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In addition to these, the semivowels and can be combined (either before, after, or both) with most vowels, while this arguably forms additional diphthongs and triphthongs, only and can follow an obstruent-liquid cluster such as in broască ('frog') and dreagă ('to mend'), implying that and are restricted to the syllable boundary and therefore, strictly speaking, do not form diphthongs. Celtic languages Irish All Irish diphthongs are falling. , spelled aigh, aidh, agh, adh, eagh, eadh, eigh, or eidh, spelled abh, amh, eabh, or eamh, spelled ia, iai, spelled ua, uaiScottish Gaelic There are 9 diphthongs in Scottish Gaelic. Group 1 occur anywhere (eu is usually [eː] before -m, e.g.
Seumas). Group 2 are reflexes that occur before -ll, -m, -nn, -bh, -dh, -gh and -mh. For more detailed explanations of Gaelic diphthongs see Scottish Gaelic orthography. Cornish The following diphthongs are used in the Standard Written Form of Cornish. Each diphthong is given with its Revived Middle Cornish (RMC) and Revived Late Cornish (RLC) pronunciation. Welsh Welsh is traditionally divided into Northern and Southern dialects. In the north, some diphthongs may be short or long according to regular vowel length rules but in the south they are always short (see Welsh phonology). Southern dialects tend to simplify diphthongs in speech (e.g.
gwaith is reduced to ). † The plural ending -au is reduced to /a/ in the north and /e/ in the south, e.g. cadau 'battles' is /ˈkada/ (north) or /ˈkade/ (south). Slavic languages Czech There are three diphthongs in Czech: as in auto (almost exclusively in words of foreign origin) as in euro (in words of foreign origin only) as in kouleThe vowel groups ia, ie, ii, io, and iu in foreign words are not regarded as diphthongs, they are pronounced with between the vowels . Serbo-Croatian i(j)e, as in mlijekois conventionally considered a diphthong. However, it is actually in hiatus or separated by a semivowel, .
Some Serbo-Croatian dialects also have uo, as in kuonj, ruod, uon whereas, in Standard Croatian and Serbian, these words are konj, rod, on. Finno-Ugric languages Estonian All nine vowels can appear as the first component of an Estonian diphthong, but only occur as the second component. There are additional diphthongs less commonly used, such as in Euroopa (Europe), in söandama (to dare), and in näuguma (to mew). Finnish All Finnish diphthongs are falling. Notably, Finnish has true opening diphthongs (e.g. ), which are not very common crosslinguistically compared to centering diphthongs (e.g. in English). Vowel combinations across syllables may in practice be pronounced as diphthongs, when an intervening consonant has elided, as in näön instead of for the genitive of näkö ('sight').
closing as in laiva (ship) as in keinu (swing) as in poika (boy) as in äiti (mother) as in öisin (at nights) as in lauha (mild) as in leuto (mild) as in koulu (school) as in leyhyä (to waft) as in täysi (full) as in löytää (to find) close as in uida (to swim) as in lyijy (lead) as in viulu (violin) as in siistiytyä (to smarten up) opening as in kieli (tongue) as in suo (bog) as in yö (night) Northern Sami The diphthong system in Northern Sami varies considerably from one dialect to another. The Western Finnmark dialects distinguish four different qualities of opening diphthongs: as in leat "to be" as in giella "language" as in boahtit "to come" as in vuodjat "to swim" In terms of quantity, Northern Sami shows a three-way contrast between long, short and finally stressed diphthongs.
The last are distinguished from long and short diphthongs by a markedly long and stressed second component. Diphthong quantity is not indicated in spelling. Semitic languages Maltese Maltese has seven falling diphthongs, though they may be considered VC sequences phonemically. ej or għi aj or għi oj iw ew aw or għu ow or għuSino-Tibetan languages Mandarin Chinese Rising sequences in Mandarin are usually regarded as a combination of a medial semivowel () plus a vowel, while falling sequences are regarded as one diphthong. ai: , as in ài (愛, love) ei: , as in lèi (累, tired) ao: , as in dào (道, way) ou: , as in dòu (豆, bean) Cantonese Cantonese has eleven diphthongs.
aai: , as in gaai1 (街, street) aau: , as in baau3 (爆, explode) ai: , as in gai1 (雞, chicken) au: , as in au1 (勾, hook) ei: , as in gei1 (機, machine) eu: , as in deu6 (掉, throw) iu: , as in giu3 (叫, call) oi: , as in oi3 (愛, love) ou: , as in gou1 (高, high) ui: , as in pui4 (陪, accompany) eui: , as in zeoi3 (醉, drunk) Tai–Kadai languages Thai In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding and , Thai has three diphthongs which exist as long-short pairs: เอีย ia เอือ üa อัว ua Mon-Khmer languages Vietnamese In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding /j/ and /w/, Vietnamese has three diphthongs: ia~iê ưa~ươ ua~uôKhmer Khmer language has rich vocalics with an extra distinction of long and short register to the vowels and diphthongs.
Bantu languages Zulu Zulu has only monophthongs. Y and w are semi-vowels: as in ngiyakubeka (I am placing it) as in ngiwa (I fall/I am falling) Austronesian languages Indonesian Indonesian language, has four native diphthong and may be located at the beginning, middle and end of the words. <ref>Minister of Education and Culture Decree No: 50/2015, Jakarta, 2015.</ref> they are: : balairung ('hall') , kedai ('shop'), pandai ('clever') : autodidak ('autodidact'), taufik (Indonesian first name),kerbau ('buffalo'), limau ('lemon') (or in Indonesian): boikot ('boycott') , amboi (an expression when amazed) : eigendom ('property') , survei ('survey') See also Digraph (orthography) Hiatus Index of phonetics articles Table of vowels Monophthong Semivowel Triphthong Vowel Vowel breaking Diaeresis Notes References Bibliography Category:Vowels Category:Phonetics
Lasmiditan, sold under the brand name Reyvow, is a medication used for the acute (active but short-term) treatment of migraine with or without aura (a sensory phenomenon or visual disturbance) in adults. It is not useful for prevention. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include sleepiness, dizziness, tiredness, and numbness. Lasmiditan was approved in the United States in October 2019 and became available in February 2020. It was developed by Eli Lilly. Pharmacology Mechanism of action Lasmiditan is a serotonin receptor agonist that, like the unsuccessful LY-334,370, selectively binds to the 5-HT1F receptor subtype. A number of triptans have been shown to act on this subtype as well, but only after their affinity for 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D has been made responsible for their anti-migraine activity.
