet most Fridays for entertainment and fellowship and hold weekly prayer meetings. Societies compete with one another in intramural sports, debate, and Scholastic Bowl. The university also has a student-staffed newspaper (*The Collegian*), and yearbook (*Vintage*). Early in December, thousands of students, faculty, and visitors gather around the front campus fountain for an annual Christmas carol singing and lighting ceremony, illuminating tens of thousands of Christmas lights. On December 3, 2004, the ceremony broke the Guinness World Record for Christmas caroling with 7,514 carolers. Before 2015, the university required students and faculty to attend a six-day Bible Conference instead of a traditional Spring Break. However, the university announced that beginning in 2016, it would hold the Bible Conference in February and give students a week of Spring Break in March. The Conference typically attracts fundamentalist preachers and laypeople from around the country, and some BJU class reunions are held during the week.
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# Bob Jones University ## Athletics The Bob Jones (BJU) athletic teams are called the Bruins. The university is a member of the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA), primarily competing in the South Region of the Division II level. The Bruins previously competed as a member of the NCAA Division III ranks, primarily competing as an NCAA D-III Independent from 2020--21 to 2022--23. BJU competes in 11 intercollegiate varsity sports. Men\'s sports include basketball, baseball, cross-country, golf, soccer, and track & field, while women\'s sports include basketball, cross-country, soccer, track & field, and volleyball. ### History {#history_1} In 2012, the university inaugurated intercollegiate athletics with four teams: men\'s soccer, men\'s basketball, women\'s soccer, and women\'s basketball. The university added intercollegiate golf and cross-country teams during the 2013--2014 school year. Men\'s and women\'s shooting sports were added in 2016. Men\'s baseball began in the spring of 2021, and women\'s beach volleyball started in the spring of 2022. Director of athletics Neal Ring resigned in 2023; he had overseen Bruins Athletics since inception. Through its first 11 seasons, the athletic department amassed 22 NCCAA National Championships, nearly 100 All-Americans, and over 200 Scholar-Athletes. Bruins Athletics also received six straight Presidential Awards for Excellence, honoring the most successful NCCAA DII athletics program. ### Move to NCAA Division III {#move_to_ncaa_division_iii} In 2018, BJU explored National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) membership and applied for it in January 2020. The Bruins were accepted as Division III provisional members in June for three years, making it the only Division III school in the state. The school has been searching for a conference. ## Notable people {#notable_people} ### Alumni A number of BJU graduates have become influential within evangelical Christianity, including Ken Hay (founder of \"The Wilds\" Christian camps) Ron \"Patch\" Hamilton (composer and president of Majesty Music) Billy Kim (former president of Baptist World Alliance), and Moisés Silva (president of the Evangelical Theological Society). BJU alumni also include the third pastor (1968--1976) of Riverside Church (Ernest T. Campbell), the former president of Northland Baptist Bible College (Les Ollila), late president of Baptist Bible College (Ernest Pickering), and the former president of Clearwater Christian College (Richard Stratton). BJU alumnus Asa Hutchinson served as the governor of Arkansas and also served in the U.S. Congress; his brother Tim Hutchinson served in the U.S. Senate. Others have served in state government: Michigan state senator Alan Cropsey, Pennsylvania state representative Gordon Denlinger, Pennsylvania state representative Mark M. Gillen, former Speaker Pro Tempore of the South Carolina House of Representatives Terry Haskins, member of the South Carolina House of Representatives Wendy Nanney, Pennsylvania state representative Sam Rohrer, member of the Missouri House of Representatives Ryan Silvey, Maryland state senator Bryan Simonaire and his daughter, state delegate Meagan Simonaire, and South Carolina state senator Danny Verdin
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# Blue Streak (missile) The de Havilland Propellers **Blue Streak** was a British Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM), and later the first stage of the Europa satellite launch vehicle. Blue Streak was cancelled without entering full production. The project was intended to maintain an independent British nuclear deterrent, replacing the V bomber fleet which would become obsolete by 1965. The operational requirement for the missile was issued in 1955 and the design was complete by 1957. During development, it became clear that the missile system was too expensive and too vulnerable to a surprise attack. The missile project was cancelled in 1960, with US-led Skybolt the preferred replacement. Partly to avoid political embarrassment from the cancellation,`{{according to whom|date=January 2023}}`{=mediawiki} the UK government proposed that the rocket be used as the first stage of a civilian satellite launcher called Black Prince. As the cost was thought to be too great for the UK alone, international collaboration was sought. This led to the formation of the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO), with Blue Streak used as the first stage of a carrier rocket named Europa. Europa was tested at Woomera Test Range, Australia and later at Kourou in French Guiana. Following launch failures, the ELDO project was cancelled in 1972 and Blue Streak with it. `{{TOC limit|3}}`{=mediawiki} ## Background Post-war Britain\'s nuclear weapons armament was initially based on free-fall bombs delivered by the V bomber force. It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a credible nuclear deterrent threat, a ballistic missile was essential. There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so that Britain could remain a major world power. Britain was unable to purchase American weapons wholesale due to the restrictions of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. In April 1954 the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles. The United States would develop an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) of 5000 nmi range (SM-65 Atlas), while the United Kingdom with United States support would develop an Intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) of 2000 nmi range. The proposal was accepted as part of the Wilson-Sandys Agreement of August 1954, which provided for collaboration, exchange of information, and mutual planning of development programmes. The decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US. Initial requirements for the booster were made by the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough with input on the rocket engine design from the Rocket Propulsion Establishment at Westcott. Operational Requirement 1139 demanded a rocket of at least 1500 nmi range and the initially proposed rocket would have just reached that threshold.
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# Blue Streak (missile) ## Development The de Havilland Propellers company won the contract to build the missile, which was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled Rocketdyne S-3D engine, developed by Rolls-Royce, called RZ.2. Two variants of this engine were developed: the first provided a static thrust of 137000 lbf and the second (intended for the three-stage satellite launch vehicle) 150000 lbf. The engines could be vectored by seven degrees in flight and were used to guide the missile. This configuration, however, put considerable pressure on the autopilot which had to cope with the problem of a vehicle whose weight was diminishing rapidly and that was steered by large engines whose thrust remained more or less constant. Vibration was also a problem, particularly at engine cut-off, and the later development of the autopilot for the satellite launcher was, in itself, a considerable achievement. Subcontractors included the Sperry Gyroscope Company who produced the missile guidance system whilst the nuclear warhead was designed by the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. The missiles used liquid oxygen and kerosene propellants. Whilst the vehicle could be left fully laden with over 20 tonnes of kerosene, the 60 tonnes of liquid oxygen had to be loaded immediately before launch or icing became a problem. Due to this, fuelling the rocket took 4.5 minutes, which would have made it useless as a rapid response to an attack. The missile was vulnerable to a pre-emptive nuclear strike, launched without warning or in the absence of any heightening of tension sufficient to warrant readying the missile. To negate this problem de Havilland created a stand-by feature. A missile could be held at 30 seconds\' notice to launch for ten hours. As the missiles were to be deployed in pairs and it took ten hours for one missile to be prepared for stand-by, one of the two missiles could always be ready for rapid launch. To protect the missiles against a pre-emptive strike while being fuelled, the idea of sitting the missiles in underground launchers was developed. These would have been designed to withstand a one megaton blast at a distance of 1/2 mi and were a British innovation, subsequently exported to the United States. Finding sites for these silos proved extremely difficult. RAF Spadeadam in Cumberland (now Cumbria) was the only site where construction was started on a full scale underground launcher, although test borings were undertaken at a number of other locations. The remains of this test silo, known as U1, were rediscovered by tree felling at Spadeadam in 2004. This was also the site where the RZ.2 rocket engines and also the complete Blue Streak missile were tested. The best sites for silo construction were the more stable rock strata in parts of southern and north-east England and eastern Scotland, but the construction of many underground silos in the countryside carried enormous economic, social, and political costs. Development of the underground launchers presented a major technical challenge. 1/60- and 1/6-scale models based on a U-shaped design were constructed and tested at RPE Westcott. Three alternative designs were drawn up with one chosen as the prototype, designated K11. RAF Upavon would appear to have been the preferred location for the prototype operational launcher with the former RNAS at Crail as the likely first operational site. In 1955--1956, the rocket motors were test-fired at High Down Rocket Test Site on the Isle of Wight. As no site in Britain provided enough space for test flights, a test site was established at Woomera, South Australia. Flight No. Launch date Result ------------ ----------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- F1 5 June 1964 uncontrollable oscillations during final phase of burn due to fuel sloshing in tanks F2 21 October 1964 Successful flight F3 23 March 1965 Successful flight : Blue Streak launches from Woomera ## Cancellation as a military project {#cancellation_as_a_military_project} Doubts arose as the cost escalated from the first tentative figure of £50 million submitted to the Treasury in early 1955, to £300 million in late 1959. Its detractors in the civil service claimed that the programme was crawling along when compared with the speed of development in the US and the Soviet Union. Estimates within the Civil Service for completion of the project ranged from a total spend of £550 million to £1.3 billion, as different ministers were set on either abandoning or continuing the project. The project was unexpectedly cancelled in April 1960. Whitehall opposition grew, and it was cancelled on the ostensible grounds that it would be too vulnerable to a first-strike attack. Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten had spent considerable effort arguing that the project should be cancelled at once in favour of the Navy being armed with nuclear weapons, capable of pre-emptive strike. Some`{{who|date=January 2016}}`{=mediawiki} considered the cancellation of Blue Streak to be not only a blow to British military-industrial efforts, but also to Commonwealth ally Australia, which had its own vested interest`{{Clarify|date=September 2018}}`{=mediawiki} in the project. The British military transferred its hopes for a strategic nuclear delivery system to the Anglo-American Skybolt missile, before the project\'s cancellation by the United States as its ICBM programme reached maturity. The British instead purchased the Polaris system from the Americans, carried in British-built submarines.
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# Blue Streak (missile) ## Civilian programmes - Black Prince and ELDO {#civilian_programmes___black_prince_and_eldo} After the cancellation as a military project, there was reluctance to cancel the project because of the huge cost incurred. Blue Streak would have become the first stage of a projected all British satellite launcher known as \"Black Prince\": the second stage was derived from the *Black Knight* test vehicle, and the orbital injection stage was a small hydrogen peroxide/kerosene motor. Black Prince proved too expensive for the UK, and the European Launcher Development Organisation (ELDO) was set up. This used Blue Streak as the first stage, with French and German second and third stages. The Blue Streak first stage was successfully tested three times at the Woomera test range in Australia as part of the ELDO programme. ### Black Prince {#black_prince} In 1959, a year before the cancellation of the Blue Streak as a missile, the government requested that the RAE and Saunders-Roe design a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak and Black Knight. This design used Blue Streak as a first stage and a 54 in second stage based on the Black Knight. Several different third stages would be available, depending on the required payload and orbit. The cost of developing Black Prince was estimated to be £35 million. It was planned that Black Prince would be a Commonwealth project. As the government of John Diefenbaker in Canada was already spending more money than publicly acknowledged on Alouette and Australia was not interested in the project, these two countries were unwilling to contribute. South Africa was no longer a member of the Commonwealth. New Zealand was only likely to make \"modest\" contributions. ### European Launcher Development Organisation {#european_launcher_development_organisation} The UK instead proposed a collaboration with other European countries to build a three-stage launcher capable of placing a one-ton payload into low Earth orbit. The European Launcher Development Organisation consisted of Belgium, Britain, France, West Germany, Italy and the Netherlands, with Australia as an associate member. Preliminary work began in 1962 and ELDO was formally signed into existence in 1964. With Blue Streak, the UK became the first stage of the European launch vehicle with France providing the Coralie second stage and Germany the third. Italy worked on the satellite project, the Netherlands and Belgium concentrated on tracking and telemetry systems and Australia supplied the launch site. The combined launcher was named Europa. After ten test launches, the Woomera launch site was not suitable for putting satellites into geosynchronous orbit, and in 1966 it was decided to move to the French site of Kourou in South America. F11 was fired from here in November 1971, but the failure of the autopilot caused the vehicle to break up. The launch of F12 was postponed whilst a project review was carried out, which led to the decision to abandon the Europa design. ELDO was merged with the European Space Research Organisation to form the European Space Agency. Flight No. Launch date Version First stage (Blue Streak) Second stage (Corali) Third stage (Astris) Payload Result ------------ ------------------ ---------- --------------------------- ----------------------- ---------------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------- F4 24 May 1966 Europa-1 successful untested untested untested Successful flight F5 15 November 1966 Europa-1 successful untested untested untested Successful flight F6.1 4 June 1967 Europa-1 successful failed untested untested 2nd stage failed to ignite F6.2 6 December 1967 Europa-1 successful failed failed failed 2nd stage failed to separate F7 29 November 1968 Europa-1 successful successful failed failed 3rd stage failure after separation F8 3 July 1969 Europa-1 successful successful failed failed 3rd stage failure after separation F9 24 June 1970 Europa-1 successful successful successful failed Fairing failed to separate F11 5 November 1971 Europa-2 successful successful successful failed Guidance system failed F12 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to French Guiana F13 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to National Museum of Flight, near Edinburgh F14 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to Deutsches Museum, Munich F15 n/a untested untested untested Delivered to Euro Space Center, Redu, Belgium F16 n/a untested untested untested On display at NSC Leicester, on loan from Liverpool Museums F17 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed F18 n/a n/a n/a n/a Parts only completed : List of Blue Streak launches as part of ELDO
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# Blue Streak (missile) ## Related projects {#related_projects} Aside from Black Prince, a range of other proposals was made between 1959 and 1972 for a carrier rocket based on Blue Streak, but none of these were ever built in full and today only exist in design. ### De Havilland/British Interplanetary Society proposal {#de_havillandbritish_interplanetary_society_proposal} In 1959 de Havilland suggested solving the problem of the Blue Streak/Black Knight geometry by compressing the 10 by 1 metre (30 by 3-foot) Black Knight into a 10 ft sphere. Although this seemed logical, the development costs proved to be too high for the limited budget of the programme. ### Westland Helicopters Black Arrow {#westland_helicopters_black_arrow} Following its merger with Saunders Roe, Westland Helicopters developed the three-stage Black Arrow satellite carrier rocket, derived from the Black Knight test vehicle. The first stage of Black Arrow was given the same diameter as the French Coralie (the second stage of Europa) to make it compatible with Blue Streak. Using Blue Streak as an additional stage would have increased Black Arrow\'s payload capacity. To maintain this compatibility, the first stage diameter was given in metres, although the rest of the rocket was defined in imperial units. Black Arrow carried out four test launches (without an additional Blue Streak stage) from Woomera between 1969 and 1971, with the final launch carrying the satellite Prospero X-3 into orbit. The United Kingdom remains the only country to have developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability. ### Hawker Siddeley Dynamics proposal {#hawker_siddeley_dynamics_proposal} In 1972, Hawker Siddeley Dynamics ltd produced a brochure for a design using Blue Streak as the first stage of a two-stage to orbit rocket, with an American Centaur upper stage. The Centaur second stage would have either been built in the UK under licence or imported directly from the USA. Both the Centaur and Blue Streak had proved to be very reliable up to this point, and since they were both already designed development costs would have been low. Furthermore, it had a payload of 870--920 kg to a geosynchronous orbit with, and 650--700 kg without the use of additional booster rockets.
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# Blue Streak (missile) ## Blue Streak today {#blue_streak_today} Following the cancellation of the Blue Streak project some of the remaining rockets were preserved at: - **Europa F13**, at the National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, Scotland. - **Europa F14**, at the Deutsches Museum, Munich. - **Europa F15**, at the Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium. - **Europa F16**, at the National Space Centre in Leicester, England. - **Mid-section outer shell and launch sites**, at the RAF Spadeadam near Brampton, England. A section of the propulsion bay, engines and equipment can be found at the Solway Aviation Museum, Carlisle Lake District Airport. Only a few miles from the Spadeadam testing site, the museum carries many exhibits, photographs and models of the Blue Streak programme, having inherited the original Spadeadam collection that used to be displayed on site. RZ.2 engines are on display at National Space Centre -- a pair on cradles alongside the Blue Streak rocket -- and at the Armagh Planetarium in Northern Ireland and The Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium. Blue Streak enthusiast Robin Joseph from the United Kingdom has a collection of parts including start systems and combustion chambers amongst other things. He can often be seen displaying his collection at space days in the West Midlands. A part of the **Blue Streak F1** rocket launched on 5 June 1964 from Woomera, Australia, found 50 km SE of Giles in 1980 (c.1000 km) is on display at Giles Weather Station. The titanium structure of a German third stage was, for some time, sited on the edge of a gravel pit in Gloucestershire. Remains of **Blue Streak F4**, launched on 24 May 1965, are on display at Woomera. Footage from the Blue Streak launch was briefly incorporated into *The Prisoner*{{\'}}s final episode, \"Fall Out\". It was also used in the *Doctor Who* serial \"The Tenth Planet\", treated within the story as the launch of the *Zeus IV* spacecraft. Images of the Blue Streak 1 are incorporated in the 1997 film *Contact*. <File:Blue> Streak rocket remains.jpg\|**Blue Streak F1** rocket remains <File:Bluestreak> in WoomeraPark.jpg\|**Blue Streak F4** rocket remains <File:Blue> Streak at Scottish Museum of Flight - side rear view.jpg\|**Europa F13**, at the National Museum of Flight in East Fortune, Scotland. <File:Blue> Streak rocket engines.jpg\|**Europa F14**, at the Deutsches Museum, Munich. <File:Lanceur> Europa (1).jpg\|**Europa F15**, at the Euro Space Center in Redu, Belgium. <File:Rocket> in Leicester.JPG\|**Europa F16**, at the National Space Centre in Leicester, England. <File:Booster> stage of a Blue Streak rocket, RAF Spadeadam.jpg\|**Mid-section outer shell**, at the RAF Spadeadam near Brampton, England
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# Bakassi **Bakassi** is a peninsula on the Gulf of Guinea. It lies between the Cross River estuary, near the city of Calabar and the Rio del Ray estuary on the east. It is governed by Cameroon, following the transfer of sovereignty from neighbouring Nigeria as a result of a judgment by the International Court of Justice. On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate rejected the transfer, since the Greentree Agreement ceding the area to Cameroon was contrary to Section 12(1) of the 1999 Constitution. Regardless, the territory was completely ceded to Cameroon on 14 August 2008, exactly two years after the first part of it was transferred. ## Geography and economy {#geography_and_economy} The peninsula lies between latitudes 4°25′ and 5°10′N and longitudes 8°20′ and 9°08′E . It consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665 km2. The population of Bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000 and 300,000 people. Bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea, where the warm east-flowing Guinea Current (called Aya Efiat in Efik) meets the cold north-flowing Benguela Current (called Aya Ubenekang in Efik). These two ocean currents interact, creating huge foamy breakers which constantly advance towards the shore. This builds up shoals rich in fish, shrimps, and a wide variety of other marine life forms, thus making the area a very fertile fishing ground, from which most of the population make their living. The peninsula is commonly described as \"oil-rich\", though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have been discovered. However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of rich reserves of high grade crude oil in Nigeria. At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula and its offshore waters. In October 2012, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation announced it had discovered new oil and gas resources in the Bakassi region. ## History During the Scramble for Africa, Queen Victoria signed a Treaty of Protection with the King and Chiefs of Akwa Akpa, known to Europeans as Old Calabar, on 10 September 1884. This enabled the British Empire to exercise control over the entire territory around Calabar, including Bakassi. The territory subsequently became *de facto* part of Nigeria, although the border was never permanently delineated. However, documents released by the Cameroonians, in parity with that of the British and Germans, clearly places Bakassi under Cameroonian Territory as a consequence of colonial era Anglo-German agreements. After Southern Cameroons voted in 1961 to leave Nigeria and became a part of Cameroon, Bakassi remained under Calabar administration in Nigeria until ICJ judgement of 2002. ## Population Bakassi inhabitants are mainly the Oron people, the people of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria.
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# Bakassi ## Territorial dispute {#territorial_dispute} Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years,`{{Quantify|date=October 2020}}`{=mediawiki} leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In 1981 the two countries went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around Lake Chad, at the other end of the two countries\' common border. More armed clashes broke out in the early 1990s. In response, Cameroon took the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on 29 March 1994. The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years. Nigeria relied largely on Anglo-German correspondence dating from 1885 as well as treaties between the colonial powers and the indigenous rulers in the area, particularly the 1884 Treaty of Protection. Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of 1913, which defined sphere of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the 1970s between Cameroon and Nigeria. These were the Yaoundé II Declaration of 4 April 1971 and the Maroua Declaration of 1 June 1975, which were devised to outline maritime boundaries between the two countries following their independence. The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, thereby implying Cameroonian ownership over Bakassi. However, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force. ### ICJ verdict {#icj_verdict} The ICJ delivered its judgment on 10 October 2002, finding (based principally on the Anglo-German agreements) that sovereignty over Bakassi did indeed rest with Cameroon. It instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality. Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare. The verdict caused consternation in Nigeria. It aroused vitriolic comments from Nigerian officials and the Nigerian media alike. Chief Richard Akinjide, a former Nigerian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice who had been a leading member of Nigeria\'s legal team, described the decision as \"50% international law and 50% international politics\", \"blatantly biased and unfair\", \"a total disaster\", and a \"complete fraud\". The Nigerian newspaper *The Guardian* went further, declaring that the judgment was \"a rape and unforeseen potential international conspiracy against Nigerian territorial integrity and sovereignty\" and \"part of a Western ploy to foment and perpetuate trouble in Africa\". The outcome of the controversy was a *de facto* Nigerian refusal to withdraw its troops from Bakassi and transfer sovereignty. The Nigerian government did not, however, openly reject the judgment but instead called for an agreement that would provide \"peace with honour, with the interest and welfare of our people\". The ICJ judgement was backed up by the United Nations, whose charter potentially allowed sanctions or even the use of force to enforce the court\'s ruling. Secretary-General Kofi Annan stepped in as a mediator and chaired a tripartite summit with the two countries\' presidents on 15 November 2002, which established a commission to facilitate the peaceful implementation of the ICJ\'s judgement. A further summit was held on 31 January 2004. This made significant progress, but the process was complicated by the opposition of Bakassi\'s inhabitants to being transferred to Cameroon. Bakassian leaders threatened to seek independence if Nigeria renounced sovereignty. This secession was announced on 9 July 2006, as the \"Democratic Republic of Bakassi\". The decision was reportedly made at a meeting on 2 July 2006 and *The Vanguard* newspaper of Nigeria reported the decision to secede. The decision was reportedly made by groups of militants including Southern Cameroons under the aegis of Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO), Bakassi Movement for Self-Determination (BAMOSD), and the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). The Biafra separatist group, Biafra Nations League (BNL), initially known as Biafra Nations Youth League, led by Princewill Chimezie Richard (known as Prince Obuka) and Ebuta Akor Takon (not the former Deputy, Ebuta Ogar Takon) moved their operational base to the peninsula, after series of warnings to the Nigeria government over the plight of the internally displaced natives and the reported killing of remnants in the peninsula by Cameroon forces. This came amid clashes between Nigerian troops and the Bakassi Strike Force, a militant group that focused on attacking Nigerian and Cameroon forces. BNL Leaders were later apprehended in the Ikang-Cameroon border area on 9 November 2016 by Nigerian troops according to the *Nigeria nation* newspaper; reports linked the Biafra group to the militant groups. BNL demanded that oil companies authorized to drill for oil by Nigeria and Cameroon leave the maritime boundary area of Bakassi Peninsula. The group also threatened to attack Cameroon Forces. ### Resolution On 13 June 2006, President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria and President Paul Biya of Cameroon resolved the dispute in talks led by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in New York City. Obasanjo agreed to withdraw Nigerian troops within 60 days and to leave the territory completely in Cameroonian control within the next two years. Annan said, \"With today\'s agreement on the Bakassi peninsula, a comprehensive resolution of the dispute is within our grasp. The momentum achieved must be sustained.\"
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# Bakassi ## Territorial dispute {#territorial_dispute} ### Nigerian withdrawal and low-level insurgency {#nigerian_withdrawal_and_low_level_insurgency} Nigeria began to withdraw its forces, comprising some 3,000 troops, beginning 1 August 2006, and a ceremony on 14 August marked the formal handover of the northern part of the peninsula. The remainder stayed under Nigerian civil authority for two more years. On 22 November 2007, the Nigerian Senate passed a resolution declaring that the withdrawal from the Bakassi Peninsula was illegal. The government took no action, and handed the final parts of Bakassi over to Cameroon on 14 August 2008 as planned, but a Federal High Court had stated this should be delayed until all accommodations for resettled Bakassians had been settled; the government did not seem to plan to heed this court order, and set the necessary mechanisms into motion to override it. Fishermen displaced from Bakassi were first settled in a landlocked area called New Bakassi, which they claimed was already inhabited and not suitable for fishermen like them but only for farmers. The displaced people were then moved to Akpabuyo, and eventually established a new community of Dayspring. Despite the formal handover of Bakassi by Nigeria to Cameroon in 2006, the territory of Bakassi is still mentioned as part of the 774 local governments in Nigeria as embodied in the First Schedule, Part I of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999. After the Nigerian 2015 general elections, Nigeria\'s 8th National Assembly still accommodates the Calabar-South/Akpabuyo/Bakassi Federal Constituency represented by Hon. Essien Ekpeyong Ayi of the People\'s Democratic Party. In the 2010s and 2020s, Biafran separatists, most importantly Biafra Nations League, still continue a low-level militant resistance against Cameroon in regards to Bakassi
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# Baroque dance **Baroque dance** is dance of the Baroque era (roughly 1600--1750), closely linked with Baroque music, theatre, and opera. ## English country dance {#english_country_dance} The majority of surviving choreographies from the period are English country dances, such as those in the many editions of Playford\'s *The Dancing Master*. The descriptions in these various publications give the music, the formation, the number of dancers, and textual descriptions of the figures to be danced in relation to the musical bars, i.e. the floor patterns of the dances. There is only occasional indication of the steps used, presumably because they were well known. However, other sources of the period, such as the writings of the French dancing-masters Feuillet and Lorin, indicate that steps more complicated than simple walking were used, at least some of the time. English country dance survived well beyond the Baroque era and eventually spread in various forms across Europe and its colonies, and to all levels of society. ## The French Noble style {#the_french_noble_style} The great innovations in dance in the 17th century originated at the French court under Louis XIV, and it is here that we see the first clear stylistic ancestor of classical ballet. The same basic technique was used both at social events, and as theatrical dance in court ballets and at public theaters. The style of dance is commonly known to modern scholars as the *French noble style* or *belle danse* (French, literally \"beautiful dance\"), however it is often referred to casually as *baroque dance* in spite of the existence of other theatrical and social dance styles during the baroque era. Primary sources include more than three hundred choreographies in Beauchamp--Feuillet notation, as well as manuals by Raoul Auger Feuillet and Pierre Rameau in France, Kellom Tomlinson, P. Siris, and John Weaver in England, and Gottfried Taubert in Germany (i.e. Leipzig, Saxony). This wealth of evidence has allowed modern scholars and dancers to recreate the style, although areas of controversy still exist. The standard modern introduction is Hilton. French dance types include: `{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}`{=mediawiki} - Allemande (Descendant of a traditional German dances) - Bourrée - Canarie (Canary) (Of Spanish origin) - Chaconne (Actually of Spanish origin) - (French) Courante - Entrée grave - Folia {folia d\'Espagne} - Forlane (Forlana) - Gavotte - Gigue - Loure (slow gigue) - Menuet (minuet) - Musette - Passacaille or Pasacalle (passacaglia) (Of Spanish origin, traditionally a guitar piece) - Passepied - Polonaise (Of Polish origin) - Rigaudon - Sarabande (Of Spanish origin) - Tambourin The English, working in the French style, added their own hornpipe to this list. Many of these dance types are familiar from baroque music, perhaps most spectacularly in the stylized suites of J. S. Bach. Note, however, that the allemandes, that occur in these suites do not correspond to a French dance from the same period. ## Theatrical dance {#theatrical_dance} The French noble style was danced both at social events and by professional dancers in theatrical productions such as opera-ballets and court entertainments. However, 18th-century theatrical dance had at least two other styles: comic or grotesque, and semi-serious. ## Other social dance styles {#other_social_dance_styles} Other dance styles, such as the Italian and Spanish dances of the period, are much less well studied than either English country dance or the French style. The general picture seems to be that during most of the 17th century, a style of late Renaissance dance was widespread, but as time progressed, French ballroom dances such as the minuet were widely adopted at fashionable courts. Beyond this, the evolution and cross-fertilisation of dance styles is an area of ongoing research.
