text
stringlengths 640
1.02k
|
|---|
m of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus ejects an alpha particle through the electromagnetic force and transforms into a nucleus with mass number four less and atomic number two less for example two hbox to two hbox four two hbox although this is usually written as hbox to hbox alpha note that an alpha particle is a helium nucleus and that both mass number and atomic number are conserved alpha decay can essentially be thought of as nuclear fission where the parent nucleus splits into two daughter nuclei alpha decay is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process unlike beta decay alpha decay is governed by the strong nuclear force alpha particles with their typical kinetic energy of five mev that is zero one three of their total energy i e one one zero tj kg have a speed of one five zero zero zero km s because of alpha decay virtually all of the helium produced in the united states and elsewhere comes from trapped underground deposits associated with minerals containing uranium or thorium and brought t |
o the surface as a by product of natural gas production alpha particles emitted by radioactive nuclei are among the most hazardous forms of radiation if these nuclei are incorporated within a human body as any heavy charged particle alpha particles lost their energy in very short distance in dense media causing significant damage to surrounding biomolecules on the other hand the external alpha irradiation cannot cause any damages because alphas are completely absorbed by a very thin micrometers dead layer of skin as well as by few centimeters of air however if a substance radiating alpha particles is injected ingested or inhaled by an organism it may become a risk potentially inflicting very serious damage to the organisms genetic makeup radioactivity extreme poverty is the most severe state of poverty where people have minimal or very limited access to basic necessities such as food clothing shelter education and health care the world bank defines extreme poverty as living on us one or less per day and estim |
ates that one one billion people currently live under these conditions eradiction of extreme poverty and hunger by two zero one five is a millennium development goal extreme poverty is most common in sub saharan africa see also list of countries by percentage of population living in poverty income inequality metrics make poverty history poverty line poverty reduction references sachs jeffrey two zero zero five the end of poverty economic possibilities for our time penguin press hc isbn one five nine four two zero zero four five nine external links poverty indicators statistics measurement is there such a thing as an absolute poverty line over time new light on the behavior of poverty lines over time whiteband org global call to action against poverty the analytical engine an important step in the history of computers is the design of a mechanical modern general purpose computer by the british professor of mathematics charles babbage it was first described in one eight three seven but babbage continued to work |
on the design until his death in one eight seven one because of financial political and legal issues the engine was never actually built general purpose computers that were logically comparable to the analytical engine did not come into existence until about one zero zero years later some believe that the technological limitations of the time were a further obstacle to the construction of the machine others believe that the machine could have been built successfully with the technology of the era if funding and political support had been stronger design charles babbage s first attempt at a mechanical computing device was the difference engine a special purpose computer designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometric functions by evaluating approximate polynomials as this project faltered for personal and political reasons he realized that a much more general design was possible he started work designing the analytical engine the analytical engine was to be powered by a steam engine and would have been over |
three zero meters long and one zero meters wide the input programs and data was to be provided to the machine on punch cards a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms for output the machine would have a printer a curve plotter and a bell the machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later it employed ordinary base one zero fixed point arithmetic there was a store i e a memory capable of holding one zero zero zero numbers of five zero digits each an arithmetical unit the mill would be able to perform all four arithmetical operations the programming language to be employed was akin to modern day assembly languages loops and conditional branching were possible and so the language as conceived would have been turing complete three different types of punch cards were used one for arithmetical operations one for numerical constants and one for load and store operations transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back there were three separate readers |
for the three types of cards in one eight four two the italian mathematician luigi menabrea whom babbage had met while travelling in italy wrote a description of the engine in french in one eight four three the description was translated into english and extensively annotated by ada king countess of lovelace who had become interested in the engine ten years earlier in recognition of her additions to menabrea s paper she has been described as the first computer programmer the modern computer programming language ada is named in her honor partial construction in one eight seven eight a committee of the british association for the advancement of science recommended against constructing the analytical engine which sank babbage s efforts for government funding in one nine one zero babbage s son henry p babbage reported that a part of the mill and the printing apparatus had been constructed and had been used to calculate a faulty list of multiples of pi this constituted only a small part of the whole engine it was |
not programmable and had no storage influence computer science the analytical engine was then all but forgotten with three known exceptions percy ludgate wrote about the engine in one nine one five and even designed his own analytical engine it was drawn up in detail but never built ludgate s engine would be much smaller than babbage s of about eight cubic feet two three zero l and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two two zero decimal digit numbers in about six seconds leonardo torres y quevedo and vannevar bush also knew of babbage s work though the three inventors likely did not know of each other closely related to babbage s work on the analytical engine was the work of george stibitz of bell laboratories in new york just prior to wwii and howard hathaway aiken at harvard during and just after wwii they both built electromechanical i e relay and switch computers which were closely related to the analytical engine though neither was quite a modern programmable computer aiken s machine was larg |
ely financed by ibm and was called the harvard mark i from babbage s autobiography as soon as an analytical engine exists it will necessarily guide the future course of the science fiction the cyberpunk novelists william gibson and bruce sterling co authored a steampunk novel of alternative history entitled the difference engine in which babbage s difference and analytical engines became available to victorian society the novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology external links the analytical engine at fourmilab l f menabrea ada augusta sketch of the analytical engine biblioth que universelle de gen ve number eight two october one eight four two randell brian from analytical engine to electronic digital computer the contributions of ludgate torres and bush annals of the history of computing volume four number four october one nine eight two history of computing early computers english inventions one of a kind computers mathematical tools mechanical |