The lack of affinity for these receptors might result in fewer side effects related to vasoconstriction compared to triptans in susceptible people, such as those with ischemic heart disease, Raynaud's phenomenon or after a myocardial infarction, although a 1998 review has found such side-effects to rarely occur in people taking triptans. Adverse effects There is a risk of driving impairment while taking lasmiditan. People are advised not to drive or operate machinery for at least eight hours after taking lasmiditan, even if they feel well enough to do so. People who cannot follow this advice are advised not to take lasmiditan.
The drug causes central nervous system (CNS) depression, including dizziness and sedation. It should be used with caution if taken in combination with alcohol or other CNS depressants. History Lasmiditan was discovered by Eli Lilly and Company and was then relicensed to CoLucid Pharmaceuticals in 2006, until CoLucid was bought by Eli Lilly in 2017, to allow Eli Lilly to reacquire the drug's intellectual property. The drug is protected by patents until 2031. Phase II clinical trials for dose finding purposes were completed in 2007, for an intravenous form and in early 2010, for an oral form. Eli Lilly submitted a new drug application to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in November 2018.
Three Phase III clinical trials were completed. The SPARTAN trial compared placebo with 50, 100, and 200 mg of lasmiditan. SAMURAI compared placebo with 100 and 200 mg doses of lasmiditan. GLADIATOR is an open-label study that compared 100 and 200 mg doses of lasmiditan in subjects that received the drug as part of a prior trial. Topline results from the SPARTAN trial showed that the drug induced met its primary and secondary endpoints in the trial. The primary result showed a statistically significant improvement in pain relief relative to placebo 2 hours after the first dose. The secondary result showed a statistically significantly greater percentage of subjects were free of their most bothersome symptom (MBS) compared with placebo at two hours following the first dose.
The FDA approved lasmiditan primarily based on data from two clinical trials, Trial 1 (# NCT02439320) and Trial 2 (#NCT02605174) of 4439 subjects with migraine headaches with or without aura. Trials were conducted at 224 sites in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany. The FDA approved the drug in October 2019. However, , the drug was awaiting Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) scheduling before it was made available in the United States. It was placed into Schedule V in January 2020. References External links Category:Antimigraine drugs Category:Benzamides Category:Eli Lilly and Company brands Category:Fluoroarenes Category:Ketones Category:Piperidines Category:Pyridines Category:Serotonin receptor agonists
Ephesians 2 is the second chapter of the Epistle to the Ephesians in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. Traditionally, it is believed to have been written by Apostle Paul while he was in prison in Rome (around AD 62), but more recently it has been suggested that it was written between AD 80 and 100 by another writer using Paul's name and style. The 1599 Geneva Bible summarises the contents of this chapter: The better to set out the grace of Christ, he (Paul) useth a comparison, calling them to mind, that they were altogether castaways and aliants, that they are saved by grace, and brought near, by reconciliation through Christ, published by the Gospel.
This chapter contains the well-known verse For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith: and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God. Text The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 22 verses. Textual witnesses Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are: Papyrus 46 (~AD 200) Codex Vaticanus (325-350) Codex Sinaiticus (330-360) Codex Alexandrinus (400-440) Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450; extant verses 19-22) Codex Freerianus (~450; extant verses 15-18) Codex Claromontanus (~550) Reminder of God's Grace (2:1–10) According to theologian James Dunn, this section contains "one of the most forceful statements in the Bible" about the human condition when separated from God's grace and the work of God's grace for salvation.
Verse 1 And you He made alive, who were dead in trespasses and sin. "And you hath he quickened …" in the King James Version. The verb is missing from the text, supplied by inference from verse 5 ("[he] made us alive"). Some translations decline to add a form of words on mankind being made alive: the New Revised Standard Version, for example, reads: You were dead through the trespasses and sins in which you once lived. Verse 2 ... you once walked according to the course of this world, according to the prince of the power of the air, the spirit who now works in the sons of disobedience.
The metaphor, "the prince of the power of the air" or "the ruler of the power of the air", is not used elsewhere in the New Testament. Verse 3 ...among whom also we all once conducted ourselves in the lusts of our flesh, fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, just as the others. The verse describes that before being saved, converts were just as bad as those outside the faith - that they gave in to their baser thoughts and impulses. There is debate about the phrase "children of wrath".
Some indicate it refers to Original Sin, in which God was angered by Adam and Eve for disobeying him. Others believe it refers to the descendants of Cain, who slew Abel in his anger and brought murder into the world. Verse 8 For by grace you have been saved through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God, "Gift of God": emphasizing that salvation is completely and solely a 'gift'. Verse 9 not of works, lest anyone should boast. "Works" here means 'any product of human effort'. Verse 10 For we are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand that we should walk in them.
"His workmanship": Not only as human beings, but also as Christians, new creatures; pertaining to the persons described in Ephesians 2:1-3 and include both Jews and Gentiles. "Created in Christ Jesus for good works": the grace of God is an act of creation, that is, an infusion of new creatures, which are created in Christ. A person who has become a new creature, is visibly in Christ, ready to perform good works. "God prepared beforehand" (KJV: "God has before ordained") or has "before prepared": the preparation of good works to be performed by believers, and the preparation of the believers for performihg the works, both are from the Lord.
God has appointed good works to be done by his people, but the intention is not that they should be saved by them, but that they should walk in them; and this being God's pre-ordination, as it shows that predestination is not according to good works, since good works are the effects of it. The New Humanity (2:11–22) This is another review of the believers' transition from the past life to the "new humanity" (verse 15), from the perspective of the saving work of God through Israel which is now open to all through Christ.
Verses 11-12 11 Therefore remember that you, once Gentiles in the flesh—who are called Uncircumcision by what is called the Circumcision made in the flesh by hands— 12 that at that time you were without Christ, being aliens from the commonwealth of Israel and strangers from the covenants of promise, having no hope and without God in the world. Verse 13 But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far off have been brought near by the blood of Christ. The image of the gentiles as being "far off" and "brought near" is also used in the Acts of the Apostles, where Peter speaks to the Pentecost crowds in Jerusalem saying: The promise is to you (Jews) and to your children, and to all who are afar off.
The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges notes that "nigh” and “far” were also familiar rabbinical terms in the sense of having or not having part in the covenant. "Johann Jakob Wettstein on this verse quotes, 'inter alia', the following from the Talmud: “A woman came to Rabbi Eliezer, to be made a proselyte; saying to him, 'Rabbi, make me nigh'. He refused her, and she went to Rabbi Joshua, who received her. The scholars of Rabbi Joshua therefore said, 'Did R. Eliezer put her far off, and dost thou make her nigh?
'”" Verses 14–16 For He Himself is our peace, who has made both one, and has broken down the middle wall of separation, having abolished in His flesh the enmity, that is, the law of commandments contained in ordinances, so as to create in Himself one new man from the two, thus making peace, and that He might reconcile them both to God in one body through the cross, thereby putting to death the enmity. "[He has] created in Himself one new man from the two": Lutheran theologian George Stoeckhardt argues that "the Christian Church is de facto the one new man formed from Jews and Gentiles in whom there is neither Jew nor Greek".