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# Baroque dance ## Modern reconstructions {#modern_reconstructions} The revival of baroque music in the 1960s and \'70s sparked renewed interest in 17th and 18th century dance styles. While more than 300 of these dances had been preserved in Beauchamp--Feuillet notation, it wasn\'t until the mid-20th century that serious scholarship commenced in deciphering the notation and reconstructing the dances. Perhaps best known among these pioneers was Britain\'s Melusine Wood, who published several books on historical dancing in the 1950s. Wood passed her research on to her student Belinda Quirey, and also to Pavlova Company ballerina and choreographer Mary Skeaping (1902--1984). The latter became well known for her reconstructions of baroque ballets for London\'s \"Ballet for All\" company in the 1960s. The leading figures of the second generation of historical dance research include Shirley Wynne and her Baroque Dance Ensemble which was founded at Ohio State University in the early 1970s and Wendy Hilton (1931--2002), a student of Belinda Quirey who supplemented the work of Melusine Wood with her own research into original sources. A native of Britain, Hilton arrived in the U.S. in 1969 joining the faculty of the Juilliard School in 1972 and establishing her own baroque dance workshop at Stanford University in 1974 which endured for more than 25 years. Catherine Turocy (b. circa 1950) began her studies in Baroque dance in 1971 as a student of dance historian Shirley Wynne. She founded The New York Baroque Dance Company in 1976 with Ann Jacoby, and the company has since toured internationally. In 1982/83 as part of the French national celebration of Jean Philippe Rameau\'s 300th birthday, Turocy choreographed the first production of Jean-Philippe Rameau\'s *Les Boréades* - it was never performed during the composer\'s lifetime. This French supported production with John Eliot Gardiner, conductor, and his orchestra was directed by Jean Louis Martinoty. Turocy has been decorated as Chevalier in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government. In 1973, French dance historian Francine Lancelot (1929--2003) began her formal studies in ethnomusicology which later led her to research French traditional dance forms and eventually Renaissance and Baroque dances. In 1980, at the invitation of the French Minister of Culture, she founded the baroque dance company \"Ris et Danceries\". Her work in choreographing the landmark 1986 production of Lully\'s 1676 tragedie-lyrique *Atys* was part of the national celebration of the 300th anniversary of Lully\'s death. This production propelled the career of William Christie and his ensemble Les Arts Florissants. Since the Ris et Danseries company was disbanded circa 1993, choreographers from the company have continued with their own work. Béatrice Massin with her \"Compagnie Fetes Galantes\", along with Marie-Geneviève Massé and her company \"L\'Eventail\" are among the most prominent. In 1995 Francine Lancelot\'s catalogue raisonné of baroque dance, entitled *La Belle Dance*, was published
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# Blue Steel (missile) The Avro **Blue Steel** was a British air-launched, rocket-propelled nuclear armed standoff missile, built to arm the V bomber force. It allowed the bomber to launch the missile against its target while still outside the range of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). The missile proceeded to the target at speeds up to Mach 3, and would trigger within 100 m of the pre-defined target point. Blue Steel entered service in 1963, by which point improved SAMs with longer range had greatly eroded the advantages of the design. A longer-range version, Blue Steel II, was considered, but cancelled in favour of the much longer-range GAM-87 Skybolt system from the US. When development of that system was cancelled in 1962, the V-bomber fleet was considered highly vulnerable. Blue Steel remained the primary British nuclear deterrent weapon until the Royal Navy started operating Polaris ballistic missiles from *Resolution*-class submarines. ## Development ### Origins During the early 1950s, the Soviet PVO-Strany interceptor aircraft and its associated ground controlled interception systems were steadily improving, making the approach to the V bomber\'s targets more difficult. An extensive study, \"The Pattern of the Future Offensive\", suggested that an attacking force of 100 aircraft would suffer 8% losses at night, and as much as 29% during the day due to the much greater number of day fighters in Soviet service. The paper concluded with a summary showing the expected losses over time as the Soviet forces improved, by 1957 it was expected that losses would be 10 to 20% at night, and then further erode. The UK intelligence services were also aware that the Soviets were planning to deploy an extensive surface-to-air missile (SAM) system around Moscow. The system had been developed to fend off a WWII-style attack by 1,000 low-speed aircraft, like those raids carried out by RAF Bomber Command. Known in the west as the SA-1 \"Guild\", the system was partially based on World War 2 research in the German *Wasserfall* program and its V-300 missiles had limited range around 30 km at best. Expected to be deployed in the late 1950s, approaching the target for attack with gravity bombs would become increasingly dangerous after that time. At the time, the Soviet defences were at their best between 1,000 ft and 40,000 ft, and the existing V-bombers had the required performance to fly over this altitude. But the introduction of the SAMs would make this increasingly unlikely to work as more and more of the missiles were installed. There were two general solutions to this problem. One was to fly higher and faster, but the leap in performance needed to overfly the missiles, with altitudes on the order of 70,000 ft could not be met until the mid-1960s at the minimum. This would leave a gap between around 1961 and 1965 when the V-force could not be expected to successfully perform its mission. The conclusion of this paper, and other reports like it, was that the situation could be greatly improved through the combination of improved electronic countermeasures (ECM) to disrupt fighter operations, and a standoff missile to allow the bombers to turn back before approaching within the range of the SAMs. It was expected that this combination would allow the V force to remain effective until 1965 at least. Beyond that time a new supersonic bomber would be required, a requirement that would ultimately be taken up as the Avro 730.
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# Blue Steel (missile) ## Development ### OR.1132 On 3 September 1954 the Air Staff issued Operational Requirement OR.1132 for the standoff weapon. This was essentially issued to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), whose Guided Weapon Department had been studying such a system for a while and had produced a series of \"W weapons\" of different layouts. These had been designed to address the problem that the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) could not guarantee the size of the warhead. Accordingly, the W weapons were designed to the maximum possible size that each of the bombers could carry, 40 inch diameter for the Vickers Valiant and 50 inches for Avro Vulcan and Handley Page Victor. The Ministry of Supply (MoS) did not feel that development should remain at the RAE, and had canvassed the bomber builders asking for comments on the RAE\'s concepts, considering both a shorter-range and longer-ranged weapon. Avro, having recently given the go-ahead on the 730, appeared cool on the long-range concept and was primarily interested in a short-range weapon of perhaps 100 mile range, which would allow it to avoid the most heavily defended areas. Vickers Armstrong and Handley Page were much more interested, proposing longer-ranged weapons that would extend the life of their existing V bomber designs. Handley Page\'s concept rejected the MoS\'s shorter range and offered a design of 500 nmi using ramjet power. However, the Ministry noted that the inertial navigation system (INS) being developed by Elliott Automation would not be accurate enough to fly this distance and hit its targets within the desired circular error probable (CEP). Vickers, who had worked on the somewhat similar Blue Boar and Red Rapier projects would seem like the natural choice for the contract, and planned to have their weapon in operation two years earlier than the other teams. But the Ministry had a cold relationship with Vickers after their Red Dean efforts. Avro appears to have been selected due to a number of RAE personnel having been hired by the company to form their design department, the Weapons Research Division, including the Chief Engineer, R.H. Fransis. On 4 May 1955 the Ministry of Supply issued the G/Proj/6220/GW35A contract with Avro and assigned it the rainbow code \"Blue Steel\".
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# Blue Steel (missile) ## Development ### Avro\'s concept {#avros_concept} At the time, nuclear weapon design was still in its early stages, and the intended weapon for the missile was a boosted fission weapon known as \"Green Bamboo\". To achieve the desired 1 MT yield, the implosion had to be extremely symmetrical, and this required a 72-point explosive system that led to the weapon being 45 inches in diameter and massing an estimated 4,500 lbs. This weapon was secret and only the diameter and mass were revealed to prospective entrants. It was the large size of the warhead, and the resulting 48 inch diameter fuselage needed to carry it, that led Avro to the use of a rocket motor when most standoff weapons to that point were jet or ramjet powered. Avro simply could not find a place to put an air intake on the missile which did not result it in being too large in some other dimension, typically length. The engine, the Armstrong Siddeley Stentor Mark 101, had two chambers, one for cruising at about Mach 1, and a second larger one that was ignited close to the target to increase speed to Mach 3 for a final dash. At Mach 3, skin friction will heat the fuselage to around 315 to, which is higher than the temperature that will cause aluminium to become soft. This is the reason that most high-speed aircraft are generally limited to about Mach 2.4 or lower, flying above this speed risks damage to the airframe. Those aircraft that do operate above this speed have to use other materials, and for this role, Avro chose stainless steel. The difficulties encountered bending sheets of stainless steel led to initial designs for the weapon that were very \"linear\", with the fuselage made of a single sheet rolled into a cylinder and a second sheet rolled into a cone to form the nose area. Avro\'s initial response, in late 1955, outlined a four-stage development effort. In Stage 1, the 13,000 lb weapon would be powered by a two-chamber rocket engine that would provide the required 100 nmi range at speeds up to Mach 2.5. The 16,000 lb Stage 2 would use an improved engine and more fuel to provide range up to 240 nmi at speeds up to Mach 4.5. Stage 3 would weigh in at 25,000 lb and include both disposible boosters and a drop-off fuel tank with range up to 450 nmi. For the future Avro 730, a new delta wing design of 18 to 26,000 lbs would offer range up to 900 nmi. Considering their submissions, the Ministry responded by ordering Avro to work only on the OR.1137 requirements, and ignore the long-term developments. This produced the first complete design, W.100. They proposed building the missile from AF.520 stainless steel, expecting to learn how to do so using the 730 contract to build testbeds. A series of smaller designs, W.101 through 104, would be made from a variety of materials and used to test the flight dynamics, autopilot and INS. As part of ongoing industry-wide research, the design underwent several evolutionary changes. The wings and canards became deltas and the experience of the Bristol 188 gave Avro confidence in construction of rounded surfaces using stainless steel and the design became much more aerodynamic with a boat tail and ogive nose.
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# Blue Steel (missile) ## Development ### Delays Avro began work proper in 1955, with the assigned Rainbow Code name of \"Blue Steel\" which it would keep in service. With Elliots working on the guidance system, Armstrong Siddeley would develop the liquid fuel engine. The design period was protracted, with various development problems exacerbated by the fact that designers lacked information on the actual size and weight of the proposed Green Bamboo, or its likely thermonuclear successor derived from the Granite series. The program ran into delays almost immediately. All of the systems - missile, navigation and motor - ran into problems and this resulted in the companies pointing fingers at each other. By the late 1950s it was clear the missiles would not be ready for their 1962 initial operational introduction, leading to significant criticism of Avro on the part of the Ministry of Supply and the Air Ministry. By this time it was clear that the Soviets were going to install an even more extensive missile system that originally believed, one that would cover the approach routes to the targets and even have sites on the Russian coastline, well outside the range of the missile. Avro proposed that Blue Steel would evolve over time, subsequent versions increasing speed (to Mach 4.5) and range. The ultimate Blue Steel would be a 900 nmi range weapon that could be launched by the supersonic Avro 730 under development. They were told to limit themselves to the specification of OR.1132. The project was delayed by the need to develop the required stainless steel fabrication techniques; this would have been gained in building the Avro 730 but that had been cancelled by then. The Elliots guidance system was plagued by accuracy problems, delaying test flights. As it turned out, neither of the originally-proposed UK-designed warheads were actually fitted, being superseded by Red Snow, an Anglicised variant of the U.S. W-28 thermonuclear warhead of 1.1 Mt yield. Red Snow was smaller and lighter than the earlier warhead proposals. The missile was fitted with a state-of-the-art inertial navigation unit. This system allowed the missile to strike within 100 metres of its designated target. In addition, the pilots of the Avro Vulcan or Handley Page Victor bombers could tie their systems into those of the missile and make use of the guidance system to help plot their own flight plan, since the unit in the missile was more advanced than that in the aircraft. On launch the rocket engine\'s first chamber developing 24000 lbf thrust would power the missile along a predetermined course to the target at around Mach 1.5. Once close to the target, the second chamber of the engine (6,000 lbf) would accelerate the missile to Mach 3. Over the target the engine would cut out and the missile would free-fall before detonating its warhead as an air burst. To speed the trials at Woomera, the test rounds were flown there by Victors and Vulcans in Operation Blue Ranger. The trials began in 1960 about the time the original requirement expected the weapon to be in service. The missiles were prepared at the Weapons Research Establishment near Salisbury South Australia, and flown to be launched at the Woomera range from RAAF Edinburgh. A specialist unit, No. 4 Joint Services Trials Unit RAF, was established to carry out preparatory and operational tasks. Blue Steel finally entered service in February 1963, carried by Vulcans and Victors, although its limitations were already apparent. The short range of the missile meant that the V bombers were still vulnerable to enemy surface-to-air missiles. A replacement for Blue Steel, the Mark 2, was planned with increased range and a ramjet engine, but was cancelled in 1960 to minimise delays to the Mk.1. The UK sought to acquire the much longer-ranged United States AGM-48 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile and was greatly frustrated when that weapon was cancelled in late 1962. Blue Steel required up to seven hours of launch preparation, and was highly unreliable. The Royal Air Force estimated in 1963 that half the missiles would fail to fire and would have to be dropped over their targets, contradicting their purpose of serving as standoff weapons. Even as it deployed Blue Steel as a high-altitude weapon, that year the government decided that because of anti-aircraft missiles\' increasing effectiveness, V bombers would have to convert from high-altitude to low-altitude attacks. These trials were conducted in 1964 and concluded in 1965 With no effective long-range weapon the original Blue Steel served on after a crash programme of minor modifications to permit a low-level launch at 1000 ft, even though its usefulness in a hot war was likely limited. A stop-gap weapon (WE.177B) was quickly produced to extend the life of the V-bomber force in the strategic role until the Polaris missile was deployed. This WE.177 laydown weapon supplemented the remaining modified Blue Steel missiles, using a low-level penetration followed by a pop-up manoeuvre to release the weapon at 1000 ft. One live operational round was deployed on each of forty-eight Vulcan and Victor bombers, and a further five live rounds were produced as operational spares. An additional four non-nuclear rounds were produced for various RAF requirements, and there were sixteen other unspecified training rounds. Blue Steel was officially retired on 31 December 1970, with the United Kingdom\'s strategic nuclear capacity passing to the submarine fleet. ## Operator `{{UK}}`{=mediawiki} - Royal Air Force - (V bombers)
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# Blue Steel (missile) ## Specifications - **Length**: 10.7 m - **Wingspan**: 4 m - **Diameter**: 1.22 m minimum - **Launch Weight**: 7270 lb - **Speed**: Mach 2.3 - **Ceiling**: 21500 m - **Maximum Range**: 240 km - **Guidance**: Inertial - **CEP**: \~100 metres - **Warhead**: Red Snow thermonuclear (1
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# Burwash Hall **Burwash Hall** refers to both Burwash Dining Hall and Burwash Hall proper, the second oldest of the residence buildings at Victoria University in Toronto, Canada. Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1913. It was named after Nathanael Burwash, president of Victoria from 1887 to 1912. The building is an extravagant Neo-Gothic work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements. The architects were Messrs. Sproatt & Rolph. ## History In 1910, seven years after the opening of the women\'s residence, Annesley Hall, the administrators of Victoria University began plans for an elaborate men\'s residence building on the campus. The project was funded by the estate of Mr. Hart A. Massey, an alumnus from Victoria\'s early days in Cobourg. The full cost of the project is unknown to the public, but the asset was valued at \$450,000 in 1913.Famous residents of Burwash include Vincent Massey, Lester B. Pearson, Don Harron, and Donald Sutherland. ## Architecture The building is described as Collegiate Gothic, intended to include all the developments of the Tudor style. Burwash Hall was designed to resemble the residences in Oxford and Cambridge, with modifications to the stair-case system and the division of houses. Sproatt & Rolph avoided architecture of commercial appearance, envisioning a structure that was academic in feeling. Burwash Hall was not intended to replicate Oxford buildings, but to \"prove that academic Gothic can be indigenous in Canada as well as in England, and that it can be perfectly adapted to the exigencies of \[Canada\'s\] climate and life\". Constructed of Bedford Indiana cut stone and Georgetown rubble masonry, the residence houses and adjoined dining hall intended to prove that beauty and efficiency were not antithetical. ## Design The building is divided between the large dining hall in the northwest and the student residence proper. The residence area is divided into two sections: the Upper Houses, built in 1913, and the Lower Houses, built in 1931. To the west the Upper Houses look out on the Vic Quad and the main Victoria College building across it. West of the Lower Houses is the new Lester B. Pearson Garden of Peace and International Understanding and the E.J. Pratt Library beyond it. From the eastern side of the building, the Upper Houses look out at Rowell Jackman Hall and the Lower Houses see the St. Michael\'s College residence of Elmsley. The only exception is the view from Gate House Tower which looks down St. Mary\'s Street. ## Burwash Dining Hall {#burwash_dining_hall} The dining hall is perhaps the best known part of the building to outsiders. It is the University of Toronto\'s largest, holding some 250 students and sixteen large tables. Hanging on the western wall is Queen Victoria\'s burial flag, given to the college soon after her death. Under the flag is the high table where the professors and college administration lunch. Historically, the Upper Houses each had their own table. Gate sat in the southwest corner, Middle sat in the far northeast, South sat in the table to the west of Middle, while North sat to the west of the southeast corner. The only lower house to have had a designated table was Caven, in the northwest corner beside the alumni table. (Note that prior to the 1995 renovations, some of these houses, particularly North and Caven, \'traditionally\' sat elsewhere).
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# Burwash Hall ## Upper Houses {#upper_houses} Adjoined to Burwash Dining Hall and completed in 1913, the upper houses were originally known as the *Men\'s Residences.* The four houses are: **North House**, **Middle House**, **Gate House**, and **South House**. The upper houses were gutted and renovated in 1995. Each Upper House consists of three floors. The lower floor contains a common room equipped with kitchen facilities, couches and a television. The upper floors each have their own kitchen and dining area. All houses have a very high bathroom ratio, with many single-use washrooms and a communal washroom on each floor. Upper Houses are divided between double rooms and singles, with about sixty percent of the population being in doubles. Unlike the Lower Houses, the hallways of each Upper House are connected, a feature that was added in the 1995 renovations. There is typically an upper-year Residence Don for each of the Upper Houses. This has been the case since the building\'s construction in 1913, when specific rooms were included for Dons. The original location of these rooms has since changed with recent renovations. ### North House {#north_house} At the corner of Burwash Dining Hall and the Upper Houses lies North House. The emblem of North House is an oil lamp, originally used to represent Victoria\'s Faculty of Theology, established in 1871. North has an extended hallway and larger common room than the other Upper Houses due to its position on the corner of the building. ### Middle House {#middle_house} The largest of the Upper Houses due to its incorporation of two battlements which divide North and Gate House, Middle House is the centre of the Upper Houses. The owl is the emblem of Middle House, sourced from the Victoria College coat of arms, and originally used to represent the Faculty of Arts. The Don\'s room in Middle House was originally the room reserved for the Dean of Men at Victoria, fit with a fireplace and seating area. ### Gate House {#gate_house} **Gate House** is one of the four Upper Houses of the Burwash Hall residence. Until 2007, when Victoria administration made it co-ed, Gate House was one of the last remaining all-male residence building in the University of Toronto. The Gate House emblem is the Phoenix, visible in the bottom-right corner of the Victoria College insignia. Gate House, with the rest of Upper Burwash, opened in 1913 and has held students every year since then except 1995, when it was renovated. As an all-male residence from 1913 to 2007 it held a number of unique traditions. For 20 years Gate House hosted an annual party called Novemberfest in the Burwash dining hall. The Victoria Dean of Students cancelled Novemberfest in 2003, when police discovered widespread underage drinking and over 800 people in the dining hall, in violation of the fire code. Another Gate House tradition that no longer occurs is the \"stirring the chicken,\" a dinner and keg party where house members cook chicken fajitas for hundreds of guests. Until 2007, Gate House held secretive first-year initiation ceremonies called Traditionals, which involved writing slogans on campus buildings in chalk, singing songs to the all-women\'s residence (who would then sing back to them), and leading first-years around the house blindfolded. Since Novemberfest, Gate House continued to have conflict with the Administration. In 2004 the Dean evicted three Gate House residents for allegedly \"hog-tying\" a first-year student. In 2007 President Paul W. Gooch wrote that Gate House undertook an \"escalating series of actions\" that were \"defiant\" and \"disparaging of women\", in response to Gate members constructing a 2.5-metre snow penis and placing a cooked pig\'s head in an Annesley bathroom. As punishment, during the fall exam period Gooch evicted two residents and relocated the remainder of Gate House to other places in the residence system, banned all current Gate House students from entering the building in 2008. Since this decision Gate House has become a co-ed residence identical to the other Upper Burwash houses. Notable residents of Gate House include Lester B. Pearson, former Prime Minister of Canada, and Simon Pulsifer, who *Time* magazine nicknamed \"The Duke of Data\" for his contributions to Wikipedia. During its 93 years as a men\'s residence, Gate House developed a distinct character and reputation. These antics included pranks, toga parties, streaking, caroling to other residences, hazing rituals, \"beer bashes\" and \"incessant pounding\" on the Gate House table in the dining hall. Paul Gooch wrote that these traditions gave Gate House an \"ethos\" that contradicted his vision of residence life. The all-male Gate House was known as a social centre and spirited, tight-knit community. According to Grayson Lee, who created the snow penis sculpture in 2007, most of its residents were \"heartbroken\" to leave. Former Gate House President Dave Ruhl commented that \"the Gate House camaraderie is unique\" and that living there was \"one of the most important parts of the university experience\" for many. The Reuters news agency nicknamed Gate House \"U of T\'s Animal House\" because Donald Sutherland\'s memories of its parties are said to have influenced the script of the 1978 movie. The Toronto Star described Gooch\'s decision to put an end to its traditions, activities and distinguishing characteristics as \"neutering Animal House.\" Gate House has three floors which house 28 students, as well as a don and the Victoria College Residence Life Co-ordinator. Above the gate there is a tower that rises three stories higher and has a turret-style roof. The **first floor** has one double room and one bathroom available to students. About half of the floor is taken up by the apartment of the Residence Life Coordinator. Lastly, on the first floor there is a house common room with a kitchen and two couches.[1](http://www.vicu.utoronto.ca/Assets/Victoria/assets/Upper_Burwash_1st_Floor_10571_579514.jpg?method=1)`{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}`{=mediawiki}`{{cbignore|bot=medic}}`{=mediawiki} The **second floor** has three double rooms and seven single rooms. It has three single washrooms and one larger communal one, as well as its own kitchen. This floor is home to the residence don, who has a larger room with a private washroom. The **third floor** is identical to the second except that in place of the don\'s room there are two single rooms.[2](http://www.vicu.utoronto.ca/Assets/Victoria/assets/Upper_Burwash_2nd_and_3rd_Floor_10570_797531.jpg?method=1)`{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}`{=mediawiki} ### South House {#south_house} Adjoining St. Mary\'s Arch and Lower Houses, South House is the furthest Upper House from Burwash Dining Hall. The emblem of the house is a sphinx, which was originally used to represent Victoria\'s Faculty of Law, established in 1860.