calculators the famous statue of octavian at the prima porta vatican museums caesar augustus latin imperator caesari divi filius augustus two three september six three bc one nine august ad one four known to modern historians as octavian for the period of his life prior to two seven bc is considered the first and one of the most important roman emperors though he downplayed his own position by preferring the traditional republic title of princeps usually translated as first citizen although he preserved the outward form of the roman republic he ruled as an autocrat for more than four zero years and his rule is the dividing line between the republic and the roman empire he ended a century of civil wars and gave rome an era of peace prosperity and imperial greatness known as the pax romana the roman peace he was married to livia drusilla for five one years early life augustus was born in rome with the name gaius octavius his father also gaius octavius came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the eq |
uestrian order and was governor of macedonia shortly after octavius s birth his father gave him the surname of thurinus possibly to commemorate his victory at thurii over a rebellious band of slaves his mother atia balba caesonia was the niece of julius caesar soon to be rome s most successful general and dictator for life he spent his early years in his grandfather s house near veletrae modern velletri in five eight bc when he was four his father died he spent most of his childhood in the house of his stepfather lucius marcius philippus in five one bc aged eleven he delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother julia caesaris he put on the toga virilis at fifteen and was elected to the college of pontiffs caesar requested that octavius join his staff for his campaign in africa but atia protested that he was too young the following year four six bc she consented for him to join caesar in hispania but he fell ill and was unable to travel when he had recovered he sailed to the front but was shipwrecked afte |
r coming ashore with a handful of companions he made it across hostile territory to caesar s camp which impressed his great uncle considerably caesar and octavius returned home in the same carriage and caesar secretly changed his will rise to power bust of caesar augustus when caesar was assassinated in march four four bc octavius was studying in apollonia in what is now albania when caesar s will was read it revealed that having no legitimate children he had adopted his great nephew as his son and main heir by virtue of his adoption octavius assumed the name gaius julius caesar roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname octavianus to indicate his biological family from which historians derive the name octavian however no evidence exists that he ever used the name octavianus mark antony later charged that he had earned his adoption by caesar through sexual favors though suetonius describes antony s accusation as political slander octavian as he is now conventionally called recruited a small forc |
e in apollonia crossing over to italy he bolstered his personal forces with caesar s veteran legionaries gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to caesar only eighteen years old he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power in rome he found marcus antonius mark antony in control after a tense standoff and a war in gaul after antony tried to take control of the province from decimus brutus he formed an uneasy alliance with mark antony and marcus aemilius lepidus caesar s principal colleagues the three formed a junta called the second triumvirate an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law unlike the unofficial first triumvirate of pompey caesar and crassus the triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which three hundred senators and two thousand equites were deprived of their property and for those who failed to escape their lives going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay t |
heir troops antony and octavian then marched against brutus and cassius who had fled to the east at philippi in macedonia the caesarian army was victorious and brutus and cassius committed suicide four two bc while octavian returned to rome antony went to egypt where he allied himself with queen cleopatra the ex lover of julius caesar and mother of caesar s infant son caesarion while in egypt antony had an affair with cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children alexander helios cleopatra selene and ptolemy philadelphus antony later left cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with octavian s sister octavia in four zero bc during their marriage octavia gave birth to two daughters both named antonia in three seven bc antony deserted octavia and went back to egypt to be with cleopatra the roman dominions were then divided between octavian in the west and antony in the east antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the east and a romantic affair with cleopatra octavian built a network of allies |
in rome consolidated his power and spread propaganda implying that antony was becoming less than roman because of his preoccupation with egyptian affairs and traditions the situation grew more and more tense and finally in three two bc octavian declared war it was quickly decided in the bay of actium on the western coast of greece after antony s men began deserting the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to egypt he pursued them and after another defeat antony committed suicide cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in octavian s triumph was carefully explained to her and caesarion the supposed son of julius caesar by cleopatra was butchered without compunction augustus supposedly said two caesars are one too many as he ordered caesarion s death it is said that cleopatra used a snake to kill herself octavian becomes augustus the creation of the principate augustus as a magistrate the |
western half of the empire had sworn allegiance to octavian prior to actium in three zero bc and after actium and the defeat of antony and cleopatra the eastern half of the empire followed suit placing octavian in the position of ruler of the entire empire years of civil war had left rome in a state of near lawlessness but the republic was not prepared to accept the control of octavian as a despot at the same time octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the roman generals and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever his position demanded that he look to the well being of the city and provinces disbanding his personal forces octavian held elections and took up the position of consul as such though he had given up his personal armies he was now legally in command of the legions of rome the first settlement in two seven bc he officially returned power to the senate of rome and offered to relinquish his own military supremacy over egypt reportedly t |
he suggestion of octavian s stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the plebeians in rome a compromise was reached between the senate and octavian s supporters known as the first settlement octavian was given proconsular authority over the western half of the empire and syria the provinces that combined contained almost seven zero of the roman legions the senate also gave him the titles augustus and princeps augustus was a title of religious rather than political authority in the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status additionally after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control that the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as augustus from his reign of terror as octavian princeps translates to first citizen or first leader it had been a title under the republic for those who had served the state well for example gnaeus pompey had held |