Verses 19–22 Now, therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but are fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, having been built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief cornerstone, in whom the entire building, tightly framed together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord, in whom you also are being built together into a dwelling place of God through the Spirit. "Cornerstone" (Greek: , ; cf. , in Isaiah 28:16) is also applied to Jesus Christ in 1 Peter 2:6 (cf. Romans 9:33).
See also Holy Spirit Jesus Christ Knowledge of Christ Related Bible parts: Isaiah 2, Isaiah 28, Romans 8, 2 Corinthians 1, 1 Peter 2 References Bibliography External links King James Bible - Wikisource English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English) Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.) 02
Schnuerle porting is a system to improve efficiency of a valveless two-stroke engine by giving better scavenging. The intake and exhaust ports cut in the cylinder wall are shaped to give a more efficient transfer of intake and exhaust gases. Description Gas flow within the two-stroke engine is even more critical than for a four-stroke engine, as the two flows are both entering and leaving the combustion chamber simultaneously. A well-defined flow pattern is required, avoiding any turbulent mixing. The efficiency of the two-stroke engine depends on effective scavenging, the more complete replacement of the old spent charge with a fresh charge.
Apart from large diesels with separate superchargers, two-stroke engines are generally piston-ported and use their crankcase beneath the piston for compression. The cylinder has a transfer port (inlet from crankcase to cylinder) and an exhaust port cut into it. These are opened, as the piston moves downwards past them; with the higher exhaust port opening earlier as the piston descends; and closing later as the piston rises. The simplest arrangement is a single transfer and single exhaust port, opposite each other. This "cross scavenging" performs poorly, as there is tendency for the flow to pass from the inlet directly to the exhaust, wasting some of the fuel mixture and also poorly scavenging the upper part of the chamber.
Before Schnuerle porting, a deflector on top of the piston was used to direct the gas flow from the transfer port upwards, in a U-shaped loop around the combustion chamber roof and then down and out through the exhaust port. Apart from the gas flow never quite following this ideal path and tending to mix instead, this also gave a poorly shaped combustion chamber with long, thin flame paths. In 1926, the German engineer Adolf Schnürle developed the system of ports that bears his name. The ports were relocated to both be on the same side of the cylinder, with the transfer port being split into two angled ports, one on either side of the exhaust port.
A deflector piston was no longer required. The gas flow was now a circular loop, flowing in and across the piston crown from the transfer ports, up and around the combustion chamber and then out through the exhaust port. With Schnuerle porting, the piston crown may be of any shape, even bowl shaped. This permits a far better combustion chamber shape and flame path, giving better combustion, particularly at high speeds. Loop scavenging As Schnuerle porting encourages flow in a loop, it is termed "loop scavenging". Historically, the deflector piston form of cross scavenging was termed "loop scavenging", after the supposed shape of the flow.
Schnuerle flow was termed "reverse loop scavenging". As the first of these was realised to be inaccurate, the later form adopted the simpler name. These original terms are now obsolete and no longer used. Adolf Schnürle The system is named after its inventor, Adolf Schnürle. Either "Schnürle" or the more common Anglicisation as "Schnuerle" are generally acceptable. It also appears as "Schnürrle", but "Schneurle" is a misspelling. Adolf Schnürle was a prolific engineer and is named on many patent documents. References Category:Two-stroke engine technology
Summary of FTT: The False Tagging Theory (FTT) is a neuroanatomical model of a belief and doubt process that proposes a single, unique function for the prefrontal cortex. The theory as developed by Neuroscientist Erik Asp. Evidence indicates that prefrontal-cortex-mediated doubting is at the core of executive functioning and may explain some biases of intuitive judgement. FTT asserts that the prefrontal cortex is necessary for false tags during the assessment component of belief. Belief is the existence of perceptual cognitive representations (PCR) in the prostaglandin region, whereas doubt, skepticism, and disbelief are mediated by false tags via the prefrontal area.
The prefrontal cortex is critical in situations where doubt, uncertainty, and ambiguity are high. Doubt for a specific belief can have a variety of effects, which are often realized as a reduction of behavior toward the belief. Individuals with an altered prefrontal cortex structural integrity should have a “doubt deficit”, a vulnerability to believe inaccurate information. Damage to Prefrontal Cortex Patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex have a general emotional impairment, often presenting with blunted emotional responses . The FTT indicates individuals with a disrupted false tagging mechanism will have problems using and experiencing these states, tending to show emotional abnormalities.
Psychiatric Disease and FTT Investigations into the phenomenology of pathological confabulations have noted that some prefrontal patients only produce temporal order confabulations, that is, real memories out of correct temporal order but other patients produce more fantastic confabulations that are not real memories and tend to have a grandiose quality. In the case of temporal order confabulations, the patient cannot false tag inaccurate memories only during memory retrieval but can false tag during encoding and normal ruminating; whereas during fantastic confabulations no false tagging for either memory encoding or retrieval can be performed. In fantastic confabulations the patient has no way to Falsify any rumination.
A clinical sign like that of fantastic confabulation is delusion, where patients cannot evaluate the accuracy of their cognitions or perceptions and make incorrect inferences about external reality. Malfunction of the prefrontal cortex is strongly implicated in clinical delusions. In the FTT, patients with fantastic confabulations or delusions represent errant percepts but fail to false tag the PCR, which results in such patients believing their errant percepts and cognitions. Schizophrenia is a devastating psychiatric disorder, afflicting about 1% of the world's population. Structural imaging has shown that patients with schizophrenia tend to have prefrontal cortex abnormalities such as reduced gray matter; and functional imaging has revealed that less activation is found in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia when challenged with executive function tasks.
Developmental Evidence FTT in Children The prefrontal cortex in children is preferentially underdeveloped in comparison to other brain regions. Children are often credulous, and skeptical thinking develops relatively late in childhood. Increased skepticism during early development parallels maturation in prefrontal cortex functioning as the prefrontal cortex is relatively underdeveloped early in childhood. The FTT works on the principle of coherence, which states that disbelief results from the comparison of discrepant, mutually incompatible cognitions. A lack of incompatible cognitions in children leaves cognitions believed rather than simply represented without belief or disbelief. The influence of both knowledge and prefrontal cortex development may play complementary roles in the maturation of doubt, but for now, it is the province of future research.
