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After the fight, Donaire and Inoue showed each other mutual respect, with Inoue lauding Donaire as "a true champion". Inoue was presented the Muhammad Ali Trophy by Fighting Harada. Afterward, Inoue revealed he suffered a fractured orbital bone in the second round causing him to see double, and also a broken nose. The fight was later voted the Ring magazine Fight of the Year.
Professional boxing record Titles in boxing Major world titles: WBC light-flyweight champion (108 lbs) WBO junior-bantamweight champion (115 lbs) IBF Bantamweight champion (118 lbs) WBA (Super) Bantamweight champion (118 lbs) The Ring magazine titles: The Ring Bantamweight champion (118 lbs) Regional titles: OPBF light-flyweight champion (108 lbs) Japanese light-flyweight champion (108 lbs) See also List of light-flyweight boxing champions List of super-flyweight boxing champions List of bantamweight boxing champions List of boxing triple champions List of Japanese boxing world champions Boxing in Japan References External links NAOYA-INOUE.COM Category:1993 births Category:Living people Category:Japanese male boxers Category:People from Zama, Kanagawa Category:Sportspeople from Kanagawa Prefecture Category:Light-flyweight boxers Category:Super-flyweight boxers Category:Bantamweight boxers Category:World light-flyweight boxing champions Category:World super-flyweight boxing champions Category:World bantamweight boxing champions Category:World Boxing Council champions Category:World Boxing Organization champions Category:World Boxing Association champions Category:International Boxing Federation champions Category:The Ring champions
This article is about the Thoroughbred horse race. For the soccer rivalry between Tampa Bay Rowdies and Fort Lauderdale Strikers see Fort Lauderdale – Tampa Bay soccer rivalry. The Florida Derby is an American Thoroughbred horse race for three-year-old horses held annually at Gulfstream Park in Hallandale Beach, Florida. Since 2005, it has been run five weeks before the Kentucky Derby, which is held on the first Saturday in May. Thus the Florida Derby is currently run either at the end of March or the beginning of April. Added to the racing schedule in 1952, the Grade I race is run at miles on the dirt for a purse currently set at $1 Million.
History The Florida Derby was first run in 1952. It has long been a prestigious prep race for the Kentucky Derby and since 2013 has been part of the official Road to the Kentucky Derby. The race was originally run in early to mid-March and Kentucky Derby hopefuls would then run in another major prep race in April. In 2005, Gulfstream Park shifted its scheduling to run the race five weeks before the Kentucky Derby. This was originally believed to be a liability, as the preferred spacing of races is typically three to four weeks. When Barbaro won the 2006 Kentucky Derby, the five-week spacing began to be viewed as a potentially positive feature, allowing a horse to come into the Kentucky Derby well rested.
In 1977, a large field resulted in the race being run in two divisions. Between 1926 and 1937, the Flamingo Stakes was known as the Florida Derby. Triple Crown Classic Winners In total, 20 winners of the Florida Derby have gone on to win one or more Triple Crown Classics (Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes). Kentucky Derby Winners: Needles (1956), Tim Tam (1958), Carry Back (1961), Northern Dancer (1964), *Forward Pass (1968), Spectacular Bid (1979), Swale (1984), Unbridled (1990), Thunder Gulch (1995), Monarchos (2001), Barbaro (2006), Big Brown (2008), Orb (2013), Nyquist (2016), and Always Dreaming (2017). Preakness Stakes Winners: Nashua (1955), Tim Tam (1958), Bally Ache (1960), Carry Back (1961), Candy Spots (1963),Northern Dancer(1964), Forward Pass (1968), Spectacular Bid (1979), Snow Chief (1986), and Big Brown (2008).
Belmont Stakes Winners: Nashua (1955), Needles (1956), Swale (1984), Thunder Gulch (1995), and Empire Maker (2003). In 1968, Dancer's Image won the Kentucky Derby, but was disqualified and moved to last place after traces of phenylbutazone (a drug that was illegal at the time) was found in a post-race urine analysis. Forward Pass, the Derby runner-up, was awarded the honor of first placing. Records Speed Record: 1:46.80 - Gen. Duke (1957), equaled the world record for miles at the time.
Most wins by an owner: 5 - Calumet Farm (1957, 1958, 1968, 1971, 1978) Most wins by a jockey: 5 - John R. Velazquez (2009, 2013, 2015, 2017,2018) Most wins by a trainer: 5 - Todd Pletcher (2007, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018) Largest margin of victory: lengths – Empire Maker (2003) Shortest priced winners: $2.10 (1/20 on) – Honest Pleasure (1976), Spectacular Bid (1979) Longest priced winner: $183.60 (~91/1) – Williamstown Kid (1966) Winners †1966 - Abe's First finished 1st but was disqualified to 4th ‡1977 - Run in Divisions †1998 - Lil's Lad finished 1st but was disqualified to 2nd Winners in bold won a Triple Crown Race Special Bonus Paths to $5,500,000 Preakness Bonus: win Holy Bull Stakes + win the Florida Derby + win The Preakness Stakes win Fountain of Youth Stakes + win the Florida Derby + win The Preakness Stakes Paths to $550,000 XpressBet Consolation Bonus: + win, place or show Holy Bull Stakes + win, place or show in the Florida Derby or win, place or show in the Santa Anita Derby + win The Preakness Stakes + win, place or show Fountain of Youth Stakes + win, place or show in the Florida Derby or win, place or show in the Santa Anita Derby + win The Preakness Stakes See also Florida Derby "top three finishers" and starters Road to the Kentucky Derby References External links Complete List of Florida Derby Winners Ten Things You Should Know About the Florida Derby at Hello Race Fans!
Category:Horse races in Florida Category:Gulfstream Park Category:Flat horse races for three-year-olds Category:Triple Crown Prep Races Category:Grade 1 stakes races in the United States Category:Graded stakes races in the United States Category:Horse races established in 1952 Category:1952 establishments in Florida
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane scatter diagram in the complex plane at symbol sampling instants. The angle of a point, measured counterclockwise from the horizontal axis, represents the phase shift of the carrier wave from a reference phase. The distance of a point from the origin represents a measure of the amplitude or power of the signal. In a digital modulation system, information is transmitted as a series of samples, each occupying a uniform time slot.
During each sample, the carrier wave has a constant amplitude and phase, which is restricted to one of a finite number of values. So each sample encodes one of a finite number of "symbols", which in turn represent one or more binary digits (bits) of information. Each symbol is encoded as a different combination of amplitude and phase of the carrier, so each symbol is represented by a point on the constellation diagram, called a constellation point. The constellation diagram shows all the possible symbols that can be transmitted by the system as a collection of points. In a frequency or phase modulated signal, the signal amplitude is constant, so the points lie on a circle around the origin.