the title in addition and perhaps the most dangerous innovation augustus was granted the right to wear the civic crown of laurel and oak this crown was usually held above the head of a roman general during a triumph with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat remember thou art mortal to the triumphant general the fact that not only was augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a monarchy however it must be noted that none of these titles or the civic crown granted octavian any additional powers or authority for all intents and purposes the new augustus was simply a highly honored roman citizen holding the consulship these actions were highly abnormal from the roman senate but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered caesar both antony and octavian had purged the senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans how free a hand the senate had in these tra |
nsactions and what backroom deals were made remain unknown the second settlement in two three bc augustus renounced the consulship but retained his consular imperium leading to a second compromise between augustus and the senate known as the second settlement augustus was granted the power of a tribune tribunicia potestas though not the title which allowed him to convene the senate and people at will and lay business before it veto the actions of either the assembly or the senate preside over elections and the right to speak first at any meeting also included in augustus tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the roman censor these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the senate no tribune of rome ever had these powers and there was no precedent within the roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position nor wa |
s augustus ever elected to the office of censor whether censorial powers were granted to augustus as part of his tribunician authority or he simply assumed these responsibilities is still a matter of debate in addition to tribunician authority augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of rome itself all armed forces in the city formerly under the control of the praefects were now under the sole authority of augustus additionally augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius or imperium over all the proconsuls which translated to the right to interfere in any province in the roman empire and override the decisions of any governor with maius imperium augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every roman army many of the political subtleties of the second settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the plebeian class when in two two bc augustus failed to stand for election as consul fears arose once again that augustus seen as the great defend |
er of the people was being forced from power by the aristocratic senate in two two two one and two zero bc the people rioted in response and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years ostensibly to leave the other position open for augustus finally in one nine bc the senate voted to allow augustus to wear the consul s insignia in public and before the senate sometimes known as the third settlement this seems to have assuaged the populace regardless of whether or not augustus was actually a consul the importance was that he appeared as one before the people with these powers in mind it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within rome officially lay with the senate and the people augustus was given extraordinary powers but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the senate augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title princeps after the death of lepidus in one three bc he a |
dditionally took up the position of pontifex maximus later roman emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to augustus though often in order to display humility newly appointed emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to augustus just as often as their reign progressed emperors would appropriate all of the titles regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the senate the civic crown consular insignia and later the purple robes of a triumphant general toga picta became the imperial insignia well into the byzantine era and were even adopted by many germanic tribes invading the former western empire as insignia of their right to rule reign having gained power by means of great audacity augustus ruled with great prudence in exchange for near absolute power he gave rome four zero years of civic peace and increasing prosperity celebrated in history as the pax romana or roman peace military reforms he created rome s first permanent army and na |
vy and stationed the legions along the empire s borders where they could not meddle in politics a special unit the praetorian guard garrisoned rome and protected the emperor s person he also reformed rome s finance and tax systems augustus channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments provincial reforms and imperial expansion the roman empire expanded enormously during the reign of augustus a war in the mountains of northern hispania from two six bc to one nine bc finally resulted in that territory s conquest after gallic raids the alpine territories were conquered rome s borders were advanced to the natural frontier of the danube and the province of galatia was occupied further west an attempt to advance into germany ended with the defeat at the battle of the teutoburg forest in ad nine thereafter augustus and his successors accepted the rhine as the empire s permanent border in the east he satisfied himself with establishing roman control over arme |
nia and the transcaucasus he left the parthian empire alone maintaining generally good relations with them arranging with them to return the standards lost to them by crassus an event portrayed on the breastplate of the prima porta augustus britain the res gestae says he received two kings of britain he considered invasion on occasions but called it off india there was an indian in his retinue plutarch life of alexander six nine nine and he claimed in the raes gestae to have received fealty from kings of india civil reforms innovations and entertainments in rome he founded a ministry of transport that built an extensive network of roads enabling improved communication trade and mail augustus also founded the world s first fire brigade and created a regular police force for rome he channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments and keeping the citizens of rome happy by staging magnificent games his use of games and special events to celebrate himself a |
nd his family cemented his popularity building programmes in rome he famously boasted that he found rome brick and left it marble though that hardly applied to the rickety flats of the subura he built a new home or curia for the senate the forum of augustus new temples to apollo divine julius mars ultor in his new forum a shrine near the circus maximus he restored the capitoline temple the theater of pompey these are recorded as his projects but his name was deliberately uncredited he also encouraged others to carry out building projects such as lucius cornelius balbus minor and the crypta balbi economic policy roman rulers understood little about economics and augustus was no exception like all the emperors he overtaxed agriculture and spent the revenue on armies temples and games however wages and prices moved freely and allowed efficient markets to operate when the empire stopped expanding and had no more loot coming in from conquests its economy began to stagnate and eventually decline the reign of august |