Children, compared to adults, should be more gullible and susceptible to inaccurate beliefs. FTT in Older Adults The structural integrity of the prefrontal cortex in older adults is preferentially diminished relative to other brain regions. The normal age progression results in a decline in frontal lobe function. Therefore, older adults are more vulnerable to inaccurate information, tending to believe without an appropriate level of doubt for a given item of information. There are direct implications for older person’ vulnerability to financial fraud, tendencies to remember false information as true, which influences judgment. Increased credulity during aging is associated with declines in prefrontal cortex functioning.
Therefore, age-related declines in ability of the prefrontal cortex to doubt provide a compelling rationale as to why highly knowledgeable and intelligent adult are often susceptible to deception and fraud. References Category:Theories
In economics, a durable good or a hard good or consumer durable is a good that does not quickly wear out, or more specifically, one that yields utility over time rather than being completely consumed in one use. Items like bricks could be considered perfectly durable goods because they should theoretically never wear out. Highly durable goods such as refrigerators or cars usually continue to be useful for three or more years of use, so durable goods are typically characterized by long periods between successive purchases. Examples of consumer durable goods include automobiles, books, household goods (home appliances, consumer electronics, furniture, tools, etc.
), sports equipment, jewelry, medical equipment, firearms, and toys. Nondurable goods or soft goods (consumables) are the opposite of durable goods. They may be defined either as goods that are immediately consumed in one use or ones that have a lifespan of less than three years. Examples of nondurable goods include fast-moving consumer goods such as cosmetics and cleaning products, food, condiments, fuel, beer, cigarettes and tobacco, medication, office supplies, packaging and containers, paper and paper products, personal products, rubber, plastics, textiles, clothing, and footwear. While durable goods can usually be rented as well as bought, nondurable goods generally are not rented.
While buying durable goods comes under the category of investment demand of goods, buying non-durables comes under the category of consumption demand of goods. Durability According to Cooper (1994, p5) "durability is the ability of a product to perform its required function over a lengthy period under normal conditions of use without excessive expenditure on maintenance or repair". Several units may be used to measure the durability of a product according to its field of application such as years of existence, hours of use and operational cycles. Product life spans and sustainable consumption The life span of household goods is significant for sustainable consumption.
The longer product life spans could contribute to eco-efficiency and sufficiency, thus, slowing consumption in order to progress towards a sustainable consumption. Cooper (2005) proposed a model to demonstrate the crucial role of product life spans to sustainable production and consumption. Durability as a characteristic relating to the quality of goods, that can be demanded by consumers, was not clear until an amendment of the law relating to the quality standards for supplied goods in 1994[5]. See also Coase conjecture Industrial organization Pacman conjecture Planned obsolescence Putty-putty References Category:Goods (economics) Category:Waste minimisation
Thyrotropes (also called thyrotrophs) are endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary which produce thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in response to thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). Thyrotropes consist around 5% of the anterior pituitary lobe cells. Thyrotropes appear basophilic in histological preparations. See also Anterior pituitary Hormone List of human cell types derived from the germ layers References External links Category:Peptide hormone secreting cells Category:Human cells Category:Thyroid homeostasis
The KK 62 (from Finnish , 'machine gun 62'), officially 7.62 KK 62 (previously also 7.62 KVKK 62) and colloquially KVKK or KVKK 62, is a Finnish 7.62×39mm light machine gun designed in late 1950s with the first prototype ready for testing in 1960. It was officially adopted as the standard infantry support weapon of the Finnish Defence Forces (FDF) in 1962 as the 7.62 konekivääri 62; the first weapons were delivered in 1966. It remains in service, although a replacement has already entered use, namely the PKM general-purpose machine gun. Design details The KK 62 is a gas-operated, belt-fed automatic weapon.
It uses a tilting bolt that locks into the roof of the receiver, and fires from an open bolt. The overall system of operation is modeled on that found in the Czech vz. 52 machine gun. The KK 62's receiver is machined from steel, and a tubular metal buttstock houses the recoil spring. To facilitate shooting with heavy mittens, there is no trigger guard. A substantial vertical bar in front of the trigger is used for pulling the trigger/handgrip assembly and bolt back when loading. The KK 62 is fed from the right-hand side, from 100-round belts that are carried in pouches that clamp onto the receiver wall.
The KK 62 has no quick-change barrel, which is a serious drawback when sustained firepower is required; the original usage doctrine was based on agile hit-and-run tactics rather than suppressive fire from a strong position. The cleaning rod is attached to the right side of the butt and receiver. A side-folding carrying handle is provided in front of the feeding mechanism. The KK 62 is also equipped with a folding bipod. Due to its flaws and clunkiness, the Finns in the Puolustusvoimat (Defense Forces) often nicknamed it "ripulilinko" or "diarrhea sling" in English and are often reluctant to use it.
The KK 62 uses the intermediate Soviet 7.62×39mm M43 cartridge, which can be interchanged with any FDF standard assault rifles (from RK 62 to RK 95 TP). The major drawbacks are the lack of a quick-changeable barrel and sensitivity to dirt and humidity—the KK 62 requires much more care in a combat environment than most FDF assault rifles. Variants kvkk m/58 - initial custom prototypes based on the Czechoslovakian vz. 52-57 machine gun. kvkk m/58 A - first Valmet-made prototype based on the exact action of the Czechoslovakian vz. 52-57 machine gun and FDF requirements, but without the magazine feed option due to manufacturing limitations.
kvkk m/58 B - Valmet modification more suitable for mass production, with a fixed barrel and both belt and magazine feed for AK-47 type magazines. KVKK 60 - prototype batch of 50 machine guns for field trials. KVKK 60 KP VS LS (Valmet production name m/60 A) - variant with a fixed barrel, belt and magazine feed. KVKK 60 IP VS LS (Valmet production name m/60 B) - variant with a quick change barrel, belt and magazine feed. KVKK 60 KP VS (Valmet production name m/60 C) - variant with a fixed barrel and only belt feed. KVKK 60 IP VS (Valmet production name m/60 D) - variant with a quick change barrel and only belt feed.
KVKK 62 pre-production batch - based on the KVKK 60 KP VS (m/60 C). Its receiver suffered from durability issues; out of the 30 pre-production machine guns, 2 had an improved, reinforced receiver installed. KK 62 (also KVKK 62)- production variant of the KK 62, based on the KVKK 62 pre-production series with the improved receiver. KK 62 late production variant with modernised night sights. Users References External links Finnish Defence Forces Modern Firearms Category:Valmet Category:7.62×39mm machine guns Category:Light machine guns Category:Machine guns of Finland
Meshwork may refer to: Mesh work Mesh networking Trabecular meshwork, an area of tissue in the eye Meshwork (album), 1995 album by German band X Marks the Pedwalk
The Wound (Xhosa: ) is a 2017 South African drama film directed by John Trengove. It was screened in the World Cinema Dramatic Competition at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival and the Panorama section of the 67th Berlin International Film Festival. The film opened the Tel Aviv International LGBT Film Festival 2017. It was selected as the South African entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 90th Academy Awards, making the December shortlist. Plot The story tracks a closeted relationship between two men in the context of the Xhosa initiation ritual of Ulwaluko. Xolani, a factory worker, joins the men of his community at the annual initiation ceremony in the mountains of Eastern Cape.
