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Humanoid has so far spawned two singles, "Automatic"/"Automatisch", released in September 2009, and "World Behind My Wall"/"Lass uns laufen" (meaning "Let Us Run"), to be released in January 2010. Kings of Suburbia and solo projects (2012–present) In May 2012, Kaulitz was featured on the song "If I Die Tomorrow" by Far East Movement on their album Dirty Bass. Tokio Hotel announced their fifth studio album, Kings of Suburbia, in 2013 and it was released October 3, 2014. In 2016, Kaulitz announced his plans for a solo project under the moniker "Billy" (stylized as BILLY). His first EP, I'm Not OK, was released on May 20.
Other work In 2009, he reprised the role of the German voice of Arthur again for the Arthur und die Minimoys (Arthur And The Invisibles) sequel. In 2010, Kaulitz and Tokio Hotel teamed up with Kerli to record the song Strange for the film Alice In Wonderland and accompanying Almost Alice soundtrack. Kaulitz, alongside his brother, Tom, modeled for a PETA.de photoshoot, protesting the use of animals as a source of entertainment. He also modeled for Dsquared in early 2010, making his debut as a model. Kaulitz appeared as a jury member on the 10th season of Deutschland sucht den Superstar.
Personal life Bill Kaulitz and his identical twin brother, Tom, used to live in Hamburg but moved to Los Angeles in October 2010 in response to an incident involving stalkers and a robbery. They have also stated that it is easier for them to create their new album, as it is closer to their manager David Jost. They are currently living in Los Angeles but also have a home in Hamburg. Bill is vegetarian and has been involved in campaigning for PETA. After moving to L.A. Kaulitz and the band took a year off and "didn't do anything" before finding inspiration in L.A. nightlife.
In November 2014, Kaulitz blogged about love, labels and his sexuality; Kaulitz has not put a label on his sexual orientation, but offered: "Maybe I'm just about to meet someone who changes my life forever and, if that happens, does it really matter what gender they are?" Kaulitz is a supporter of Angela Merkel and favored the CDU in the 2017 German federal election. Stalking incident More trouble came for Kaulitz when in late 2008/early 2009 several female stalkers pursued the band relentlessly, even following his twin brother Tom Kaulitz to his parents' home in Germany and attacked the twins' mother.
The issue seemed to end after his twin brother Tom allegedly hit one of the stalkers at a gas station in April 2009 and drove off. However, an article in Bild stated that the issue had resurfaced and that Tom Kaulitz may stand trial for assault. In late December 2009, the charges against Tom were lifted and he is pressing charges himself—against the girl he allegedly hit—on grounds of stalking. Public image German site www.dw-world.com says that his look, young age and edgy hairstyle has helped him obtain icon status among many teenage girls. Kaulitz designs many of his own stage costumes, and despite poor drawing skills, the designs are constructed by his tailor.
The singer apparently collects suspenders, and is also "totally crazy about jackets". Kaulitz reports he has hundreds of jackets in his closet – though he has said that none of his jackets are real leather as he is opposed to using animal pelts/feathers for clothing. He cites his fashion and style influences as David Bowie (particularly in the 1986 film Labyrinth), Nena, Vampires, Paris' secondhand shops, striking jewelry and Dior Homme. He also cites Steven Tyler, Karl Lagerfeld and Hedi Slimane. Kaulitz also has a keen interest in tattoos getting his first one when he was 15. His skeleton hand tattoo is a particulary noted among his fans.
In 2018 he got a tattoo of his late dog Pumba on his right arm by German tattoo artist Daniel Meyer. In August 2008, Kaulitz was chosen as the most attractive singer on stage by the readers of the Spanish magazine ¡Hola!. He was also immortalized in wax at the Madame Tussauds museum in Berlin on September 30, 2008. Kaulitz was 19 when the likeness was made, making him the youngest person to be duplicated by the Madame Tussauds museum in Berlin. In December 2008, Bill Kaulitz was named "Man of the Year #6" by MTV News. In September 2009, Kaulitz was chosen by fashion legend Karl Lagerfeld to take part in a photo shoot for the 30th birthday of Vogue in Germany.
Karl Lagerfeld described him as "The Other Idea of a German" and wrote that the 20-year-old singer with the unusual styling became a superstar; and a fashion icon. While in October 2009, Kaulitz was number 11 on German magazine GQs Best Dressed list. They cite his flamboyant style as one of the reasons he was chosen, as well as his liking to change and try new things. Designer Michael Michalsky supported his decision by saying: "Bill Kaulitz is unique and uncompromising, Pop-Art brought to life. He likes to change – that is fashion." For the Dsquared2 Fall/Winter 2010 fashion show, Kaulitz opened and closed the show with the song Screamin'.
Discography As solo artist (BILLY) I'm Not Ok - EP (De-Code LTD, 2016) Devilish Devilish (self-released, 2001) Tokio Hotel Schrei (Island Records/Universal Music, 2005) Zimmer 483 (Island/Universal, 2007) Humanoid (Island/Universal, Stunner Records [INTL] CherryTree Records, Interscope Records [USA], 2009) References Category:1989 births Category:East German musicians Category:20th-century German musicians Category:21st-century German musicians Category:English-language singers from Germany Category:German child singers Category:German expatriates in the United States Category:German-language singers Category:German male models Category:German male singers Category:German male voice actors Category:German rock musicians Category:German rock singers Category:Twin musicians Category:Identical twin males Category:Living people Category:People from Leipzig Category:Twin people from Germany Category:Tokio Hotel Category:Deutschland sucht den Superstar judges
Pan Am Flight 214 was a scheduled flight of Pan American World Airways from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Baltimore, Maryland, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On December 8, 1963, the Boeing 707 serving the flight crashed near Elkton, Maryland, while flying from Baltimore to Philadelphia, after being hit by lightning. All 81 occupants of the plane were killed. It was the first fatal accident on a Pan Am jet aircraft since the company had taken its first delivery of the type five years earlier. An investigation by the Civil Aeronautics Board concluded that the cause of the crash was a lightning strike that had ignited fuel vapors in one of the aircraft's fuel tanks, causing an explosion that destroyed one of the wings.
The exact way that the lightning had ignited the fumes was never determined. However, the investigation revealed various ways that lightning can damage aircraft in flight, which led to new safety regulations. The crash also led to research into the safety of different types of aviation fuel and research into methods of reducing dangerous fuel-tank vapors. Accident Pan American Flight 214 was a regularly scheduled flight from Isla Verde International Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Philadelphia International Airport with a scheduled stopover at Baltimore's Friendship Airport. It operated three times a week as the counterpart to Flight 213, which flew from Philadelphia to San Juan via Baltimore earlier the same day.