us is thus seen in some ways as the high point of rome s power and prosperity augustus settled retired soldiers on the land in an effort to revive agriculture but the capital remained dependent on grain imports from egypt religious reforms augustus also strongly supported worship of roman gods especially apollo and depicted roman defeat of egypt as roman gods defeating egypt s harking back to rome s heritage he sponsored virgil s aeneid in the hopes that it would increase pride in roman heritage one of the titles he had refused in favour of augustus was romulus as a second founder of rome his own image bronze statue of augustus archaeological museum athens the prima porta augustus vatican museums he made a concerted campaign to have a standard version of his image reproduced throughout the empire as a focus of loyalty and sometimes worship even when he was old he was portrayed this way as a result his image is the most recognizable of all the emperors in museums across the world including british museum eg he |
ad from meroe museo nazionale romano palazzo massimo via labicana type found on the via labicana augustus as a pontifex maximus vatican museums prima porta augustus see the power of images in the age of augustus paul zanker moral crusade augustus also launched a morality crusade promoting marriage family and childbirth while discouraging luxury unrestrained sex including prostitution and homosexuality and adultery it was largely unsuccessful indeed his own daughter and possibly in connection to her ovid were both banished due to it cultural patronage as a patron of the arts augustus showered favors on poets artists sculptors and architects his reign is considered the golden age of roman literature horace livy ovid and virgil flourished under his protection but in return they had to pay tribute to his genius and adhere to his standards ovid was banished from rome for violating augustus s morality codes conclusion he eventually won over most of the roman intellectual class although many still pined in private f |
or the republic his use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity by the time augustus died a return to the old system was unimaginable the only question was who would succeed him as sole ruler succession augustus control of power throughout the empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor a custom that had been abandoned and derided in rome since the foundation of the republic at first indications pointed toward his sister s son marcellus who had been married to augustus daughter julia caesaris however marcellus died of food poisoning in two three bc reports of later historians that this poisoning and other later deaths were caused by augustus wife livia drusilla are inconclusive at best after the death of marcellus augustus married his daughter to his right hand man marcus agrippa this union produced five children three sons and two daughters gaius caesar lucius caesar vipsania julia agrippina the elder and postumus agrippa so named because h |
e was born after marcus agrippa died augustus intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children augustus also showed favor to his stepsons livia s children from her first marriage nero claudius drusus germanicus and tiberius claudius after they had conquered a large portion of germany after agrippa died in one two bc livia s son tiberius divorced his own wife and married agrippa s widow tiberius shared in augustus tribune powers but shortly thereafter went into retirement after the early deaths of both gaius and lucius in ad four and ad two respectively and the earlier death of his brother drusus nine bc tiberius was recalled to rome where he was adopted by augustus on august one nine ad one four augustus died postumus agrippa and tiberius had been named co heirs however postumus had been banished and was put to death around the same time who ordered his death is unknown but the way was clear for tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had aug |
ustus s legacy portrait drawing of augustus a detail of the famous statue found at prima porta augustus was deified soon after his death and both his borrowed surname caesar and his title augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of rome for the next four zero zero years and were still in use at constantinople fourteen centuries after his death in many languages caesar became the word for emperor as in german kaiser in dutch keizer and in russian tsar the cult of the divine augustus continued until the state religion of the empire was changed to christianity in the four th century consequently there are many excellent statues and busts of the first and in some ways the greatest of the emperors augustus mausoleum also originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life the res gestae divi augusti caesar augustus is mentioned in luke two one many consider augustus to be rome s greatest emperor his policies certainly extended the empire s life span and initiated the celebrated pax ro |
mana or pax augusta he was handsome intelligent decisive and a shrewd politician but he was not perhaps as charismatic as julius caesar or marc antony nevertheless his legacy proved more enduring the month of august latin augustus is named after augustus until his time it was called sextilis the sixth month of the roman calendar commonly repeated lore has it that august has three one days because augustus wanted his month to match the length of julius caesar s july but this is an invention of the one three th century scholar johannes de sacrobosco sextilis in fact had three one days before it was renamed and it was not chosen for its length see julian calendar in looking back on the reign of augustus and its legacy to the roman world its longevity should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success people were born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the principate had augustus died earlier in two three bc for instance matters may have turned out differently the attrit |
ion of the civil wars on the old republican oligarchy and the longevity of augustus therefore must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years augustus own experience his patience his tact and his political acumen also played their parts he directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor s expense augustus ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated his memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor and although every emperor adopted his name caesar augustus only a handful such as trajan earned genuine comparison with him his reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for two five zero ye |
ars augustus in popular culture in the hbo television series rome young octavian is portrayed by max pirkis augustus was ranked one eight on michael h hart s list of the most influential figures in history augustus was portrayed in the famous bbc miniseries i claudius by brian blessed one nine seven five augustus was portrayed in the movie imperium augustus part of the imperium movie series by peter o toole see also augustus honorific julio claudian family tree notes suetonius augustus six eight seven one from the gracchi to nero hh scullard p one six three from the gracchi to nero hh scullard p one six four alexander to actium peter green pp six nine seven external links primary sources a the res gestae divi augusti the deeds of augustus his own account complete latin and greek texts with facing english translation selections from the res gestae in a different english translation suetonius biography of augustus latin text with english translation cassius dio s roman history books four five five six english t |