The carrier representing each symbol can be created by adding together different amounts of a cosine wave representing the "I" or in-phase carrier, and a sine wave, shifted by 90° from the I carrier called the "Q" or quadrature carrier. Thus each symbol can be represented by a complex number, and the constellation diagram can be regarded as a complex plane, with the horizontal real axis representing the I component and the vertical imaginary axis representing the Q component. A coherent detector is able to independently demodulate these carriers. This principle of using two independently modulated carriers is the foundation of quadrature modulation.
In pure phase modulation, the phase of the modulating symbol is the phase of the carrier itself and this is the best representation of the modulated signal. A 'signal space diagram' is an ideal constellation diagram showing the correct position of the point representing each symbol. After passing through a communication channel, due to electronic noise or distortion added to the signal, the amplitude and phase received by the demodulator may differ from the correct value for the symbol. When plotted on a constellation diagram the point representing that received sample will be offset from the correct position for that symbol.
An electronic test instrument called a vector signal analyzer can display the constellation diagram of a digital signal by sampling the signal and plotting each received symbol as a point. The result is a 'ball' or 'cloud' of points surrounding each symbol position. Measured constellation diagrams can be used to recognize the type of interference and distortion in a signal. Interpretation The number of constellation points in a diagram gives the size of the "alphabet" of symbols that can be transmitted by each sample, and so determines the number of bits transmitted per sample. It is usually a power of 2.
A diagram with four points, for example, represents a modulation scheme that can separately encode all 4 combinations of two bits: 00, 01, 10, and 11 and so can transmit two bits per sample. Thus in general a modulation with constellation points transmits bits per sample. After passing through the communication channel the signal is decoded by a demodulator. The function of the demodulator is to classify each sample as a symbol. The set of sample values which the demodulator classifies as a given symbol can be represented by a region in the plane drawn around each constellation point. If noise causes the point representing a sample to stray into the region representing another symbol, the demodulator will misidentify that sample as the other symbol, resulting in a symbol error.
Most demodulators choose, as its estimate of what was actually transmitted, the constellation point which is closest (in a Euclidean distance sense) to that of the received sample; this is called maximum likelihood detection. On the constellation diagram these detection regions can be easily represented by dividing the plane by lines equidistant from each adjacent pair of points. One half the distance between each pair of neighboring points is the amplitude of additive noise or distortion required to cause one of the points to be misidentified as the other, and thus cause a symbol error. Therefore, the further the points are separated from one another, the greater the noise immunity of the modulation.
Practical modulation systems are designed to maximize the minimum noise needed to cause a symbol error; on the constellation diagram this means that the distance between each pair of adjacent points is equal. The received signal quality can be analyzed by displaying the constellation diagram of the signal at the receiver on a vector signal analyzer. Some types of distortion show up as characteristic patterns on the diagram: Gaussian noise causes the samples to land in a random ball about each constellation point Non-coherent single frequency interference shows as samples making circles about each constellation point Phase noise shows as constellation points spreading into arcs centered on the origin Amplifier compression causes the corner points to move towards the center A constellation diagram visualises phenomena similar to those an eye pattern does for one-dimensional signals.
The eye pattern can be used to see timing jitter in one dimension of modulation. See also Error vector magnitude Eye diagram Modulation error ratio Quadrature amplitude modulation References Category:Quantized radio modulation modes Category:Diagrams
A mirror image (in a plane mirror) is a reflected duplication of an object that appears almost identical, but is reversed in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface. As an optical effect it results from reflection off of substances such as a mirror or water. It is also a concept in geometry and can be used as a conceptualization process for 3-D structures. In geometry and geometrical optics In two dimensions In geometry, the mirror image of an object or two-dimensional figure is the virtual image formed by reflection in a plane mirror; it is of the same size as the original object, yet different, unless the object or figure has reflection symmetry (also known as a P-symmetry).
Two-dimensional mirror images can be seen in the reflections of mirrors or other reflecting surfaces, or on a printed surface seen inside-out. If we look at an object that is effectively two-dimensional (such as writing) and then turn it towards a mirror, the object turns through an angle of 180º and we see a left-right reversal in the mirror. In this example, it is the change in orientation rather than the mirror itself that causes the observed reversal. Another example is when we stand with our backs to the mirror and face an object that's in front of the mirror.
Then we compare the object with its reflection by turning ourselves 180º, towards the mirror. Again we perceive a left-right reversal due to a change in orientation. So, in these examples the mirror does not actually cause the observed reversals. In three dimensions The concept of reflection can be extended to three-dimensional objects, including the inside parts, even if they are not transparent. The term then relates to structural as well as visual aspects. A three-dimensional object is reversed in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface. In physics, mirror images are investigated in the subject called geometrical optics. In chemistry, two versions (isomers) of a molecule, one a "mirror image" of the other, are called enantiomers if they are not "superposable" (the correct technical term, though the term "superimposable" is also used) on each other.
That is an example of chirality (chemistry). In general, an object and its mirror image are called enantiomorphs. If a point of an object has coordinates (x, y, z) then the image of this point (as reflected by a mirror in the y, z plane) has coordinates (-x, y, z). Thus reflection is a reversal of the coordinate axis perpendicular (normal) to the mirror's surface. Although a plane mirror reverses an object only in the direction normal to the mirror surface, there is usually a perception of a left-right reversal. Hence, the reversal is called "lateral inversion". The perception of a left-right reversal is probably because the left and right of an object are defined by its perceived top and front, but there is still some debate about the explanation amongst psychologists.
The psychology of the perceived left-right reversal is discussed in "Much ado about mirrors" by Professor Michael Corballis (see "external links", below). Reflection in a mirror does result in a change in chirality, more specifically from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system (or vice versa). As a consequence, if one looks in a mirror and lets two axes (up-down and front-back) coincide with those in the mirror, then this gives a reversal of the third axis (left-right). If a person stands side-on to a mirror, left and right will be reversed directly by the mirror, because the person's left-right axis is then normal to the mirror plane.
However, it's important to understand that there are always only two enantiomorphs, the object and its image.Therefore, no matter how the object is oriented towards the mirror, all the resulting images are fundamentally identical (as Professor Corballis explains in his paper "Much ado about mirrors", mentioned above). In the picture of the mountain reflected in the lake (photograph top right), the reversal normal to the reflecting surface is obvious. Notice that there is no obvious front-back or left-right of the mountain. In the example of the urn and mirror (photograph to right), the urn is fairly symmetrical front-back (and left-right).