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# Burwash Hall ## Lower Houses {#lower_houses} The Lower Houses, originally the *Emmanuel College Residences,* were intended to house theology students at Emmanuel College, whose current building was opened the same year. **Ryerson House** (renamed to **First House** in 2021), **Nelles House**, **Caven House**, **Bowles-Gandier House** are now mostly home to undergraduate arts and science students. One story lower than the Upper Houses, they consist of four floors in order to reach the same height. All five houses are connected underground via the basement. The lower houses have only been partially upgraded. Before the renovations the entire building was exclusively male, but now every house is co-ed. The Lower Houses each have four floors, but are much narrower with each level having only four rooms. Each level also has its own kitchen, but these are much smaller than in the Upper Houses. The Lower Houses do have far larger and better fitted common rooms that are similar to the ones the Upper Houses had before the renovations. The rooms in the Lower Houses are also considered more luxurious with hardwood floors and large sizes. Rooms in the Lower Houses are more expensive, however. Until 2003 the Lower Houses were restricted to upper year students but with the double cohort of graduates from Ontario schools many of the rooms were transformed into doubles and now hold first years. There is typically one upper-year Residence Don for First, Nelles, and Caven House, and a second upper-year Residence Don for Bowles-Gandier House. ### First House (Ryerson House) {#first_house_ryerson_house} First House connects the Upper and Lower Houses, and was originally named after the first principal of Victoria College, Egerton Ryerson. The house was renamed for the 2021--2022 school year, after an investigation into the legacy of Ryerson and his role in the Canadian residential school system. The Victoria University Students\' Administrative Council initially called for a renaming in February 2019, which was followed by the Victoria University Research Panel on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2020, and ultimately the Presidential Report on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2021 which resulted in the change. Although the house had been named *Ryerson* since 1933, all five Lower Houses were temporarily named First House, Second House, Third House, Fourth House, and Fifth House from 1931 until 1933. The Board of Regents used these placeholder names until they decided upon better alternatives. In 2021, the name of Ryerson House was reverted to its original title, First House. ### Nelles House {#nelles_house} Named for Victoria principal, president, and chancellor Samuel S. Nelles, Nelles House echoes the position of Middle House amongst the Upper Houses. Like Middle, Nelles House sits between the first and third houses in the set. However, Nelles is the exact same size and shape as Ryerson and Caven House. ### Caven House {#caven_house} The only Lower House to not be named after a Victoria College student or administrator, Caven House comes from presbyterian minister William Caven, the second principal of Knox College, Toronto. Although he was not directly involved with the affairs of Victoria, he consulted President Nathanael Burwash and Rev. Alfred Gandier about the division of Arts and Theology at Victoria. After great discussion, this spawned Emmanuel College, Victoria\'s Faculty of Theology. Since the Lower Houses were originally built for Emmanuel students, it is likely that this is the reason for naming the House after William Caven. ### Bowles-Gandier House {#bowles_gandier_house} #### Name Bowles House is named after Victoria president and chancellor Richard Pinch Bowles, the first-cousin once-removed of Lester B. Pearson. Gandier House is named after Alfred Gandier, the first principal of Emmanuel College. #### Exterior Design {#exterior_design} The last house in Burwash Hall has a unique style to the other three Lower Houses. Bowles-Gandier House, colloquially \"BG\", juts out on the West side of the Southern edge of Burwash Hall. Enclosing the residence structure along the property line where Victoria meets St. Michael\'s College, the house forms an L shape with the other three Lower Houses. #### Interior Layout {#interior_layout} Unlike Ryerson, Nelles, and Caven House---which are all identical in layout---Bowles-Gandier is an amalgamation of Gandier House and Bowles House, which operated independently until the 1995 renovations. The floor plan for Bowles-Gandier varies from the other Lower Houses, with a significantly larger common room and two triple-bedrooms on the main floor: each with an in-suite kitchen and bathroom. The Bowles and Gandier stairwells are connected by a hallway on the second, third, and fourth floors. Each of these floors has a shared kitchen, and two bedrooms at the end of each hall with a connected bathroom, much like the other Lower Houses. They also have two double-rooms in the middle of the hall, which have a connected bathroom and kitchen, meaning BG has the highest kitchen-to-student ratio in Burwash. Bowles-Gandier is sometimes referred to as the Vic One House, since it is mostly reserved for students in the Vic One program. While not a requirement to live in BG, it has historically consisted of many Vic One students
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# Behistun Inscription The **Behistun Inscription** (also **Bisotun**, **Bisitun** or **Bisutun**; *بیستون*, Old Persian: **Bagastana**, meaning \"the place of god\") is a multilingual Achaemenid royal inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great (`{{reign|522|486|era=BC}}`{=mediawiki}). It was important to the decipherment of cuneiform, as it is the longest known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian). Authored by Darius the Great sometime between his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the death of Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire. The inscription states in detail that the rebellions were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed himself king during the upheaval following Cambyses II\'s death. Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the \"grace of Ahura Mazda\". The inscription is approximately 15 m high by 25 m wide and 100 m up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana, respectively). The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 260 lines in eight columns, and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. A copy of the text in Aramaic, written during the reign of Darius II, was found in Egypt. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius I, the Great, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying supine before him. The supine figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. A Faravahar floats above, giving its blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was Darius\'s beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead. ## Name The name Behistun is derived from usage in Ancient Greek and Arabic sources, particularly Diodorus Siculus and Ya\'qubi, transliterated into English in the 19th century by Henry Rawlinson. The modern Persian version name is Bisotun. ## History After the fall of the Persian Empire\'s Achaemenid Dynasty and its successors, and the lapse of Old Persian cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten, and fanciful explanations became the norm. thumb\|upright=1.5\|Context of the inscription (centre) in 2010. A person is visible in the lower left; reaching the inscription requires climbing the steep cliff face in front of them, then traversing a narrow ledge. In 1598, Englishman Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to Safavid Persia on behalf of Austria, and brought it to the attention of Western European scholars. His party incorrectly came to the conclusion that it was Christian in origin. French General Gardanne thought it showed \"Christ and his twelve apostles\", and Sir Robert Ker Porter thought it represented the Lost Tribes of Israel and Shalmaneser of Assyria. In 1604, Italian explorer Pietro della Valle visited the inscription and made preliminary drawings of the monument. ## Translation efforts {#translation_efforts} `{{see also|Decipherment of cuneiform}}`{=mediawiki} German surveyor Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 for Frederick V of Denmark, publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1778. Niebuhr\'s transcriptions were used by Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802, after realizing that unlike the Semitic cuneiform scripts, Old Persian text is alphabetic and each word is separated by a vertical slanted symbol. In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson, an officer of the British East India Company army assigned to the forces of the Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisotun\'s name was anglicized as \"Behistun\" at this time, the monument became known as the \"Behistun Inscription\". Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff with the help of a local boy and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four meters above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later. In 1847, he was able to send a full and accurate copy to Europe.
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# Behistun Inscription ## Later research and activity {#later_research_and_activity} The site was visited by the American linguist A. V. Williams Jackson in 1903. Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the British Museum and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the University of Michigan, obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson. It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text was inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text. In 1938, the inscription became of interest to the Nazi German think tank Ahnenerbe, although research plans were cancelled due to the onset of World War II. The monument later suffered some damage from Allied soldiers using it for target practice in World War II, and during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. In 1999, Iranian archeologists began the documentation and assessment of damages to the site incurred during the 20th century. Malieh Mehdiabadi, who was project manager for the effort, described a photogrammetric process by which two-dimensional photos were taken of the inscriptions using two cameras and later transmuted into 3-D images. In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works. The site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006. In 2012, the Bisotun Cultural Heritage Center organized an international effort to re-examine the inscription. ## Content ### Lineage In the first section of the inscription, Darius the Great declares his ancestry and lineage: ### Territories Darius also lists the territories under his rule: ### Conflicts and revolts {#conflicts_and_revolts} Later in the inscription, Darius provides an eye-witness account of battles he successfully fought over a one-year period to put down rebellions which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great, and his son Cambyses II: Behistun Relief, Assina.jpg\|`{{center|Relief of [[ššina]] {{circa|519 BC}}: "This is ššina. He lied, saying ''"I am king of [[Elam]]."''"<ref name=DB>{{cite book|title=Behistun, minor inscriptions DBb inscription- Livius|url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-inscriptions/|access-date=2020-03-26|archive-date=2020-03-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310112440/https://www.livius.org/sources/content/behistun-persian-text/behistun-minor-inscriptions/|url-status=live}}</ref>}}`{=mediawiki} Behistun Relief Nidintu-Bêl.jpg\|`{{center|Relief of [[Nidintu-Bêl]]: "This is Nidintu-Bêl. He lied, saying ''"I am [[Nebuchadnezzar III|Nebuchadnezzar]], the son of [[Nabonidus]]. I am king of [[Babylon]]."''"<ref name=DB/>}}`{=mediawiki} Behistun Relief, Tritantaechmes.jpg\|Relief of Tritantaechmes: \"This is Tritantaechmes. He lied, saying *\"I am king of Sagartia, from the family of Cyaxares.\"*\" Behistun relief Arakha.jpg\|Relief of Arakha: \"This is Arakha. He lied, saying: *\"I am Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabonidus. I am king in Babylon.\"*\" Behistun relief Frada.jpg\|Relief of Frâda: \"This is Frâda. He lied, saying *\"I am king of Margiana.\"*\" Behistun relief Skunkha.jpg\|Behistun relief of Skunkha. Label: \"This is Skunkha the Sacan.\" ## Other historical monuments in the Behistun complex {#other_historical_monuments_in_the_behistun_complex} The site covers an area of 116 hectares. Archeological evidence indicates that this region became a human shelter 40,000 years ago. There are 18 historical monuments other than the inscription of Darius the Great in the Behistun complex that have been registered in the Iranian national list of historical sites. Some of them are: - Hunters\' cave - Farhād Tarāsh - Median fortress - Parthian town - Statue of Hercules in Behistun - Parthian site of worship ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Behistun Palace (said to be Palace of Khosrau II) - Ilkhanid caravanserai - Median temple - Bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia - Bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment - Safavid caravanserai - Vologases\'s relief - Carved Sassanian stones - Royal Road Image:Seleucid statue of Hercules 2.jpg\|Statue of Herakles in Behistun complex <File:Heracles> Behistun 4000762965 10dbfce20a.jpg\|Herakles at Behistun, sculpted for a Seleucis Governor in 148 BC. Image:Godarz.jpg\|Bas relief of Mithridates II of Parthia and bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia and Sheikh Ali khan Zangeneh text endowment <File:Behistun>, Parthian relief of Gotarzes II.jpg\|Damaged equestrian relief of Gotarzes II at Behistun <File:نقش> برجسته بلاش 1.JPG\|Vologases\'s relief in Behistun ## Similar reliefs and inspiration {#similar_reliefs_and_inspiration} *Main article: Anubanini rock relief* The Anubanini rock relief, also called Sarpol-i Zohab, of the Lullubi king Anubanini, dated to c. 2300 BC, and which is located not far from the Behistun reliefs at Sarpol-e Zahab, is very similar to the reliefs at Behistun. The attitude of the ruler, the trampling of an enemy, the lines of prisoners are all very similar, to such extent that it was said that the sculptors of the Behistun Inscription had probably seen the Anubanini relief beforehand and were inspired by it. The Lullubian reliefs were the model for the Behistun reliefs of Darius the Great. The inscriptional tradition of the Achaemenids, starting especially with Darius I, is thought to have derived from the traditions of Elam, Lullubi, the Babylonians and the Assyrians
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# Baralong incidents The ***Baralong*** **incidents** were two incidents during the First World War in August and September 1915, involving the Royal Navy Q-ship `{{HMS|Baralong}}`{=mediawiki} and two German U-boats. *Baralong* sank `{{SMU|U-27|Germany|2}}`{=mediawiki}, which had been attacking a nearby merchant ship, the *Nicosian*. About a dozen of the crewmen managed to escape from the sinking submarine and Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of *Baralong*, ordered the survivors to be fired on. All the survivors of *U-27*{{\'}}s sinking, including several who had reached the *Nicosian*, were shot by *Baralong*{{\'}}s crew and attached marines. Later, *Baralong* under command of Andrew Wilmot-Smith sank `{{SMU|U-41|Germany|2}}`{=mediawiki} in an incident which has also been described as a British war crime. ## First incident {#first_incident} ### Action of 19 August 1915 {#action_of_19_august_1915} After the sinking of `{{RMS|Lusitania}}`{=mediawiki} by a German submarine in May 1915, Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of *Baralong*, was visited by two officers of the Admiralty\'s Secret Service branch at the naval base at Queenstown, Ireland. He was told, \"This *Lusitania* business is shocking. Unofficially, we are telling you\... take no prisoners from U-boats.\" Interviews with his subordinate officers have established Herbert\'s undisciplined manner of commanding his ship. Herbert allowed his men to engage in drunken binges during shore leave. During one such incident, at Dartmouth, several members of *Baralong*{{\'}}s crew were arrested after destroying a local pub. Herbert paid their bail, then left port with the bailed crewmen aboard. Beginning in April 1915, Herbert ordered his subordinates to cease calling him \"Sir\", and to address him only by the pseudonym \"Captain William McBride\". Throughout the summer of 1915, *Baralong* continued routine patrol duties in the Irish Sea without encountering the enemy. On 19 August 1915, `{{SMU|U-24||2}}`{=mediawiki} sank the White Star Liner `{{SS|Arabic|1902|6}}`{=mediawiki} with the loss of 44 lives -- this included three Americans and resulted in a diplomatic incident between Germany and the United States. *Baralong*{{\'}}s crew was infuriated by the attack. Meanwhile, about 70 nmi south of Queenstown, `{{SMU|U-27|Germany|2}}`{=mediawiki}, commanded by *Kapitänleutnant* Bernd Wegener, stopped the British steamer *Nicosian* with a warning shot in accordance with cruiser rules. The ship was carrying 354 American mules earmarked for the British Army in France. The Germans allowed the freighter\'s crew and passengers to board lifeboats, and prepared to sink the freighter with the U-boat\'s deck gun. However, *Nicosian* had sent out SOS messages about her plight. Gibson and Prendergast claim that these messages were still being sent from the ship when *Baralong* arrived, implying that at least some crew were still on board while *U-27* commenced shelling. Halpern equivocates on the issue: they may or may not all have abandoned ship by that time. The messages also told *Baralong*, inaccurately, that a second submarine was present. *U-27* was lying off *Nicosian*{{\'}}s port quarter and firing into it when *Baralong* appeared on the scene, flying the ensign of the United States as a false flag. When she was half a mile away, *Baralong* ran up a signal flag indicating that she was going to rescue *Nicosian*{{\'}}s crew. Wegener acknowledged the signal, then ordered his men to cease firing, and took *U-27* along the port side of *Nicosian* to intercept *Baralong*. As the submarine disappeared behind the steamship, Herbert steered *Baralong* on a parallel course along *Nicosian*{{\'}}s starboard side. Before *U-27* came round *Nicosian*{{\'}}s bow, *Baralong* hauled down the American flag, hoisted the Royal Navy\'s White Ensign, and unmasked her guns. As *U-27* came into view from behind *Nicosian*, *Baralong* began shooting with its three 12-pounder guns at a range of 600 yd, firing 34 rounds. *U-27* rolled over and began to sink. According to Tony Bridgland; > Herbert screamed, \"Cease fire!\" But his men\'s blood was up. They were avenging the *Arabic* and the *Lusitania*. For them this was no time to cease firing, even as the survivors of the crew appeared on the outer casing, struggling out of their clothes to swim away from her. There was a mighty hiss of compressed air from her tanks and the *U-27* vanished from sight in a vortex of giant rumbling bubbles, leaving a pall of smoke over the spot where she had been. It had taken only a few minutes to fire the thirty-four shells into her. Meanwhile, *Nicosian*{{\'}}s crew were cheering from the lifeboats. Captain Manning was heard to yell, \"If any of those bastard Huns come up, lads, hit \'em with an oar!\" Twelve men survived the sinking of the submarine: the crews of her two deck guns and those who had been on the conning tower. They swam to *Nicosian* and attempted to climb up its hanging lifeboat falls and pilot ladder. Herbert claimed in his report to the Admiralty to have been worried that the German survivors might try to scuttle the steamer as an explanation for why he ordered his men to open fire with small arms. Between four and six managed to get on board. Wegener is described by some accounts as being shot while trying to swim to the *Baralong*, in other accounts he boarded the ship. Herbert was told by the *Nicosian*{{\'}}s master that the crew of the vessel kept weapons aboard in the chart room. He then sent *Baralong*{{\'}}s 12 Royal Marines, commanded by a Corporal Collins, to find the surviving German sailors aboard *Nicosian*. As they departed, Herbert ordered Collins, \"Take no prisoners.\" The Germans were discovered in the engine room and shot on sight. According to Sub-Lieutenant Gordon Charles Steele: \"Wegener ran to a cabin on the upper deck -- I later found out it was Manning\'s bathroom. The marines broke down the door with the butts of their rifles, but Wegener squeezed through a scuttle and dropped into the sea. He still had his life-jacket on and put up his arms in surrender. Corporal Collins, however, took aim and shot him through the head.\" Corporal Collins later recalled that, after Wegener\'s death, Herbert threw a revolver in the dead German captain\'s face and screamed, \"What about the *Lusitania*, you bastard!\" An alternative allegation by the Admiralty is that the Germans who boarded *Nicosian* were killed by the freighter\'s engine room staff; this report apparently came from the officer commanding the muleteers. ### Aftermath In Herbert\'s report to the Admiralty, he stated he feared the survivors from the U-boat\'s crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the Royal Marines on his ship to shoot the survivors. If they had scuttled the freighter, it could have been considered as negligence on the part of Herbert. Moments before *Baralong* began its attack, the submarine was firing on the freighter. It is not known if the escaping sailors actually intended to scuttle the freighter. The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert\'s report, immediately ordered its suppression, but the strict censorship imposed on the event failed when Americans who had witnessed the incident from *Nicosian*{{\'}}s lifeboats spoke to newspaper reporters after their return to the United States.
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# Baralong incidents ## First incident {#first_incident} ### German memorandum {#german_memorandum} The German government delivered a memorandum on the incident via the American ambassador in Berlin, who received it on 6 December 1915. In it, they cited six US citizens as witnesses, stating they had made sworn depositions regarding the incident before notaries public in the USA. The statements said that five survivors from *U-27* managed to board *Nicosian*, while the rest were shot and killed on Herbert\'s orders while clinging to the merchant vessel\'s lifeboat falls. It was further stated that when Herbert ordered his Marines to board *Nicosian*, he gave the order \"take no prisoners\". Four German sailors were found in *Nicosian*{{\'}}s engine room and propeller shaft tunnel, and were killed. According to the witness statements, *U-27*{{\'}}s commander was shot while swimming towards *Baralong*. The memorandum demanded that the captain and crew of *Baralong* be tried for the murder of unarmed German sailors, threatening to \"take the serious decision of retribution for an unpunished crime\". Sir Edward Grey replied through the American ambassador that the incident could be grouped together with three \"German crimes\" that also took place within 48 hours: the Germans\' sinking of SS *Arabic*, their attack on a stranded British submarine on the neutral Danish coast, and their attack on the crew of the steamship *Ruel* after they had abandoned ship, and suggested that they be placed before a tribunal composed of US Navy officers. This was rejected by German authorities. ### German reaction {#german_reaction} A debate took place in the *Reichstag* on 15 January 1916, where the incident was described as a \"cowardly murder\" and Grey\'s note as being \"full of insolence and arrogance\". It was announced that reprisals had been decided, but not what they would be. Meanwhile, the Military Bureau for the Investigation of Violations of the Laws of War (*Militäruntersuchungstelle für Verletzungen des Kriegsrechts*) added *Baralong*{{\'}}s commanding officer, whose name was known only as \"Captain William McBride\", to the Prussian Ministry of War\'s \"Black List of Englishmen who are Guilty of Violations of the Laws of War vis-à-vis Members of the German Armed Forces\". A German medal was issued commemorating the event. As a precaution to protect the ships against any reprisals against their crews, in October 1915 HMS *Baralong* was renamed HMS *Wyandra* and transferred to the Mediterranean. *Baralong*{{\'}}s name was deleted from Lloyd\'s Register. In 1916 *Wyandra* returned to the Ellerman & Bucknall Line under the name *Manica*. *Nicosian* was renamed *Nevisian*, and the crew was issued new Discharge Books, with the voyage omitted. *Baralong*{{\'}}s crew were later awarded £185 prize bounty for sinking *U-27*.