ranslation life of augustus by nicolaus of damascus secondary material de imperatoribus romanis a good detailed biography octavian augustus augustus and the roman army mutual loyalty and rewards select bibliography the power of images in the age of augustus paul zanker augustan culture karl galinsky six three bc births one four deaths natives of rome julio claudian dynasty deified roman emperors adoptive parents historical figures portrayed by shakespeare photo of booth island in antarctica higher resolution copy the blue ice covering lake fryxell in the transantarctic mountains comes from glacial meltwater from the canada glacier and other smaller glaciers the fresh water stays on top of the lake and freezes sealing in briny water below the continent of antarctica is located mostly south of the antarctic circle physically antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the ross sea and the weddell sea the portion of the continent west of the weddell sea and east of the ross sea is called |
western antarctica and the remainder eastern antarctica since they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the greenwich meridian this usage has been regarded as eurocentric by some and the alternative terms lesser antarctica and greater antarctica respectively are sometimes preferred western antarctica is covered by the west antarctic ice sheet there has been some concern about this ice sheet because there is a small chance that it will collapse if it does ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time in some areas the ice sheet rests on bedrock below sea level statistics area total one four million sq km land one four million km two eight zero zero zero zero sq km ice free one three seven two million km ice covered est note fifth largest continent following asia africa north america and south america but larger than australia and the subcontinent of europe land boundaries none coastline one seven nine six eight km maritime claims none climate severe low |
temperatures vary with latitude elevation and distance from the ocean east antarctica is colder than west antarctica because of its higher elevation antarctic peninsula has the most moderate climate higher temperatures occur in january along the coast and average slightly below freezing terrain about nine eight thick continental ice sheet and two barren rock with average elevations between two zero zero zero and four zero zero zero meters mountain ranges up to five one four zero meters ice free coastal areas include parts of southern victoria land wilkes land the antarctic peninsula area and parts of ross island on mcmurdo sound glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline and floating ice shelves constitute one one of the area of the continent the dry valleys of antarctica are a particularly interesting region of antarctica due to extreme winds and lack of precipitation this area is devoid of any snow and barren earth is visible elevation extremes lowest point southern ocean zero m although i |
n some areas the bedrock under the ice sheet is below sea level highest point vinson massif four eight nine seven m ellsworth mountains natural resources none presently exploited iron ore chromium copper gold nickel platinum and other minerals and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities land use other one zero zero ice nine eight barren rock two irrigated land zero km one nine nine three natural hazards katabatic gravity driven winds blow coastward from the high interior frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast volcanism on deception island and isolated areas of west antarctica other seismic activity rare and weak environment current issues ozone hole sea level rise geography note the coldest windiest highest two three zero zero m on average and driest continent during summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the south pole than is received at the equator in an equivalent period mostly u |
ninhabitable volcanoes there are four volcanoes on the mainland of antarctica that are considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or recent tephra deposits mount melbourne two seven three zero m seven four two one s one six four four two e a stratovolcano mount berlin three five zero zero m seven six zero three s one three five five two w a stratovolcano mount kauffman two three six five m seven five three seven s one three two two five w a stratovolcano and mount hampton three three two five m seven six two nine s one two five four eight w a volcanic caldera several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity mount erebus three seven nine five m a stratovolcano on ross island with one zero known eruptions and one suspected eruption on the opposite side of the continent deception island six two five seven s six zero three eight w a volcanic caldera with one zero known and four suspected eruptions have been the most active buckle island in the balleny islands six si |
x five zero s one six three one two e penguin island six two zero six s five seven five four w paulet island six three three five s five five four seven w and lindenberg island six four five five s five nine four zero w are also considered to be active see also list of antarctic and sub antarctic islands external links political claims map usgs terraweb satellite image map of antarctica united states antarctic resource center usarc bedmap geography of antarctica antarctica has no indigenous inhabitants but there are seasonally staffed research stations approximately two nine nations all signatory to the antarctic treaty send personnel to perform seasonal summer and year round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans the population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands south of six zero degrees south latitude the region covered by the antarctic treaty varies from approximately four zero zero zero in summer to one zero zero zero in winter in addition appr |
oximately one zero zero zero personnel including ship s crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region at least three children have been born in antarctica the first was emilio marcos palma born january seven one nine seven eight to argentine parents on the argentine base esperanza near the tip of the antarctic peninsula in one nine eight six juan pablo camacho was born at the presidente eduardo frei montalva base becoming the first chilean born in antarctica soon after a girl gisella was born at the same station in addition during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps summer long temporary facilities and mobile traverses in support of research july two zero zero zero est see also argentine antarctica antarctica no economic activity is conducted at present in antarctica except for fishing off the coast and small scale tourism both based abroad antarctic fisheries in one nine nine eight one nine nine nine july one june thr |
ee zero reported landing one one nine eight nine eight metric tons unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in one nine nine eight resulted in the seizure by france and australia of at least eight fishing ships a total of one zero zero one three tourists visited in the one nine nine eight one nine nine nine summer up from the nine six zero four who visited the previous year nearly all of them were passengers on one six commercial nongovernmental ships and several yachts that made one one six trips during the summer most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks small scale tourism has existed since one nine five seven since one nine six nine over three zero zero zero zero tourists have been to antarctica as of two zero zero six several ships transport people to antarctica to visit specific scenic locations sight seeing flights also used to take people from australia and new zealand over antarctica and back again until the |