Thus, no obvious reversal of any sort can be seen in the mirror image of the urn. A mirror image appears more obviously three-dimensional if the observer moves, or if the image is viewed using binocular vision. This is because the relative position of objects changes as the observer's perspective changes, or is differently viewed with each eye. Looking through a mirror from different positions (but necessarily with the point of observation restricted to the halfspace on one side of the mirror) is like looking at the 3D mirror image of space; without further mirrors only the mirror image of the halfspace before the mirror is relevant; if there is another mirror, the mirror image of the other halfspace is too.
Effect of mirror on the lighting of the scene A mirror does not just produce an image of what would be there without it; it also changes the light distribution in the halfspace in front of and behind the mirror. A mirror hanging on the wall makes the room brighter because additional light sources appear in the mirror image. However, the appearance of additional light does not violate the conservation of energy principle, because some light no longer reaches behind the mirror, as the mirror simply re-directs the light energy. In terms of the light distribution, the virtual mirror image has the same appearance and the same effect as a real, symmetrically arranged half-space behind a window (instead of the mirror).
Shadows may extend from the mirror into the halfspace before it, and vice versa. Mirror writing In mirror writing a text is deliberately displayed in mirror image, in order to be read through a mirror. For example, emergency vehicles such as ambulances or fire engines use mirror images in order to be read from a driver's rear-view mirror. Some movie theaters also take advantage of mirror writing in a Rear Window Captioning System used to assist individuals with hearing impairments watching the film.
Systems of mirrors In the case of two mirrors, in planes at an angle α, looking through both from the sector which is the intersection of the two halfspaces, is like looking at a version of the world rotated by an angle of 2α; the points of observations and directions of looking for which this applies correspond to those for looking through a frame like that of the first mirror, and a frame at the mirror image with respect to the first plane, of the second mirror. If the mirrors have vertical edges then the left edge of the field of view is the plane through the right edge of the first mirror and the edge of the second mirror which is on the right when looked at directly, but on the left in the mirror image.
In the case of two parallel mirrors, looking through both at once is like looking at a version of the world which is translated by twice the distance between the mirrors, in the direction perpendicular to them, away from the observer. Since the plane of the mirror in which one looks directly is beyond that of the other mirror, one always looks at an oblique angle, and the translation just mentioned has not only a component away from the observer, but also one in a perpendicular direction. The translated view can also be described by a translation of the observer in opposite direction.
For example, with a vertical periscope, the shift of the world is away from the observer and down, both by the length of the periscope, but it is more practical to consider the equivalent shift of the observer: up, and backward. It is also possible to create a non-reversing mirror by placing two first surface mirrors at 90º to give an image which is not reversed. See also Anamorphosis Chirality, a property of asymmetry important in several branches of science Flipped image Flopped image Handedness Infinity mirror Kaleidoscope Plane mirror Reflection (physics) Relative direction References External links Why do mirrors reverse images left to right?
Why not up and down? The same question explained a little differently, with examples Why do mirrors flip horizontally (but not vertically)? "Much ado about mirrors" (an academic paper about the psychology involved in the perception of mirror images) Category:Elementary geometry Category:Chirality
Rangaku (Kyūjitai: /Shinjitai: , literally "Dutch learning", and by extension "Western learning") is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate's policy of national isolation (sakoku). Through Rangaku, some people in Japan learned many aspects of the scientific and technological revolution occurring in Europe at that time, helping the country build up the beginnings of a theoretical and technological scientific base, which helps to explain Japan's success in its radical and speedy modernization following the forced American opening of the country to foreign trade in 1854.
History The Dutch traders at Dejima in Nagasaki were the only European foreigners tolerated in Japan from 1639 until 1853 (the Dutch had a trading post in Hirado from 1609 till 1641 before they had to move to Dejima), and their movements were carefully watched and strictly controlled, being limited initially to one yearly trip to give their homage to the shōgun in Edo. They became instrumental, however, in transmitting to Japan some knowledge of the industrial and scientific revolution that was occurring in Europe: the Japanese purchased and translated scientific books from the Dutch, obtained from them Western curiosities and manufactures (such as clocks, medical instruments, celestial and terrestrial globes, maps, plant seeds), and received demonstrations of Western innovations, such as the demonstrations of electric phenomena, and the flight of a hot air balloon in the early 19th century.
While other European countries faced ideological and political battles associated with the Protestant Reformation, the Netherlands were a free state, attracting leading thinkers such as René Descartes. Altogether, thousands of such books were published, printed, and circulated. Japan had one of the largest urban populations in the world, with more than one million inhabitants in Edo, and many other large cities such as Osaka and Kyoto, offering a large, literate market to such novelties. In the large cities some shops, open to the general public, specialized in foreign curiosities. Beginnings (1640–1720) The first phase of Rangaku was quite limited and highly controlled.
After the relocation of the Dutch trading post to Dejima, trade as well as the exchange of information and the activities of the remaining Westerners (dubbed "Red-Heads" (kōmōjin)) were restricted considerably. Western books were prohibited, with the exemption of books on nautical and medical matters. Initially, a small group of hereditary Japanese–Dutch translators labored in Nagasaki to smooth communication with the foreigners and transmit bits of Western novelties. The Dutch were requested to give updates of world events and to supply novelties to the shōgun every year on their trips to Edo. Finally, the Dutch factories in Nagasaki, in addition to their official trade work in silk and deer hides, were allowed to engage in some level of "private trade".
A small, lucrative market for Western curiosities thus developed, focused on the Nagasaki area. With the establishment of a permanent post for a surgeon at the Dutch trading post Dejima, high-ranking Japanese officials started to ask for treatment in cases when local doctors were of no help. One of the most important surgeons was Caspar Schamberger, who induced a continuing interest in medical books, instruments, pharmaceuticals, treatment methods etc. During the second half of the 17th century high-ranking officials ordered telescopes, clocks, oil paintings, microscopes, spectacles, maps, globes, birds, dogs, donkeys, and other rarities for their personal entertainment and for scientific studies.
Liberalization of Western knowledge (1720–) Although most Western books were forbidden from 1640, rules were relaxed under shōgun Tokugawa Yoshimune in 1720, which started an influx of Dutch books and their translations into Japanese. One example is the 1787 publication of Morishima Chūryō’s , recording much knowledge received from the Dutch. The book details a vast array of topics: it includes objects such as microscopes and hot air balloons; discusses Western hospitals and the state of knowledge of illness and disease; outlines techniques for painting and printing with copper plates; it describes the makeup of static electricity generators and large ships; and it relates updated geographical knowledge.
Between 1804 and 1829, schools opened throughout the country by the Shogunate (Bakufu) as well as terakoya (temple schools) helped spread the new ideas further. By that time, Dutch emissaries and scientists were allowed much more free access to Japanese society. The German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold, attached to the Dutch delegation, established exchanges with Japanese students. He invited Japanese scientists to show them the marvels of Western science, learning, in return, much about the Japanese and their customs. In 1824, von Siebold began a medical school in the outskirts of Nagasaki. Soon this grew into a meeting place for about fifty students from all over the country.