Flight 214 left San Juan at 4:10p.m. Eastern time with 140 passengers and 8 crew members, and arrived in Baltimore at 7:10p.m. The crew did not report any maintenance issues or problems during the flight. Upon arrival, 67 of the passengers disembarked in Baltimore. After refueling, the aircraft left Baltimore at 8:24p.m. with the remaining 73 passengers for the final leg to Philadelphia International Airport. As the flight approached Philadelphia, the pilots established contact with air traffic control near Philadelphia at 8:42p.m. The controller informed the pilots that the airport was experiencing a line of thunderstorms in the vicinity of the airport, accompanied by strong winds and turbulence.
The controller asked if the pilots wanted to proceed directly to the airport, or to enter a holding pattern to wait for the storm to pass. The crew of Pan Am flight 214 elected to hold, at 5,000 feet, in a holding pattern with five other aircraft. The air traffic controller told them that the delay would be approximately 30 minutes. There was heavy rain in the holding area, with frequent lightning and gusts of wind up to . At 8:58p.m., the aircraft exploded. The pilots were able to transmit a final message, "MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY. Clipper 214 out of control.
Here we go." Seconds later, the first officer of National Airlines Flight 16, holding 1,000 feet higher in the same holding pattern, radioed in, "Clipper 214 is going down in flames". The aircraft crashed at 8:59p.m. in a corn field east of Elkton, Maryland, near the Delaware Turnpike, setting the rain-soaked field on fire. The aircraft was completely destroyed, and all of the occupants were killed. The aircraft was the first Pan American jet plane to crash in the five years they had been flown by the airline. Aftermath A Maryland State Trooper had been patrolling on Route 213 and he radioed an alert as he drove toward the crash site, east of Elkton near the state line.
The Trooper was first to arrive at the crash site and later stated that “It wasn’t a large fire. It was several smaller fires. A fuselage with about 8 or 10 window frames was about the only large recognizable piece I could see when I pulled up. It was just a debris field. It didn’t resemble an airplane. The engines were buried in the ground 10 to 15-feet from the force of the impact.” The emergency radio communications tape from that evening was preserved, recording the early minutes of the accident as police officers and firefighters arrived at the scene.
The streaming audio is available on the blog, A Window on Cecil County's Past It was soon obvious to firefighters and police officers that there was a little could be done done other than begin the collection of bodies. The wreckage was engulfed in intense fires that burned for more than four hours. First responders and police from across the county, along with men from the Bainbridge Naval Training Center assisted with the recovery. They patrolled the area with railroad flares and set up searchlights to define the accident scene and to make sure that the debris and human remains were undisturbed by curious spectators.
Remains of the victims were brought to the National Guard Armory in Philadelphia where a temporary morgue was set up. Relatives came to the armory, but officials there ruled out any possibility of being able to visually identify the victims. It took the state medical examiner nine days to identify all of the victims, using fingerprints, dental records, and nearby personal effects. In some cases, the team reconstructed the victims' faces as much as possible using mannequins. The main impact crater contained most of the aircraft's fuselage, the left inner wing, the left main gear, and the nose gear. Portions of the plane's right wing and fuselage, right main landing gear, horizontal and vertical tail surfaces, and two of the engines were found within of the crater.
A trail of debris from the plane extended as far as from the point of impact. The complete left wing tip was found a little under from the crash site. Parts of the wreckage ripped a hole in a country road, shattered windows in a nearby home, and spread burning jet fuel across a wide area. The Civil Aeronautics Board was notified of the accident and was dispatched from Washington, D.C., to conduct an investigation. Witnesses of the crash described hearing the explosion and seeing the plane in flames as it went down. Of the 140 witnesses interviewed, 99 reported seeing an aircraft or a flaming object in the sky.
Seven witnesses stated that they saw lightning strike the aircraft. Seventy-two witnesses said the ball of fire occurred at the same time or immediately after the lightning strike. Twenty-three witnesses reported that the aircraft exploded after they saw the plane on fire. Aircraft The aircraft involved was a Boeing 707-121 registered with tail number N709PA. Named the Clipper Tradewind, it was the oldest aircraft in the U.S. commercial jet fleet at the time of the crash. It had been delivered to Pan Am on 27 October 1958 and had flown a total of 14,609 hours. It was powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-6 turbojet engines.
At the time of the accident, the aircraft was estimated to have a book value of $3,400,000 (). Nearly five years earlier, in 1959, the same aircraft had been involved in an incident when the right outboard engine had been torn from the wing during a training flight in France. The plane entered a sudden spin during a demonstration of the aircraft's minimum control speed, and the aerodynamic forces caused the engine to break away. The pilot regained control of the aircraft and landed safely in London using the remaining three engines. The detached engine fell into a field on a farm southwest of Paris, where the flight had originated, with no injuries.
Passengers and crew The plane carried 73 passengers, who all died in the crash. All the passengers were residents of the United States. The pilot of the plane was George F. Knuth, 45, of Long Island. He had flown for Pan Am for 22 years and had accumulated 17,049 hours of flying experience, including 2,890 in the Boeing 707. He had been involved in another incident in 1949, when as pilot of Pan Am Flight 100, a Lockheed Constellation in flight over Port Washington, New York, a Cessna 140 single-engine airplane crashed into his plane. The two occupants of the Cessna were killed in the accident, but Captain Knuth was able to land safely with no injuries to the crew or passengers of the Pan Am flight.
The first officer of the flight was John R. Dale, 48, of Long Island. He had a total of 13,963 hours of flying time, of which 2,681 were in the Boeing 707. The second officer was Paul L. Orringer, age 42, of New Rochelle, New York. He had 10,008 hours of flying experience, including 2,808 in Boeing 707 aircraft. The flight engineer was John R. Kantlehner, of Long Island. He had a total flying time of 6,066 hours, including 76 hours in the Boeing 707. Investigation The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) assigned more than a dozen investigators within an hour of the crash.
They were assisted by investigators from the Boeing Company, Pan American World Airways, the Air Line Pilots Association, Pratt & Whitney, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Federal Aviation Agency. The costs of investigations by the CAB at the time rarely exceeded $10,000, but the agency would spend about $125,000 investigating this crash (), in addition to the money spent by Boeing, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the engine manufacturer, and other aircraft parts suppliers on additional investigations. Initial theories of the cause of the crash focused on the possibility that the plane had experienced severe turbulence in flight that had caused a fuel tank or fuel line to rupture, leading to an in-flight fire from leaking fuel.