fatal crash of air new zealand flight nine zero one near mount erebus late in one nine seven nine antarctica economies by region telephones main lines in use zero note information for us bases only two zero zero one telephones mobile cellular na iridium system in use telephone system general assessment local systems at some research stations domestic na international via satellite from some research stations radio broadcast stations am na fm two shortwave one note information for us bases only two zero zero two radios na television broadcast stations one cable system with six channels american forces antarctic network mcmurdo note information for us bases only two zero zero two televisions several hundred at mcmurdo station us note information for us bases only two zero zero one internet service providers isps a fiber cable on polar plateau planned to finish in two zero zero nine one country code top level domain aq information from cia world factbook two zero zero two edition argentine bases in general mara |
mbio base has wireless internet and two mobile phones servers see also antarctica external links anetstation radio station in antarctica communications by country antarctica transportation in antarctica is usually done over sea or plane and requires special measures against the cold ports and harbors antarctica s only harbour is at mcmurdo station most coastal stations have offshore anchorages and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats barges and helicopters a few stations have a basic wharf facility all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with article seven antarctic treaty offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent mcmurdo station palmer station government use only except by permit see permit office under legal system airports antarctica has two zero airports but there are no developed public access airports or landing facilities three zero stations operated by one six national governments party to the antarctic treaty have landing facilities for either helicopters a |
nd or fixed wing aircraft commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities helicopter pads are available at two seven stations runways at one five locations are gravel sea ice blue ice or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled fixed wing aircraft of these one is greater than three km in length six are between two km and three km in length three are between one km and two km in length three are less than one km in length and two are of unknown length snow surface skiways limited to use by ski equipped fixed wing aircraft are available at another one five locations of these four are greater than three km in length three are between two km and three km in length two are between one km and two km in length two are less than one km in length and data is unavailable for the remaining four antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions they do not meet icao standards and advance approval from the respective governmental |
or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing one nine nine nine est airports with unpaved runways total two zero over three zero four seven m six two four three eight to three zero four seven m three one five two four to two four three seven m one nine one four to one five two three m four under nine one four m six two zero zero three est heliports two seven stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities helipads two zero zero three est antarctica transportation by country physiographic regions in alabama physical features the surface of alabama in the n and n e embracing about two fifths of its area is diversified and picturesque the remaining portion is occupied by a gently undulating plain having a general incline south westward toward the mississippi river and the gulf of mexico extending entirely across the state of alabama for about two zero m s of its n boundary and in the middle stretching six zero m farther s is the cumberland plateau or tennessee valley region broken in |
to broad table lands by the dissection of rivers in the n part of this plateau w of jackson county there are about one zero zero zero sq m of level highlands from seven zero zero to eight zero zero ft above the sea south of these highlands occupying a narrow strip on each side of the tennessee river is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from five zero zero to eight zero zero ft to the n e of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain sides deep narrow coves and valleys and flat mountain tops its elevations range from four zero zero to one eight zero zero ft in the remainder of this region the s portion the most prominent feature is little mountain extending about eight zero m from e to w between two valleys and asing precipitouslyon the n side five zero zero ft above them or one zero zero zero ft above the sea adjoining the cumberland plateau region on the s e is the appalachian valley locally known as coosa valley region which is the s extremity of the great a |
ppalachian mountains and occupies an area within the state of about eight zero zero zero sq m this is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains although the general direction of the mountains ridges and valleys is n e and s w irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics in the n e are several flat topped mountains of which raccoon and lookout are the most prominent having a maximum elevation near the georgia line of little more than one eight zero zero ft and gradually decreasing in height toward the s w where sand mountain is a continuation of raccoon south of these the mountains are marked by steep n w sides sharp crests and gently sloping s e sides south east of the appalachian valley region the piedmont plateau also crosses the alabama border from the n e and occupies a small triangular shaped section of which randolph and clay counties together with the n part of tallapoosa and chambers form the principal portion its surface is gently undulati |
ng and has an elevation of about one zero zero zero ft above the sea the piedmont plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks then uplifted to form a plateau the remainder of the state is occupied by the coastal plain this is crossed by foot hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state where it has a mean elevation of about six zero zero ft becomes lower and more level toward the s w and in the extreme s is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea the cumberland plateau region is drained to the w n w by the tennessee river and its tributaries all other parts of the state are drained to the s w in the appalachian valley region the coosa is the principal river and in the piedmont plateau the tallapoosa in the coastal plain are the tombigbee in the w the alabama formed by the coosa and tallapoosa in the w central and in the e the chattahoochee which forms almost half of the georgia boundary the tombigbee and alabama unite near the s w corner of the state their waters di |
scharging into mobile bay by the mobile and tensas rivers the black warrior is a considerable stream which joins the tombigbee from the e the valleys in the n and n e are usually deep and narrow but in the coastal plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream the harbour of mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the alabama and tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here such sinking having occurred on other parts of the gulf coast the fauna and flora of alabama are similar to those of the gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics climate and soil the climate of alabama is temperate and fairly uniform the heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the gulf of mexico and in the north by the elevation above the sea the average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast where the climate is subtropical and lowest in the northeast among the highlands thus at mobile the |