While receiving a thorough medical education they helped with the naturalistic studies of von Siebold. Expansion and politicization (1839–) The Rangaku movement became increasingly involved in Japan's political debate over foreign isolation, arguing that the imitating of Western culture would strengthen rather than harm Japan. The Rangaku increasingly disseminated contemporary Western innovations. In 1839, scholars of Western studies (called 蘭学者 "rangaku-sha") briefly suffered repression by the Edo shogunate in the incident, due to their opposition to the introduction of the death penalty against foreigners (other than Dutch) coming ashore, recently enacted by the Bakufu. The incident was provoked by actions such as the Morrison Incident, in which an unarmed American merchant ship was fired upon under the Edict to Repel Foreign Ships.
The edict was eventually repealed in 1842. Rangaku ultimately became obsolete when Japan opened up during the last decades of the Tokugawa regime (1853–67). Students were sent abroad, and foreign employees (o-yatoi gaikokujin) came to Japan to teach and advise in large numbers, leading to an unprecedented and rapid modernization of the country. It is often argued that Rangaku kept Japan from being completely uninformed about the critical phase of Western scientific advancement during the 18th and 19th century, allowing Japan to build up the beginnings of a theoretical and technological scientific base. This openness could partly explain Japan's success in its radical and speedy modernization following the opening of the country to foreign trade in 1854.
Types of Rangaku Medical sciences From around 1720, books on medical sciences were obtained from the Dutch, and then analyzed and translated into Japanese. Great debates occurred between the proponents of traditional Chinese medicine and those of the new Western learning, leading to waves of experiments and dissections. The accuracy of Western learning made a sensation among the population, and new publications such as the of 1759 and the of 1774 became references. The latter was a compilation made by several Japanese scholars, led by Sugita Genpaku, mostly based on the Dutch-language Ontleedkundige Tafelen of 1734, itself a translation of Anatomische Tabellen (1732) by the German author Johann Adam Kulmus.
In 1804, Hanaoka Seishū performed the world's first general anaesthesia during surgery for breast cancer (mastectomy). The surgery involved combining Chinese herbal medicine and Western surgery techniques, 40 years before the better-known Western innovations of Long, Wells and Morton, with the introduction of diethyl ether (1846) and chloroform (1847) as general anaesthetics. In 1838, the physician and scholar Ogata Kōan established the Rangaku school named Tekijuku. Famous alumni of the Tekijuku include Fukuzawa Yukichi and Ōtori Keisuke, who would become key players in Japan's modernization. He was the author of 1849's , which was the first book on Western pathology to be published in Japan.
Physical sciences Some of the first scholars of Rangaku were involved with the assimilation of 17th century theories in the physical sciences. This is the case of Shizuki Tadao (:ja:志筑忠雄) an eighth-generation descendant of the Shizuki house of Nagasaki Dutch translators, who after having completed for the first time a systematic analysis of Dutch grammar, went on to translate the Dutch edition of Introductio ad Veram Physicam of the British author John Keil on the theories of Newton (Japanese title: , 1798). Shizuki coined several key scientific terms for the translation, which are still in use in modern Japanese; for example, , (as in electromagnetism), and .
A second Rangaku scholar, Hoashi Banri (:ja:帆足万里), published a manual of physical sciences in 1810 – – based on a combination of thirteen Dutch books, after learning Dutch from just one Dutch-Japanese dictionary. Electrical sciences Electrical experiments were widely popular from around 1770. Following the invention of the Leyden jar in 1745, similar electrostatic generators were obtained for the first time in Japan from the Dutch around 1770 by Hiraga Gennai. Static electricity was produced by the friction of a glass tube with a gold-plated stick, creating electrical effects. The jars were reproduced and adapted by the Japanese, who called it .
As in Europe, these generators were used as curiosities, such as making sparks fly from the head of a subject or for supposed pseudoscientific medical advantages. In Sayings of the Dutch, the elekiteru is described as a machine that allows one to take sparks out of the human body, to treat sick parts. Elekiterus were sold widely to the public in curiosity shops. Many electric machines derived from the elekiteru were then invented, particularly by Sakuma Shōzan. Japan's first electricity manual, by Hashimoto Soukichi (:ja:橋本宗吉), published in 1811, describes electrical phenomena, such as experiments with electric generators, conductivity through the human body, and the 1750 experiments of Benjamin Franklin with lightning.
Chemistry In 1840, Udagawa Yōan published his , a compilation of scientific books in Dutch, which describes a wide range of scientific knowledge from the West. Most of the Dutch original material appears to be derived from William Henry’s 1799 Elements of Experimental Chemistry. In particular, the book contains a detailed description of the electric battery invented by Volta forty years earlier in 1800. The battery itself was constructed by Udagawa in 1831 and used in experiments, including medical ones, based on a belief that electricity could help cure illnesses. Udagawa's work reports for the first time in details the findings and theories of Lavoisier in Japan.
Accordingly, Udagawa made scientific experiments and created new scientific terms, which are still in current use in modern scientific Japanese, like , , , and . Optical sciences Telescopes Japan's first telescope was offered by the English captain John Saris to Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1614, with the assistance of William Adams, during Saris's mission to open trade between England and Japan. This followed the invention of the telescope by Dutchman Hans Lippershey in 1608 by a mere six years. Refracting telescopes were widely used by the populace during the Edo period, both for pleasure and for the observation of the stars.
After 1640, the Dutch continued to inform the Japanese about the evolution of telescope technology. Until 1676 more than 150 telescopes were brought to Nagasaki. In 1831, after having spent several months in Edo where he could get accustomed with Dutch wares, Kunitomo Ikkansai (a former gun manufacturer) built Japan's first reflecting telescope of the Gregorian type. Kunitomo's telescope had a magnification of 60, and allowed him to make very detailed studies of sun spots and lunar topography. Four of his telescopes remain to this day. Microscopes Microscopes were invented in the Netherlands during the 17th century, but it is unclear when exactly they reached Japan.
Clear descriptions of microscopes are made in the 1720 and in the 1787 book Saying of the Dutch. Although Europeans mainly used microscopes to observe small cellular organisms, the Japanese mainly used them for entomological purposes, creating detailed descriptions of insects. Magic lanterns Magic lanterns, first described in the West by Athanasius Kircher in 1671, became very popular attractions in multiple forms in 18th-century Japan. The mechanism of a magic lantern, called was described using technical drawings in the book titled in 1779. Mechanical sciences Automata Karakuri are mechanized puppets or automata from Japan from the 18th century to 19th century.