U.S. House Representative Samuel S. Stratton of Schenectady, New York, sent a telegram to the Federal Aviation Administration urging them to restrict jet operations in turbulent weather, but the FAA responded that it saw no pattern that suggested the need for such restrictions, and the Boeing Company concurred. Other possibilities of the cause of the crash included sabotage or that the aircraft had been hit by lightning, but by nightfall after the first day, investigators had not found evidence of either. There was also some speculation that metal fatigue as a result of the aircraft's 1959 incident could be involved in the crash, but the aircraft had gone through four separate maintenance overhauls since the accident without any issues being detected.
Investigators rapidly located the flight data recorder, but it was badly damaged in the crash. Built to withstand an impact 100 times as strong as the force of gravity, it had been subjected to a force of 200 times the force of gravity, and its tape appeared to be hopelessly damaged. Alan S. Boyd, chairman of the CAB, told reporters shortly after the accident, "It was so compacted there is no way to tell at this time whether we can derive any useful information from it." Eventually, investigators were able to extract data from 95 percent of the tape that had been in the recorder.
The recovery of the wreckage took place over a period of 12 days, and 16 truckloads of the debris was taken to Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C., for investigators to examine and reassemble. Investigators revealed that there was evidence of a fire that occurred in flight, and one commented that it was nearly certain that there had been an explosion of some kind before it crashed. Eyewitness testimony later confirmed that the plane had been burning on its way down to the crash site. Within days, investigators reported that it was apparent that the crash had been caused by an explosion that had blown off one of the wing tips of the airplane.
The wing tip had been found about from the crash site bearing burn marks and bulging from an apparent internal explosive force. Remnants of of the wing tip had been found at various points along the flight path short of the impact crater. Investigators revealed that it was unlikely that rough turbulence had caused the crash because the crews of other aircraft that had been circling in the area reported that the air was relatively smooth at the time. They also said that the plane would have had to dive a considerable distance before aerodynamic forces would have caused it to break up and explode, but it was apparent that the aircraft had caught fire near its cruising altitude of 5,000 feet.
Before this flight, there had been no other known case of lightning causing a plane to crash despite many instances of planes being struck. Investigators found that on average, each airplane is struck by lightning once or twice a year. Scientists and airline industry representatives vigorously disputed the theory that lightning could have caused the aircraft to explode, calling it improbable. The closest example of such an instance occurred near Milan, Italy, in June 1959 where a Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation crashed as a result of static electricity igniting fuel vapor coming from the fuel vents. Despite the opposition, investigators found multiple lightning strike marks on the left wing tip, and a large area of damage that extended along the rear edge of the wing, leading investigators to believe that lightning was the cause.
The CAB launched an urgent research program in an attempt to identify conditions in which fuel vapors in the wings could have been ignited by lightning. Within a week of the crash, the FAA issued an order requiring the installation of static electricity dischargers on the approximately 100 Boeing jet airliners that had not already been equipped with them. Aviation industry representatives were critical of the order, saying there was no evidence that the dischargers would have any beneficial effect since they were never designed to handle the effects of lightning, and they said the order would create a false impression that the risk of lightning strikes had been resolved.
The CAB conducted a public hearing in Philadelphia in February 1964 as part of their investigation. Experts had still not concluded that lightning had caused the accident, but they were investigating different ways lightning could have triggered the explosion. The FAA said that it was going to conduct research to determine the relative safety of the two types of jet fuel used in the United States, both of which were present in the fuel tanks of Flight 214. Criticism of the JP-4 jet fuel that had been present in the tanks centered around the fact that its vapors can be easily ignited at the low temperatures encountered in flight.
JP-4 advocates countered that it was as safe or safer than kerosene, the other fuel used in jets at the time. Pan American World Airways conducted a flight test in a Boeing 707 to investigate whether fuel could leak from the tank venting system during a test flight that attempted to simulate moderate to rough turbulence in flight. The test did not reveal any fuel discharge, but there was evidence that fuel had entered the vent system, collected in the surge tanks, and returned to the fuel tanks. Pan American said that it would test a new system to inject inert gas into the air spaces above the fuel tanks in aircraft in an attempt to reduce the risk of hazardous fuel-air mixtures that could ignite.
On March 3, 1965, the CAB released the final accident report. The investigators concluded that a lightning strike had ignited the fuel-air mixture in the number 1 reserve fuel tank, which had caused an explosive disintegration of the left outer wing, leading to a loss of control. Despite one of the most intensive research efforts in its history, the agency could not identify the exact mechanics of how the fuel had ignited, concluding that the lightning had ignited vapors through an as-yet unknown pathway. The board said, "It is felt that the current state of the art does not permit an extension of test results to unqualified conclusions of all aspects of natural lightning effects.
The need for additional research is recognized and additional programming is planned." Legacy The crash of Pan Am Flight 214 called attention to the fact that there were previously unknown risks to aircraft in flight from lightning strikes. One month after the crash, the FAA formed a technical committee on lightning protection for fuel systems, with experts from the FAA, CAB, other government agencies, and lightning experts. The committee made commitments to conduct both long-range and short-range studies of the hazards of lightning on the fuel systems of aircraft, and how to defeat those hazards. In 1967, the FAA updated airworthiness standards for transport category airplanes with requirements that the fuel systems of aircraft must be designed to prevent the ignition of fuel vapor within the system by lightning strikes, and published guidance related to that requirement.
Additional requirements to protect the aircraft from lightning were enacted in 1970. Many aircraft design improvements emerged as a result of the new guidelines and regulations. There was increased attention to the electrical bonding of the components installed in the outer surfaces of the fuel tanks located in the wings, such as fuel filler caps, drain valves, and access panels, to the surrounding structures. Fuel vent flame arrestors were added to aircraft to detect and extinguish fuel vapors that had ignited at fuel vent outlets. The thickness of the aluminum surfaces of the wings was thickened in order to reduce the chances that a lightning strike could cause a complete melt-through of the wing surface into the internal components of the wings.
See also LANSA Flight 508 – Another accident caused by a lightning strike TWA Flight 800 – Aircraft accident caused by ignition of fuel vapors References External links A Pan American promotional film that features Clipper Tradewind (N709PA) A picture of the aircraft involved in the accident (archived from the original on November 4, 2012) Another photograph of the aircraft involved Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 707 Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by lightning strikes Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in Maryland Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving in-flight explosions Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in the United States in 1963 Category:Elkton, Maryland 214 Category:1963 in Maryland Category:1963 meteorology Category:December 1963 events
Philoponella congregabilis, sometimes referred to as the little humped spider, is an Australian species of communal spider that, like other species of Uloboridae, does not use venom. Instead it wraps its prey in spider silk to crush it to death. The spider then goes on to regurgitate digestive fluid into the shroud, then consuming the pre-digested liquid. The specific name congregabilis translates to "community dwellers". The generic name Philoponella alludes to their industrious nature, "loving labour". Description The male is up to 3.5 mm long, the female 6 mm. Colour varies, from pale cream to a darker orange or brown.