In addition to serving as a mentor to the boys undergoing the ceremony, Xolani looks forward to the annual tradition due to the fact that it provides him the opportunity to reestablish his sexual and romantic relationship with Vija. When Xolani is assigned to be the mentor of Kwanda, a young man from Johannesburg, he quickly realizes that Kwanda is also gay, and Kwanda soon realizes the nature of the relationship between Vija and Xolani. Tensions soon rise between the three men.
Cast Nakhane as Xolani Bongile Mantsai as Vija Niza Jay Ncoyini as Kwanda Siphosethu "Seth Singer" Ngcetane as Nkosi Loyiso Lloyd N Ngqayana as Vija's Initiate Sibabalwe Esbie Ngqayana as Zuko Halalisani Bradley Cebekhulu as Lukas Inga Qwede as Ncedo Production Inspiration for The Wound came after director John Trengove read A Man Who is Not a Man, a novel by Thando Mgqolozana on the topic of the Xhosa initiation ceremony. Trengove wished to challenge the notion that homosexuality was a product of western culture that posed a threat to traditional African culture. The film received funding from the National Film and Video Foundation.
Cultural experts were consulted to ensure the authenticity of the material. Reception On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89%, based on 44 reviews with an average rating of 7.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Wound uses its complex, timely story as effective grist for a thought-provoking exploration of the human dynamic." Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Inxeba received 19 awards at 44 festivals worldwide; received eight South African Film and Television Awards (Safta) nominations, including Best Actor, Best Directing and Best Film; and was short-listed for an Oscar in the Best Foreign Language Film category.
Controversy The film has been accused of cultural insensitivity because it portrays secretive initiation rituals. However, other media covering the same topic, like Nelson Mandela's Long Walk to Freedom, have not received similar criticism, leading to accusations that complaints about the film are instead motivated by homophobia. A day after the film's release in South Africa, cinemas in the Eastern Cape province were forced to cancel screenings of the film and offer refunds because of protests, intimidation and vandalism. Nu Metro Cinemas subsequently cancelled screenings countrywide, while Ster-Kinekor continued to show it outside of the Eastern Cape. The film's producers filed complaints with the Human Rights Commission and the Commission for Gender Equality over threats and violence.
Crew and cast received death threats and were forced to go into hiding. Reclassification The film was initially classified as 16LS by South Africa's Film and Publication Board (FPB), but was later reclassified as X18 by the FPB's Appeal Tribunal after complaints by the Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa and other cultural and Christian organisations. X18 is the rating reserved for hardcore pornography, although Inxeba contains none, and meant that distribution was limited to premises licensed to show pornography, resulting in the film's removal from all South African cinemas. The Democratic Alliance criticised the decision of the Appeal Tribunal, characterising it as "nothing short of censorship" by "patriarchs and homophobes".
FPB classifiers themselves have concluded that the Appeal Tribunal's rating amounted to unlawful censorship based on homophobia. Urucu Media, the producers of Inxeba, and the SA Screen Federation intended to challenge the film's X18 rating in court, on the basis that they were denied an opportunity to make representation to the Tribunal, and that the Appeal Tribunal's decision is incompatible with the principles of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. See also List of submissions to the 90th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film List of South African submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film References External links Category:2017 films Category:2017 drama films Category:South African films Category:South African drama films Category:South African LGBT-related films Category:LGBT-related drama films Category:2010s LGBT-related films Category:Gay-related films
The history of figure skating stretches back to prehistoric times. Primitive ice skates appear in the archaeological record from about 3000 BC. Edges were added by the Dutch in the 13th - 14th century. International figure skating competitions began appearing in the late 19th century—in 1891, the European Championships were inaugurated in Hamburg, Germany, and in 1896, the first World Championship were held in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire. At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, England, figure skating became the first winter sport to be included in the Olympics. Archaeology and earliest historical documentation The exact time and process by which humans first learned to ice skate is unknown.
Primitive animal bone ice skates have been found in Scandinavia and Russia, some dating back to about 3000 BC. The earliest clear, written mention of ice skating is found in a book written in the 12th century by William Fitzstephen, a monk in Canterbury. In the work, centered on Thomas Becket, he describes a scene taking place below the northern city walls of Canterbury during the winter: ...if the moors in Finsbury and Moorfield freeze over, children from London play. Some of the children have attached bones to their ankles, and carry well-worn sticks. They fly across the ice like birds, or well-fired arrows.
Suddenly, two children will run at each other, sticks held high in the air. They then attack each other until one falls down. Often, the children injure their heads or break their arms or legs... The sticks that Fitzstephen refers to were used for movement, as the primitive bone-made ice skates did not have sharp gliding edges like modern ice skates. Adding edges to ice skates was invented by the Dutch in the 13th or 14th century. These ice skates were made of steel, with sharpened edges on the bottom to aid movement. The construction of modern ice skates has remained largely the same.
The only other major change in ice skate design came soon after. Around the same time period as steel edges were added to ice skates, another Dutchman, a table maker's apprentice, experimented with the height to width ratio of the metal blade of the ice skates, producing a design that remains almost unaltered to this day. The user of the skates no longer needed to use sticks for propulsion, and movement on skates was now freer and more stable. The first depiction of ice skating in a work of art was made in the 15th century. The picture, of Saint Lidwina, patron saint of ice skaters, falling on the ice was the first work of art to feature ice skating as a main theme.
Another important aspect of the painting is a man seen in the background, who is skating on one leg. This means that the ice skates the man was wearing must have sharp edges similar to those found on modern ice skates. Social status of ice skating In the Netherlands, ice skating was considered proper for all classes of people to participate in, as shown in many pictures by the Old Masters. Skating was used as a means of transportation because the waterways which connected Dutch towns sometimes froze for months on end, hampering the economy. In other regions, participation in ice skating was limited to only members of the upper classes.
Emperor Rudolf II of the Holy Roman Empire enjoyed ice skating so much he had a large ice carnival constructed in his court in 1610 in order to popularize the sport. King Louis XVI of France brought ice skating to Paris during his reign. Madame de Pompadour, Napoleon I, Napoleon III, and the House of Stuart were, among others, royal and upper class fans of ice skating. 18th and 19th centuries The next step in the development of ice skating came in 1742, when the first ice skating association was formed, the Edinburgh Skating Club. The first instructional book concerning ice skating was published in London in 1772.