The word means "device" and carries the connotations of mechanical devices as well as deceptive ones. Japan adapted and transformed the Western automata, which were fascinating the likes of Descartes, giving him the incentive for his mechanist theories of organisms, and Frederick the Great, who loved playing with automatons and miniature wargames. Many were developed, mostly for entertainment purposes, ranging from tea-serving to arrow-shooting mechanisms. These ingenious mechanical toys were to become prototypes for the engines of the industrial revolution. They were powered by spring mechanisms similar to those of clocks. Clocks Mechanical clocks were introduced into Japan by Jesuit missionaries or Dutch merchants in the sixteenth century.
These clocks were of the lantern clock design, typically made of brass or iron, and used the relatively primitive verge and foliot escapement. These led to the development of an original Japanese clock, called Wadokei. Neither the pendulum nor the balance spring were in use among European clocks of the period, and as such they were not included among the technologies available to the Japanese clockmakers at the start of the isolationist period in Japanese history, which began in 1641. As the length of an hour changed during winter, Japanese clock makers had to combine two clockworks in one clock.
While drawing from European technology they managed to develop more sophisticated clocks, leading to spectacular developments such as the Universal Myriad year clock designed in 1850 by the inventor Tanaka Hisashige, the founder of what would become the Toshiba corporation. Pumps Air pump mechanisms became popular in Europe from around 1660 following the experiments of Boyle. In Japan, the first description of a vacuum pump appear in Aochi Rinsō (:ja:青地林宗)’s 1825 , and slightly later pressure pumps and void pumps appear in Udagawa Shinsai (宇田川榛斎(玄真))’s 1834 . These mechanisms were used to demonstrate the necessity of air for animal life and combustion, typically by putting a lamp or a small dog in a vacuum, and were used to make calculations of pressure and air density.
Many practical applications were found as well, such as in the manufacture of air guns by Kunitomo Ikkansai, after he repaired and analyzed the mechanism of some Dutch air guns which had been offered to the shōgun in Edo. A vast industry of developed, also derived by Kunitomo from the mechanism of air guns, in which oil was continuously supplied through a compressed air mechanism. Kunitomo developed agricultural applications of these technologies, such as a giant pump powered by an ox, to lift irrigation water. Aerial knowledge and experiments The first flight of a hot air balloon by the brothers Montgolfier in France in 1783, was reported less than four years later by the Dutch in Dejima, and published in the 1787 Sayings of the Dutch.
In 1805, almost twenty years later, the Swiss Johann Caspar Horner and the Prussian Georg Heinrich von Langsdorff, two scientists of the Kruzenshtern mission that also brought the Russian ambassador Nikolai Rezanov to Japan, made a hot air balloon out of Japanese paper (washi) and made a demonstration of the new technology in front of about 30 Japanese delegates. Hot air balloons would mainly remain curiosities, becoming the object of experiments and popular depictions, until the development of military usages during the early Meiji period. Steam engines Knowledge of the steam engine started to spread in Japan during the first half of the 19th century, although the first recorded attempts at manufacturing one date to the efforts of Tanaka Hisashige in 1853, following the demonstration of a steam engine by the Russian embassy of Yevfimiy Putyatin after his arrival in Nagasaki on August 12, 1853.
The Rangaku scholar Kawamoto Kōmin completed a book named in 1845, which was finally published in 1854 as the need to spread Western knowledge became even more obvious with Commodore Perry’s opening of Japan and the subsequent increased contact with industrial Western nations. The book contains detailed descriptions of steam engines and steamships. Kawamoto had apparently postponed the book's publication due to the Bakufu's prohibition against the building of large ships. Geography Modern geographical knowledge of the world was transmitted to Japan during the 17th century through Chinese prints of Matteo Ricci's maps as well as globes brought to Edo by chiefs of the VOC trading post Dejima.
This knowledge was regularly updated through information received from the Dutch, so that Japan had an understanding of the geographical world roughly equivalent to that of contemporary Western countries. With this knowledge, Shibukawa Shunkai made the first Japanese globe in 1690. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, considerable efforts were made at surveying and mapping the country, usually with Western techniques and tools. The most famous maps using modern surveying techniques were made by Inō Tadataka between 1800 and 1818 and used as definitive maps of Japan for nearly a century. They do not significantly differ in accuracy with modern ones, just like contemporary maps of European lands.
Biology The description of the natural world made considerable progress through Rangaku; this was influenced by the Encyclopedists and promoted by von Siebold (a German doctor in the service of the Dutch at Dejima). Itō Keisuke created books describing animal species of the Japanese islands, with drawings of a near-photographic quality. Entomology was extremely popular, and details about insects, often obtained through the use of microscopes (see above), were widely publicized. In a rather rare case of "reverse Rangaku" (that is, the science of isolationist Japan making its way to the West), an 1803 treatise on the raising of silk worms and manufacture of silk, the was brought to Europe by von Siebold and translated into French and Italian in 1848, contributing to the development of the silk industry in Europe.
Plants were requested by the Japanese and delivered from the 1640s on, including flowers such as precious tulips and useful items such as the cabbage and the tomato. Other publications Automatons: , 1730. Mathematics: . Optics: . Glass-making: . Military: , by Takano Chōei concerning the tactics of the Prussian Army, 1850. Description of the method of amalgam for gold plating in , or in Shinjitai, by Inaba Shin'emon (稲葉新右衛門), 1781. Aftermath Commodore Perry When Commodore Perry obtained the signature of treaties at the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, he brought technological gifts to the Japanese representatives. Among them was a small telegraph and a small steam train complete with tracks.
These were promptly studied by the Japanese as well. Essentially considering the arrival of Western ships as a threat and a factor for destabilization, the Bakufu ordered several of its fiefs to build warships along Western designs. These ships, such as the [[Japanese warship Hōō Maru|Hōō-Maru]], the Shōhei-Maru, and the Asahi-Maru, were designed and built, mainly based on Dutch books and plans. Some were built within a mere year or two of Perry's visit. Similarly, steam engines were immediately studied. Tanaka Hisashige, who had made the Myriad year clock, created Japan's first steam engine, based on Dutch drawings and the observation of a Russian steam ship in Nagasaki in 1853.
These developments led to the Satsuma fief building Japan's first steam ship, the (雲行丸), in 1855, barely two years after Japan's first encounter with such ships in 1853 during Perry's visit. In 1858, the Dutch officer Kattendijke commented: Last phase of "Dutch" learning Following Commodore Perry's visit, the Netherlands continued to have a key role in transmitting Western know-how to Japan for some time. The Bakufu relied heavily on Dutch expertise to learn about modern Western shipping methods. Thus, the Nagasaki Naval Training Center was established in 1855 right at the entrance of the Dutch trading post of Dejima, allowing for maximum interaction with Dutch naval knowledge.