The abdomen features a prominent hump. Web and habitat Found in New South Wales, these small spiders build untidy looking orb webs, connected to other webs in a community with others of the same species. Webs are not upright, being horizontal or sloping. Debris often litters the communal web, making observation of the spider difficult. The habitat is often eaves or window sills in houses, garages or sheds. The more natural habitat is shady places such as low shrubbery. Food is small arthropods, mostly insects. Egg sac and juveniles The female produces an egg sac around 9 mm long and fairly flat and elongate in shape.
The outer covering is grey or brown of a rough texture. The egg sacs are suspended in the communal web, tapering at the ends and having several lateral points. It may be mistaken for vegetative debris or digested food. They contain around 20 small spherical non-sticky eggs. Juveniles stay in the community web for a relatively long period, often joining the community of spiders or moving to form a new colony. Taxonomy The species was described as Uloborus congregabilis by Rainbow in 1916 from a specimen from New South Wales. It was transferred to the genus Philoponella by Lehtinen in 1967.
References Category:Uloboridae Category:Spiders of Australia Category:Spiders described in 1916 Category:Taxa named by William Joseph Rainbow
Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be more important than traditional moral conduct. Most religions have an ethical component, often derived from purported supernatural revelation or guidance. Some assert that religion is necessary to live ethically. Simon Blackburn states that there are those who "would say that we can only flourish under the umbrella of a strong social order, cemented by common adherence to a particular religious tradition".
Buddhist ethics Ethics in Buddhism are traditionally based on the enlightened perspective of the Buddha, or other enlightened beings who followed him. Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of Buddhist scriptures, and the use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies, to justify claims about the nature of Buddhist ethics. According to traditional Buddhism, the foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is the Pancasila: no killing, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, or intoxicants. In becoming a Buddhist, or affirming one's commitment to Buddhism, a layperson is encouraged to vow to abstain from these negative actions.
Buddhist monks and nuns take hundreds more such vows (see vinaya). The sole reliance on traditional formulae or practices, however, can be questioned by Western Buddhists whose main concern is the practical solution of complex moral problems in the modern world. To find a justifiable approach to such problems it may be necessary not just to appeal to the precepts or the vinaya, but to use more basic Buddhist teachings (such as the Middle Way) to aid interpretation of the precepts and find more basic justifications for their usefulness relevant to all human experience. This approach avoids basing Buddhist ethics solely on faith in the Buddha's enlightenment or Buddhist tradition, and may allow more universal non-Buddhist access to the insights offered by Buddhist ethics.
The Buddha provided some basic guidelines for acceptable behavior that are part of the Noble Eightfold Path. The initial percept is non-injury or non-violence to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans. This precept defines a non-violent attitude toward every living thing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism, but from both the Buddhist and Jain perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living things. Theravada monk Bhikkhu Bodhi has observed: "Buddhist ethics, as formulated in the five precepts, is sometimes charged with being entirely negative. ... [I]t has to be pointed out that the five precepts, or even the longer codes of precepts promulgated by the Buddha, do not exhaust the full range of Buddhist ethics.
The precepts are only the most rudimentary code of moral training, but the Buddha also proposes other ethical codes inculcating definite positive virtues. The Mangala Sutta, for example, commends reverence, humility, contentment, gratitude, patience, generosity, etc. Other discourses prescribe numerous family, social, and political duties establishing the well being of society. And behind all these duties lie the four attitudes called the "immeasurables"—loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity." Christian ethics Christian ethics in general has tended to stress the need for love, grace, mercy, and forgiveness because of sin. With divine assistance, the Christian is called to become increasingly virtuous in both thought and deed, see also the Evangelical counsels.
Conversely, the Christian is also called to abstain from vice. Christian ethical principles are based on the teachings within the Bible. They begin with the notion of inherent sinfulness, which requires essential atonement. Sin is estrangement from God which is the result of not doing God's will. God's will can be summed up by the precept: "Love God with all your heart, soul, mind, and strength, and your neighbor as yourself", commonly called the Great Commandment. Christian ethics are founded upon the concept of grace which transforms a person's life and enable's one to choose and act righteously. As sin is both individual and social, so is grace applied to both the individual and society.
Christian ethics has a teleological aspect—all ethical behavior is oriented towards a vision of the Kingdom of God—a righteous society where all live in peace and harmony with God and nature, as envisioned in the Book of Isaiah. Specific ethical behaviors originate in the Old Testament’s Ten Commandments, and are enriched by teachings in the Psalms and morals contained in historical accounts, see also Biblical law in Christianity. Christian ethics is not substantially different from Jewish ethics, except in the exhortation to love one's enemy. Perhaps the greatest contribution of Christian ethics is this command to love one's enemies. It has been argued (see Ched Myers's Binding the Strong Man, and John Howard Yoder's The Politics of Jesus) that Jesus was waging a non-violent campaign against the Roman oppressors and many of his sayings relate to this campaign--turn the other cheek, go the second mile, etc.
Understanding these commands as part of a larger campaign makes it impossible to interpret Christian ethics as an individual ethic. It is both an individual and a social ethic concerned with life here on earth. Other tenets include maintaining personal integrity and the absence of hypocrisy, as well as honesty and loyalty, mercy and forgiveness, rejection of materialism and the desire for wealth and power, and teaching others in your life through personal joy, happiness and Godly devotion. There are several different schema of vice and virtue. Aquinas adopted the four cardinal virtues of Aristotle (justice, courage, temperance and prudence), and added to them the Christian virtues of faith, hope and charity (from St.Paul, ).
Other schema include the Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven virtues. For more see Christian philosophy and Biblical law in Christianity. Confucian ethics Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism emphasize the maintenance and propriety of relationships as the most important consideration in ethics. To be ethical is to do what one's relationships require. Notably, though, what you owe to another person is inversely proportional to their distance from you. In other words, you owe your parents everything, but you are not in any way obligated towards strangers. This can be seen as a recognition of the fact that it is impossible to love the entire world equally and simultaneously.
This is called relational ethics, or situational ethics. The Confucian system differs very strongly from Kantian ethics in that there are rarely laws or principles which can be said to be true absolutely or universally. This is not to say that there has never been any consideration given to universalist ethics. In fact, in Zhou Dynasty China, the Confucians' main opponents, the followers of Mozi argued for universal love (). The Confucian view eventually held sway, however, and continues to dominate many aspects of Chinese thought. Many have argued, for example, that Mao Zedong was more Confucian than Communist. Confucianism, especially of the type argued for by Mencius (), argued that the ideal ruler is the one who (as Confucius put it) "acts like the North Star, staying in place while the other stars orbit around it".