The book, written by a British artillery lieutenant, Robert Jones, describes basic figure skating forms such as circles and figure eights. The book was written solely for men, as women did not normally ice skate in the late 18th century. It was with the publication of this manual that ice skating split into its two main disciplines, speed skating and figure skating. In the winter of 1858–59, a skating pond opened in New York's Central Park, re-igniting interest in the activity. Sex segregation at ponds disappeared early on and skating became "one of the only activities that single men and women could do together unchaperoned."
Additional skating ponds opened in Brooklyn, Hoboken, Jersey City, and Staten Island as the activity grew in popularity. The Skating Club of New York was founded in 1863. Jackson Haines, an American, was the first skater to incorporate ballet and dance movements into his skating, as opposed to focusing on tracing patterns on the ice. He also invented the sit spin and developed a shorter, curved blade for figure skating that allowed for easier turns. Haines was also the first to wear blades that were permanently attached to the boot. He won the first Championships of America held in Troy, New York in 1864.
For a time, the stiff and rigid British figure skating forms dominated in America, trumping Haines's more artistic way of skating. Haines instead attempted to spread his innovations in ice skating style in Europe, gaining success in such countries as Sweden and Austria. His style was still opposed by both his American colleagues as well as skaters from Victorian England, who continued to advocate a stiffer and more restrained style of skating. Haines continued to add new dance elements to his routines, and astounded a crowd in Vienna in the winter of 1868. Many in the audience expressed wonder at how a normal man could move over the ice in such a manner.
Haines's performance led to the establishment of the Vienna School, which continued to develop Haines's artistic style. Although Haines himself died at the age of 35 in 1875 from the effects of tuberculosis, his influence lived on. His students at the Vienna School established the International Skating Union in 1892, the first international ice skating organization, and one of the oldest sports associations still in existence. It was founded in Scheveningen, in the Netherlands, but is now based in Lausanne, Switzerland. The Union created the first codified set of figure skating rules. In 1891, the first European Figure Skating Championships were held in Hamburg, Germany.
1896 saw the introduction of the World Figure Skating Championships in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire. Early 20th century In the beginning of the 20th century, figure skating was lent a more athletic character through the developments of Ulrich Salchow, a Swede. Salchow was considered the greatest figure skater of his day by far, winning the world championships ten times. The crowning achievement of his career, however, was his development of ice skates with slightly serrated blades, giving enough traction on the ice to launch long jumps. The salchow jump, still used prominently in figure skating routines today, is named for him, and was considered Salchow's greatest contribution to figure skating.
Figure skating's Olympic debut came at the 1908 Summer Olympics—it was the first winter sport introduced to the Olympics. The competition included men's singles, ladies' singles, pairs, and special figures. The largest public ice rink in the world, the Sportpalast in Berlin, opened in the 1910s. The rink had an area of 2,400 m2 (25,800 ft2), with dimensions of 60 m by 40 m (197 ft by 131 ft). The new rink increased both the public interest in figure skating as well as the number of people who practiced the sport. Many new figure skaters came from Germany, among them Werner Rittberger and Charlotta Oelschägel.
Rittberger invented another jump, at first named eponymously, but eventually changed to the name it is known by today, the loop jump. Oelschlägel won a championship in the United States at the age of 17, and had a professional career spanning ten years. No major international championships were held from 1915–1921 due to World War I and the post-war recovery. In 1922, the World and European Championships were renewed and in 1924 figure skating was part of the first Winter Olympics, held in Chamonix, France. Norway's Sonja Henie and Austria's Karl Schäfer dominated the sport during the inter-war period. Henie, a ten-time world champion, brought a new style to figure skating in both athletic practice and dress.
Previously, female figure skaters had skated in bulky clothing and long skirts. Henie broke with tradition by wearing a short knee-length skirt during her routines. In addition, her fluid and unlabored movements and overall elegance were considered to be a major advancement for figure skating. In the period from 1929 to 1936, Schäfer won the European title eight times and the World title seven times. Although the Russian Empire hosted the first World Championships and Nikolai Panin won gold in special figures at the 1908 Olympics, its successor state, the Soviet Union, was largely absent from international figure skating competitions for several decades.
Post-World War II to present day Not held from 1940 due to World War II, the European and World Championships returned in 1946. The construction of new ice rinks, built solely for ice skating, allowed much more intensive training and improved performance on the ice. This led to other changes in the sport, such as a heavier emphasis on the free skate, a move which turned off some spectators. In 1952, ice dancing was added to the World Championships. It appeared at the 1968 Winter Olympics as a demonstration sport and was added as a medal sport at the 1976 Olympics.
Because of the years of war, Europe fell behind North America in terms of figure skating dominance. Many of the new top competitors came from the United States and Canada, bringing with them a style that emphasized speed, endurance, and dynamic movements. They included Americans Richard Button (who was the first skater to complete both the double axel jump and a loop jump with three rotations), Hayes Alan Jenkins, David Jenkins, Tenley Albright, and Carol Heiss; and Canadians Barbara Ann Scott and Donald Jackson. In 1961, the crash of Sabena Flight 548 claimed the lives of the entire United States figure skating team and their coaches.
The event sharply reduced American strength in the sport for a period but by the late 1960s the country began a resurgence led by Peggy Fleming. The Soviet Union began appearing on the international scene in the late 1950s. Winning gold at the 1964 Winter Olympics, Ludmila Belousova / Oleg Protopopov began a forty-year Soviet/Russian gold medal streak in pair skating—the longest in Olympic sports history, running from 1964 to 2006. 1973 was the last year in which solid gold medals were awarded in figure skating. Once worth 60% of the score in single skating, compulsory figures steadily decreased in value to 20% and were eliminated from international competition after the 1989–90 season.
Skaters were able to achieve greater speed with improvements in blade sharpening and water purification (affecting ice quality). According to S. Schonmetzler, average distances traveled during a singles' long program were 1100 metres for men and 970 metres for women in 1980, growing to 1320 m and 1150 m respectively by the 1986 World Championships. In 1992, women performed an element on average every 10.4 seconds and men every 12.8 seconds. Figure skaters were once subject to restrictive amateur status rules. In May 1990, the International Skating Union voted to allow skaters who were intending to skate professionally to return to ISU competition if they obtained their national association's permission.
In June 1992, skaters who had already lost their eligibility were given an opportunity to apply for reinstatement in order to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics. The Champions Series was introduced in 1995 and retitled the Grand Prix series in 1998. The Four Continents Figure Skating Championships were held for the first time in 1999 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Following the 2002 Winter Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics figure skating scandal, the classic 6.0 system of judging was retired, and the ISU Judging System (IJS), or New Judging System(NJS), was put in place. The 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy was the first Olympics to be judged using this protocol.