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# Baralong incidents ## Second incident {#second_incident} ### Action of 24 September 1915 {#action_of_24_september_1915} On 24 September 1915, *Baralong* sank the U-boat `{{SMU|U-41|Germany|2}}`{=mediawiki}, for which its commanding officer at the time, Lieutenant-Commander Andrew Wilmot-Smith was awarded the DSO, the engineer J. M. Dowie the DSC, and two of the crew received a DSM. A bounty of £1,000 was also awarded. Wilmot-Smith, was later awarded £170 prize bounty by the Prize Court. *U-41* was in the process of sinking SS *Urbino* with gunfire when *Baralong*, which had set out from Falmouth the day before, arrived on the scene, flying an American flag. *Baralong* followed U-41\'s instructions while at the same time manoevring to 700 yards and an angle where her guns could fire. *Baralong* opened fire with starboard and rear guns, marines aiding with rifle fire. The conning tower was struck killing the captain and six crew, and other shots struck the hull. *U-41* began to list then dived. It abruptly resurfaced and only two crew escaped (a wounded *Leutnant* and the helmsman) from a hatch before it sank again. The two crew and the crew of the *Urbino* were picked up by *Baralong* before it returned to Falmouth the following morning. When *U-41* surfaced near *Baralong*, the latter allegedly opened fire while continuing to fly the American flag, and sank the U-boat. ### Aftermath of the second incident {#aftermath_of_the_second_incident} Unlike the neutral Americans in the first incident, the only witnesses to the second attack were the German and British sailors present. *Oberleutnant zur See* Iwan Crompton, after returning to Germany from a prisoner-of-war camp, reported that *Baralong* had run down the lifeboat he was in; he leapt clear and was soon afterward taken aboard *Baralong*. The British crew denied that they had run down the lifeboat. Crompton later published an account of *U-41*{{\'}}s exploits in 1917, *U-41: der zweite Baralong-Fall*, which termed the sinking of *U-41* a \"second Baralong case\". The event was also commemorated by a propaganda medal designed by the German engraver Karl Goetz. This was one of many medals that were popular in Germany from about 1910 to 1940
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# Bob Young (businessman) **Robert Young** (born 1953/1954) is a businessman who is best known for founding Red Hat Inc., the open source software company. He owns the franchises for Forge FC of the Canadian Premier League as well as the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League for which he is self-styled caretaker of the team. ## Early life {#early_life} He was born in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario. He received a Bachelor of Arts from Victoria College at the University of Toronto. ## Career Prior to Red Hat, Young built a couple of computer rental and leasing businesses, including founding Vernon Computer Rentals in 1984. Descendants of Vernon are still operating under that name. After leaving Vernon, Young founded the ACC Corp Inc. in 1993. Marc Ewing and Young co-founded open-source software company Red Hat. Red Hat was a member of the S&P 500 Index before being purchased by IBM on July 9, 2019. Marc Ewing and Young\'s partnership started in 1994 when ACC acquired the Red Hat trademarks from Ewing. In early 1995, ACC changed its name to Red Hat Software, which has subsequently been shortened to simply Red Hat, Inc. Young was Red Hat\'s CEO until 1999. In 2002, Young founded Lulu.com, a print-on-demand, self-publishing company, and was CEO. In 2006, Young established the Lulu Blooker Prize, a book prize for books that began as blogs. He launched the prize partly as a means to promote Lulu. Young was CEO of PrecisionHawk, a commercial drone technology company, from 2015 to 2017. Prior to being named PrecisionHawk\'s CEO in 2015, he was an early investor in the company. He continues on its board as chairman. Young also co-founded *Linux Journal* in 1994, and in 2003, he purchased the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League. In 2022, he sold minority stakes in the Tiger-Cats to Jim Lawson, team President Scott Mitchell, and American steel manufacturer Stelco. Young focuses his philanthropic efforts on access to information and advancement of knowledge. In 1999, he co-founded The Center for the Public Domain. Young has supported the Creative Commons, Public Knowledge.org, the Dictionary of Old English, Loran Scholarship Foundation, ibiblio.org, and the NCSU eGames, among others
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# Biosphere The **biosphere** (`{{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|βίος}}'' ({{grc-transl|βίος}})|life||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}`{=mediawiki}), also called the **ecosphere** (`{{etymology|grc|''{{Wikt-lang|grc|οἶκος}}'' ({{grc-transl|οἶκος}})|settlement, house||''{{Wikt-lang|grc|σφαῖρα}}'' ({{grc-transl|σφαῖρα}})|sphere}}`{=mediawiki}), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs. Regarding energy, it is an open system, with photosynthesis capturing solar energy at a rate of around 100 terawatts. By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis (life created naturally from `{{Nowrap|non-living}}`{=mediawiki} matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago. In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as `{{Nowrap|[[Biosphere 2]]}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{Nowrap|[[BIOS-3]]}}`{=mediawiki}, and potentially ones on other planets or moons. ## Origin and use of the term {#origin_and_use_of_the_term} The term \"biosphere\" was coined in 1875 by geologist Eduard Suess, who defined it as the place on Earth\'s surface where life dwells. While the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both Charles Darwin and Matthew F. Maury on the Earth sciences. The biosphere\'s ecological context comes from the 1920s (see Vladimir I. Vernadsky), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term \"ecosystem\" by Sir Arthur Tansley (see ecology history). Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and Earth sciences. ### Narrow definition {#narrow_definition} Geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the \"biomass\" or \"biota\" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being *geosphere*, *hydrosphere*, and *atmosphere*. When these four component spheres are combined into one system, it is known as the ecosphere. This term was coined during the 1960s and encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet. The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined *biospherics* as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth\'s biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres---for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere---as part of the topic of biospherics.
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# Biosphere ## Earth\'s biosphere {#earths_biosphere} ### Overview Currently, the total number of living cells on the Earth is estimated to be 10^30^; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 10^40^, and the total number for the entire time of a habitable planet Earth as 10^41^. This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 10^24^, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth; but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 10^82^; and the estimated total number of stars in an inflationary universe (observed and unobserved), as 10^100^. ### Age The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia. More recently, in 2015, \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. In 2017, putative fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting \"an almost instantaneous emergence of life\" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth \... then it could be common in the universe.\" ### Extent Every part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the equator, features life of some kind. Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth\'s terrestrial surface and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called \"uninhabitable zones\" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface. The actual thickness of the biosphere on Earth is difficult to measure. Birds typically fly at altitudes as high as 1800 m and fish live as much as 8372 m underwater in the Puerto Rico Trench. There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: Rüppell\'s vulture has been found at altitudes of 11300 m; bar-headed geese migrate at altitudes of at least 8300 m; yaks live at elevations as high as 5400 m above sea level; mountain goats live up to 3050 m. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs. Life forms live in every part of the Earth\'s biosphere, including soil, hot springs, inside rocks at least 12 mi deep underground, and at least 40 mi high in the atmosphere. Marine life under many forms has been found in the deepest reaches of the world ocean while much of the deep sea remains to be explored. Under certain test conditions, microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 × 10^17^ g. The mass of prokaryote microorganisms---which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated eukaryote microorganisms---may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere mass, estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion tons). Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of 10000 m in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth\'s oceans. In fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the Challenger Deep, at depths of 11034 m. Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to 580 m below the sea floor under 2590 m of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States, as well as 2400 m beneath the seabed off Japan. Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than 5000 m into the Earth\'s crust in Sweden, from rocks between 65-75 °C. Temperature increases with increasing depth into the Earth\'s crust. The rate at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including the type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc. The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is 122 °C (*Methanopyrus kandleri* Strain 116). It is likely that the limit of life in the \"deep biosphere\" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. Earth\'s biosphere is divided into several biomes, inhabited by fairly similar flora and fauna. On land, biomes are separated primarily by latitude. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of plant and animal life. In contrast, most of the more populous biomes lie near the equator. ### Annual variation {#annual_variation} ## Artificial biospheres {#artificial_biospheres} Experimental biospheres, also called closed ecological systems, have been created to study ecosystems and the potential for supporting life outside the Earth. These include spacecraft and the following terrestrial laboratories: - Biosphere 2 in Arizona, United States, 3.15 acres (13,000 m^2^). - BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and BIOS-3 at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, in what was then the Soviet Union. - Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities), an experiment in Japan. - Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) at Autonomous University of Barcelona
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# Biosphere ## Extraterrestrial biospheres {#extraterrestrial_biospheres} No biospheres have been detected beyond the Earth; therefore, the existence of extraterrestrial biospheres remains hypothetical. The rare Earth hypothesis suggests they should be very rare, save ones composed of microbial life only. On the other hand, Earth analogs may be quite numerous, at least in the Milky Way galaxy, given the large number of planets. Three of the planets discovered orbiting TRAPPIST-1 could possibly contain biospheres. Given limited understanding of abiogenesis, it is currently unknown what percentage of these planets actually develop biospheres. Based on observations by the Kepler Space Telescope team, it has been calculated that provided the probability of abiogenesis is higher than 1 to 1000, the closest alien biosphere should be within 100 light-years from the Earth. It is also possible that artificial biospheres will be created in the future, for example with the terraforming of Mars
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# Biomedical engineering **Biomedical engineering** (**BME**) or **medical engineering** is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). BME also integrates the logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards. This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a clinical engineer. Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as MRI and EKG/ECG, regenerative tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical drugs including biopharmaceuticals. ## Subfields and related fields {#subfields_and_related_fields} ### Bioinformatics **Bioinformatics** is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data. Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis \"pipelines\" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in agricultural species), or differences between populations. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences. ### Biomechanics Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. ### Biomaterials A **biomaterial** is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems. As a science, **biomaterials** is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called **biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering**. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. ### Biomedical optics {#biomedical_optics} Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment. It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy, spectroscopy, and therapy. Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include *optical coherence tomography* (OCT), *fluorescence microscopy*, *confocal microscopy*, and *photodynamic therapy* (PDT). OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the *retina* in the eye or the *coronary arteries* in the heart. Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms. More recently, *adaptive optics* is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging. ### Tissue engineering {#tissue_engineering} Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of biotechnology -- which overlaps significantly with BME. One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) such as kidneys, livers, for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end. Several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct. ## Genetic engineering {#genetic_engineering} Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism\'s genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (*not a medical application*, but see biological systems engineering), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research. ### Neural engineering {#neural_engineering} Neural engineering (also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. Neural engineering can assist with numerous things, including the future development of prosthetics. For example, cognitive neural prosthetics (CNP) are being heavily researched and would allow for a chip implant to assist people who have prosthetics by providing signals to operate assistive devices.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Genetic engineering {#genetic_engineering} ### Pharmaceutical engineering {#pharmaceutical_engineering} Pharmaceutical engineering is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of chemical engineering, and pharmaceutical analysis. It may be deemed as a part of pharmacy due to its focus on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing better medicinal treatment.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Hospital and medical devices {#hospital_and_medical_devices} This is an *extremely broad category*---essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism. A medical device is intended for use in: - the diagnosis of disease or other conditions - in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants. Stereolithography is a practical example of *medical modeling* being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, of complex diseases. Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also *Regulation*): - Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common equipment. - Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes. - Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device\'s safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants. ### Medical imaging {#medical_imaging} Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of medical devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly \"view\" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means. Alternatively, navigation-guided equipment utilizes electromagnetic tracking technology, such as catheter placement into the brain or feeding tube placement systems. For example, ENvizion Medical\'s ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient\'s body contour, and a real-time view of the feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the GI tract. Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including: fluoroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography (PET), PET-CT scans, projection radiography such as X-rays and CT scans, tomography, ultrasound, optical microscopy, and electron microscopy. ### Medical implants {#medical_implants} An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g. artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents. ### Bionics Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different functions and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools. ### Biomedical sensors {#biomedical_sensors} In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention. Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower extremity trauma. The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.) under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Clinical engineering {#clinical_engineering} Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly. Their inherent focus on *practical* implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards *incremental*-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a \"bridge\" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering. Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also, see safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician. One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio. Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Rehabilitation engineering {#rehabilitation_engineering} **Rehabilitation engineering** is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications, hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community. While some rehabilitation engineers have master\'s degrees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty of Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers have an undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engineering. A Portuguese university provides an undergraduate degree and a master\'s degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility. Qualification to become a Rehab\' Engineer in the UK is possible via a University BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design & Technology Institute, Coventry University. The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote the inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation. ## Regulatory issues {#regulatory_issues} Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by devices to patients. For example, from 2008 to 2011, in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices classified as class I. According to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Class I recall is associated to \"a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death\" Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide. For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be 1), safe 2), effective and 3), applicable to all the manufactured devices. A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards, such as injury or death, in its intended use. Protective measures must be introduced on devices that are hazardous to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the use of it. A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use. Proof of effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device. The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device. This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle. The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical *devices, drugs, biologics, and combination* products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under 21 CFR 829 regulation. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for \"consumer\" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also \"medical\" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K \"clearance\" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market \"approval\" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices). In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the \"Conformity Assessment\" which is defined as \"the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European Medical Device Directive\". The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification. In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries. The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps. The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device. The technical file contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification. FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure. The Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles. The same standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide. In the European Union, there are certifying entities named \"Notified Bodies\", accredited by the European Member States. The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a CE marking, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and effective when used as intended, and, therefore, it can be marketed within the European Union area. The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the *optimal extent* of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments. ### RoHS II {#rohs_ii} Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The original EU legislation \"Restrictions of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices\" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in July 2011 and commonly known as RoHS 2. RoHS seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled. The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports -- or explain why they are lacking. For the first time, not only manufacturers but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Regulatory issues {#regulatory_issues} ### IEC 60601 {#iec_60601} The new International Standard IEC 60601 for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series. The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American agencies will only require these standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard. ### AS/NZS 3551:2012 {#asnzs_35512012} AS/ANS 3551:2012 is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices. The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g. Hospital). The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards. The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Training and certification {#training_and_certification} ### Education Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor\'s (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) or Master\'s (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a doctoral (Ph.D., or MD-PhD) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as *its own discipline* rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a \"pre-med\" major in preparation for medical school. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology. In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET. In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in biomedical engineering are common. For example, McMaster University offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering. The first Canadian undergraduate BME program was offered at University of Guelph as a four-year B.Eng. program. The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors\'s degree in biomedical engineering as is Flinders University. As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution\'s graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university\'s hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program. Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them. Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical device development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master\'s degree or apply to medical school afterwards. Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university\'s Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or *another engineering* discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or *life science* (plus certain engineering coursework). Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Training and certification {#training_and_certification} ### Licensure/certification As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered Professional Engineer (PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine. Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required. In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical engineering can gain Chartered Engineer status through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division. The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM. The Fundamentals of Engineering exam -- the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions---does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline\'s content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure. Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.
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# Biomedical engineering ## Career prospects {#career_prospects} In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022. Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions. Now as of 2023, there are 19,700 jobs for this degree, the average pay for a person in this field is around \$100,730.00 and making around \$48.43 an hour. There is also expected to be a 7% increase in jobs from here 2023 to 2033 (even faster than the last average). ## Notable figures {#notable_figures} - Julia Tutelman Apter (deceased) -- One of the first specialists in neurophysiological research and a founding member of the Biomedical Engineering Society - Earl Bakken (deceased) -- Invented the first transistorised pacemaker, co-founder of Medtronic. - Forrest Bird (deceased) -- aviator and pioneer in the invention of mechanical ventilators ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Y.C. Fung (deceased) -- professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern biomechanics - Leslie Geddes (deceased) -- professor emeritus at Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a National Medal of Technology in 2006 from President George Bush for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Willem Johan Kolff (deceased) -- pioneer of hemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs - Robert Langer -- Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - John Macleod (deceased) -- one of the co-discoverers of insulin at Case Western Reserve University. - Alfred E. Mann -- Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering. - J. Thomas Mortimer -- Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) - Robert M. Nerem -- professor emeritus at Georgia Institute of Technology. Pioneer in regenerative tissue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published works. His works have been cited more than 20,000 times cumulatively. - P. Hunter Peckham -- Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) - Nicholas A. Peppas -- Chaired Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology. - Robert Plonsey -- professor emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of electrophysiology ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - Otto Schmitt (deceased) -- biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics - Ascher Shapiro (deceased) -- Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons) - Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic -- University Professor at Columbia University, pioneer in tissue engineering and bioreactor design ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - John G. Webster -- professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin--Madison, a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals - Fred Weibell, coauthor of *Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements* - U.A
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# Bombay Sapphire **Bombay Sapphire** is a brand of gin that is distilled by the **Bombay Spirits Company**, a subsidiary company of Bacardi, at Laverstoke Mill in the village of Laverstoke in the English county of Hampshire. The brand was first launched in 1986 by English wine-merchant International Distillers & Vintners. In 1997 Diageo sold the brand to Bacardi. Its name originates from the gin and tonic popularised by the Royal Indian Armed Forces during the British Raj in colonial India; \"Bombay\" refers to the Indian city and \"Sapphire\" refers to the violet-blue Star of Bombay which was mined from British Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution. Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a picture of Queen Victoria on the label. The flavouring of the drink comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: almond, lemon peel, liquorice, juniper berries, orris root, angelica, coriander, cassia, cubeb, and grains of paradise. Alcohol brought in from another supplier is evaporated three times using a carterhead still, and the alcohol vapours are passed through a mesh/basket containing the ten botanicals to gain flavour and aroma. This is felt to give the gin a lighter, more floral taste compared to gins created using a copper pot still. Water from Lake Vyrnwy, a reservoir in Powys, Wales is added to bring the strength of Bombay Sapphire down to 40.0% (UK, the Nordics, several continental European markets, Canada and Australia). The 47.0% version is the standard for sale at duty-free shops in all markets. ## Production Until 2013, production and bottling of Bombay Sapphire was contracted out by Bacardi to G&J Greenall in Warrington, Cheshire. However, in 2011, plans were announced to move the manufacturing process to a new facility at Laverstoke Mill in Laverstoke, Hampshire. These plans included the restoration of the former Portal\'s paper mill at the proposed site and the construction of a visitor centre. Planning permission was granted in February 2012, and the centre opened to the public in the autumn of 2014. The visitor centre included a new construction by Thomas Heatherwick of two glasshouses for plants used as botanicals in the production of Bombay Sapphire gin. As part of the transfer of production, two of Greenall\'s stills were moved from Warrington to Laverstoke. After production was shifted to Laverstoke, bottling of the drink remained contracted out by G&J Greenall, with the undiluted gin being tankered to Warrington for dilution and bottling. Bottling has subsequently been shifted to Glasgow in Scotland. ## Varieties Bacardi also markets Bombay Original London Dry Gin (or Bombay Original Dry). Eight botanical ingredients are used in the production of the Original Dry variety, as opposed to the ten in Bombay Sapphire. *Wine Enthusiast* preferred it to Bombay Sapphire. In September 2011, Bombay Sapphire East was launched in test markets in New York and Las Vegas. This variety has another two botanicals, lemongrass and black peppercorns, in addition to the original ten. It is bottled at 42% and was designed to counteract the sweetness of most tonic water. A special edition of Bombay gin called Star of Bombay was produced in 2015 for the UK market. It is bottled at 47.5% and is distilled from grain. It features bergamot and ambrette seeds in harmony with Bombay\'s signature botanicals. This version has later been extended to several other markets. Bombay Bramble is a variety infused with blackberries and raspberries and bottled at 37.5% ABV. In the summer of 2019, Bacardi launched a limited edition gin called Bombay Sapphire English Estate, which features three additional English-sourced botanicals: Pennyroyal Mint, rosehip and hazelnut. It is bottled at 41%. ## Design connection {#design_connection} The brand started a series of design collaborations. Their first step into the design world was a series of advertisements featuring work from currently popular designers. Their works, varying from martini glasses to tiles and cloth patterns, are labelled as \"Inspired by Bombay Sapphire\". The campaign featured designers such as Marcel Wanders, Yves Béhar, Karim Rashid, Ulla Darni, and Dror Benshetrit and performance artist Jurgen Hahn. From the success of this campaign, the company began a series of events and sponsored locations. The best known is the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition, held each year, where design students worldwide can participate by designing their own \"inspired\" martini cocktail glass. The finalists (one from each participating country) are then invited to the yearly Salone del Mobile, an international design fair in Milan, where the winner is chosen. Bombay Sapphire also endorses glass artists and designers with the Bombay Sapphire Prize, which is awarded yearly to an outstanding design featuring glass. Bombay Sapphire also showcases the designers\' work in the Bombay Sapphire endorsed blue room, a design exhibition touring the world each year. From 2008 the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition final will be held at 100% Design in London, and the Bombay Sapphire Prize will take place in Milan at the Salone del Mobile.
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# Bombay Sapphire ## Evaluation Bombay Sapphire has been reviewed by several outside spirits ratings organisations to various degrees of success. Recently, it was awarded a score of 92 (on a 100-point scale) from the Beverage Testing Institute. Ratings aggregator Proof66.com categorizes the Sapphire as a Tier 2 spirit, indicating highly favourable \"expert\" reviews
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# Badtrans **BadTrans** is a malicious Microsoft Windows computer worm distributed by e-mail. Because of a known vulnerability in older versions of Internet Explorer (CVE-2001-0154), some email programs, such as Microsoft\'s Outlook Express and Microsoft Outlook programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed. Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host\'s machine, and installs a keystroke logger, which then captures everything typed on the affected computer. Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses. Among the e-mail addresses that received the keyloggers were free addresses at Excite, Yahoo, and IJustGotFired.com. The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving emails at 3:23pm on November 24, 2001. Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived. The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone. In mid-December, the FBI contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans. Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website, <https://web.archive.org/web/20070621140432/https://badtrans.monkeybrains.net/> for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised. The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data
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# Bolventor **Bolventor** (*Bedhashardh*) is a hamlet on Bodmin Moor in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated in Altarnun civil parish between Launceston and Bodmin. ## Toponymy The hamlet has been said to take its name from the \"Bold Venture\" that it must have appeared to build a farm in this moorland, but this is probably folk etymology, as \"Bol-\" is a common prefix in Cornish placenames. It is much more likely that the name derives from the \'Bold Adventure\' tin-working area which was in operation near Jamaica Inn during the 1840s-1850s ## Jamaica Inn {#jamaica_inn} Bolventor is the location of the famous Jamaica Inn coaching inn. It is bypassed by a dual carriageway section of the A30 trunk road; before the bypass was built the hamlet straddled the A30 road. Daphne du Maurier, a former resident, chose Bolventor as the setting for her novel about Cornish smugglers titled *Jamaica Inn*. The inn that inspired the novel, Jamaica Inn, has stood beside the main road through the village since 1547. It is now a tourist attraction in its own right and dominates the hamlet. The Jamaica Inn was the subject of a paranormal investigation during a 2004 episode of reality television programme *Most Haunted*. ## Church The former Holy Trinity Church that lies to the east of the hamlet closed some years ago. A mile from Bolventor there was a chapel of St Luke (from the 13th to the early 16th century): the font is now at the church of Tideford. Bolventor parish was established in 1846 (before that date the village was in St Neot parish; the new parish was made up of parts of St Neot, Altarnun and Cardinham parishes) but has now been merged with Altarnun. ## 1945 air disaster {#air_disaster} On 14 September 1945 a Royal Air Force Handley Page Halifax Mk VII (PN305) was operating a flight from RAF Tarrant Rushton, Dorset, to Lajes Field, Azores, Portugal. During the flight an electrical failure occurred causing a dingy inside the wing to inflate dislodge from stowage. The dingy wrapped around the tail assembly and the aircraft went into a nose dive, crashing into the Priddacombe area of Bolventor. All 21 on board, seven crew and fourteen passengers, died in the crash
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# Roman Breviary The **Roman Breviary** (Latin: *Breviarium Romanum*) is a breviary of the Roman Rite in the Catholic Church. A liturgical book, it contains public or canonical prayers, hymns, the Psalms, readings, and notations for everyday use, especially by bishops, priests, and deacons in the Divine Office (i.e., at the canonical hours, the Christians\' daily prayer). The volume containing the daily hours of Catholic prayer was published as the *Breviarium Romanum* (Roman Breviary) from its *editio princeps* in 1568 under Pope Pius V until the reforms of Paul VI (1974), when replaced by the Liturgy of the Hours. In the course of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Pope Pius V (r. 1566--1572) imposed the use of the Roman Breviary, mainly based on the *Breviarium secundum usum Romanae Curiae*, on the Latin Church of the Catholic Church. Exceptions are the Benedictines and Dominicans, who have breviaries of their own, and two surviving local use breviaries: - the Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son; - the Ambrosian Breviary, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary usages, which they derive from St Ambrose. ## Origin of name {#origin_of_name} The Latin word *breviarium* generally signifies \"abridgement, compendium\". This wider sense has often been used by Christian authors, e.g. *Breviarium fidei, Breviarium in psalmos, Breviarium canonum, Breviarium regularum*. In liturgical language specifically, \"breviary\" (*breviarium*) has a special meaning, indicating a book furnishing the regulations for the celebration of Mass or the canonical Office, and may be met with under the titles *Breviarium Ecclesiastici Ordinis*, or *Breviarium Ecclesiæ Romanæ*. In the 9th century, Alcuin uses the word to designate an office abridged or simplified for the use of the laity. Prudentius of Troyes, about the same period, composed a *Breviarium Psalterii*. In an ancient inventory occurs *Breviarium Antiphonarii*, meaning \"Extracts from the Antiphonary\". In the *Vita Aldrici* occurs *sicut in plenariis et breviariis Ecclesiæ ejusdem continentur*. Again, in the inventories in the catalogues, such notes as these may be met with: *Sunt et duo cursinarii et tres benedictionales Libri; ex his unus habet obsequium mortuorum et unus Breviarius*, or, *Præter Breviarium quoddam quod usque ad festivitatem S. Joannis Baptistæ retinebunt*, etc. Monte Cassino in c. 1100 obtained a book titled *Incipit Breviarium sive Ordo Officiorum per totam anni decursionem*. From such references, and from others of a like nature, Quesnel gathers that by the word *Breviarium* was at first designated a book furnishing the rubrics, a sort of Ordo. The usage of \"breviary\" to mean a book containing the entire canonical office appears to date from the 11th century. Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073--1085) having abridged the order of prayers, and having simplified the Liturgy as performed at the Roman Court, this abridgment received the name of Breviary, which was suitable, since, according to the etymology of the word, it was an abridgment. The name has been extended to books which contain in one volume, or at least in one work, liturgical books of different kinds, such as the Psalter, the Antiphonary, the Responsoriary, the Lectionary, etc. In this connection it may be pointed out that in this sense the word, as it is used nowadays, is illogical; it should be named a Plenarium rather than a Breviarium, since, liturgically speaking, the word Plenarium exactly designates such books as contain several different compilations united under one cover.