In other words, the ideal ruler does not go out and force the people to become good, but instead leads by example. The ideal ruler fosters harmony rather than laws. Confucius stresses honesty above all. His concepts of lĭ (), yì (), and rén () can be seen as deeper expressions of honesty () and fidelity () to the ones to whom one owes one's existence (parents) and survival (one's neighbours, colleagues, inferiors in rank). He codified traditional practice and actually changed the meaning of the prior concepts that those words had meant. His model of the Confucian family and Confucian ruler dominated Chinese life into the early 20th century.
This had ossified by then into an Imperial hierarchy of rigid property rights, hard to distinguish from any other dictatorship. Traditional ethics had been perverted by legalism. Buddhist influence Buddhism, and specifically Mahayana Buddhism, brought a cohesive metaphysic to Chinese thought and a strong emphasis on universalism. Neo-Confucianism was largely a reaction to Buddhism's dominance in the Tang dynasty, and an attempt at developing a native Confucian metaphysical/analytical system. Taoist ethics Laozi (Lao Tzu) and other Taoist (Daoist) authors argued for an even greater passivity on the part of rulers than did the Confucians. For Laozi, (Lao Tzu) the ideal ruler is one who does virtually nothing that can be directly identified as ruling.
Clearly, both Daoism and Confucianism presume that human nature is basically good. The main branch of Confucianism, however, argues that human nature must be nurtured through ritual (li 禮), culture (wen 文) and other things, while the Daoists (Taoists) argued that the trappings of society were to be gotten rid of. Taoist ethics ask for a greater sense of being and less identification with the act of doing. Taoist passivity nurtures, cultivates and prepares an atmosphere that allows the majestic and the real to shine, which influences society for the better. - "If you want to awaken all of humanity, then awaken all of yourself; if you want to eliminate the suffering in the world, then eliminate all that is dark and negative in yourself.
Truly, the greatest gift you have to give is that of your own self-transformation." - Lao Tzu Hindu ethics Ethics is called Nitisastra (Sanskrit: नीतिशास्त्र) in ancient texts of Hinduism. Ethics and virtue are a much debated and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism. Virtue, right conduct, ethics and morality are part of the complex concept Hindus call Dharma - everything that is essential for people, the world and nature to exist and prosper together, in harmony. As P.V. Kane, the author of the History of Dharmasastra said, the term "Dharma" does not have a synonym in English language.
While it is often interpreted as meaning "duty", it can mean justice, right, moral, good, and much more. Ethics are explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, Apastamba explained it thus: "virtue and vice do not go about saying - here we are! ; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us - this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life.
Ethics that constitute a dharmic life - that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life - evolve in vedas and upanishads. Ethical subjects and questions are debated by various schools of Hinduism, quite extensively, in numerous texts on what is right conduct, when, how and why. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars, some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life: Dhriti (courage), Kshama (forgiveness), Dama (temperance), Asteya (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), Saucha (inner purity), Indriyani-graha (control of senses), dhi (reflective prudence), vidya (wisdom), satyam (truthfulness), akrodha (freedom from anger).
In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a more broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: Ahimsa (Non-violence), Dama (self restraint), Asteya (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), Saucha (inner purity), Satyam (truthfulness). The Persian historian Al Biruni who visited and lived in India for 16 years in the early 11th century, describes the concept of ethics and virtuous behavior among Hindus of his times. Of ethical mandates among Hindus, a literal translation of his Persian language manuscript includes (1) A man shall not kill; (2) nor lie; (3) nor steal; (4) nor whore; (5) nor hoard up treasures.
These correspond to five Yamas of ancient Hindu ethics: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth, non-falsehood), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy if unmarried and non-cheating on one's partner if married), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness). In addition to these five negative things to abstain from, Hindu ethics also recommends five positive things to strive for as Niyamas: Śauca (purity in body, speech and mind), Santosha (contentment, acceptance of circumstances with optimism), Tapas (perseverance, meditation, austerity), Swadhyaya (lifelong learning) and Pranidhan (right attitude, contemplation). An ethical life in Hinduism is essential for a liberated life, one without craving, one that is content, attained through knowledge and by abstaining from evil.
Hindu literature variously discuss ethics as one or more of four topics: (1) Gunas that is inner tendencies of conduct found in every individual (in large measure, psychology); (2) Purushartha that is proper aims of life for every individual for self-development and happiness (dharma, artha, kama and moksha); (3) Ashramas that is ethics for an individual in different periods of one's lifetime (ethical expectations for a child are distinguished from those for adults, old age); and (4) Varnasramas that is ethics and conduct for every individual in relation to society. Ancient literature at the foundation of various Hindu traditions primarily discuss the first three, while the last has attracted greater attention since the 18th century.
Some early 20th century literature wondered if ethics was ever a serious topic of study in Hinduism. Later studies have yielded the above four approaches to ethics in different schools of Hinduism, tied together with three common themes: (1) ethics is an essential part of dharma concept, (2) Ahimsa (non-violence) is the foundational premise without which - suggests Hinduism - ethics and any consistent ethical theory is impossible, and (3) Ethics cannot always be dualistically or non-dualistically reduced from first principles, ethics is closely related to moksha (self realization and spiritual freedom) with Vivekacudamani stating, "individuals with self knowledge and spiritual freedom are inherently self examining and ethical" and "ethics, freedom and knowledge require each other".
In addition to the above four topics in Hindu ethics, scholars state that the karma doctrine of Hinduism is part of its ethical theory compendium. The Bhagavad Gita—considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong—argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational; for example, it explains a virtue such as Ahimsa must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity or ignorance of others. Islamic ethics The foundational source in the gradual codification of Islamic ethics was the Muslim understanding and interpretations of the mankind has been granted the faculty to discern God's will and to abide by it.
This faculty most crucially involves reflecting over the meaning of existence, which, as John Kelsay in the Encyclopedia of Ethics phrases, "ultimately points to the reality of God." Therefore, regardless of their environment, humans are believed to have a moral responsibility to submit to God's will and to follow Islam (as demonstrated in the Qur'an and the Sunnah, or the sayings of Muhammad ). This natural inclination is, according to the Qur'an, subverted by mankind's focus on material success: such focus first presents itself as a need for basic survival or security, but then tends to manifest into a desire to become distinguished among one's peers.
Ultimately, the focus on materialism, according to the Islamic texts, hampers with the innate reflection as described above, resulting in a state of jahiliyya or "ignorance." Muslims believe that Muhammad, like other prophets in Islam, was sent by God to remind human beings of their moral responsibility, and challenge those ideas in society which opposed submission to God. According to Kelsay, this challenge was directed against five main characteristics of pre-Islamic Arabia: The division of Arabs into varying tribes (based upon blood and kinship).