Overall, the ISU Judging System has resulted in major shifts in program design, and technical scoring, and perpetual searching to "game the system" with each iteration of rule updates. In 2009, the first team event was founded in Tokyo, Japan, (World Team Trophy). After the 2009–10 season, the ice dancing competition was reduced from three segments to two by combining the compulsory and original dances into the short dance. The team event made its Olympic debut at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. Beginning in the 2014–15 season, all disciplines are allowed to use music with lyrics or words, previously restricted to ice dancing.
The competitive figure skating season runs from August until the date of the World Figure Skating Championships, typically held in March. Competitions may include various pre-novice levels, novice, junior, and senior events. Since the 1980s, four skating has disappeared while synchronized skating and solo ice dance have grown in popularity. The first World Synchronized Skating Championships were held in 2000. In September 2014, the International Skating Union sent the IOC a formal proposal for the inclusion of synchronized skating in the Winter Olympics. References Benjamin T. Wright, Skating in America: the 75th Anniversary History of the United States Figure Skating Association.
535 p. Colorado Springs: United States Figure Skating Association. Michael Boo, The Story of Figure Skating. New York: Beech Tree, 1998. . External links Skate Guard - figure skating history blog Category:Figure skating Figure skating
Ben Taub (1889–1982) was a philanthropist and medical benefactor in Houston, Texas. Taub ran numerous businesses and served on the boards of directors for several Texas organizations. He helped in the expansion and development of Houston entities such as the Texas Medical Center and the University of Houston. Ben Taub General Hospital, a large hospital in Houston, is named for him. Biography Early life His family were Jewish immigrants from the Austro-Hungarian empire and his father Jacob Nathan Taub moved to Texas in 1882. Ben Taub's family were poor and his father used to sell newspapers to make their living.
Jacob Nathan later opened a tobacco store in downtown Houston. By the time Ben, their fourth child, was born they had become relatively comfortable. Taub grew up in Houston, where he attended Welch Preparatory School. During World War I, he was a captain and served in France. Business career He returned to Texas and expanded the family business, later becoming a real estate developer. He chaired and operated dozens of companies throughout his life, including director, chairman and senior chairman of the board, Texas Commerce Bank; chairman of the board, McGregor Park National Bank; and director, American General Insurance Company.
At one time he served on 23 boards, including president and then chairman, DePelchin Faith Home for 15 years; president, Baylor Medical Foundation; trustee, Baylor College of Medicine; president, Taub Foundation; director, Child Welfare League of America; chairman, Board of Managers, Houston Tuberculosis Hospital; founding board member, TIRR; director and life director, Texas Medical Center; Trustee, St. Thomas University; 32° Mason, Master Mason, Awarded Fifty Year Masonic Grand Lodge Award; district director, Office of Price Administration (WWII); chairman, Community Chest, United Fund, which is now United Way, and many others. In 1936, Ben Taub donated thirty-five acres to establish a permanent campus for the University of Houston.
He further persuaded the heirs of J.J. Settegast to donate seventy five acres to the campus. In 1943, he was instrumental in encouraging Baylor College of Medicine to move from Dallas to the Texas Medical Center in Houston. As chairman of the board of Jefferson Davis Hospital, he and Michael E. DeBakey made Jefferson Davis Hospital a teaching facility for Baylor College of Medicine, a relationship that continued after the creation of the Harris County Hospital District. Taub never married and spent his time visiting patients in the county hospital. For years he helped run the DePelchin Faith Home for homeless children.
He worked with the Pauline Sterne Wolf Foundation. He also worked with Charlie Massey, Harris County Commissioner for Precinct 1, on charitable endeavors. During the Great Depression, he had a chauffeur driven automobile, reportedly a Pierce-Arrow. He was a director of the Texas Medical Center, headed the United Way, gave out scholarships, and sponsored visiting medical professors. He served as chairman of the Jefferson Davis Hospital from 1935 to 1964. Later life When Houston's new charity hospital opened in 1963 the hospital board, in recognition of his service, named it Ben Taub General Hospital. It became renowned as one of the nation's leading major trauma centers.
Ben Taub died at age ninety-two on September 9, 1982. Baylor College of Medicine opened the Ben Taub Research Center in 1986. In 1990, the Harris County Hospital District opened the new, six-story, 500+ bed Ben Taub General Hospital. References Category:1889 births Category:1982 deaths Category:People from Houston Category:American philanthropists Category:American military personnel of World War I Category:20th-century philanthropists
Haworthiopsis fasciata, formerly Haworthia fasciata or Haworthia Zebra, is a species of succulent plant from the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The species is rare in cultivation; most plants that are labelled as H. fasciata are actually Haworthiopsis attenuata. Description The plants are generally small, less than 10 cm (4 in) high. The triangular shaped leaves are green with narrow white crested strips on the outside. At the end of the leaf is a non acute spine. The summer flowers appear in October and November, on the end of an inflorescence. The species has similar markings to Haworthiopsis attenuata, which is commonly grown as a house plant.
The two are therefore frequently confused with each other, and a great many H. attenuata specimens are mislabelled as the rarer H. fasciata. However Haworthiopsis fasciata is rare in cultivation, and can easily be distinguished by the smooth upper (ie. inner) surfaces of its leaves. Its white tubercles occur only on the lower (outer) sides of its leaves; whereas H. attenuata has roughness or tubercles on both sides of its leaves. The leaves of H. fasciata are also often stouter and more deltoid. They tend to curve inwards more. Unlike H. attenuata, older H. fasciata specimens also sometimes develop long columnal stems.
The most fundamental distinction, though not externally obvious, is that Haworthiopsis fasciata has fibrous leaves – unlike H. attenuata, but similar to H. glauca, H. coarctata, H. reinwardtii and H. longiana. Distribution This species favours the acidic sands of the fynbos vegetation type, in the area near Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage, in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. Varieties H. fasciata var. fasciata : the type variety H. fasciata f. browniana : a form with a dark red color H. fasciata f. patensie : a form with short, keeled, light green & red leaves References Category:Flora of the Cape Provinces fasciata Category:Succulent plants Category:Garden plants
The 12 Days of Brumalia was an internet event presented by The Residents in 2004 through their website residents.com that resulted in an album of the same name. For 12 days, starting on December 25, a new song was posted on residents.com web site along with an illustration and a quote. On the 13th day, The Residents presented the epic musical work, The Feast of Epiphany. Homer Flynn of The Cryptic Corp has stated "The Brumalia songs were a present for those who visited the site every day. It is not for those who didn't. It is not a gift for the world.