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# Roman Breviary ## History ### Early history {#early_history} The canonical hours of the Breviary owe their remote origin to the Old Covenant when God commanded the Aaronic priests to offer morning and evening sacrifices. Other inspiration may have come from David\'s words in the Psalms \"Seven times a day I praise you\" (Ps. 119:164), as well as, \"the just man meditates on the law day and night\" (Ps. 1:2). Regarding Daniel \"Three times daily he was kneeling and offering prayers and thanks to his God\" (Dan. 6:10). In the early days of Christian worship the Sacred Scriptures furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited. The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office: the Antiphonarium, the Old and New Testaments, the *Passionarius (liber)* and the *Legendarius* (dealing respectively with martyrs and saints), the *Homiliarius* (homilies on the Gospels), the *Sermologus* (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides the *Psalterium* and the *Collectarium*. To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 9th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a *Breviarium Psalterii* made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies.
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# Roman Breviary ## History ### Medieval breviaries {#medieval_breviaries} The Breviary proper only dates from the 11th century; the earliest manuscript containing the whole canonical office is of the year 1099, and is in the Mazarin library. Gregory VII (pope 1073--1085), too, simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave his abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which from another point of view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did the collection of several works into one. There are several extant specimens of 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent III (pope 1198--1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly founded and active Franciscan order. These preaching friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX, adopted (with some modifications, e.g. the substitution of the \"Gallican\" for the \"Roman\" version of the Psalter) the Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries, Responsories), etc., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like that of Sarum. Finally, Nicholas III (pope 1277--1280) adopted this version both for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position secure. Before the rise of the mendicant orders (wandering friars) in the 13th century, the daily services were usually contained in a number of large volumes. The first occurrence of a single manuscript of the daily office was written by the Benedictine order at Monte Cassino in Italy in 1099. The Benedictines were not a mendicant order, but a stable, monastery-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period. The arrangement of the Psalms in the Rule of St. Benedict had a profound impact upon the breviaries used by secular and monastic clergy alike, until 1911 when Pope Pius X introduced his reform of the Roman Breviary. In many places, every diocese, order or ecclesiastical province maintained its own edition of the breviary. However, mendicant friars travelled frequently and needed a shortened, or abbreviated, daily office contained in one portable book, and single-volume breviaries flourished from the thirteenth century onwards. These abbreviated volumes soon became very popular and eventually supplanted the Catholic Church\'s Curia office, previously said by non-monastic clergy.
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# Roman Breviary ## History ### Early printed editions {#early_printed_editions} Before the advent of printing, breviaries were written by hand and were often richly decorated with initials and miniature illustrations telling stories in the lives of Christ or the saints, or stories from the Bible. Later printed breviaries usually have woodcut illustrations, interesting in their own right but with poor relation to the beautifully illuminated breviaries. The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to the notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford *Tracts for the Times*, since which time they have been much more studied, both for their own sake and for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book. Early printed Breviaries were locally distributed and quickly worn out by daily use. As a result, surviving copies are rare; of those editions which survive at all, many are known only by a single copy. In Scotland the only one which has survived the convulsions of the 16th century is *Aberdeen Breviary*, a Scottish form of the Sarum Office (the Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest against the jurisdiction claimed by the diocese of York), revised by William Elphinstone (bishop 1483--1514), and printed at Edinburgh by Walter Chapman and Androw Myllar in 1509--1510. Four copies have been preserved of it, of which only one is complete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for the Bannatyne Club by the munificence of the Duke of Buccleuch. It is particularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history of Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national saints. Though enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general use within the realm of Scotland, it was probably never widely adopted. The new Scottish *Proprium* sanctioned for the Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains many of the old Aberdeen collects and antiphons. The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used. The first edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; the latest at Paris, 1556, 1557. While modern Breviaries are nearly always printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the editions of the Sarum never exceeded two parts.
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# Roman Breviary ## History ### Early modern reforms {#early_modern_reforms} Until the Council of Trent (1545--1563) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, every bishop had full power to regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost everywhere. Each monastic community, also, had one of its own. Pope Pius V (r. 1566--1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at least 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other places. But the influence of the Roman rite has gradually gone much beyond this, and has superseded almost all the local uses. The Roman has thus become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese. The Roman Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536), which, though not accepted by Rome (it was approved by Clement VII and Paul III, and permitted as a substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V in 1568 excluded it as too short and too modern, and issued a reformed edition of the old Breviary, the *Breviarium Pianum* or \"Pian Breviary\"), formed the model for the still more thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the Breviary offices. Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez. The Pian Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V in 1588, who introduced the revised Vulgate, in 1602 by Clement VIII (through Baronius and Bellarmine), especially as concerns the rubrics, and by Urban VIII (1623--1644), a purist who altered the text of certain hymns. In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in France, and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that country. Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy (1603--1678), \"le dénicheur des saints\", and Louis Sébastien le Nain de Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led men to dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation of the saints. This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that all antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, which cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings. The services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use of the whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints\' day services) was made a reality. These reformed French Breviaries---e.g. the Paris Breviary of 1680 by Archbishop François de Harlay (1625--1695) and that of 1736 by Archbishop Charles-Gaspard-Guillaume de Vintimille du Luc (1655--1746)---show a deep knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different texts.
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# Roman Breviary ## History ### Later modern reforms {#later_modern_reforms} During the pontificate of Pius IX, a strong Ultramontane movement arose against the French breviaries of 1680 and 1736. This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its literary advocates were chiefly Prosper Guéranger, abbot of the Benedictine monastery Solesmes, and Louis Veuillot (1813--1883) of the *Univers*. The movement succeeded in suppressing the breviaries, the last diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875. The Jansenist and Gallican influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne, Münster, Mainz and other towns. Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV (pope 1740--1758), a special congregation collected much material for an official revision, but nothing was published. In 1902, under Leo XIII, a commission under the presidency of Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the breviary, the missal, the Roman Pontifical and the Roman Ritual. Significant changes came in 1910 with the reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X. This revision modified the traditional psalm scheme so that, while all 150 psalms were used in the course of the week, these were said without repetition. Those assigned to the Sunday office underwent the least revision, although noticeably fewer psalms are recited at Matins, and both Lauds and Compline are slightly shorter due to psalms (or in the case of Compline the first few verses of a psalm) being removed. Pius X was probably influenced by earlier attempts to eliminate repetition in the psalter, most notably the liturgy of the Benedictine congregation of St. Maur. However, since Cardinal Quignonez\'s attempt to reform the Breviary employed this principle---albeit with no regard to the traditional scheme---such notions had floated around in the western Church, and can particularly be seen in the Paris Breviary. Pope Pius XII introduced optional use of a new translation of the Psalms from the Hebrew to a more classical Latin. Most breviaries published in the late 1950s and early 1960s used this \"Pian Psalter\". Pope John XXIII also revised the Breviary in 1960, introducing changes drawn up by his predecessor Pope Pius XII. The most notable alteration is the shortening of most feasts from nine to three lessons at Matins, keeping only the Scripture readings (the former lesson i, then lessons ii and iii together), followed by either the first part of the patristic reading (lesson vii) or, for most feasts, a condensed version of the former second Nocturn, which was formerly used when a feast was reduced in rank and commemorated. ### Abrogation and subsequent reauthorization {#abrogation_and_subsequent_reauthorization} The Second Vatican Council, in his Constitution *Sacrosanctum Concilium*, asked the Pope for a comprehensive reform of the Hours. As a result, in 1970 the Breviary was replaced by the *Liturgy of the Hours*, which is divided into six different volumes: Advent, Christmas, Lent and Easter and two for the Ordinary Time; the new Hours were promulgated by Pope Paul VI in his apostolic constitution *Laudis canticum*. In his apostolic letter *Summorum Pontificum*, Pope Benedict XVI allowed clerics to fulfill their obligation of prayer using the 1962 edition of the Roman Breviary in lieu of the Liturgy of the Hours.
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# Roman Breviary ## Contents of the Roman Breviary {#contents_of_the_roman_breviary} At the beginning stands the usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary itself is divided into four seasonal parts---winter, spring, summer, autumn---and comprises under each part: 1. the Psalter; 2. *Proprium de Tempore* (the special office of the season); 3. *Proprium Sanctorum* (special offices of saints); 4. *Commune Sanctorum* (general offices for saints); 5. Extra Services. These parts are often published separately. ### The Psalter {#the_psalter} This psalm book is the very backbone of the Breviary, the groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have grown the antiphons, responsories and versicles. Until the 1911 reform, the psalms were arranged according to a disposition dating from the 8th century, as follows: Psalms 1--108, with some omissions, were recited at Matins, twelve each day from Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on Sunday. The omissions were said at Lauds, Prime and Compline. Psalms 109-147 (except 117, 118, and 142) were said at Vespers, five each day. Psalms 148-150 were always used at Lauds, and give that hour its name. The text of this Psalter is that commonly known as the Gallican. The name is misleading, for it is simply the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old *Itala* version originally used in Rome. Jerome\'s first revision of the *Itala* (A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter\'s in Rome, but the \"Gallican\", thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere else. The Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in the 7th century, and the English Church did so in the 10th. Following the 1911 reform, Matins was reduced to nine Psalms every day, with the other psalms redistributed throughout Prime, Terce, Sext, and Compline. For Sundays and special feasts Lauds and Vespers largely remained the same, Psalm 118 remained distributed at the Little Hours and Psalms 4, 90, and 130 were kept at Compline. ### The *Proprium de Tempore* {#the_proprium_de_tempore} This contains the office of the seasons of the Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only gradually grew up. There is here given the whole service for every Sunday and weekday, the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially the course of daily Scripture reading, averaging about twenty verses a day, and (roughly) arranged thus: - Advent: Isaiah - Epiphany to Septuagesima: Pauline Epistles - Lent: patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays) - Passiontide: Jeremiah - Easter to Pentecost: Acts, Catholic epistles and Revelation - Pentecost to August: Samuel and Kings - August to Advent: Wisdom books, Maccabees, Prophets ### The *Proprium Sanctorum* {#the_proprium_sanctorum} This contains the lessons, psalms and liturgical formularies for saints\' festivals, and depends on the days of the secular month. The readings of the second Nocturn are mainly hagiological biography, with homilies or papal documents for certain major feasts, particularly those of Jesus and Mary. Some of this material has been revised by Leo XIII, in view of archaeological and other discoveries. The third Nocturn consists of a homily on the Gospel which is read at that day\'s Mass. Covering a great stretch of time and space, they do for the worshipper in the field of church history what the Scripture readings do in that of biblical history. ### The *Commune Sanctorum* {#the_commune_sanctorum} This comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., for feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); e.g. apostles, martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary. These offices are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably in origin proper to individual saints. They contain passages of great literary beauty. The lessons read at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the Gospels, and together form a rough summary of theological instruction. ### Extra services {#extra_services} Here are found the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office for the Dead (obligatory on All Souls\' Day), and offices peculiar to each diocese.
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# Roman Breviary ## Elements of the Hours {#elements_of_the_hours} It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., that not only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the day being divided into liturgical \"hours.\" A detailed account of these will be found in the article Canonical Hours. Each of the hours of the office is composed of the same elements, and something must be said now of the nature of these constituent parts, of which mention has here and there been already made. They are: psalms (including canticles), antiphons, responsories, hymns, lessons, little chapters, versicles and collects. ### Psalms Before the 1911 reform, the multiplication of saints\' festivals, with practically the same festal psalms, tended to repeat the about one-third of the Psalter, with a correspondingly rare recital of the remaining two-thirds. Following this reform, the entire Psalter is again generally recited each week, with the festal psalms restricted to only the highest-ranking feasts. As in the Greek usage and in the Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.), the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. ii.), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.), the prayer of Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.) and other similar Old Testament passages, and, from the New Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis, are admitted as psalms. ### Antiphons The antiphons are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical, sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm. The term originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost this meaning in the Breviary. ### Responsories The responsories are similar in form to the antiphons, but come at the end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or congregation to the precentor who recited the psalm. ### Hymns The hymns are short poems going back in part to the days of Prudentius, Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th centuries), but mainly the work of medieval authors. ### Lessons The lessons, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible, the Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church. In the primitive church, books afterwards excluded from the canon were often read, e.g. the letters of Clement of Rome and the Shepherd of Hermas. In later days the churches of Africa, having rich memorials of martyrdom, used them to supplement the reading of Scripture. Monastic influence accounts for the practice of adding to the reading of a biblical passage some patristic commentary or exposition. Books of homilies were compiled from the writings of SS. Augustine, Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and others, and formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the ultimate compendium. In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for special days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading. The lessons are read at Matins (which is subdivided into three nocturns). ### Little chapters {#little_chapters} The little chapters are very short lessons read at the other \"hours.\" ### Versicles The versicles are short responsories used after the little chapters in the minor hours. They appear after the hymns in Lauds and Vespers. ### Collects The collects come at the close of the office and are short prayers summing up the supplications of the congregation. They arise out of a primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), examples of which are found in the Didachē (Teaching of the Apostles) and in the letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian. With the crystallization of church order, improvisation in prayer largely gave place to set forms, and collections of prayers were made which later developed into Sacramentaries and Orationals. The collects of the Breviary are largely drawn from the Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant idea of the festival in connection with which they happen to be used.
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# Roman Breviary ## Celebration Before 1910, the difficulty of harmonizing the *Proprium de Tempore* and the *Proprium Sanctorum*, to which reference has been made, was only partly met in the thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics. Additional help was given by a kind of Catholic Churchman\'s Almanack, called the *Ordo Recitandi Divini Officii*, published in different countries and dioceses, and giving, under every day, minute directions for proper reading. In 1960, John XXIII simplified the rubrics governing the Breviary in order to make it easier to use. Every cleric in Holy Orders, and many other members of religious orders, must publicly join in or privately read aloud (i.e. using the lips as well as the eyes---it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the Breviary services allotted for each day. In large churches where they were celebrated the services were usually grouped; e.g. Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 A.M.); Prime, Terce (High Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.); Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.); and from four to eight hours (depending on the amount of music and the number of high masses) are thus spent in choir. Lay use of the Breviary has varied throughout the Church\'s history. In some periods laymen did not use the Breviary as a manual of devotion to any great extent. The late Medieval period saw the recitation of certain hours of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, which was based on the Breviary in form and content, becoming popular among those who could read, and Bishop Challoner did much to popularise the hours of Sunday Vespers and Compline (albeit in English translation) in his *Garden of the Soul* in the eighteenth century. The Liturgical Movement in the twentieth century saw renewed interest in the Offices of the Breviary and several popular editions were produced, containing the vernacular as well as the Latin. The complete pre-Pius X Roman Breviary was translated into English (by the Marquess of Bute in 1879; new ed. with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French and German. Bute\'s version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the skilful renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H. Newman, J.M. Neale and others. Several editions of the Pius X Breviary were produced during the twentieth century, including a notable edition prepared with the assistance of the sisters of Stanbrook Abbey in the 1950s. Two editions in English and Latin were produced in the following decade, which conformed to the rubrics of 1960, published by Liturgical Press and Benziger in the United States. These used the Pius XII psalter. Baronius Press\'s revised edition of the Liturgical Press edition uses the older Gallican psalter of St. Jerome. This edition was published and released in 2012 for pre-orders only. In 2013, the publication has resumed printing and is available on Baronius\' website. Under Pope Benedict XVI\'s motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, Catholic bishops, priests, and deacons are again permitted to use the 1961 edition of the Roman Breviary, promulgated by Pope John XXIII to satisfy their obligation to recite the Divine Office every day. ### Online resources {#online_resources} In 2008, a website containing the Divine Office (both Ordinary and Extraordinary) in various languages, *i-breviary*, was launched, which combines the modern and ancient breviaries with the latest computer technology.
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# Roman Breviary ## Editions - 1482\. *Breviarium Romanum*. Albi, Johann Neumeister. - 1494\. *Breviarium Romanum*, Lyon, Perrinus Lathomi, Bonifacius Johannis & Johannes de Villa Veteri. - 1502, *Breviarium secundum comunem usus Romanum*, Paris, Thielman Kerver. - 1508\. *Breviarium secundum consuetudinem Romanam*. Paris, Jean Philippe Jean Botcholdic, Gherard Berneuelt. - 1509\. *Brevarium secundum ritum sacronsancte Romane ecclesie*, Lyon, Ettienne Baland, Martin Boillon - 1534\. *Breviarium Romanum*, Paris, Yolande Bonhomme. - 1535\. Quignonius Breviary : 1535\. *Breviarium Romanum Ex Decreto Sancrosancti Concilii Tridentini Restitutum \... editum et recognitum iuxta editionem venetiis* : 1536\. *Breviarium Romanum, nuper reformatum, in quo sacræ Scripturæ libri, probatæque Sanctorum historiæ eleganter beneque dispositæ leguntur; studio & labore Francisci Quignonii, Card. de licentia & facultate Pauli III. Pont. Max.*, Paris: Galliot du Pré, Jean Kerbriant, Jean Petit : 1537\. *Breviarium Romanum nuper reformatum*, Paris, Yolande Bonhomme. : [The second recension of the Quignon breviary](https://books.google.com/books?id=3A0NAAAAIAAJ) (ed. 1908) - 1570\. Pian Breviary (Pius V, Council of Trent) : 1570\. *Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, Pii V pontificis maximi jussu editum* [Rome, Paulus Manutius](https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10147678?page=5); Antwerp, Christophe Plantin. - 1629\. Urban VIII : 1698\. *Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, cum officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis; in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum.* : [pars Autumnalis (1697)](https://books.google.com/books?id=NklmAAAAcAAJ)[(1698)](https://books.google.com/books?id=rvU-AAAAcAAJ) : [pars Autumnalis (1719)](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3ohKfbpmsYC). - 1740.*Breviarium Romanum cum Psalterium, proprio,& Officiis Sanctorum ad usum cleri Basilicae Vaticanae* : [pars Autumnalis (1740)](https://books.google.com/books?id=5M0HAAAAQAAJ) : [pars Aestiva (1740)](https://books.google.com/books?id=hM0HAAAAQAAJ) - 1757\. *Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, novis Officiis ex Indulto Apostolico huc usque concessis auctum* : [pars Aestivus (1757)](https://books.google.com/books?id=aT9PAAAAcAAJ) - 1799\. *Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, com officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis, in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum* : [pars Verna](https://books.google.com/books?id=gYIPAAAAIAAJ) : [pars Autumnalis](https://books.google.com/books?id=GokPAAAAIAAJ) : [pars Hiemalis](https://books.google.com/books?id=8L8PAAAAIAAJ) - 1828\. : [pars Autumnalis (1828)](https://books.google.com/books?id=LHndj67Yb14C) : [pars Aestiva (1828)](https://books.google.com/books?id=LHndj67Yb14C) - 1861\. : [pars Autumnalis (1861)](https://books.google.com/books?id=fiYBAAAAQAAJ) - 1888\. : [pars Verna (1888)](https://archive.org/details/p2breviariumroma00cathuoft) - 1908: Reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X : [The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Winter (part 1)](https://archive.org/details/theromanbreviary01unknuoft) : [The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Spring (part 2)](https://archive.org/details/theromanbreviary02unknuoft) : [The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Summer (part 3)](https://archive.org/details/romanbreviary03unknuoft) : [The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Autumn/Fall (part 4)](https://archive.org/details/romanbreviary04unknuoft) : [Canonical Hours according to the 1911 Breviarium Romanum without the festal propers of Common of the Saints (traditio.com)](http://www.traditio.com/off.htm) - 1960 (Vatican II). : *The Roman Breviary in English and Latin: A Bilingual Edition of the Breviarium Romanum with Rubrics in English Only*, Baronius Press (2011), 3 vols. : [divinumofficinum.com](https://divinumofficium.com/www/horas/Help/Rubrics/Breviary%201960.html) - 1974: Further information: Liturgy of the Hours : [Universalis Online Breviary](http://www.universalis
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# Bachelor A **bachelor** is a man who is not and never has been married. ## Etymology A bachelor is first attested as the 12th-century *bacheler*: a knight bachelor, a knight too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner. The Old French **bacheler** presumably derives from Provençal **bacalar** and Italian **baccalare**, but the ultimate source of the word is uncertain. The proposed Medieval Latin \**baccalaris* (\"vassal\", \"field hand\") is only attested late enough that it may have derived from the vernacular languages, rather than from the southern French and northern Spanish Latin *baccalaria*. Alternatively, it has been derived from Latin **baculum** (\"a stick\"), in reference to the wooden sticks used by knights in training. ## History From the 14th century, the term \"bachelor\" was also used for a junior member of a guild (otherwise known as \"yeomen\") or university and then for low-level ecclesiastics, as young monks and recently appointed canons.`{{Refn|Severtius, ''De Episcopis Lugdunensibus'', p.&nbsp;377 cited in [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange|Du Cange]].<ref name=dc/>}}`{=mediawiki} As an inferior grade of scholarship, it came to refer to one holding a \"bachelor\'s degree\". This sense of **baccalarius** or **baccalaureus** is first attested at the University of Paris in the 13th century in the system of degrees established under the auspices of Pope Gregory IX as applied to scholars still **in statu pupillari**. There were two classes of **baccalarii**: the **baccalarii cursores**, theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity course, and the **baccalarii dispositi**, who had completed the course and were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees. In the Victorian era, the term \"eligible bachelor\" was used in the context of upper class matchmaking, denoting a young man who was not only unmarried and eligible for marriage, but also considered \"eligible\" in financial and social terms for the prospective bride under discussion. Also in the Victorian era, the term \"confirmed bachelor\" denoted a man who desired to remain single. By the later 19th century, the term \"bachelor\" had acquired the general sense of \"unmarried man\". The expression bachelor party is recorded 1882. In 1895, a feminine equivalent \"bachelor-girl\" was coined, replaced in US English by \"bachelorette\" by the mid-1930s. This terminology is now generally seen as antiquated, and has been largely replaced by the gender-neutral term \"single\" (first recorded 1964). In England and Wales, the term \"bachelor\" remained the official term used for the purpose of marriage registration until 2005, when it was abolished in favor of \"single.\" Bachelors have been subject to penal laws in many countries, most notably in Ancient Sparta and Rome. At Sparta, men unmarried after a certain age were subject to various penalties (*ἀτιμία*, *atimía*): they were forbidden to watch women\'s gymnastics; during the winter, they were made to march naked through the agora singing a song about their dishonor; and they were not provided with the traditional respect due to the elderly. Some Athenian laws were similar. Over time, some punishments developed into no more than a teasing game. In some parts of Germany, for instance, men who were still unmarried by their 30th birthday were made to sweep the stairs of the town hall until kissed by a \"virgin\". In a 1912 Pittsburgh Press article, there was a suggestion that local bachelors should wear a special pin that identified them as such, or a black necktie to symbolize that \"\....they \[bachelors\] should be in perpetual mourning because they are so foolish as to stay unmarried and deprive themselves of the comforts of a wife and home.\" The idea of a tax on bachelors has existed throughout the centuries. Bachelors in Rome fell under the Lex Julia of 18 BC and the Lex Papia Poppaea of AD 9: these lay heavy fines on unmarried or childless people while providing certain privileges to those with several children. A law known as the Marriage Duty Act 1695 was imposed on single males over 25 years old by the English Crown to help generate income for the Nine Years\' War. In Britain, taxes occasionally fell heavier on bachelors than other persons: examples include 6 & 7 Will. 3,`{{which|date=January 2025}}`{=mediawiki} the 1785 Tax on Servants, and the 1798 Income Tax. A study that was conducted by professor Charles Waehler at the University of Akron in Ohio on non-married heterosexual males deduced that once non-married men hit middle age, they will be less likely to marry and remain unattached later into their lives. The study concluded that there is only a 1-in-6 chance that men older than 40 will leave the single life, and that after the age 45, the odds fall to 1-in-20. In certain Gulf Arab countries, \"bachelor\" can refer to men who are single as well as immigrant men married to a spouse residing in their country of origin (due to the high added cost of sponsoring a spouse onsite). ## Bachelorette The term *bachelorette* is sometimes used to refer to a woman who has never been married. The traditional female equivalent to bachelor is spinster, which is considered pejorative and implies unattractiveness (i.e. old maid, cat lady). The term \"bachelorette\" has been used in its place, particularly in the context of bachelorette parties and reality TV series *The Bachelorette*
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# Beta sheet `{{Alpha beta structure}}`{=mediawiki} The **beta sheet** (**β-sheet**, also **β-pleated sheet**) is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure. Beta sheets consist of **beta strands** (**β-strands**) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. A β-strand is a stretch of polypeptide chain typically 3 to 10 amino acids long with backbone in an extended conformation. The supramolecular association of β-sheets has been implicated in the formation of the fibrils and protein aggregates observed in amyloidosis, Alzheimer\'s disease and other proteinopathies. ## History The first β-sheet structure was proposed by William Astbury in the 1930s. He proposed the idea of hydrogen bonding between the peptide bonds of parallel or antiparallel extended β-strands. However, Astbury did not have the necessary data on the bond geometry of the amino acids in order to build accurate models, especially since he did not then know that the peptide bond was planar. A refined version was proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951. Their model incorporated the planarity of the peptide bond which they previously explained as resulting from keto-enol tautomerization. ## Structure and orientation {#structure_and_orientation} ### Geometry The majority of β-strands are arranged adjacent to other strands and form an extensive hydrogen bond network with their neighbors in which the N−H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent strands. In the fully extended β-strand, successive side chains point straight up and straight down in an alternating pattern. Adjacent β-strands in a β-sheet are aligned so that their C^α^ atoms are adjacent and their side chains point in the same direction. The \"pleated\" appearance of β-strands arises from tetrahedral chemical bonding at the C^α^ atom; for example, if a side chain points straight up, then the bonds to the C′ must point slightly downwards, since its bond angle is approximately 109.5°. The pleating causes the distance between C`{{su|p=α|b=''i''}}`{=mediawiki} and C`{{su|p=α|b=''i'' + 2}}`{=mediawiki} to be approximately 6 Å, rather than the 7.6 Å expected from two fully extended *trans* peptides. The \"sideways\" distance between adjacent C^α^ atoms in hydrogen-bonded β-strands is roughly 5 Å. However, β-strands are rarely perfectly extended; rather, they exhibit a twist. The energetically preferred dihedral angles near (*φ*, *ψ*) = (--135°, 135°) (broadly, the upper left region of the Ramachandran plot) diverge significantly from the fully extended conformation (*φ*, *ψ*) = (--180°, 180°). The twist is often associated with alternating fluctuations in the dihedral angles to prevent the individual β-strands in a larger sheet from splaying apart. A good example of a strongly twisted β-hairpin can be seen in the protein BPTI. The side chains point outwards from the folds of the pleats, roughly perpendicularly to the plane of the sheet; successive amino acid residues point outwards on alternating faces of the sheet.