This categorization was confronted by the ideal of a unified community based upon Islamic piety, an "ummah;" The acceptance of the worship of a multitude of deities besides Allah - a view challenged by strict Islamic monotheism, which dictates that Allah has no partner in worship nor any equal; The trait of muruwwa (manliness), which Islam discouraged, instead emphasizing on the traits of humility and piety; The focus on achieving fame or establishing a legacy, which was replaced by the concept that mankind would be called to account before God on the day of resurrection; The reverence of and compliance with ancestral traditions, a practice challenged by Islam—which instead assigned primacy to submitting to God and following revelation.
These changes lay in the reorientation of society as regards to identity and life of the Muslim belief, world view, and the hierarchy of values. From the viewpoint of subsequent generations, this caused a great transformation in the society and moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula. For Muhammad, although pre-Islamic Arabia exemplified "heedlessness," it was not entirely without merit. Muhammad approved and exhorted certain aspects of the Arab pre-Islamic tradition, such as the care for one's near kin, for widows, orphans, and others in need and for the establishment of justice. However, these values would be re-ordered in importance and placed in the context of strict monotheism.
Furthermore, a Muslim should not only follow these five main characteristics, but also be more broad about his morals. Therefore, the more the Muslim is applying these rules, the better that person is morally. For example, Islamic ethics can be applied by important verses in the Quran . The most fundamental characteristics of a Muslim are piety and humility. A Muslim must be humble with God and with other people: “And turn not your face away from people (with pride), nor walk in insolence through the earth. Verily, God likes not each arrogant boaster. And be moderate (or show no insolence) in your walking, and lower your voice.
Verily, the harshest of all voices is the voice (braying) of the ass.” (Quran 31:18-19) Muslims must be in control of their passions and desires. A Muslim should not be vain or attached to the ephemeral pleasures of this world. While most people allow the material world to fill their hearts, Muslims should keep God in their hearts and the material world in their hand. Instead of being attached to the car and the job and the diploma and the bank account, all these things become tools to make us better people. Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim's life, from greetings to international relations.
It is universal in its scope and in its applicability. Morality reigns in selfish desires, vanity and bad habits. Muslims must not only be virtuous, but they must also enjoin virtue. They must not only refrain from evil and vice, but they must also forbid them. In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but they must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.
“You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men; you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God; and if the followers of the Book had believed it would have been better for them; of them (some) are believers and most of them are transgressors.” (Quran: 3:110) Muhammad summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: “My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.” Islam is a way of life and it does not work in isolation.
In a business practice for example, the Muslims are call to adhere good business ethical values, does not cheat, and does not charge interests to the buyers. Research has also observed how Islamic religiosity influences work ethics and business ethics. Jain ethics Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants. For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a guru (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, sincere desire for Jain teachings, recognition of fellow Jains, and admiration for their spiritual pursuits.
Such a person undertakes the following Five vows of Jainism: Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury": The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts. Satya, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth. Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.
Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given. Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner. Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. Jainism also prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas. The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual vow observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.
In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion, In Jainism this is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths. Jewish ethics Jewish ethics may be said to originate with the Hebrew Bible, its broad legal injunctions, wisdom narratives and prophetic teachings. Most subsequent Jewish ethical claims may be traced back to the texts, themes and teachings of the written Torah. In early rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah both interprets the Hebrew Bible and delves afresh into many other ethical topics. The best known rabbinic text associated with ethics is the non-legal Mishnah tractate of Avot, popularly translated as Ethics of the Fathers.
Generally, ethics is a key aspect of non-legal rabbinic literature, known as aggadah, and ethical teachings are found throughout the more legal (halakhic) portions of the Mishnah, Talmud and other rabbinic literature. This early Rabbinic ethics shows signs of cross-fertilization and polemical exchange with both the Greek (Western philosophical) ethical tradition and early Christian tradition. In the medieval period, direct Jewish responses to Greek ethics may be seen in major rabbinic writings. Notably, Maimonides offers a Jewish interpretation of Aristotle (e.g., Nicomachean Ethics), who enters into Jewish discourse through Islamic writings. Maimonides, in turn, influences Thomas Aquinas, a dominant figure in Catholic ethics and the natural law tradition of moral theology.
The relevance of natural law to medieval Jewish philosophy is a matter of dispute among scholars. Hellenistic influence Ethics in systematic form, and apart from religious belief, is as little found in apocryphal or Judæo-Hellenistic literature as in the Bible. However, Greek philosophy greatly influenced Alexandrian writers such as the authors of IV Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, and Philo. Much progress in theoretical ethics came as Jews came into closer contact with the Hellenic world. Before that period the Wisdom literature shows a tendency to dwell solely on the moral obligations and problems of life as appealing to man as an individual, leaving out of consideration the ceremonial and other laws which concern only the Jewish nation.
From this point of view Ben Sira's collection of sayings and monitions was written, translated into Greek, and circulated as a practical guide. The book contains popular ethics in proverbial form as the result of everyday life experience, without higher philosophical or religious principles and ideals. More developed ethical works emanated from Hasidean circles in the Maccabean time, such as are contained in Tobit, especially in Chapter IV. Here the first ethical will or testament is found, giving a summary of moral teachings, with the Golden Rule, "Do that to no man which thou hatest!" as the leading maxim.
There are even more elaborate ethical teachings in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, in which each of the twelve sons of Jacob, in his last words to his children and children's children, reviews his life and gives them moral lessons, either warning them against a certain vice he had been guilty of, so that they may avoid divine punishment, or recommending them to cultivate a certain virtue he had practised during life, so that they may win God's favor. The chief virtues recommended are love for one's fellow man, industry, especially in agricultural pursuits, simplicity, sobriety, benevolence toward the poor, compassion even for the brute and avoidance of all passion, pride, and hatred.
Similar ethical farewell monitions are attributed to Enoch in the Ethiopic Enoch (xciv. et seq.) and the Slavonic Enoch (lviii. et seq.) and to the three patriarchs. The Hellenistic Jewish propaganda literature made the propagation of Jewish ethics taken from the Bible its main object for the sake of winning the pagan world to pure monotheism. It was owing to this endeavor that certain ethical principles were laid down as guiding maxims for the Gentiles, first of all the three capital sins, idolatry, murder, and incest, were prohibited (see Sibyllines, iii. 38, 761; iv. 30 et seq.). In later Jewish rabbinic literature these Noachide Laws were gradually developed into six, seven, and ten, or thirty laws of ethics binding upon every human being.