Think about it, the Brumalia songs would still be on residents.com if we wished to have them shared. They should not be archived and shared." Ralph America collected the audio track for a CD release in the summer of 2004. The 12 Days of Brumalia was reissued in November 2014 as a compilation with Prelude to "The Teds". Track listing "Partridge Pairing" "Turtle Dove" "Chicken of the Oui" "Calling Bird" "Gold Ring" "Lying Goose" "Swami Swan" "Maid Being Milked" "Wiggling Wahines" "Leaping and Lords" "Pietà Piper" "Big Hand" "Bonus Brumalia" "The Feast of Epiphany" External links Prog Archives review Category:The Residents compilation albums Category:2004 compilation albums Category:Self-released albums Category:Ralph Records compilation albums Category:2004 Christmas albums
Removable heel is a concept that allows the wearer to easily change heels of a shoe during the day in order to change height, color or shape of the heel. Reducing heel height might lessen pain and the health effects of high-heels. History Removable heels were first imagined in 1956 by French shoe designer André Perugia Several brands tried to launch the concept in the 1980s and 1990s without success. After 2010, several brands succeeded in manufacturing and selling removable heel footwear, including Tanya Heath Paris. References Category:Shoemaking
Low Mass (called in Latin, Missa lecta, which literally means "read Mass") is a Tridentine Mass defined officially in the Code of Rubrics included in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal as Mass in which the priest does not chant the parts that the rubrics assign to him. A sung Mass in turn is a ‘High’ or Solemn Mass if celebrated with the assistance of sacred ministers (deacon and subdeacon); without them it is a Missa Cantata. History Low Mass originated in the early Middle Ages as a shortened or simplified form of Solemn Mass. In the early church, as in the Orthodox church today, all services are chanted, and there is no equivalent to the Roman low mass or to the Anglican "said celebration".
Masses without solemnity in early Christianity Alongside the public solemn Masses, the practice developed from the 4th century onwards, of smaller private Masses for smaller groups of believers. These masses were often celebrated in the catacombs, for the deceased or on a special anniversary. An example is provided by Saint Augustine. Medieval origins of the Low Mass Christian practice had been that there was, at most, one Mass in a monastery or parish church each day. At Cluny in the XIth century a lay-brother ( conversus) was summoned to serve any priest-monk who wanted to celebrate; rules and obligations, as the reading of a Sequence, during the celebration of the private Masses gradually fell, for reasons of convenience.
This history of liturgy shows how "out of the private Mass grew the read Mass - the low Mass". In the late Middle Ages, with a growing awareness of the infinite value of the Mass, came a growing desire to multiply its celebration. Spiritual, as well as material reasons were at hand. The most pronounced result of the multiplying of Masses was the increase in low Masses, since most of them were for private requests and had no public character. This trend to the private and the subjective, to an independence from the grand order of things was also displayed in another abuse, namely, setting aside the arrangement of the ecclesiastical year and confining oneself to Votive Masses either chosen at will or arranged according to the rules of the Mass series.
Over time it became necessary for a variety of reasons to celebrate more than one on the same day. It also became customary for monasteries to ordain most of their monks, though originally monks were almost all laymen, and for every priest to say a daily Mass. For a while, concelebration, whereby several priests took a full priestly part in offering Mass, provided all with the possibility to celebrate Mass each day, but this custom died out. Low Mass is considered to be a necessity that falls short of the ideal, which is Solemn Mass. The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 describes the result as follows: ... concelebration was in the early Middle Ages replaced by separate private celebrations.
No doubt the custom of offering each Mass for a special intention helped to bring about this change. The separate celebrations then involved the building of many altars in one church and the reduction of the ritual to the simplest possible form. The deacon and subdeacon were in this case dispensed with; the celebrant took their part as well as his own. One server took the part of the choir and of all the other ministers, everything was said instead of being sung, the incense and kiss of peace were omitted. So we have the well-known rite of low Mass (missa privata).
This then reacted on high Mass (missa solemnis), so that at high Mass too the celebrant himself recites everything, even though it be also sung by the deacon, subdeacon, or choir.By the end of the Middle Ages, critics had grown more numerous, and mystics, such as Nicholas of Cusa, or bishops, attempted a spiritual and disciplinary reform, to avoid scandals of botched up Masses and abuse of stipends. A special work of Martin Luther's deals with "the abomination of the low Mass called the canon" (Von dem Greuel der Stillmesse so man Canon nennet, 1524). His criticisms were such that priests, who had been living on Mass stipends, could no longer do so as easily, even in staunchly Catholic areas as the diocese of Salzburg.
Tridentine Reform The Council of Trent was concerned above all with the "Low Mass" (that is, with a liturgy that was recited and not sung), which had become the ordinary form of the Eucharistic celebration in the parishes. In 1562, a special commission was to assemble the abusus missae. The Roman Missal revised after the Council of Trent appears as a work that defines, above all, the rituals of "Low Mass" or the "private Mass". Some have argued that in giving priority to the "Low Mass", a practice developed of making the Eucharistic celebration an act of private devotion by the priest, whereas the faithful were simply invited to attend the Mass and to unite their prayers with it as sincerely as possible as a certain individualism developed alongside the devotio moderna.
Those who during the Counter-Reformation attempted to rebuild religious life had to look for different ways and means to enable the faithful to participate in a devout manner. One of the ways was to encourage vocal prayer during Mass, to meditate on the mysteries of the life of Christ by praying the Rosary, a practise which had existed locally since the Middle Ages, but which become popular under the influence of the popular missions organized by the Jesuits. The German Singmesse, which added sung hymns to the Low Mass, gradually won great popularity, to the place that it began to take over the Solemn Mass.
By the mid-20th century, a new form of the Low Mass, the missa dialogata, appeared as a new mode of encouraging the participation of the faithful. In the Low Mass, the alternation of functions between priest, lector, singing choir and people had been leveled off to a uniform speaking by the priest alone. However, the Low Mass had acquired such a great preponderance over the various forms of high Mass that without further ado it was used as the groundwork for the development of the dialogue Mass. In essentials nevertheless, the High Mass had to set the norm. Various local churches went in various directions and the so-called Betsingmesse - "pray and sing" Mass - very quickly gained recognition since its first trial use at the Vienna Catholic Day in 1933.
No changes affected the Missale Romanum, neither its texts nor its rubrics, as the changes concerned the participation of the faithful solely. Stratford Caldecott has lamented that the influence of Low Mass has extended even into the post-Vatican II Mass and that, despite protestations to the contrary, the Low Mass may in his view be said to be its real model. In 2005 Pope Benedict XVI introduced an optional novelty into the traditional Low Mass: in Masses with a congregation celebrated according to the 1962 Missal, the vernacular language, and not Latin alone, may be used in proclaiming the Scripture readings, provided that the translation used comes from an edition approved by the Holy See.