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# Beta sheet ## Structure and orientation {#structure_and_orientation} ### Hydrogen bonding patterns {#hydrogen_bonding_patterns} Because peptide chains have a directionality conferred by their N-terminus and C-terminus, β-strands too can be said to be directional. They are usually represented in protein topology diagrams by an arrow pointing toward the C-terminus. Adjacent β-strands can form hydrogen bonds in antiparallel, parallel, or mixed arrangements. In an antiparallel arrangement, the successive β-strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next. This is the arrangement that produces the strongest inter-strand stability because it allows the inter-strand hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines to be planar, which is their preferred orientation. The peptide backbone dihedral angles (*φ*, *ψ*) are about (--140°, 135°) in antiparallel sheets. In this case, if two atoms C`{{su|p=α|b=''i''}}`{=mediawiki} and C`{{su|p=α|b=''j''}}`{=mediawiki} are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they form two mutual backbone hydrogen bonds to each other\'s flanking peptide groups; this is known as a **close pair** of hydrogen bonds. In a parallel arrangement, all of the N-termini of successive strands are oriented in the same direction; this orientation may be slightly less stable because it introduces nonplanarity in the inter-strand hydrogen bonding pattern. The dihedral angles (*φ*, *ψ*) are about (--120°, 115°) in parallel sheets. It is rare to find less than five interacting parallel strands in a motif, suggesting that a smaller number of strands may be unstable, however it is also fundamentally more difficult for parallel β-sheets to form because strands with N and C termini aligned necessarily must be very distant in sequence . There is also evidence that parallel β-sheet may be more stable since small amyloidogenic sequences appear to generally aggregate into β-sheet fibrils composed of primarily parallel β-sheet strands, where one would expect anti-parallel fibrils if anti-parallel were more stable. In parallel β-sheet structure, if two atoms C`{{su|p=α|b=''i''}}`{=mediawiki} and C`{{su|p=α|b=''j''}}`{=mediawiki} are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they do *not* hydrogen bond to each other; rather, one residue forms hydrogen bonds to the residues that flank the other (but not vice versa). For example, residue *i* may form hydrogen bonds to residues *j* − 1 and *j* + 1; this is known as a **wide pair** of hydrogen bonds. By contrast, residue *j* may hydrogen-bond to different residues altogether, or to none at all. The hydrogen bond arrangement in parallel beta sheet resembles that in an amide ring motif with 11 atoms. Finally, an individual strand may exhibit a mixed bonding pattern, with a parallel strand on one side and an antiparallel strand on the other. Such arrangements are less common than a random distribution of orientations would suggest, suggesting that this pattern is less stable than the anti-parallel arrangement, however bioinformatic analysis always struggles with extracting structural thermodynamics since there are always numerous other structural features present in whole proteins. Also proteins are inherently constrained by folding kinetics as well as folding thermodynamics, so one must always be careful in concluding stability from bioinformatic analysis. The hydrogen bonding of β-strands need not be perfect, but can exhibit localized disruptions known as β-bulges. The hydrogen bonds lie roughly in the plane of the sheet, with the peptide carbonyl groups pointing in alternating directions with successive residues; for comparison, successive carbonyls point in the *same* direction in the alpha helix. ### Amino acid propensities {#amino_acid_propensities} Large aromatic residues (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) and β-branched amino acids (threonine, valine, isoleucine) are favored to be found in β-strands in the *middle* of β-sheets. Different types of residues (such as proline) are likely to be found in the *edge* strands in β-sheets, presumably to avoid the \"edge-to-edge\" association between proteins that might lead to aggregation and amyloid formation.
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# Beta sheet ## Common structural motifs {#common_structural_motifs} thumb\|right\|upright=0.6\|The β-hairpin motif ### β-hairpin motif {#β_hairpin_motif} A very simple structural motif involving β-strands is the β-hairpin, in which two antiparallel strands are linked by a short loop of two to five residues, of which one is frequently a glycine or a proline, both of which can assume the dihedral-angle conformations required for a tight turn or a β-bulge loop. Individual strands can also be linked in more elaborate ways with longer loops that may contain α-helices. ### Greek key motif {#greek_key_motif} The Greek key motif consists of four adjacent antiparallel strands and their linking loops. It consists of three antiparallel strands connected by hairpins, while the fourth is adjacent to the first and linked to the third by a longer loop. This type of structure forms easily during the protein folding process. It was named after a pattern common to Greek ornamental artwork (see meander). ### β-α-β motif {#β_α_β_motif} Due to the chirality of their component amino acids, all strands exhibit right-handed twist evident in most higher-order β-sheet structures. In particular, the linking loop between two parallel strands almost always has a right-handed crossover chirality, which is strongly favored by the inherent twist of the sheet. This linking loop frequently contains a helical region, in which case it is called a β-α-β motif. A closely related motif called a β-α-β-α motif forms the basic component of the most commonly observed protein tertiary structure, the TIM barrel. ### β-meander motif {#β_meander_motif} A simple supersecondary protein topology composed of two or more consecutive antiparallel β-strands linked together by hairpin loops. This motif is common in β-sheets and can be found in several structural architectures including β-barrels and β-propellers. The vast majority of β-meander regions in proteins are found packed against other motifs or sections of the polypeptide chain, forming portions of the hydrophobic core that canonically drives formation of the folded structure.  However, several notable exceptions include the Outer Surface Protein A (OspA) variants and the Single Layer β-sheet Proteins (SLBPs) which contain single-layer β-sheets in the absence of a traditional hydrophobic core.  These β-rich proteins feature an extended single-layer β-meander β-sheets that are primarily stabilized via inter-β-strand interactions and hydrophobic interactions present in the turn regions connecting individual strands. ### Psi-loop motif {#psi_loop_motif} The psi-loop (Ψ-loop) motif consists of two antiparallel strands with one strand in between that is connected to both by hydrogen bonds. There are four possible strand topologies for single Ψ-loops. This motif is rare as the process resulting in its formation seems unlikely to occur during protein folding. The Ψ-loop was first identified in the aspartic protease family.
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# Beta sheet ## Structural architectures of proteins with β-sheets {#structural_architectures_of_proteins_with_β_sheets} β-sheets are present in all-β, α+β and α/β domains, and in many peptides or small proteins with poorly defined overall architecture. All-β domains may form β-barrels, β-sandwiches, β-prisms, β-propellers, and β-helices. ## Structural topology {#structural_topology} The **topology** of a β-sheet describes the order of hydrogen-bonded β-strands along the backbone. For example, the flavodoxin fold has a five-stranded, parallel β-sheet with topology 21345; thus, the edge strands are β-strand 2 and β-strand 5 along the backbone. Spelled out explicitly, β-strand 2 is H-bonded to β-strand 1, which is H-bonded to β-strand 3, which is H-bonded to β-strand 4, which is H-bonded to β-strand 5, the other edge strand. In the same system, the Greek key motif described above has a 4123 topology. The secondary structure of a β-sheet can be described roughly by giving the number of strands, their topology, and whether their hydrogen bonds are parallel or antiparallel. β-sheets can be *open*, meaning that they have two edge strands (as in the flavodoxin fold or the immunoglobulin fold) or they can be *closed β-barrels* (such as the TIM barrel). β-Barrels are often described by their *stagger* or *shear*. Some open β-sheets are very curved and fold over on themselves (as in the SH3 domain) or form horseshoe shapes (as in the ribonuclease inhibitor). Open β-sheets can assemble face-to-face (such as the β-propeller domain or immunoglobulin fold) or edge-to-edge, forming one big β-sheet. ## Dynamic features {#dynamic_features} β-pleated sheet structures are made from extended β-strand polypeptide chains, with strands linked to their neighbours by hydrogen bonds. Due to this extended backbone conformation, β-sheets resist stretching. β-sheets in proteins may carry out low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed with the quasi-continuum model. ## Parallel β-helices {#parallel_β_helices} A β-helix is formed from repeating structural units consisting of two or three short β-strands linked by short loops. These units \"stack\" atop one another in a helical fashion so that successive repetitions of the same strand hydrogen-bond with each other in a parallel orientation. See the β-helix article for further information. In lefthanded β-helices, the strands themselves are quite straight and untwisted; the resulting helical surfaces are nearly flat, forming a regular triangular prism shape, as shown for the 1QRE archaeal carbonic anhydrase at right. Other examples are the lipid A synthesis enzyme LpxA and insect antifreeze proteins with a regular array of Thr sidechains on one face that mimic the structure of ice. Righthanded β-helices, typified by the pectate lyase enzyme shown at left or P22 phage tailspike protein, have a less regular cross-section, longer and indented on one of the sides; of the three linker loops, one is consistently just two residues long and the others are variable, often elaborated to form a binding or active site.\ A two-sided β-helix (right-handed) is found in some bacterial metalloproteases; its two loops are each six residues long and bind stabilizing calcium ions to maintain the integrity of the structure, using the backbone and the Asp side chain oxygens of a GGXGXD sequence motif. This fold is called a β-roll in the SCOP classification. ## In pathology {#in_pathology} Some proteins that are disordered or helical as monomers, such as amyloid β (see amyloid plaque) can form β-sheet-rich oligomeric structures associated with pathological states. The amyloid β protein\'s oligomeric form is implicated as a cause of Alzheimer\'s. Its structure has yet to be determined in full, but recent data suggest that it may resemble an unusual two-strand β-helix. The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β-sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic), which can be useful if the sheet is to form a boundary between polar/watery and nonpolar/greasy environments
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# Beryl **Beryl** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛr|əl}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|BERR|əl}}`{=mediawiki}) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be~3~Al~2~(SiO~3~)~6~. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meters in size, but terminated crystals are relatively rare. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, pink, and red (the rarest). It is an ore source of beryllium. thumb\|upright=1.5\|Main beryl producing countries ## Etymology The word *beryl* -- *beril* -- is borrowed, via *beryl* and *beryllus*, from Ancient Greek βήρυλλος *bḗryllos*, which referred to various blue-green stones, from Prakrit *veruḷiya*, *veḷuriya* \'beryl\' which is ultimately of Dravidian origin, maybe from the name of Belur or *Velur*, a town in Karnataka, southern India. The term was later adopted for the mineral beryl more exclusively. When the first eyeglasses were constructed in 13th-century Italy, the lenses were made of beryl (or of rock crystal) as glass could not be made clear enough. Consequently, glasses were named *Brille* in German (*bril* in Dutch and *briller* in Danish). ## Deposits Beryl is a common mineral, and it is widely distributed in nature. It is found most commonly in granitic pegmatites, but also occurs in mica schists, such as those of the Ural Mountains, and in limestone in Colombia. It is less common in ordinary granite and is only infrequently found in nepheline syenite. Beryl is often associated with tin and tungsten ore bodies formed as high-temperature hydrothermal veins. In granitic pegmatites, beryl is found in association with quartz, potassium feldspar, albite, muscovite, biotite, and tourmaline. Beryl is sometimes found in metasomatic contacts of igneous intrusions with gneiss, schist, or carbonate rocks. Common beryl, mined as beryllium ore, is found in small deposits in many countries, but the main producers are Russia, Brazil, and the United States. New England\'s pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal from the Bumpus Quarry in Albany, Maine with dimensions 5.5 by with a mass of around 18 tonne; it is New Hampshire\'s state mineral. `{{As of|1999}}`{=mediawiki}, the world\'s largest known naturally occurring crystal of any mineral is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, 18 m long and 3.5 m in diameter, and weighing 380,000 kg. ## Crystal habit and structure {#crystal_habit_and_structure} Beryl belongs to the hexagonal crystal system. Normally beryl forms hexagonal columns but can also occur in massive habits. As a cyclosilicate beryl incorporates rings of silicate tetrahedra of SiO~3~--O (the connected O is from another SiO~3~) that are arranged in columns along the `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki} axis and as parallel layers perpendicular to the `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki} axis, forming channels along the `{{mvar|C}}`{=mediawiki} axis. These channels permit a variety of ions, neutral atoms, and molecules to be incorporated into the crystal thus disrupting the overall charge of the crystal permitting further substitutions in aluminium, silicon, and beryllium sites in the crystal structure. These impurities give rise to the variety of colors of beryl that can be found. Increasing alkali content within the silicate ring channels causes increases to the refractive indices and birefringence. ## Human health impact {#human_health_impact} Beryl is a beryllium compound that is a known carcinogen with acute toxic effects leading to pneumonitis when inhaled. Care must thus be used when mining, handling, and refining these gems.
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# Beryl ## Varieties ### Aquamarine and maxixe {#aquamarine_and_maxixe} Aquamarine (from *aqua marina*, \"sea water\") is a blue or cyan variety of beryl. It occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl. The gem-gravel placer deposits of Sri Lanka contain aquamarine. Green-yellow beryl, such as that occurring in Brazil, is sometimes called *chrysolite aquamarine*. The deep blue version of aquamarine is called *maxixe* (pronounced mah-she-she). Its color results from a radiation-induced color center. The pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to Fe^2+^. Fe^3+^ ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both Fe^2+^ and Fe^3+^ are present, the color is a darker blue as in maxixe. Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between Fe^3+^ and Fe^2+^. In the United States, aquamarines can be found at the summit of Mount Antero in the Sawatch Range in central Colorado, and in the New England and North Carolina pegmatites. Aquamarines are also present in the state of Wyoming, aquamarine has been discovered in the Big Horn Mountains, near Powder River Pass. Another location within the United States is the Sawtooth Range near Stanley, Idaho, although the minerals are within a wilderness area which prevents collecting. In Brazil, there are mines in the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Bahia, and minorly in Rio Grande do Norte. The mines of Colombia, Skardu Pakistan, Madagascar, Russia, Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Kenya also produce aquamarine. ### Emerald Emerald is green beryl, colored by around 2% chromium and sometimes vanadium. Most emeralds are highly included, so their brittleness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor. The modern English word \"emerald\" comes via Middle English *emeraude*, imported from modern French via Old French *ésmeraude* and Medieval Latin *esmaraldus*, from Latin *smaragdus*, from Greek *σμάραγδος}}* *smaragdos* meaning \'green gem\'. Emeralds in antiquity were mined by the Egyptians and in what is now Austria, as well as Swat in contemporary Pakistan. A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a \"star\" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern. It is named for the *trapiche*, a grinding wheel used to process sugarcane in the region. Colombian emeralds are generally the most prized due to their transparency and fire. Some of the rarest emeralds come from the two main emerald belts in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes: Muzo and Coscuez west of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, and Chivor and Somondoco to the east. Fine emeralds are also found in other countries, such as Zambia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Russia. In the US, emeralds can be found in Hiddenite, North Carolina. In 1998, emeralds were discovered in Yukon. Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and *flux-growth* synthetics have been produced. The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964. Gilson\'s emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of 1 mm per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness. The green color of emeralds is widely attributed to presence of Cr^3+^ ions. Intensely green beryls from Brazil, Zimbabwe and elsewhere in which the color is attributed to vanadium have also been sold and certified as emeralds. ### Golden beryl and heliodor {#golden_beryl_and_heliodor} *Golden beryl* can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold. Unlike emerald, golden beryl generally has very few flaws. The term \"golden beryl\" is sometimes synonymous with *heliodor* (from Greek *hēlios -- ἥλιος* \"sun\" + *dōron -- δῶρον* \"gift\") but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the greenish-yellow shades. The golden yellow color is attributed to Fe^3+^ ions. Both golden beryl and heliodor are used as gems. Probably the largest cut golden beryl is the flawless 2054 carat stone on display in the Hall of Gems, Washington, D.C., United States. ### Goshenite Colorless beryl is called *goshenite*. The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered. In the past, goshenite was used for manufacturing eyeglasses and lenses owing to its transparency. Nowadays, it is most commonly used for gemstone purposes. The gem value of goshenite is relatively low. However, goshenite can be colored yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles. The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities.
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# Beryl ## Varieties ### Morganite Morganite, also known as \"pink beryl\", \"rose beryl\", \"pink emerald\" (which is not a legal term according to the new Federal Trade Commission Guidelines and Regulations), and \"cesian (or *caesian*) beryl\", is a rare light pink to rose-colored gem-quality variety of beryl. Orange/yellow varieties of morganite can also be found, and color banding is common. It can be routinely heat treated to remove patches of yellow and is occasionally treated by irradiation to improve its color. The pink color of morganite is attributed to Mn^2+^ ions. ### Red beryl {#red_beryl} Red variety of beryl (the \"bixbite\") was first described in 1904 for an occurrence, its type locality, at Maynard\'s Claim (Pismire Knolls), Thomas Range, Juab County, Utah. The dark red color is attributed to Mn^3+^ ions. Old synonym \"bixbite\" is deprecated from the CIBJO because of the possibility of confusion with the mineral bixbyite (both named after mineralogist Maynard Bixby). Red \"bixbite\" beryl formerly was marketed as \"red\" or \"scarlet emerald\", but these terms involving \"Emerald\" terminology are now prohibited in the US. Red beryl is very rare and has only been reported from a handful of North American locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon, Round Mountain, Juab County, Utah; and Sierra County, New Mexico, although this locality does not often produce gem-grade stones. The bulk of gem-grade red beryl comes from the Ruby-Violet Claim in the Wah Wah Mts. of midwestern Utah, discovered in 1958 by Lamar Hodges, of Fillmore, Utah, while he was prospecting for uranium. Red beryl has been known to be confused with pezzottaite, a caesium analog of beryl, found in Madagascar and, more recently, Afghanistan; cut gems of the two varieties can be distinguished by their difference in refractive index, and the rough crystals easily by their differing crystal systems (pezzottaite trigonal, red beryl hexagonal). Synthetic red beryl is also produced. Like emerald and unlike most other varieties of beryl, the red ones are usually highly included. While gem beryls are ordinarily found in pegmatites and certain metamorphic stones, red beryl occurs in topaz-bearing rhyolites. It is formed by crystallizing under low pressure and high temperature from a pneumatolytic phase along fractures or within near-surface miarolitic cavities of the rhyolite. Associated minerals include bixbyite, quartz, orthoclase, topaz, spessartine, pseudobrookite and hematite
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# Black Russian The **Black Russian** is a cocktail of vodka and coffee liqueur. It contains 50 ml vodka and 20 ml coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients. The drink is made by pouring the vodka and coffee liqueur over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass and stirring. The Black Russian is often garnished with a lemon slice and a Luxardo maraschino cherry on a stick. ## History The Black Russian cocktail first appeared in 1949 and is ascribed to Gustave Tops, a Belgian barman, who created it at the Hotel Metropole in Brussels in honor of Perle Mesta, then United States Ambassador to Luxembourg. The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, and the blackness of the coffee liqueur. ## Variations - Dirty Black Russian, Tall Black Russian, Australian Black Russian or Colorado Bulldog: served in a highball glass and topped up with cola. - Black Magic: served with a dash of lemon juice and a lemon twist to garnish. - Irish Russian or Smooth Black Russian: served with a head of Guinness. - Brown Russian: served in a highball glass and topped with ginger ale. - Belarusian or white Russian: served with milk or cream. - Mudslide: served with Irish cream, either fresh cream or ice cream, with or without chocolate sauce rim. - Mind Eraser: topped up with sparkling water. - Paralyzer: Made with cola and milk in addition to vodka and coffee liqueur. ## Cultural impact {#cultural_impact} - The cocktail is mentioned by the Italian judicial and criminal witness Alberto Biggiogero during testimony in the trial concerning the death of Giuseppe Uva, a case covered by the television program Un giorno in pretura. ```{=html} <!-- --> ``` - In the film *The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear*, the protagonist Frank Drebin (played by Leslie Nielsen) orders the famous drink in one scene
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# Bunnies & Burrows ***Bunnies & Burrows*** (***B&B***) is a role-playing game (RPG) inspired by the 1972 novel *Watership Down*. Published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, the game is centered on intelligent rabbits. It introduced several innovations to role-playing game design, being the first game to encourage players to have non-humanoid roles, and the first to have detailed martial arts and skill systems. Fantasy Games Unlimited published a similar second edition in 1982. Frog God Games published a revised third edition in 2019 from the original authors. The game was also modified and published by Steve Jackson Games as an official *GURPS* supplement in 1992. As rabbits, player characters are faced with dangers mirroring those in the real world. The only true \"monsters\" in the game are humans, but there are many predators and natural hazards. The characters\' position in the food chain promotes an emphasis on role-playing and problem solving over combat. ## History Originally published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, only two years after the first role-playing game *Dungeons & Dragons* was published; this edition is now long out of print. The game was inspired by Richard Adams\' fantasy novel *Watership Down*, and the players were given the opportunity to take on the role of rabbits. As such, the game emphasized role-playing over combat for, according to Steffan O\'Sullivan, \"You\'re playing a rabbit, after all -- how much combat do you want to do?\" David M. Ewalt, in his book *Of Dice and Men*, commented that *Bunnies & Burrows* \"pushed setting even farther\" than other early RPGs like *Dungeons & Dragons* and *En Garde!*, as the \"player characters were intelligent rabbits and had to compete for food, avoid predators, and deal with internal warren politics\". It was the first role-playing game to allow for animal characters, and the first to have rules for martial arts. Building on this first edition, in 1979, B. Dennis Sustare wrote *\"Different Worlds Present the World of Druid\'s Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign\"* in *Different Worlds*, a magazine published by Chaosium. It detailed how to combine the world of *Bunnies & Burrows* with other fantasy worlds. This was followed by the mini-adventure *\"The Jackrabbits\' Lair\"*, written by Daniel J. Maxfield, in *Pegasus*, a magazine published by Judges Guild. A second edition of *Bunnies & Burrows* was printed in 1982 by Fantasy Games Unlimited, although the continuing popularity of the first edition is evidenced by how it was still being actively played in 2008. During a rise of \"retro\" games in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Steve Jackson Games entered negotiations with Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson, the current owners of the *Bunnies & Burrows* copyright, to publish an official *GURPS* supplement. In 1988, O\'Sullivan wrote an unofficial conversion of *Bunnies & Burrows* to *GURPS* while the negotiations continued. He indicated that he hoped to one day work on the official supplement. *GURPS Bunnies & Burrows* was published in 1992. The setting also had an unofficial conversion in 2004 to be used in *Risus: The Anything RPG* by Boyd Mayberry, under their \"Rules for Free Fan-Supplements and Articles\". In 2019, Frog God Games released a 3rd edition of the game after a successful Kickstarter campaign. ## Gameplay *Bunnies & Burrows* was the first role-playing game to allow for non-humanoid play. In addition, it was also the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules (renamed \"*Bun Fu*\" in GURPS Bunnies & Burrows) and the first attempt at a skill system. For its time, the game was considered by some \"light years\" ahead of the Original *Dungeons & Dragons*. Players of *Bunnies & Burrows* take the role of rabbits as their player characters. Interaction with many different animal species is part of normal gameplay. Humans, whose thought processes and motivations are completely alien, are the only monster to be encountered. *Bunnies & Burrows* has the advantage of offering players an intuitive grasp of relative dangers and appropriate actions not possible in game worlds that are substantially fictional. For example, a player is told their character is confronted with a fox. There is an immediate intuition on the amount of peril a rabbit is facing. Since player characters are substantially weaker than many of the dangers they face, the game is one of the first to encourage problem solving and outwitting obstacles, rather than out-fighting them. The mechanics of the role-playing game system were created specifically for *Bunnies & Burrows*, common at the time of its original publishing. It features eight abilities and eight classes. The task resolution system is based on rolls of percentile dice. Although newer systems have updated game mechanics significantly, the ideas presented in *Bunnies & Burrows* created the framework for modern role-playing games.