From 1855 to 1859, education was directed by Dutch naval officers, before the transfer of the school to Tsukiji in Tokyo, where English educators became prominent. The center was equipped with Japan's first steam warship, the Kankō Maru, given by the government of the Netherlands the same year, which may be one of the last great contributions of the Dutch to Japanese modernization, before Japan opened itself to multiple foreign influences. The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center. He was also sent to the Netherlands for five years (1862–1867), with several other students, to develop his knowledge of naval warfare, before coming back to become the admiral of the shōguns fleet.
Enduring influence of Rangaku Scholars of Rangaku continued to play a key role in the modernization of Japan. Scholars such as Fukuzawa Yukichi, Ōtori Keisuke, Yoshida Shōin, Katsu Kaishū, and Sakamoto Ryōma built on the knowledge acquired during Japan's isolation and then progressively shifted the main language of learning from Dutch to English. As these Rangaku scholars usually took a pro-Western stance, which was in line with the policy of the Shogunate (Bakufu) but against anti-foreign imperialistic movements, several were assassinated, such as Sakuma Shōzan in 1864 and Sakamoto Ryōma in 1867. Notable scholars Arai Hakuseki (, 1657–1725), author of Sairan Igen and Seiyō Kibun Aoki Kon'yō (, 1698–1769) Maeno Ryōtaku (, 1723–1803) Yoshio Kōgyū (, 1724–1800) Ono Ranzan (, 1729–1810), author of .
Hiraga Gennai (, 1729–79) proponent of the "Elekiter" Gotō Gonzan () Kagawa Shūan () Sugita Genpaku (, 1733–1817) author of . Asada Gōryū (, 1734–99) Motoki Ryōei (, 1735–94), author of Shiba Kōkan (, 1747–1818), painter. Shizuki Tadao (, 1760–1806), author of , 1798 and translator of Engelbert Kaempfer's Sakokuron. Hanaoka Seishū (, 1760–1835), first physician who performed surgery using general anaesthesia. Takahashi Yoshitoki (, 1764–1804) Motoki Shōei (, 1767–1822) Udagawa Genshin (, 1769–1834), author of . Aoji Rinsō (, 1775–1833), author of , 1825. Hoashi Banri (, 1778–1852), author of . Takahashi Kageyasu (, 1785–1829) Matsuoka Joan () Udagawa Yōan (, 1798–1846), author of and Itō Keisuke (, 1803–1901), author of Takano Chōei (, 1804–50), physician, dissident, co-translator of a book on the tactics of the Prussian Army, , 1850.
Ōshima Takatō (, 1810–71), engineer — established the first western style blast furnace and made the first Western-style cannon in Japan. Kawamoto Kōmin (, 1810–71), author of , completed in 1845, published in 1854. Ogata Kōan (, 1810–63), founder of the Tekijuku, and author of , Japan's first treatise on the subject. Sakuma Shōzan (, 1811–64) Hashimoto Sōkichi () Hazama Shigetomi () Hirose Genkyō (), author of . Takeda Ayasaburō (, 1827–80), architect of the fortress of Goryōkaku Ōkuma Shigenobu (, 1838–1922) Yoshio Kōgyū (, 1724–1800), translator, collector and scholar See also Dutch missions to Edo Glossary of Japanese words of Dutch origin Japan–Netherlands relations Hollandophile Meiji Restoration Nakatsu Keio University Uki-e Notes References Seeing and Enjoying Technology of Edo (), 2006, (Japanese) The Thought-Space of Edo () Timon Screech, 1998, (Japanese) Glimpses of medicine in early Japanese-German intercourse''.
In: International Medical Society of Japan (ed. ): The Dawn of Modern Japanese Medicine and Pharmaceuticals -The 150th Anniversary Edition of Japan-German Exchange. Tokyo: International Medical Society of Japan (IMSJ), 2011, pp. 72–94. () External links . . . . Category:Edo period Category:Foreign relations of the Dutch Republic Category:History of science and technology in Japan Category:History of the Dutch East India Company Category:Japanese historical terms Category:Japan–Netherlands relations Category:Rangaku
Imagabalin (INN, USAN; PD-332,334) is a drug which acts as a ligand for the α2δ subunit of the voltage-dependent calcium channel, with some selectivity for the α2δ1 subunit over α2δ2. Under development by Pfizer as a pharmaceutical medication, it has demonstrated preclinical efficacy of anxiolytic, analgesic, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant-like activity and is currently in phase III clinical trials for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. See also Atagabalin PD-217,014 Gabapentinoids References Category:Amino acids Category:Anxiolytics Category:Calcium channel blockers Category:GABA analogues Category:Pfizer brands Category:Experimental drugs
The Cathexis are a race of sixth-dimensional beings from the DC Universe. Fictional character biography Originating from the sixth dimension of reality - as opposed to humanity's existence in the third dimension - the Cathexis are an advanced and powerful race, capable of creating sentient energy beings and wielding remarkable power in their own right. Wishing to expand their power, they created the sentenergy 'Id', an energy field capable of modifying reality based on the wishes of those it made contact with and subsequently modifying the vibrations of subatomic particles to grant wishes, and unleashed it upon Earth. Upon arriving in this dimension, Id essentially began to act like the malevolent genie, granting any wishes that it sensed to give the wish-maker precisely what was asked for without giving them precisely what they wanted.
As its first wish in this dimension, it latched on to the strongest superhuman mind it could find, Superman, just as he was wishing that those superhumans who had two lives sometimes did not have to cope with such pressures. As a result, he, Batman, the Flash, Green Lantern, Plastic Man and the Martian Manhunter were split into their human and superhuman identities; Wonder Woman and Aquaman alone remained the same because they had no secret identities in the first place.
However, as Wonder Woman and Aquaman swiftly realized, the separation had been far from perfect; without the other identity to balance out their personalities, the heroes began to change in initially subtle but increasingly obvious ways: Lacking Clark Kent's influence, Superman grew increasingly alien and aloof from the people he had vowed to protect, changing his costume to a more Kryptonian style of clothing and on one occasion actually partially lobotimizing a new opponent to shut down the part of his brain that allowed him to use his new powers, while Clark Kent, despite enjoying his new freedom not to have to lie about where he was, became increasingly fearful of even simple things like heights, and became increasingly less confident in himself.