Germanic Neopagan ethics Germanic Neopagans, including followers of both Asatru and Theodism, try to emulate the ethical values of the ancient Germanic peoples (Norse or Anglo-Saxon) through the form of the Nine Noble Virtues. Scientology ethics Scientology ethics is based upon the concepts of good and evil. Ethics may be defined as the actions an individual takes on itself to ensure its continued survival across the dynamics. Secular ethics Secular ethics is a moral philosophy in which ethics are based solely on human faculties such as scientific reason, sociobiological composition, or ethical intuition, and not derived from purported supernatural revelation or guidance.
Secular ethics comprise a wide variety of moral and ethical systems including consequentialism, freethinking, humanism, secular humanism, and utilitarianism, among others. The majority of secular moral concepts are based on the acceptance of natural rights and social contracts, and on a more individual scale of either some form of attribution of intrinsic value to things, Kantianesque ethical intuitionism or of a logical deduction that establishes a preference for one thing over another, as with Occam's razor. Approaches such as ethical egoism, moral relativism, moral skepticism, and moral nihilism are also considered. Shinto ethics Shinto beliefs start with an assumption of the inherent goodness of humans as descendants of the kami.
By the 6th century CE, Shinto had drawn from a Chinese idea that good people will adhere to societal norms, and emperors have a divine mandate to bring about the "desirable and required order". Shinto adherents are to "realize and carry out the will of the kami and the ancestors in the family, the community, and the nation". Although State Shinto reinforced subordination to the emperor and the state, Shrine Shinto is a situation-based ethical system that emphasizes right actions toward others, versus adherence to a specific belief system. Shrine Shinto also stresses gratefulness for "blessings of the kami", and maintaining harmony with the emperor and the world.
Wiccan ethics Wiccan morality is largely based on the Wiccan Rede: 'An' it harm none, do what ye will' -- old-fashioned language for 'as long as you aren't harming anyone, do as you wish'. While this could be interpreted to mean "do no harm at all", it is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act, along with the necessity of thinking through and taking responsibility for the consequences of one's actions. Another element of Wiccan Morality comes from the Law of Threefold Return, which is understood to mean that whatever one does to another person or thing (benevolent or otherwise) returns with triple force.
Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate a set of eight virtues mentioned in Doreen Valiente's Charge of the Goddess, these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power and compassion. In Valiente's poem they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a dualism that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. See also Aristotelian ethics Catholic moral theology Divine command theory Ethic of reciprocity Ethics without religion European wars of religion Evolutionary ethics Golden Rule Islamic bioethics Morality Neetham Worship References Citations Sources Bodhi, Bhikkhu (1981/1994). http://www.jmest.org/wp-content/uploads/JMESTN42350601.pdf Going for Refuge & Taking the Precepts (The Wheel Publication No. 282/284). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
(Originally published 1981 and transcribed for Internet publication in 1994.) Retrieved 2007-11-12 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel282.html. Bullitt, John T. (2005a). The Eight Precepts (attha-sila). Retrieved 2007-11-12 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/atthasila.html. Bullitt, John T. (2005b). The Five Precepts (pañca-sila). Retrieved 2007-11-12 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/pancasila.html. Davis, John Jefferson (1985). Evangelical Ethics: Issues Facing the Church Today, Presbyterian and Reformed Pub. Co. De La Torre, Miguel A., "Doing Christian Ethics from the Margins," Orbis Books, 2004. Further reading External links "Ethics Without Religion", Philip Kitcher, Berfrois, 11 January 2012 Category:Relational ethics Category:Religious ethics Category:Hindu ethics
The UW Bothell/Cascadia College Wetland Restoration Project is a 58-acre forested floodplain restoration site at the delta of North Creek in King County, Washington, USA. The State of Washington bought the site in 1994 from the Truly family, and dedicated the land to the construction of the Bothel regional campus of the University of Washington and Cascadia College. Construction began in 1998, as did the stream and floodplain restoration. Two years later, in 2000, classes opened for students, and in 2001 the main phase of the restoration was completed. Today the site is an ongoing area of restoration education. History Before European settlement, the UW Bothell Wetlands site was composed of small lakes and complex runoff channels.
North Creek’s hydrology has been influenced by Lake Washington and water runoff from the surrounding watershed. Urbanization in recent decades has also influenced the hydrology of North Creek, as impervious surface cover increased the rate of flow of North Creek. Historical hydrology and geology Hydrologic modifications to North Creek prior to restoration included straightening, channeling and levee building. Modifying North Creek would allow for the delivery of logs easily downstream to the mills on Lake Washington. These modifications limited the creek’s ability to reconnect to its historical floodplain, which resulted in poor water quality and reductions in fish populations. From 1913 to 1916, the opening of the Hiram Chittenden Locks dropped Lake Washington by 12 feet.
This change in hydrology dried the historical floodplain, allowing this land to be developed and farmed. Invasive species, such as reed canary grass, once fed the grazing animals on the pastures, but now competes with native shrub and herbaceous plant species. The soil mixes present in North Creek’s floodplain consist of lake and marsh sediment, volcanic ash, floodplain alluvium, and organic deposits. The floodplain also contains stratified layers that suggest standing water and, “marsh to mixed marsh-forested wetland”. Historical flora and fauna Flora in the floodplain historically consisted of ‘scrub-shrub’ and early successional communities. Western Redcedar (Thuja plicata), Black Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Big Leaf Maple (Acer macrophyllum), and Red Alder (Alnus rubra) were the dominating tree species.
These dominant species were first logged before 1895 and were shipped to sawmills around Lake Washington, using North Creek as a means of transport. North Creek watershed The North Creek watershed is an area of approximately 30 square miles that discharges into the Sammamish River, and eventually Lake Washington. The predominant land type in North Creek’s watershed is urban, but fragments of forest exist, including the 64 acre North Creek Forest. However, “Urbanization and land development activities greatly affect water quality in the basin through riparian corridor alteration, conversion of forests, inadequate retention/detention of stormwater from new and existing impervious surfaces, and poorly treated stormwater run-off”.
Truly homestead Since the 1930s, the area now occupied by the North Creek Wetland was used for farming and grazing. Drainage systems were implemented by various owners of the property, including the Truly Family, to modify the existing groundwater and surface waters. Restoration design Because the construction of the UWB/Cascadia campus caused the destruction of 6 acres of a hillslope wetland ecosystem, the State of Washington had to mitigate this loss under the 1989 Federal Wetlands Delineation Protocol of the Clean Water Act. The State chose to restore the degraded floodplain to a high standard of function, at a ratio of nearly 10:1 replacement of a distinct kind of wetland for the destroyed wetlands on the same site.