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# Bunnies & Burrows ## Reception Steve Jackson reviewed *Bunnies & Burrows* in *The Space Gamer* No. 10. He concluded that \"*B & B* is probably worth the retail price \[\...\] at least to a FRP fan. The writing style is intelligent, lucid, and occasionally witty; the rules are workable \[\...\] the art, as I think I pointed out, is so bad it\'s great; and the whole idea is appealing.\" One commentator asserted that the game had \"incredible role-playing potential\", but the concept of role-playing rabbits can be viewed as bizarre, and as such they believed that most people thought it was stupid when it was first released. James Davis Nicoll in 2020 for *Black Gate* said \"In most games, the PCs are functionally apex predators. Not so in B. Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson\'s *Watership Down*-inspired *Bunnies and Burrows*, in which you play a rabbit, a tasty, tasty rabbit. Filled with legitimately innovative game mechanics, it provided a combat system the rabbits were very ill-advised to use, as well as a skill system hampered only by the fact the rabbits were, well, as smart as rabbits. Human NPCs fill the Cosmic Horror niche: enigmatic, powerful, and deadly.\" In his 2023 book *Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground*, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, \"*B&B* is the first game to push beyond the fantasy battle boundaries established by *Dungeons & Dragons*. This step \[helped\] the hobby arrive at the sort of indie games that focus on collaborative storytelling and lightweight, intuitive rules.\" ## Other reviews {#other_reviews} - *Fantastic Science Fiction* v27 n10 - *The Playboy Winner\'s Guide to Board Games* ## Publications ### Books - *Bunnies & Burrows* (1976), Fantasy Games Unlimited - *Bunnies & Burrows* (Second edition) (1982), Fantasy Games Unlimited - *Bunnies & Burrows* (Third edition) (2019), Frog God Games ### Articles - *Different Worlds Present the World of Druid\'s Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign* (B. Dennis Sustare, 1979). *Different Worlds*, Chaosium - *The Jackrabbits\' Lair* (Daniel J. Maxfield)
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# Bundaberg Rum **Bundaberg Rum**, colloquially known as **Bundy**, is a dark rum owned by Diageo. It is produced in Bundaberg East, Queensland, Australia, by the **Bundaberg Distilling Company**. In 2010, the Bundaberg Distilling Company was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame. ## History Bundaberg Rum originated because the local sugar mills had a problem with what to do with the waste molasses after the sugar was extracted. Molasses was heavy and difficult to transport, and the costs of converting it to stock feed were rarely worth the effort. Sugar men first began to think of the profits that could be made from distilling. The key meeting was held at the Royal Hotel on 1 August 1885. W. M. C. Hickson served as the chairman, and other notables in attendance included all the big sugar mill owners of that time: W. G. Farquhar, F. L. Nott, T. Austin, J. Gale, S. McDougall, T. Penny, S. H. Bravo and A. H. Young. All became the first directors of the company, which started with a capital of £5,000 converted into \$9,725.18. The Bundaberg Distilling Company began its operations in 1888, and Bundaberg rum was first produced in 1889. Production ceased from 1907 to 1914, and from 1936 to 1939, after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby Burnett River. Many fish were killed due to the liquor runoff into the river. Christsen Pty Ltd operated their own Bundaberg Rum bottling plant in Bourbong Street, Bundaberg, at the rear of their large grocery and hardware business in the centre of town. The spirit was sold at UP and OP strength from their business. In 1961, the company introduced the polar bear as its unusual choice of mascot, to imply that the rum could ward off the coldest chill. In 2000, the Bundaberg Rum company and the distillery were sold to British company Diageo. In 2014, a decision by Diageo to relocate the bottling operations of Bundaberg Rum to the western Sydney suburb of Huntingwood resulted in job losses in Bundaberg. The decision drew criticism from various levels of Queensland politics. The Premier, Campbell Newman, said it was a disappointing move, particularly for a region that had suffered devastating floods in recent years. Bundaberg mayor, Mal Forman, was also disappointed and concerned about the tourism impact. A Diageo spokeswoman later clarified the situation, saying some premium products, such as the Master Distillers Collection, would continue to be bottled in Bundaberg. \"This was not a decision we have taken lightly, however it is a necessary one to ensure the longer term sustainability of the distillery. We remain absolutely committed to Bundaberg and the distillery and will continue to invest and focus on our core business of distilling, maturing and blending great quality rum in Bundaberg as we have done for the last 125 years\". ## Distillery The Bundaberg Rum distillery is open to visitors for tours of the facility. There is also a museum which offers free samples of Bundaberg Rum products for visitors in a historic Queenslander house. The **Big Bundy Bottle** is also outside of the bond store. A new \$8.5 million visitor centre opened to the public in August 2016 replacing the smaller historic house next door. In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Bundaberg Rum Distillery was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a \"location\". The State Library of Queensland holds correspondence and financial records from the Bundaberg Distilling Co. Ltd. Records for years 1907 to 1946. ## Variant flavours {#variant_flavours} - Bundaberg Rum UP *37%* - Bundaberg Rum Original 100 Proof *50%* - Bundaberg Rum Overproof *57.7%* - Bundaberg Red *37%* - Bundaberg Red 100 Proof *50%* - Bundaberg Five *37%* - Bundaberg Select Vat Aged 6 Years *37%* - Bundaberg Mutiny Spiced Rum *37%* - Master Distillers\' Collection Small Batch *40%* - Master Distillers\' Collection Small Batch -- Vintage Barrel *40%* - Master Distillers Collection 280 *40%* - Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel -- Distilled 2004 -- Black Glass *40%* - Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel -- Distilled 2004 -- Clear Glass *40%* - Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel -- Distilled 2005 -- Clear Glass *40%* - Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2014 *40%* - Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2015 *40%* - Bundaberg Tropics -- Pineapple & Coconut *23.5%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Banana and Toffee *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Coffee and Chocolate *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Salted Caramel *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Vanilla Spiced *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Xmas Puding with Brandy *20%* - Bundaberg Royal Rum Ball *20%* - Bundy Wings Heritage Label Original *37%*
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# Bundaberg Rum ## Sponsorship Bundaberg Rum is a major sponsor of the Australian Wallabies rugby union team and also sponsors the Bundaberg Rum Rugby Series. Bundaberg is also a sponsor of the NSW Waratahs. Bundaberg Rum sponsored the rugby league ANZAC Test till 2009. Bundaberg Rum signed a 5-year deal with the NRL to be the official dark rum of the NRL. They are also the naming-rights sponsor of NRL Friday Night Football. From 2009 until 2011, Bundaberg Rum sponsored V8 Supercar team Walkinshaw Racing. ## Recognition Bundaberg Rum has been distinguished with numerous awards. In 2011, Bundaberg Rum\'s Master Distillers\' Collective rum was launched, with the first three releases, the 10 Year Old, Port Barrel and Golden Reserve, winning awards in the global stage. ## Advertising Bundaberg Rum has also been criticised for targeting its advertising towards young people and boys, through television commercials during NRL broadcasts, and other promotions. A series of advertisements featuring the Bundaberg Rum bear, a polar bear known as Bundy R. Bear, were produced by advertising agency Leo Burnett to align the product \'with a larrikin approach to Australian mateship\'. The Bundaberg Rum bear first appeared in 1961. It was designed to soften rum\'s aggressive image and broaden its appeal from the traditional older male drinker to a more sociable audience. The advertisements have been cited as a favourite among Australia\'s youth
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# Bunsen burner A **Bunsen burner**, named after Robert Bunsen, is a kind of ambient air gas burner used as laboratory equipment; it produces a single open gas flame, and is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion. The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, a mixture or, as Bunsen himself used, coal gas. Combustion temperature achieved depends in part on the adiabatic flame temperature of the chosen fuel mixture. ## History In 1852, the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building. The city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory. The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for lighting, but also as fuel for burners for laboratory operations. For any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature of its flame, and minimize its luminosity (which represented lost heating energy). Bunsen sought to improve existing laboratory burner lamps as regards economy, simplicity, and flame temperature, and adapt them to coal-gas fuel. While the building was under construction in late 1854, Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the university\'s mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to construct a prototype. Similar principles had been used in an earlier burner design by Michael Faraday, and in a device patented in 1856 by gas engineer R. W. Elsner. The Bunsen/Desaga design generated a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame issuing at the top. When the building opened early in 1855, Desaga had made 50 burners for Bunsen\'s students. Two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories around the world.
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# Bunsen burner ## Operation The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (which is principally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both. The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter. The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in a stoichiometric amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the choke in a carburettor. If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top. This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow, which is often called the \"safety flame\" or \"luminous flame\". The yellow flame is luminous due to small soot particles in the flame, which are heated to incandescence. The yellow flame is considered \"dirty\" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating. When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame, it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen. Generally, the burner is placed underneath a laboratory tripod, which supports a beaker or other container. The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to protect the laboratory bench surface. A Bunsen burner is also used in microbiology laboratories to sterilise pieces of equipment and to produce an updraft that forces airborne contaminants away from the working area. ## Variants Other burners based on the same principle exist. The most important alternatives to the Bunsen burner are: - Teclu burner -- The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base. The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the open slots of the Bunsen burner. The Teclu burner provides better mixing of air and fuel and can achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner. - Meker burner -- The lower part of its tube has more openings with larger total cross-section, admitting more air and facilitating better mixing of air and gas. The tube is wider and its top is covered with a wire grid. The grid separates the flame into an array of smaller flames with a common external envelope, and also prevents flashback to the bottom of the tube, which is a risk at high air-to-fuel ratios and limits the maximum rate of air intake in a conventional Bunsen burner. Flame temperatures of up to 1100 - are achievable if properly used. The flame also burns without noise, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu burners. - Tirrill burner -- The base of the burner has a needle valve which allows the regulation of gas intake directly from the burner, rather than from the gas source. Maximum temperature of flame can reach 1560 °C
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# Bolsheviks The **Bolsheviks**, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and ultimately the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Its ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist--Leninist principles, became known as Bolshevism. The origin of the RSDLP split was Lenin\'s support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split in two. The political philosophy of the Bolsheviks was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. Lenin was also more willing to use illegal means such as robbery to fund the party\'s activities. Influenced by the experience of World War I, by 1917 he had concluded that the chain of world capitalism could \"break at its weakest link\" in Russia before it had reached the level of the advanced countries, contrary to theorists such as Georgi Plekhanov. Lenin had also come to view poorer peasants as potential allies of the relatively small Russian proletariat. After the February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for \"no support for the Provisional Government\" and \"all power to the soviets\". During the summer of 1917, which saw events including the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution that overthrew the government. The Bolsheviks initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin\'s leadership, Bolshevism became linked to his policies of \"socialism in one country\", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control.
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# Bolsheviks ## History of the split {#history_of_the_split} ### Vladimir Lenin\'s ideology in *What Is to Be Done?* {#vladimir_lenins_ideology_in_what_is_to_be_done} Lenin\'s political pamphlet *What Is to Be Done?*, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks\' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin\'s writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called \"artisanal work\" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party\'s objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely. The pamphlet also showed that Lenin\'s view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual \"withering away of the state\". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as \"Economists\", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin\'s view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party\'s cause. ### Second Party Congress {#second_party_congress} At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone \"who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party\'s organisations.\" Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy. The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March--May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin\'s insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from *Iskra* or Martov\'s support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable. Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in *What Is To Be Done?*, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.`{{Page needed |date=August 2015}}`{=mediawiki} Plekhanov and Lenin\'s major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards\". Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin\'s steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin\'s inability to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia. Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky, one of Lenin\'s fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre. ### Etymology of *Bolshevik* and *Menshevik* {#etymology_of_bolshevik_and_menshevik} The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as *hard* (Lenin supporters) and *soft* (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin\'s faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as *Bolsheviks*, from the Russian *bolshinstvo*, \'majority\'. Likewise, Martov\'s group came to be known as *Mensheviks*, from *menshinstvo*, \'minority\'. However, Martov\'s supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions. Starting in 1907, English-language articles sometimes used the term *Maximalist* for \"Bolshevik\" and *Minimalist* for \"Menshevik\", which proved to be confusing as there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904--1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917. The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or *Reds*, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917--1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.
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# Bolsheviks ## History of the split {#history_of_the_split} ### Demographics of the two factions {#demographics_of_the_two_factions} The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20--24 years of age; and 16% were 25--29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members. ### Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903--05) {#beginning_of_the_1905_revolution_190305} Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party. All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized. The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers\' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917. ### Mensheviks (1906--07) {#mensheviks_190607} As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority. However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the *de facto* governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other. ### Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908--10) {#split_between_lenin_and_bogdanov_190810} Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach\'s Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on *Zarya*, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov\'s rejection of Bogdanov\'s Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as \"recallists\" (Russian: *otzovists*). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists. With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov\'s reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled *Materialism and Empirio-criticism* (1909), assaulting Bogdanov\'s position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine *Proletary*. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909. ### Final attempt at party unity (1910) {#final_attempt_at_party_unity_1910} With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party\'s Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try. One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties\' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party\'s intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting. Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky\'s Vienna-based *Pravda*, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky\'s brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.
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# Bolsheviks ## History of the split {#history_of_the_split} ### Forming a separate party (1912) {#forming_a_separate_party_1912} The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) -- or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about \$125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters. Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin\'s vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin\'s assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party\'s attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I. Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913. One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party\'s trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions. Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky, Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin\'s influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky\'s, not to Lenin\'s plan. In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin\'s suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin\'s suggestion. ## Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\" {#non_russiansoviet_political_groups_having_used_the_name_bolshevik} - Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party - Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party - India: Bolshevik Party of India - India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma - India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik) - Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party - Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei - South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa - Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party - Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan -- Turkey)
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# Bolsheviks ## Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\" {#derogatory_usage_of_bolshevik} **Bolo** was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern. During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as **Bolshies**. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"commie\", \"Red\", or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period. The term *Bolshie* later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent
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# Battle of Świecino The **Battle of Świecino** (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the **Battle of Żarnowiec** or in German **Die Schlacht bei Schwetz**, took place on September 17, 1462, during the Thirteen Years\' War. The Polish forces, commanded by Piotr Dunin and consisting of some 2,000 mercenaries and Poles, decisively defeated the 2,700-man army of the Teutonic Knights, commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Commander of the Order Kaspar Nostitz (*Nostyc*). Auxiliary forces sent by Duke Eric II of Pomerania, temporary ally of the Teutonic Knights, did not enter the battle. ## Polish forces {#polish_forces} The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1,000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1,000 of infantry. 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by the Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk). ## Teutonic forces {#teutonic_forces} Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostitz, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy, and Stara Kiszewa. This army totalled 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons, and up to 1,300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works. ## Battle The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice)) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat`{{snd}}`{=mediawiki}Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry. At the end of the battle, reinforcements of Eric II of Pomerania appeared, however, seeing the defeat of the Teutonic Knights, the Pomeranian prince did not attack, while the Poles attacked, forcing his troops to flee. ## Casualties The Teutonic Order\'s army lost around 1,000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church. The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice. ## Aftermath The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe. The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years\' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466
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# Basic English **Basic English** (a backronym for **British American Scientific International and Commercial English**) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar. It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. It was presented in Ogden\'s 1930 book *Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar*. The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England. The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book *The Meaning of Meaning*. Ogden\'s Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace. He was convinced that the world needed to gradually eradicate minority languages and use as much as possible only one: English, in either a simple or complete form. Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses. Richards promoted its use in schools in China. It has influenced the creation of Voice of America\'s Learning English for news broadcasting, and Simplified Technical English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals. What survives of Ogden\'s Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner\'s vocabulary of the English language taught worldwide, especially in Asia. ## Design principles {#design_principles} Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing. Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called \"operators\". His \"General Introduction\" says, \"There are no \'verbs\' in Basic English\",`{{Verify quote|date=April 2021}}`{=mediawiki} with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification. ## Word lists {#word_lists} Ogden\'s word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary\'s Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life. Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student should already be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 \"international\" words. Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). It is enough for a \"standard\" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents \"what any learner should know\". At this level students could start to move on their own. Ogden\'s Basic English 2000 word list and Voice of America\'s Special English 1500 word list serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia.
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# Basic English ## Rules Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection). The grammar is based on English, but simplified. - Plural nouns are formed by adding *-s* or related forms, as in *drinks*, *boxes*, or *countries*. - Nouns are formed with the endings *-er* (as in *prisoner*) or *-ing* (*building*). - Adjectives are formed with the endings *-ing* (*boiling*) or *-ed* (*mixed*). - Adverbs can be formed by adding *-ly* (for example *tightly*) to words that Basic English calls \"qualities\" (adjectives that describe objects). - The words *more* and *most* are used for comparison (for example *more complex*), but *-er* and *-est* may appear in common use (*cheaper*). - Negatives can be formed with *un-* (*unwise*). - The word *do* is used in questions, as it is in English (*Do you have some?*). - Both pronouns and what Basic English calls \"operators\" (a set of ten verbs) use the different forms they have in English (for example *I go to him*, *He goes to me*). - Compound words can be formed by combining two nouns (e.g. *soapbox*) or a noun and a preposition, which Basic English calls \"directives\" (*sunup*). - International words, words that are the same or similar in English and other European languages (e.g. *radio*), use the English form. English forms are also used for numbers, dates, money, or measurements. - Any technical terms or special vocabulary needed for a task should be written in inverted commas and then be explained in the text using words from the Basic English vocabulary (for example *the \'vocabulary\' is the list of words*).
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# Basic English ## Criticism Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and is thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive. Moreover, like all natural-language-based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community. As a teaching aid for English as a second language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints. In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in *Harper\'s Magazine*, \"How Basic is Basic English?\" in which he said, \"It\'s not basic, and it\'s not English.\" The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary. He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler. In his 1948 paper \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\", Claude Shannon contrasted the limited vocabulary of Basic English with James Joyce\'s *Finnegans Wake*, a work noted for a wide vocabulary. Shannon notes that the lack of vocabulary in Basic English leads to a very high level of redundancy, whereas Joyce\'s large vocabulary \"is alleged to achieve a compression of semantic content\". ## Samples The Lord\'s Prayer has been often used for an impressionistic language comparison: +---------------------+--------------------------------------------+ | Basic English (BBE) | English (NRSV) | +=====================+============================================+ | | Our Father in heaven,\ | | | hallowed be your name.\ | | | Your kingdom come.\ | | | Your will be done,\ | | | on earth as it is in heaven.\ | | | Give us this day our daily bread.\ | | | And forgive us our debts,\ | | | as we also have forgiven our debtors.\ | | | And do not bring us to the time of trial,\ | | | but rescue us from the evil one
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# Bézout's identity In mathematics, **Bézout\'s identity** (also called **Bézout\'s lemma**), named after Étienne Bézout who proved it for polynomials, is the following theorem: `{{math_theorem | name = Bézout's identity | math_statement = Let {{math|''a''}} and {{math|''b''}} be [[integer]]s with [[greatest common divisor]] {{math|''d''}}. Then there exist integers {{math|''x''}} and {{math|''y''}} such that {{math|1=''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''}}. Moreover, the integers of the form {{math|''az'' + ''bt''}} are exactly the multiples of {{math|''d''}}. }}`{=mediawiki} Here the greatest common divisor of `{{math|0}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|0}}`{=mediawiki} is taken to be `{{math|0}}`{=mediawiki}. The integers `{{math|''x''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''y''}}`{=mediawiki} are called **Bézout coefficients** for `{{math|(''a'', ''b'')}}`{=mediawiki}; they are not unique. A pair of Bézout coefficients can be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm, and this pair is, in the case of integers one of the two pairs such that `{{math|{{abs|''x''}} ≤ {{abs|''b''/''d''}}}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|{{abs|''y''}} ≤ {{abs|''a''/''d''}}}}`{=mediawiki}; equality occurs only if one of `{{math|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} is a multiple of the other. As an example, the greatest common divisor of 15 and 69 is 3, and 3 can be written as a combination of 15 and 69 as `{{math|1=3 = 15 × (−9) + 69 × 2}}`{=mediawiki}, with Bézout coefficients −9 and 2. Many other theorems in elementary number theory, such as Euclid\'s lemma or the Chinese remainder theorem, result from Bézout\'s identity. A Bézout domain is an integral domain in which Bézout\'s identity holds. In particular, Bézout\'s identity holds in principal ideal domains. Every theorem that results from Bézout\'s identity is thus true in all principal ideal domains. ## Structure of solutions {#structure_of_solutions} If `{{math|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki} are not both zero and one pair of Bézout coefficients `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} has been computed (for example, using the extended Euclidean algorithm), all pairs can be represented in the form $\left(x-k\frac{b}{d},\ y+k\frac{a}{d}\right),$ where `{{math|''k''}}`{=mediawiki} is an arbitrary integer, `{{math|''d''}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest common divisor of `{{math|''a''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''b''}}`{=mediawiki}, and the fractions simplify to integers. If `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} are both nonzero and none of them divides the other, then exactly two of the pairs of Bézout coefficients satisfy $|x| < \left |\frac{b}{d}\right |\quad \text{and}\quad |y| < \left |\frac{a}{d}\right |.$ If `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} are both positive, one has $x>0$ and $y<0$ for one of these pairs, and $x<0$ and $y>0$ for the other. If `{{math|''a'' > 0}}`{=mediawiki} is a divisor of `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} (including the case $b=0$), then one pair of Bézout coefficients is `{{math|(1, 0)}}`{=mediawiki}. This relies on a property of Euclidean division: given two non-zero integers `{{math|''c''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''d''}}`{=mediawiki}, if `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} does not divide `{{mvar|c}}`{=mediawiki}, there is exactly one pair `{{math|(''q'', ''r'')}}`{=mediawiki} such that `{{math|1=''c'' = ''dq'' + ''r''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|0 < ''r'' < {{abs|''d''}}}}`{=mediawiki}, and another one such that `{{math|1=''c'' = ''dq'' + ''r''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1=−{{abs|''d''}} < ''r'' < 0}}`{=mediawiki}. The two pairs of small Bézout\'s coefficients are obtained from the given one `{{math|(''x'', ''y'')}}`{=mediawiki} by choosing for `{{mvar|k}}`{=mediawiki} in the above formula either of the two integers next to `{{math|{{sfrac|''x''|''b''/''d''}}}}`{=mediawiki}. The extended Euclidean algorithm always produces one of these two minimal pairs. ### Example Let `{{math|1=''a'' = 12}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1=''b'' = 42}}`{=mediawiki}, then `{{math|1=gcd (12, 42) = 6}}`{=mediawiki}. Then the following Bézout\'s identities are had, with the Bézout coefficients written in red for the minimal pairs and in blue for the other ones. $\begin{align} \vdots \\ 12 &\times ({\color{blue}{-10}}) & + \;\; 42 &\times \color{blue}{3} &= 6 \\ 12 &\times ({\color{red}{-3}}) & + \;\;42 &\times \color{red}{1} &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{red}{4} & + \;\;42 &\times({\color{red}{-1}}) &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{blue}{11} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-3}}) &= 6 \\ 12 &\times \color{blue}{18} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-5}}) &= 6 \\ \vdots \end{align}$ If `{{math|1=(''x'', ''y'') = (18, −5)}}`{=mediawiki} is the original pair of Bézout coefficients, then `{{math|{{sfrac|18|42/6}} ∈ [2, 3]}}`{=mediawiki} yields the minimal pairs via `{{math|1=''k'' = 2}}`{=mediawiki}, respectively `{{math|1=''k'' = 3}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, `{{math|1=(18 − 2 ⋅ 7, −5 + 2 ⋅ 2) = (4, −1)}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{math|1=(18 − 3 ⋅ 7, −5 + 3 ⋅ 2) = (−3, 1)}}`{=mediawiki}.