annual mean is six seven f one nine c the mean for the summer eight one f two seven c and for the winter five two f one one c and at valley head in de kalb county the annual mean is five nine f one five c the mean for the summer seven five f two four c and for the winter four one f five c at montgomery in the central region the average annual temperature is six six f one nine c with a winter average of four nine f nine c and a summer average of eight one f two seven c the average winter minimum for the entire state is three five f two c and there is an average of three five days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing point at extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero one eight f as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the one two th one three th of february one eight nine nine when an absolute minimum of one seven f two nine c was registered at valley head the highest temperature ever recorded was one zero nine f four three c in talladega county in one nine |
zero two the amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast six two inches one five seven four mm and evenly distributed through the rest of the state about five two inches one three two zero mm during each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north but the snow quickly disappears and sometimes during an entire winter the ground is not covered with snow hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer but are seldom destructive heavy fogs are rare and are confined chiefly to the coast thunderstorms occur throughout the year but are most common in the summer the prevailing winds are from the south hurricanes are quite common in the state especially in the southern part and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive as regards its soil alabama may be divided into four regions extending from the gulf northward for about one five zero miles two four zero km is the outer belt of the coastal plain also called the timber belt whose soil is |
sandy and poor but responds well to fertilization north of this is the inner lowland of the coastal plain or the black prairie which includes some one three zero zero zero square miles and seventeen counties it receives its name from its soil weathered from the weak underlying limestone which is black in colour almost destitute of sand and loam and rich in limestone and marl formations especially adapted to the production of cotton hence the region is also called the cotton belt between the cotton belt and the tennessee valley is the mineral region the old land area a region of resistant rocks whose soils also derived from weathering in silu are of varied fertility the best coming from the granites sandstones and limestones the poorest from the gneisses schists and slates north of the mineral region is the cereal belt embracing the tennessee valley and the counties beyond whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley north of which are less fertile soils produced by siliceous and s |
andstone formations public lands alabama includes several types of public use lands alabama state parks alabama has four national forests and one national preserve within its borders they provide over two five of the state s public recreation land there is a national seashore that runs along the gulf coast encompassing several islands and beachfront areas national monuments little river canyon national preserve russell cave national monument national forests conecuh national forest talladega national forest tuskegee national forest william b bankhead national forest wilderness areas cheaha wilderness dugger mountain wilderness sipsey wilderness national scenic trail natchez trace trail national recreation trail pinhoti national recreation trail national wildlife refuge bon secour national wildlife refuge cahaba river national wildlife refuge choctaw national wildlife refuge eufaula national wildlife refuge fern cave national wildlife refuge key cave national wildlife refuge mountain longleaf national wildlife |
refuge sauta cave national wildlife refuge watercress darter national wildlife refuge wheeler national wildlife refuge national seashore gulf islands national seashore see also alabama geography of the united states external links state of alabama geological survey usgs tapestry of time alabama summary of alabama park recreation sites interactive map of park recreation sites geography of alabama the following is a list of the territorial and state governors of alabama governor of alabama territory william wyatt bibb served one eight one seven one eight one nine governors of the state notes william wyatt bibb was appointed as territorial governor he was then elected first governor in one eight one nine william wyatt bibb died in one eight two zero and his brother thomas bibb then president of the state senate filled the unexpired term in one eight three one governor moore was elected to the united states senate and samuel moore the president of the state senate filled the unexpired term in one eight three sev |
en governor clay was appointed to the united states senate and hugh mcvay the president of the state senate filled the unexpired term lewis parsons was appointed provisional governor by the union occupation wager swayne was appointed military governor during reconstruction william samford was out of state for two six days at the beginning of his term seeking medical treatment so william d jelks was acting governor russell cunningham was governor for nearly a year when governor william d jelks was out of state for medical treatment william w brandon was out of state for two one days in one nine two four and since the state constitution require the lieutenant governor to act as governor if the governor is out of the state for two zero days charles mcdowell served two days as governor lurleen wallace wife of george wallace died in one nine six eight albert brewer the lieutenant governor filled the unexpired term while campaigning for president of the united states in one nine seven two george wallace was shot in |
an assassination attempt after a few months of recovery in a maryland hospital wallace resumed his duties as governor lieutenant governor jere beasley served as governor for a month after wallace had been out of the state for more than two zero days as per the constitution h guy hunt was removed from office upon conviction of illegally using campaign and inagural funds to pay personal debts lieutenant governor james e folsom jr filled the unexpired term until one eight four five the term of state officials was one year from then until one nine zero one it was two years and since one nine zero one it has been four years external links the alabama department of archives history s list of alabama governors lists of united states governors governors of alabama apocrypha is a greek word neuter plural of from to hide away thus it connotes the idea of closed or hidden in this sense apocrypha is in contrast with apocalypse which means opened revealed or uncovered apocryphon is the singular noun apocrypha the plural |