The restoration project is an effort to restore ecosystem functions such as water purification, flood protection, groundwater recharge and streamflow maintenance. The Wetland was designed to support Fish and Wildlife, as well as plant species, by providing the proper habitat. The restoration of the wetlands considered the chemical, physical, and hydrological processes that are present in healthy stream and floodplain ecosystems. Among these features is micro-topography; small variations in ground elevation that create a diversity of habitat for biota. Using reference sites in the Puget Sound Lowlands, the design for stream channel morphology was created. This design would facilitate the biogeochemical exchanges between land and water.
For example, the careful placement of large woody debris was used to create diversity of stream bank habitat. The success of the wetland restoration is largely due to the establishment of these hydrogeological characteristics. The first step of restoring the floodplain was to scrape the top 12 inches of soil off in the southern area of the site, and add up to 24 inches of fill soil to the northern half of the site. Creating this slope on the site helped deter invasive species. Planting design considered 261 environmentally distinct areas, called polygons, within the wetland. Between 1998 and 2002, over 100,000 plants were planted.
Seven years after initial planting, the Wetland restoration project met its 10-year objectives. The planting design also considered ecological succession in its initial design, expecting the initial plant communities to change through time. According to (UWB), the site will begin to fully function as an ecosystem in another 20 to 30 years. The restoration design implemented information from the surrounding North Creek Basin hydrology, hydrologic modeling, and the ecological potential of the site. Sizing of the new North Creek channel was conducted by OTAK, with their use of hydrological analysis. The wetland ecological surveying and designing was conducted by L.C.
Lee & Associates, Inc. Design goals and objectives The seven targets for channel design of the restoration effort were met: Maximizing channel length Maximizing contact time between water and wetlands Creating secondary high flow channels Placing large wood in-channel to guide channel alignment and morphology Providing for increased peak flows as a result of urbanization of the North Creek watershed Allowing lateral channel movement within design parameters Providing visual access from both the campus and highway corridors. The project met its environmental regulatory requirements by restoring the structure and functioning of two newly created channels in North Creek. This included reconnecting North Creek with its historical floodplain and restoring 58 acres of the wetland ecosystem.
Current status Current flora and fauna Five distinct vegetation communities make up the ecological mosaic of the wetland today. These communities include (i) Evergreen forest types (ii) Floodplain and riparian forest types (iii) Floodplain Scrub-Shrub types (iv) Emergent marsh types and (v) The microdepression community. Formal and informal monitoring suggests that the abundance and diversity of animal species is increasing. Some common wetland species seen today include the Beaver (Castor canadensis), River Otter (Lutra canadensis). Chinook, Coho, Sockeye and Kokanee salmon species have been observed, as well as Trout and Bass species. The wetland also hosts a variety of reptiles and amphibians, including the Pacific treefrog (Pseudacris regilla), Red-legged frog (Rana aurora), Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), Common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), and the Northwestern garter snake (Thamnophis ordinoides).
Bird species are also prevalent in the wetland restoration, common species include Great blue heron (Ardea Herodias), Canada goose (Branta Canadensis), Mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaincensis), and the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). Maintenance and management Maintenance in the early years of the restoration project involved invasive species removal, trail maintenance, and thinning of brush. Because of the continuous input of invasive plant seeds, as well as the activity of beavers that opens up portions of the site, on-going invasive species removal is still necessary. To assess whether or not the wetland was reaching its various targets, monitoring plans as permitted by the Clean Water Act were designed.
This monitoring also is used as a contingency measure. If unforeseen events impact the restoration function, those events can be measured and accounted for. Because the UWB Wetland Restoration Project is isolated in an urbanized area, the manual planting of later succession species is required to develop the ecosystem succession through time. The site design incorporated various ‘environmental features’ including small-scale topographic variation and woody debris (WD) to enhance site diversity. UWB has committed to maintain this biological diversity as site conditions change. According to the University, hydrological changes in North Creek will be managed, “only to the degree that we [UWB] need to do so in order to protect infrastructure”.
Education Because the Wetland Restoration Project at UWB was one of the largest floodplain restorations in the region, it is an educational resource to researchers and teachers. Over 30 classes, from the CUSP (Center for University Studies and Programs), Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, and STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) Programs at UWB visit the campus wetlands. Research projects have studied bats, crows, stream invertebrates, beaver-plant interaction, and others. Professional education, such as wetland mitigation regulation, is also taught in the wetland, using this restoration as a very successful example. The continued research in the UWB Wetland Restoration Project will afford a basis of information for future research in ecological restoration.
Research in the wetlands allows for the continual monitoring of the restoration growth. UWB encourages students, staff, and other scientists to research the restoration as long as it involves a minimal impact to the wetland ecosystems. Low-impact, observational studies are encouraged in the wetlands, but experimental proposals will be carefully considered, especially the potential impacts of the research. Some research projects that have been conducted in the wetland include: The behavioral study of bats Survey of terrestrial insects Stream macroinvertebrates as measures of stream health in North Creek The impacts of beaver activity on canopy development The impacts of tent caterpillar outbreaks on the pace and trajectory of ecological restoration Water quality of floodplain depressions thorough time and space – and links to the water quality of North Creek Water quality Fecal Coliform Bacteria (FCB), including E. coli, in North Creek tributaries has been monitored by the City of Bothell.
In 2010, the City developed a ‘Bacteria Pollution Control Plan’ which involving picking up pet waste in effort to reduce Fecal Coliform Bacteria in surface waters. A study conducted later concluded that the source of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in North Creek tributaries is diffuse, or spread out. FCB that originates from sources within the wetland, such as waterfowl, are considered to be the ‘background’ levels and according to The DOE, “will not be addressed by water cleanup activities associated with [TMDL]”. Challenges Both point and non-point pollution affects North Creek. Combined Sewer Overflow events influence Fecal Coliform Bacteria and E. coli concentrations in North Creek.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits are issued to deal with known point sources, while non-point sources including poor land management, leaky septic systems, exist undealt with. Urban stormwater likely contains FCB from pet waste as well. The high levels of FCB in North Creek limit its use for recreation, while low dissolved oxygen levels negatively affect salmonid spawning. References Category:Wetlands of Washington (state)
Depleted zinc oxide (DZO) is a zinc oxide depleted in the zinc isotope with the atomic mass 64, and used as a corrosion inhibitor in nuclear pressurized water reactors. The depletion of 64Zn is necessary, because this isotope is transformed into 65Zn by neutron capture. 65Zn with a half-life of 244.26 days emits gamma radiation with 1.115 MeV. 64Zn has a natural abundance of 48.6%, but in DZO it is reduced below 1%. Adding zinc oxide to the primary water loop of a boiling water reactor or pressurized water nuclear reactor reduces corrosion and therefore minimizes the amount of dissolved materials, especially 60Co.