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# Bézout's identity ## Existence proof {#existence_proof} Given any nonzero integers `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}, let `{{math|1=''S'' = {{mset|''ax'' + ''by'' | ''x'', ''y'' ∈ '''Z''' and ''ax'' + ''by'' > 0}}}}`{=mediawiki}. The set `{{mvar|S}}`{=mediawiki} is nonempty since it contains either `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} or `{{math|–''a''}}`{=mediawiki} (with `{{math|1=''x'' = ±1}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1=''y'' = 0}}`{=mediawiki}). Since `{{mvar|S}}`{=mediawiki} is a nonempty set of positive integers, it has a minimum element `{{math|1=''d'' = ''as'' + ''bt''}}`{=mediawiki}, by the well-ordering principle. To prove that `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is the greatest common divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}, it must be proven that `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is a common divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}, and that for any other common divisor `{{mvar|c}}`{=mediawiki}, one has `{{math|''c'' ≤ ''d''}}`{=mediawiki}. The Euclidean division of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} by `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} may be written as $a=dq+r\quad\text{with}\quad 0\le r<d.$ The remainder `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} is in `{{math|''S'' ∪ {{mset|0}}}}`{=mediawiki}, because $\begin{align} r & = a - qd \\ & = a - q(as+bt)\\ & = a(1-qs) - bqt. \end{align}$ Thus `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} is of the form `{{math|''ax'' + ''by''}}`{=mediawiki}, and hence `{{math|''r'' ∈ ''S'' ∪ {{mset|0}}}}`{=mediawiki}. However, `{{math|0 ≤ ''r'' < ''d''}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is the smallest positive integer in `{{mvar|S}}`{=mediawiki}: the remainder `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} can therefore not be in `{{mvar|S}}`{=mediawiki}, making `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} necessarily 0. This implies that `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is a divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki}. Similarly `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is also a divisor of `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}, and therefore `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is a common divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}. Now, let `{{mvar|c}}`{=mediawiki} be any common divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}; that is, there exist `{{mvar|u}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|v}}`{=mediawiki} such that `{{math|1=''a'' = ''cu''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|1=''b'' = ''cv''}}`{=mediawiki}. One has thus $\begin{align} d&=as + bt\\ & =cus+cvt\\ &=c(us+vt). \end{align}$ That is, `{{mvar|c}}`{=mediawiki} is a divisor of `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki}. Since `{{math|''d'' > 0}}`{=mediawiki}, this implies `{{math|''c'' ≤ ''d''}}`{=mediawiki}.
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Bézout's identity
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# Bézout's identity ## Generalizations ### For three or more integers {#for_three_or_more_integers} Bézout\'s identity can be extended to more than two integers: if $\gcd(a_1, a_2, \ldots, a_n) = d$ then there are integers $x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n$ such that $d = a_1 x_1 + a_2 x_2 + \cdots + a_n x_n$ has the following properties: - is the smallest positive integer of this form - every number of this form is a multiple of `{{math|''d''}}`{=mediawiki} ### For polynomials {#for_polynomials} Bézout\'s identity does not always hold for polynomials. For example, when working in the polynomial ring of integers: the greatest common divisor of `{{math|2''x''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''x''<sup>2</sup>}}`{=mediawiki} is *x*, but there does not exist any integer-coefficient polynomials `{{math|''p''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''q''}}`{=mediawiki} satisfying `{{math|1=2''xp'' + ''x''<sup>2</sup>''q'' = ''x''}}`{=mediawiki}. However, Bézout\'s identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers. In particular the Bézout\'s coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm. As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout\'s identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result: `{{block indent|em=1.5|text=For univariate polynomials {{mvar|f}} and {{mvar|g}} with coefficients in a field, there exist polynomials {{math|''a''}} and {{math|''b''}} such that {{math|1=''af'' + ''bg'' = 1}} if and only if {{mvar|f}} and {{mvar|g}} have no common root in any [[algebraically closed field]] (commonly the field of [[complex number]]s).}}`{=mediawiki} The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert\'s Nullstellensatz. ### For principal ideal domains {#for_principal_ideal_domains} As noted in the introduction, Bézout\'s identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID). That is, if `{{math|''R''}}`{=mediawiki} is a PID, and `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki} are elements of `{{math|''R''}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{mvar|d}}`{=mediawiki} is a greatest common divisor of `{{mvar|a}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{mvar|b}}`{=mediawiki}, then there are elements `{{math|''x''}}`{=mediawiki} and `{{math|''y''}}`{=mediawiki} in `{{math|''R''}}`{=mediawiki} such that `{{math|1=''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''}}`{=mediawiki}. The reason is that the ideal `{{math|''Ra'' + ''Rb''}}`{=mediawiki} is principal and equal to `{{math|''Rd''}}`{=mediawiki}. An integral domain in which Bézout\'s identity holds is called a Bézout domain. ## History and attribution {#history_and_attribution} The French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730--1783) proved this identity for polynomials. The statement for integers can be found already in the work of an earlier French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581--1638). Andrew Granville traced the association of Bézout\'s name with the identity to Bourbaki, arguing that it is a misattribution since the identity is implicit in Euclid\'s *Elements*
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Bézout's identity
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# Bokken A ***bokken*** (*木剣\]\]*, `{{Transliteration|ja|bok(u)}}`{=mediawiki}, \'wood\', and *ken*, \'(double-edged) sword\') or ***bokutō*** (*木刀\]\]*, `{{Transliteration|ja|boku}}`{=mediawiki}, \'wood\', and *tō*, \'(single-edged) sword\') is a Japanese wooden sword used for training in kenjutsu. It is usually the size and shape of a *katana*, but is sometimes shaped like other swords, such as the *wakizashi* and *tantō*. Some ornamental *bokken* are decorated with mother-of-pearl work and elaborate carvings. Sometimes, it is spelled \"boken\" in English. *Bokken* are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak, although any hardwood can be used. In comparison, practice swords made of flexible, soft wood such as bamboo are referred to as *shinai*. ## History It is hard to determine precisely when the first *bokken* appeared due to secrecy in ancient martial arts training and loose record-keeping. While various mock weapons were surely used during the earlier periods of Japanese history, usage of *bokken* in their modern form first emerged during the Muromachi Period (1336--1600) for the training of samurai warriors in the various ryū (schools of martial arts and swordsmanship) of the era. If a steel katana is repeatedly used, it can easily become nicked and the edge flawed, potentially leading to a broken expensive sword. *Bokken* are safer than fighting with real swords, and are considerably more durable. A wielder can make contact with other trainee\'s swords with little fear of damage. While *bokken* are safer for sparring and practice than katana, they are still lethal weapons in the hands of trained users. A famous legend to this effect involves Miyamoto Musashi, a ronin known to fight fully armed foes with only one or two *bokken*. According to the story, he agreed to a duel with Sasaki Kojiro, in the early morning on Ganryūjima, a tiny sandbar between Kyushu and Honshu. Musashi overslept the morning of the duel, and made his way to the duel late. He carved a *bokken* from an oar with his knife while traveling on a boat to the duel. At the duel, Sasaki was armed with his large *nodachi*, yet Musashi crushed Sasaki\'s skull with a single blow from his *bokken*, killing him. While many elements of the story are likely apocryphal, the potential danger of a *bokken* from the legend is real. Before the Meiji era, *bokken* were very likely manufactured by woodworkers not specialized in *bokken* manufacture. At the beginning of the 20th century, *bokken* manufacture started more formally, mainly in Miyakonojō, a city on Kyushu Island. The four remaining *bokken* workshops of Japan are located in Miyakonojō. Another notable spot where *bokken* were manufactured and sold as tourist souvenirs was Aizuwakamatsu. The resulting *bokken* were frequently inscribed with the markings of the *Byakkotai*, a youth battalion that committed mass suicide nearby during the 1868 Battle of Aizu. During the late Showa era in the 1970s and 1980s, these suicides were romanticized as a bold and heroic act, and *bokken* marked with their emblem sold well. The \"standard *bokken*\", mostly used in kendo, iaido, and aikido, was created by master Aramaki Yasuo, in collaboration with the All Japan Kendo Federation in the 1950s and was the first standardized *bokken* ever created.
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# Bokken ## Usage The *bokken* is used as an inexpensive and relatively safe substitute for a real sword in several martial arts such as *aikido*, *kendo*, *iaido*, *kenjutsu*, and *jodo*. Its simple wooden construction demands less care and maintenance than a katana. Training with a *bokken* does not carry the same mortal risk associated with that of a sharp metal sword, both for the user and other practitioners nearby. While its use has several advantages over use of a live edged weapon, it can still be deadly, and any training with a *bokken* should be done with due care. Injuries occurring from *bokken* are very similar to those caused by clubs and similar battering weapons, and include compound fractures, ruptured organs, and other such blunt force injuries. In some ways, a *bokken* can be more dangerous, as the injuries caused are often unseen and inexperienced practitioners may underestimate the risk of harm. It is not a sparring weapon, but is intended to be used in kata, and to acclimate the student to the feel of a real sword. For sparring, a bamboo shinai is typically used instead, for obvious safety reasons. In 2003, the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) introduced a set of basic exercises using a *bokutō* called *Bokutō Ni Yoru Kendō Kihon-waza Keiko-hō*. This form of practice is intended primarily for kendo practitioners up to Nidan ranking, but can be beneficial for all kendo students. *Suburitō* (素振り刀) are *bokken* designed for use in *suburi*. *Suburi* (素振り), literally \"bare swinging,\" are solo cutting exercises. Suburitō are thicker and heavier than normal *bokken* and users of suburitō must therefore develop both strength and technique. Their weight makes them unsuitable for paired practice and solo forms. Miyamoto Musashi\'s *bokken* made of an oar in his legendary duel with Sasaki Kojiro was presumably a suburitō-sized *bokken*. As late as 2015, *bokken* were issued to the Los Angeles Police Mounted Unit for use as batons. ## Types *Bokken* can be made to represent any style of weapon required such as nagamaki, nodachi, yari, naginata, kama, etc. The most widely used styles are: - *daitō* or *tachi* (katana-sized), long sword - *shōtō* or *kodachi* or *wakizashi bō* (wakizashi-sized), short sword - *tantō bō* (tantō-sized) - *suburitō* can be made in *daitō* and *shōtō* sizes Various koryu (traditional Japanese martial arts) have their own distinct styles of *bokken* which can vary slightly in length, tip shape, or in whether or not a tsuba (hilt guard) is added. The All Japan Kendo Federation specify the dimensions of *bokken* for use in the modern kendo kata, called *Nippon kendo kata*. - Tachi: Total length, approx. 102 cm; *tsuka* (handle) approx. 24 cm. - Kodachi: Total length, approx. 55 cm; *tsuka* (handle) approx. 14 cm. *Bokken* are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak. White oak varieties are slightly more expensive and prestigious. Other common tree varieties used included ebony, biwa, and sunuke in Japan, and hickory, persimmon, ironwood, and walnut for trees native to the Americas. Biwa trees were used at least partially due to a folk superstition that wounds inflicted by biwa wood would never heal
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# Bovril **Bovril** is a thick and salty meat extract paste, similar to a yeast extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston. It is sold in a distinctive bulbous jar and as cubes and granules. Its appearance is similar to the British Marmite and its Australian equivalent Vegemite. Bovril is owned and distributed by Unilever UK. Bovril can be made into a drink by diluting with hot water or, less commonly, with milk. It can be used as a flavouring for soups, broth, stews or porridge, or as a spread, especially on toast. In 2004 Unilever removed beef ingredients from the Bovril formula, rendering it vegetarian, but in 2006, reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to the formula. ## Etymology The first part of the product\'s name comes from Latin *bovīnus*, meaning \"pertaining to an ox\". Johnston took the *-vril* suffix from Edward Bulwer-Lytton\'s then-popular novel, *The Coming Race* (1871), the plot of which revolves around a superior race of people, the Vril-ya, who derive their powers from an electromagnetic substance named \"Vril\". Therefore, Bovril indicates great strength obtained from an ox. ## History In 1870, in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III ordered one million cans of beef to feed his troops. The task of providing this went to John Lawson Johnston, a Scottish butcher living in Canada. Large quantities of beef were available across the British Dominions and South America, but transport and storage were problematic. Therefore, Johnston created a product known as \'Johnston\'s Fluid Beef\', later called Bovril, to meet Napoleon\'s needs. By 1888, over 3,000 UK public houses, grocers and dispensing chemists were selling Bovril. In 1889, Bovril Ltd was formed to develop Johnston\'s business further. During the 1900 Siege of Ladysmith in the Second Boer War, a Bovril-like paste was produced from horsemeat within the garrison. Nicknamed *Chevril* (a portmanteau of *cheval*, French for *horse*, and Bovril) it was made by boiling down horse or mule meat to a jelly and serving it as a tea-like mixture. Bovril also produced concentrated, pemmican-like dried beef as part of the British Army emergency field ration during the war. The ration came in the form of a pocket-sized tin can that contained the beef on one half alongside a dried cocoa drink on another half. The dried beef could be eaten alone, or mixed with water to create a beef tea. Bovril continued to function as a \"war food\" in World War I and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account *Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War* by Helen Zenna Smith. It describes the drink being prepared for the casualties at Mons where \"the orderlies were just beginning to make Bovril for the wounded, when the bearers and ambulance wagons were shelled as they were bringing the wounded into the hospital\". When John Lawson Johnston died, his son George Lawson Johnston inherited and took over the Bovril business. In 1929, George Lawson Johnston was made Baron Luke, of Pavenham, in the county of Bedford. Bovril\'s instant beef stock was launched in 1966 and its \"King of Beef\" range of instant flavours for stews, casseroles and gravy in 1971. In 1971, James Goldsmith\'s Cavenham Foods acquired the Bovril Company but then sold most of its dairies and South American operations to finance further takeovers. The brand is now owned by the Anglo-Dutch multinational Unilever, which bought Bovril in 2001. In 2004, Unilever removed beef ingredients from the Bovril formula, rendering it vegetarian. This was mainly due to concerns about decreasing sales, particularly from exports due to an export ban on British beef, as a result of the growing popularity of vegetarianism, religious dietary requirements, and public concerns about bovine spongiform encephalopathy. In 2006, Unilever reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to their Bovril formula once sales increased and the beef export bans were lifted. Unilever now produces Bovril using beef extract and a chicken variety using chicken extract. In November 2020, Forest Green Rovers Football Club announced a collaboration with the makers of Bovril to create a beet-based version of Bovril to be sold at their New Lawn stadium, where meat-based products had been removed from sale some years prior. ## Licensed production {#licensed_production} In South Africa Bovril is produced by the Bokomo division of Pioneer Foods.
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# Bovril ## Cultural significance {#cultural_significance} Bovril was promoted as a superfood in the early 20th century. Advertisements recommended people to dilute it into a tea or spread it on their morning toast. Some adverts even claimed that Bovril could protect one from influenza. Bovril jars are commonly excavated as part of archaeological assemblages, such as at Knowles Mill in Worcestershire. Since its invention, Bovril has become an icon of British culture. It is associated with football culture. During the winter, British football fans in stadium terraces drink it as a tea from Thermos flasks -- or from disposable cups in Scotland, where thermoses are banned from football stadiums.Bovril holds the unusual distinction of having been advertised with a Pope. An advertising campaign of the early 20th century in Britain depicted Pope Leo XIII seated on his throne, bearing a mug of Bovril. The campaign slogan read: *The Two Infallible Powers -- The Pope & Bovril.* Bovril beef tea was the only hot drink that Ernest Shackleton\'s team had when they were marooned on Elephant Island during the 1914--1917 Endurance Expedition. In the film *In Which We Serve*, the officers on the bridge are served \"Bovril rather heavily laced with sherry\" to warm them up, after being rescued during the Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force. British mountaineer Chris Bonington appeared in TV commercials for Bovril in the 1970s and 1980s in which he recalled melting snow and ice on the first ascent of Baintha Brakk (known as \"The Ogre\") to make hot drinks
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# Blackwood convention In the partnership card game contract bridge, the **Blackwood convention** is a bidding convention developed by Easley Blackwood in 1933 and still widely used in the modern game. Its purpose is to enable the partnership to explore its possession of aces, kings and in some variants, the queen of trumps to judge whether a slam would be a feasible contract. The essence of the convention is the use of an artificial 4NT bid made under certain conditions to ask partner how many aces he has; responses by partner are made in step-wise fashion to indicate the number held. ## Blackwood\'s original summary {#blackwoods_original_summary} After developing the concept in 1933, Easley Blackwood submitted an article proposing his slam-seeking convention to *The Bridge World* magazine but it was rejected. Nevertheless, it gained awareness and use amongst players and was written about by several authors. In his own first publication on the convention in 1949, Easley Blackwood comments on the entries in books by others and noted that \"\...in every one of these books, they have it wrong!\" He pointed out several misconceptions and concluded with a fifteen-point summary of the \"complete and official\" Blackwood Slam Convention. A synopsis of that summary follows: 1. In order to make the 4NT ace-asking bid, you must first: 1. think your partnership has sufficient strength for a slam, 2. expect to be able to make at the five-level even if partner has no aces, and 3. be prepared with a sound rebid no matter how partner responds 2. Partner\'s responses to the 4NT ace-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 1. 5`{{clubs}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 0 or 4 aces 2. 5`{{diamonds}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 1 ace 3. 5`{{hearts}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 2 aces 4. 5`{{spades}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 3 aces 3. When responding, do not count a void as an ace. 4. Generally, 4NT is ace-asking when your side has bid a suit. There are exceptions: 1. when notrump has previously been bid by partner and he subsequently removes one\'s four-level suit bid to 4NT 2. when a previous opportunity to employ 4NT as ace-asking has not been taken 5. When clubs are expected to be trumps, one must have at least two aces to employ 4NT ace-asking and when diamonds are to be trump, one must have at least one ace. 6. The 4NT bidder is only partial captain of the auction and responder has certain rights: 1. the 4NT bidder sets the level of the contract but partner may correct the denomination 2. when responder has a void in the suit in which he would convey, at the five-level, the number of aces he possesses, he may jump to six of the void suit to convey both the number of aces and the location of the void. 3. when responder has a void and his ace-showing response is in a suit of lower rank than the trump suit, he first tells partner the number of aces he has. If partner signs-off at the five-level, responder may continue to slam if his holding justifies it. 7. If the 4NT bidder, after hearing partner\'s response, bids a previously unmentioned suit, responder must bid 5NT to end the auction. 8. An ace shown by a cuebid by either partner should not be counted in responding to the 4NT ace-asking bid. 9. A 5NT bid after a response to a 4NT ace-asking bid, asks for kings. 10. Partner\'s responses to the 5NT king-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 1. 6`{{clubs}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 0 kings 2. 6`{{diamonds}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 1 king 3. 6`{{hearts}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 2 kings 4. 6`{{spades}}`{=mediawiki} to indicate 3 kings 5. 6NT to indicate 4 kings 11. To ask for kings via 5NT, one must first ask for aces via 4NT even when possessing all four aces oneself. 12. A jump to 5NT without employing the 4NT ace-asking bid is the Culbertson Grand Slam Force and obliges partner to bid the grand slam if he holds two of the three top trumps and a small slam if he does not. 13. If the opponents interfere after the 4NT ace-asking bid, a Pass by responder indicates no aces, the suit one above the opponent\'s indicates one ace, two above indicates two and so on. 14. Except in duplicate, the king-asking 5NT bid assures partner possession of all four aces. 15. After a 5NT king-asking bid, neither partner is captain and either can set the final contract.
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# Blackwood convention ## Variations based on 4NT as asking {#variations_based_on_4nt_as_asking} Several versions of Blackwood are available: Standard Blackwood, Roman Blackwood and Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKC or RKCB). All versions are initiated by a bid of four notrump (4NT), and the entire family of conventions may be called *Blackwood 4NT* in both versions, or *Key Card 4NT* in the key card variation. There are other 4NT conventions, such as Culbertson 4-5 Notrump, Norman Four Notrump and San Francisco, but almost all bridge partnerships employ some member of the Blackwood family (which includes Byzantine Blackwood) as part of their slam-investigation methods. If the partnership\'s preceding call is a natural bid in notrump, then 4NT is usually played as natural. Over an opposing pass it is simply a raise and a `{{gcb|quantitative|quantitative}}`{=mediawiki} invitation to six notrump, a small slam. Over an intervening four of a suit by opponents it is usually played as a competitive raise, expecting to play four notrump. Those natural interpretations may hold in other auctions where the partnership has previously bid notrump naturally or shown a balanced hand conventionally. In some situations where 4NT is a quantitative invitation, especially where 4`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} is a jump, many partnerships use the Gerber convention instead of the Blackwood family: 4`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} asks for the number of aces or key cards. Where both sides are bidding, 4NT is often played as a conventional takeout asking partner to help choose one of two or three suits, similar to a lower-level takeout double or `{{gcb|cuebid|cuebid}}`{=mediawiki} reply to such a double. ### Standard Blackwood {#standard_blackwood} Where standard Blackwood 4NT is in force, a four notrump bid (4NT) asks partner to disclose the number of aces in his hand. With no aces or four, partner replies 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki}; with one, two, or three aces, 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki}, 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki}, or 5`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki}, respectively. The difference between no aces and four is clear to the Blackwood bidder (unless the partnership lacks all four) so one member of the partnership knows the combined number of aces. That is often sufficient to set the final contract. (A common agreement is that when spades is not the trump suit, 5`{{spades}}`{=mediawiki} asks responder to bid 5NT. That is useful when the reply to 4NT bypasses the intended trump suit but also shows that slam is likely to be a poor contract because two aces are missing.) The continuation bid of 5NT asks for the number of kings according to the same code of replies at the six-level: 6`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} shows no kings or four, etc. Asking for the number of kings confirms that the partnership holds all four aces, so partner may reply at the seven level with expectation of taking thirteen tricks. A void may be as good as an ace in some situations but it should not be counted as an ace. Some experts (Kantar for one) recommend the 5NT reply to 4NT -- the cheapest with no standard assigned meaning -- to show a void plus two aces and six of a suit to show a void in the bid suit plus one ace. ### Roman Blackwood {#roman_blackwood} A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as *Roman Blackwood*, was popularized by the Italian Blue Team in the 1960s. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is: --------------------------- ---------------- 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} -- 0 or 3 aces 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1 or 4 aces 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} -- 2 aces --------------------------- ---------------- In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown, for example, 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc. Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} and 5`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} shows extra values, while 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} does not. In other variations, responses 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} - 5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or \"mixed\"). If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows: - 5NT is the Grand slam force - The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above.
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# Blackwood convention ## Variations based on 4NT as asking {#variations_based_on_4nt_as_asking} ### Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) {#roman_key_card_blackwood_rkcb} Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the standard version among tournament players. It developed from the *Roman Blackwood* variant (see above). According to RKCB there are five equivalent key cards rather than just the four aces: the trump king is counted as the fifth key card. The key card replies to 4NT are more compressed than standard ones and they also begin to locate the queen of trumps. --------------------------- ------------------------------------------ 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} -- 0 or 3 key cards 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1 or 4 key cards 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} -- 2 or 5 cards without the trump queen 5`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} -- 2 or 5 key cards with the trump queen --------------------------- ------------------------------------------ Although the replies to 4NT are more compressed, it is almost always possible to infer which number of keycards is correct: 0 or 3, 1 or 4, 2 or 5. Evidence for that inference includes the entire auction as well as the number of key cards that the 4NT bidder holds. The 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} and 5`{{Spades}}`{=mediawiki} replies with 2 or 5 key cards also deny and show the trump queen, respectively. (Responder may also show the queen with extra length in trumps, typically indicating a 10-card fit, where the ace and king will probably draw all outstanding cards in the suit.) The 5`{{Clubs}}`{=mediawiki} and 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} replies tell nothing about the queen or extra length, but the 4NT bidder may ask about that using the cheapest bid other than five of the trump suit. The code for replies to that \"queen ask\" vary; a common rule is that the cheapest bid in the trump suit denies the queen or extra length and any other call shows it. An option is for the positive calls to show a feature, such as a king in that suit, and 6 of the trump suit can show the queen of trumps with no outside kings. Roman Key Card Blackwood is predicated on existence of a trump suit, which determines which of the four kings and queens responder should show as key cards. Trump agreement is not necessary, however. One common rule is that the last suit bid before 4NT bid is the key suit, lacking trump agreement. Some partnerships use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none, dubbed \"1430\" (coincidentally the score for making a vulnerable small slam in a major suit), with the original version being dubbed \"3014\" when distinction is necessary. In order to facilitate the Queen Ask, an experts\' version has been developed, where \"1430\" is used by the strong hand and \"3014\" is used by the weak hand. There are specific rules which determine when the asker hand is the weak one and when it is the strong one.
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# Blackwood convention ## Variations based on 4NT as asking {#variations_based_on_4nt_as_asking} ### Key Card Blackwood (KCB) {#key_card_blackwood_kcb} A half-way house between standard Blackwood and RKCB is Keycard Blackwood. Again there are five key cards, including the trump king, but unlike RKCB, the queen of trumps is not considered. 5♣ -- 0 or 4 key cards\ 5`{{Diams}}`{=mediawiki} -- 1 or 5 key cards\ 5`{{Hearts}}`{=mediawiki} -- 2 key cards\ 5♠ -- 3 key cards This is advocated by Bernard Magee as being simpler for club players, as with RKCB players are sometimes unsure whether partner holds 0 or 3 key cards, or 1 or 4.
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