Being normally driven by Bruce Wayne's memory of the deaths of Thomas and Martha Wayne, Batman rapidly lost his spirit and resolve without Wayne's memory to drive him, becoming a faceless individual with no real drives of his own, while Wayne, unable to channel his rage into his Batman identity, became increasingly hostile, violently beating a couple of vandals who attempted to graffiti his car. Lacking Wally's human influence, the Flash simply reveled in his speed with no thought for the past - he even changed his costume, despite promising to keep it the way it was to honor the memory of Barry Allen - while Wally, lacking the Flash's haste, became increasingly lethargic, even missing dinner dates with his wife Linda.
Without the Green Lantern ring to properly express himself creatively, Kyle Rayner began to increasingly descend into madness, obsessively sketching down ideas to try to keep himself under control, while Green Lantern lacked any imagination and simply used his ring as a weapon, to the point where he simply attempted to shoot at a massive flood rather than taking the more responsible solution of erecting a wall to contain it. Without Eel O'Brien's darker nature, Plastic Man degenerated from being a man with a sense of humor to being a near-ineffective idiot, making inappropriate jokes in the middle of a crisis, while O'Brien found himself contemplating returning to his criminal ways without Plastic Man's powers and lighter nature to give him a reason to remain a hero.
As with Superman, Martian Manhunter began to grow aloof from his adopted people and assume a more Martian-like appearance, while John Jones (by contrast to the others) reveled in his new freedom, including his lack of a fear of fire and him no longer being plagued by the long-standing grief from being the last of his race. While investigating the apparent resurrection of the deceased Metamorpho, the League met the Cathexis for the first time and learned about Id; Metamorpho had been brought back by his son Joey's wish, but Joey had unfortunately wished that his father was back rather than alive, and so Id had translated his wish as such.
Using the residual 'Id energies' left from the wish, the Cathexis were able to reverse the wish, and explained the situation to the League. Accompanied by the League, the Cathexis subsequently tracked Id to Los Angeles after it turned the entire city blind following a scarred beauty queen's yell of "Don't look at me!!" while on live television. With Id having been captured by Wonder Woman's lasso and the Flash's vibrations, the Cathexis showed their true colors and turned on the League. Fortunately, Eel O'Brien - realizing the problems being faced by the divided Leaguers - had managed to gather the League's civilian identities together, the six civilians confronting the Cathexis while Eel attempted to use their equipment to reverse Superman's original wish.
Unfortunately, so much time had passed that there was not enough energy to fully reverse the wish, and the 'merge' back consisted of a haphazard mess, with both personas struggling for dominance. As the Cathexis divided Aquaman into his fish and human sides, Wonder Woman, taking a last desperate gambit, tricked them into separating her soul of truth from her physical form, her spirit form thus able to reveal the truth to her six split teammates - that they were stronger together than apart. Using Id's power, the Flash divided the Cathexis from two six-dimensional creatures into four three-dimensional ones, the Cathexis subsequently being easily defeated by Batman.
With this achieved, the League united around Id, channeling their combined desires into a wish for Id to destroy itself and banish the Cathexis back to their dimension, lacking the knowledge to ever recreate Id again. Category:DC Comics cosmic entities Category:DC Comics supervillains Category:Extraterrestrial supervillains
A diphthong ( or ; from Greek: , diphthongos, literally "double sound" or "double tone"; from δΐς "¨twice" and φθόγγος "sound"), also known as a gliding vowel, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most varieties of English, the phrase no highway cowboys has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable. Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound.
For instance, in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong (), while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong in most varieties (). Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables—for example, in the English word re-elect—the result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong. (The English word hiatus is itself an example of both hiatus and diphthongs.) Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes). Transcription In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English sun , in which represents a monophthong.
Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English high or cow , in which and represent diphthongs. Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant and the labiovelar approximant , with the symbols for the close vowels and , or the symbols for the near-close vowels and : Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in high and cow as or is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels or the close vowels .
Transcribing the diphthongs as is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels . The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below , is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable: . When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript, , or a tie bar, or . The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight.
Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting. The period is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables (hiatus), meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, lower can be transcribed , with a period separating the first syllable, , from the second syllable, . The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in . No words in English have the vowel sequences , so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.
Types Falling and rising Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like in eye, while rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the in yard. (Note that "falling" and "rising" in this context do not refer to vowel height; for that, the terms "opening" and "closing" are used instead. See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in eye and in yard.
However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols (, ). Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory (see semivowel for examples). Closing, opening, and centering In closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first (e.g.
); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. ). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling (), and opening diphthongs are generally rising (), as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs and are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong. A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height.
These occurred in Old English: beon "be" ceald "cold" A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as , , and in Received Pronunciation or and in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs (, ). Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs: ’ai 'probably' ’ae 'but' ’auro 'gold' ao 'a cloud' Narrow and wide Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch , and .
Wide diphthongs are the opposite - they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English and . Length Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with a similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters.
Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English, these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae, respectively. Languages that contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami is known to contrast long, short and "finally stressed" diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a long second element. Phonology In some languages, diphthongs are single phonemes, while in others they are analyzed as sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and a semivowel. Sound changes Certain sound changes relate to diphthongs and monophthongs.
Vowel breaking or diphthongization is a vowel shift in which a monophthong becomes a diphthong. Monophthongization or smoothing is a vowel shift in which a diphthong becomes a monophthong. Difference from semivowels and vowel sequences While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in the syllable nucleus while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries (either the onset or the coda). This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction, but the phonetic distinction is not always clear.
The English word yes, for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs and so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with . However, it is possible for languages to contrast and . Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for example, distinguishes 'exit' from 'be amused', 'dance' from 'stare at', and 'choice' from 'good'. Examples Germanic languages English In words coming from Middle English, most cases of the Modern English diphthongs originate from the Middle English long monophthongs through the Great Vowel Shift, although some cases of originate from the Middle English diphthongs .
Due to complex regional variation Hiberno-English diphthongs are not enumerated below. Dutch {| class="wikitable" |- |+ Diphthongs of Dutch ! ! Netherlandic ! Belgian |-align=center | zeis, ijs || colspan=2| |-align=center |ui || colspan=2| |-align=center |zout, lauw || || |-align=center |leeuw || colspan=2| |-align=center |nieuw || colspan=2| |-align=center |duw || colspan=2| |-align=center |dooi || colspan=2| |-align=center |saai || colspan=2| |-align=center |loei || colspan=2| |-align=center |beet || || |-align=center |neus || || |-align=center |boot || || |-align=center |} The dialect of Hamont (in Limburg) has five centring diphthongs and contrasts long and short forms of , , , and . German Standard German Phonemic diphthongs in German: as in Ei ‘egg’ as in Maus ‘mouse’ as in neu ‘new’ In the varieties of German that vocalize the in the syllable coda, other diphthongal combinations may occur.
These are only phonetic diphthongs, not phonemic diphthongs, since the vocalic pronunciation alternates with consonantal pronunciations of if a vowel follows, cf. du hörst ‘you hear’ – ich höre ‘I hear’. These phonetic diphthongs may be as follows: notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic and that ", following the pronouncing dictionaries (, ) judge the vowel in Art, Schwert, Fahrt to be long, while the vowel in Ort, Furcht, hart is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable. "Also supported by . He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if precedes.
According to the 'lengthless' analysis, the aforementioned 'long' diphthongs are analyzed as , , , , , , and . This makes non-prevocalic and homophonous as or . Non-prevocalic and may also merge, but the vowel chart in shows that they have somewhat different starting points. also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases." Bernese German The diphthongs of some German dialects differ from standard German diphthongs.
The Bernese German diphthongs, for instance, correspond rather to the Middle High German diphthongs than to standard German diphthongs: as in lieb ‘dear’ as in guet ‘good’ as in müed ‘tired’ as in Bei ‘leg’ as in Boum ‘tree’ as in Böim ‘trees’ Apart from these phonemic diphthongs, Bernese German has numerous phonetic diphthongs due to L-vocalization in the syllable coda, for instance the following ones: as in Stau ‘stable’ as in Staau ‘steel’ as in Wäut ‘world’ as in wääut ‘elects’ as in tschúud ‘guilty’ Yiddish Yiddish has three diphthongs: as in פּליטה ('refugee' f.) as in נײַן ('nine') as in אופֿן ('way') Diphthongs may reach a higher target position (towards ) in situations of coarticulatory phenomena or when words with such vowels are being emphasized.
Norwegian There are five diphthongs in the Oslo dialect of Norwegian, all of them falling: as in nei, "no" as in øy, "island" as in sau, "sheep" as in hai, "shark" as in joik, "Sami song" An additional diphthong, , occurs only in the word hui in the expression i hui og hast "in great haste". The number and form of diphthongs vary between dialects.
Faroese Diphthongs in Faroese are: as in bein (can also be short) as in havn as in har, mær as in hey as in nevnd as in nøvn as in hús as in mín, bý, ið (can also be short) as in ráð as in hoyra (can also be short) as in sól, ovnIcelandic Diphthongs in Icelandic are the following: as in átta, "eight" as in nóg, "enough" as in auga, "eye" as in kær, "dear" as in þeir, "they" as in koja, "bunk bed", "berth" (rare, only in handful of words) Combinations of semivowel and a vowel are the following: as in éta, "eat" as in jata, "manger" as in já, "yes" as in joð, "iodine", "jay", "yod" (only in a handful of words of foreign origin) as in jól, "Christmas" as in jötunn, "giant" as in jæja, "oh well" as in jú, "yes" Romance languages French In French, , , and may be considered true diphthongs (that is, fully contained in the syllable nucleus: ).
Other sequences are considered part of a glide formation process that turns a high vowel into a semivowel (and part of the syllable onset) when followed by another vowel. Diphthongs as in roi "king" as in groin "muzzle" as in huit "eight" as in juin "June" Semivowels as in oui "yes" as in lien "bond" as in Ariège as in travail "work" as in Marseille as in bille "ball" as in feuille "leaf" as in grenouille "frog" as in vieux "old" Quebec French In Quebec French, long vowels are generally diphthongized in informal speech when stressed.
as in tard "late" as in père "father" as in fleur "flower" as in autre "other" as in neutre "neutral" as in banque "bank" as in mince "thin" as in bon "well" as in un "one" Catalan Catalan possesses a number of phonetic diphthongs, all of which begin (rising diphthongs) or end (falling diphthongs) in or . In standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with or ) are possible only in the following contexts: in word initial position, e.g. iogurt. Both occur between vowels as in feia and veiem. In the sequences or and vowel, e.g. guant, quota, qüestió, pingüí (these exceptional cases even lead some scholars to hypothesize the existence of rare labiovelar phonemes and ).
There are also certain instances of compensatory diphthongization in the Majorcan dialect so that ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal plosive) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as (and contrasts with the unpluralized ). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (part of Catalan's segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in ('year') vs ('years'). The dialectal distribution of this compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal plosive (whether it is velar or palatal) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).
Portuguese The Portuguese diphthongs are formed by the labio-velar approximant and palatal approximant with a vowel, European Portuguese has 14 phonemic diphthongs (10 oral and 4 nasal), all of which are falling diphthongs formed by a vowel and a nonsyllabic high vowel. Brazilian Portuguese has roughly the same amount, although the European and non-European dialects have slightly different pronunciations ( is a distinctive feature of some southern and central Portuguese dialects, especially that of Lisbon). A onglide after or and before all vowels as in quando ('when') or guarda ('guard') may also form rising diphthongs and triphthongs. Additionally, in casual speech, adjacent heterosyllabic vowels may combine into diphthongs and triphthongs or even sequences of them.
In addition, phonetic diphthongs are formed in most Brazilian Portuguese dialects by the vocalization of in the syllable coda with words like sol ('sun') and sul ('south') as well as by yodization of vowels preceding or its allophone at syllable coda in terms like arroz ('rice'), and (or ) in terms such as paz mundial ('world peace') and dez anos ('ten years'). Spanish Phonetically, Spanish has seven falling diphthongs and eight rising diphthongs. In addition, during fast speech, sequences of vowels in hiatus become diphthongs wherein one becomes non-syllabic (unless they are the same vowel, in which case they fuse together) as in poeta ('poet') and maestro ('teacher').
The Spanish diphthongs are: Italian The existence of true diphthongs in Italian is debatable; however, a list is: The second table includes only 'false' diphthongs, composed of a semivowel + a vowel, not two vowels. The situation is more nuanced in the first table: a word such as 'baita' is actually pronounced ['baj.ta] and most speakers would syllabify it that way. A word such as 'voi' would instead be pronounced and syllabified as ['vo.i], yet again without a diphthong. In general, unstressed in hiatus can turn into glides in more rapid speech (e.g. biennale 'biennial'; coalizione 'coalition') with the process occurring more readily in syllables further from stress.
Romanian Romanian has two true diphthongs: and . There are, however, a host of other vowel combinations (more than any other major Romance language) which are classified as vowel glides. As a result of their origin (diphthongization of mid vowels under stress), the two true diphthongs appear only in stressed syllables and make morphological alternations with the mid vowels and . To native speakers, they sound very similar to and respectively. There are no perfect minimal pairs to contrast and , and because doesn't appear in the final syllable of a prosodic word, there are no monosyllabic words with ; exceptions might include voal ('veil') and trotuar ('sidewalk'), though Ioana Chițoran argues that these are best treated as containing glide-vowel sequences rather than diphthongs.