noun and apocryphal the adjective these words are used to describe the character of a certain class of religiously oriented ancient writings by an analogy the term is extended to non religious contexts to refer to questionable sources non religious usage in everyday conversation apocryphal typically denotes of highly questionable or no authenticity when describing a story nevertheless frequently told and widely believed in literature apocrypha are works that purport to have been created by somebody other than their real author usually a famous figure as in the case of the ossianic cycle invented by james macpherson religious usage in judeo christian theology the word apocrypha refers to texts that are not considered canonical part of the bible but are of roughly similar style and age as the accepted canonical scriptures catholic and orthodox christian bibles typically contain several texts not included in the biblical canon by other christians or by judaism who see them as apocryphal catholics and orthodox co |
nsider these texts equally canonical as other books of the bible with catholics terming them deuterocanonical from greek second canon or measuring rule r m wilson wrote the greek word apocryphos did not always have the disparaging sense which later became attached to it in gnostic circles it was used of books the contents of which were too sacred to be divulged to the common herd and it was in fact the heretical associations which it thus came to possess which led to its use as a term of disparagement in the nag hammadi library for example one document bears the title apocryphon or secret book of john another that of apocryphon of james and several gnostic gospels contain solemn warnings against imparting their contents to any save the deserving or for the sake of material gain from studies in the gospel of thomas the apocryphal gospel of thomas apart from the broad sense mentioned in the first paragraph above protestants use the word apocrypha in a narrow sense of those books that they exclude from their can |
on of scripture but that other churches view as canonical and venerate as divinely inspired written under the influence of the holy spirit disagreement between christian churches is almost non existent about the canon of the new testament but the inclusion of some books in the old testament canon is disputed since many now considered these books to be of late composition protestant scholars sometimes call them intertestamental i e intermediate between the old and new testaments and hold that god imposed a period of silence with no prophecy or scripture to prepare for the coming of jesus the church of england takes an intermediate position its six th article of religion says of them the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine the books that come under the description apocrypha in the broad sense but not in this narrow sense are called apocrypha by catholics and jews but protestants usually call them pseudepigrapha many of them hav |
e apocalyptic themes the history of the earlier usage of the term apocrypha is not free from obscurity we shall therefore enter at once on a short account of the origin of this literature in judaism of its adoption by early christianity of the various meanings which the term apocryphal assumed in the course of its history and having so done we shall proceed to classify and deal with the books that belong to this literature the word most generally denotes writings which claimed to be or were by certain sects regarded as sacred scriptures although excluded from the canonical scriptures apocrypha in judaism certain circles in judaism as the essenes in palestine josephus b j ii eight seven and the therapeutae philo de vita contempl ii four seven five ed mangey in egypt possessed a secret literature but such literature was not confined to the members of these communities but had been current among the chasids and their successors the pharisees judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric tradition thus |
though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the two four books it claimed the possession of an oral law handed down from moses and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances the canonical scriptures so often the oral law displaced the written in the regard of judaism to this literature belong essentially the apocalypses which were published in fast succession from daniel onwards these works bore perforce the names of ancient hebrew worthies in order to procure them a hearing among the writers real contemporaries to reconcile their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity the alleged author is represented as shutting up and sealing dan xii four nine the book until the time of its fulfilment had arrived for that it was not designed for his own generation but for far distant ages ass mos i one six one seven it is not improbable that with many jewish enthusiasts this literature was more highly treasured than the canonical scriptures indeed we have a categorical statement |
to this effect in four ezra xiv four four sqq which tells how ezra was inspired to dictate the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the overthrow of jerusalem in forty days they wrote ninety four books and it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the highest spake saying the first that thou hast written publish openly that the worthy and unworthy may read it but keep the seventy last that thou mayst deliver them only to such as be wise among the people for in them is the spring of understanding the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original conception of the term in due course the jewish authorities drew up a canon or book of sacred scriptures in response to christianity they marked other books off from those which claimed to be such without justification the true scriptures according to the jewish canon yad iii five toseph yad ii three were those which defiled the hands of such as touched them but other scholars such as zahn sch r |
er porter state that the secret books with which we have been dealing formed a class by themselves and were called genuzim and that this name and idea passed from judaism over into the greek and that is a translation of but the hebrew verb does not mean to hide but to store away and is only used of things in themselves precious moreover the phrase is unknown in talmudic literature the derivation of this idea from judaism has therefore not yet been established whether the jews had any distinct name for these esoteric works we do not know for writings that stood wholly without the pale of sacred books such as the books of heretics or samaritans they used the designation hisonim sanh x i and to this class in later times even sirach was relegated and indeed all books not included in the canon midr r num one four and on koheleth xii one two cf jer sabb one six see porter in hastings bible dict i one one three in aqiba s time sirach and other apocryphal books were not reckoned among the hisonim for sirach was large |
ly quoted by rabbis in palestine till the three rd century a d apocrypha in christianity christianity from jesus had no secret or esoteric teaching it was essentially the revelation or manifestation of the truth of god but as christianity took its origin from judaism it is not unnatural that a large body of jewish ideas was incorporated in the system of christian thought the bulk of these in due course underwent transformation either complete or partial but there was always a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent elements existing side by side with the essential truths of christianity this was no isolated phenomenon for in every progressive period of the history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine of god advancing in depth and fullness on the other we have cosmological eschatological and other survivals which however justifiable in earlier stages are in unmistakable antagonism with the theistic beliefs of the time the eschatology of a nation and the most influential portion of jewish and chris |
tian apocrypha are eschatological is always the last part of their religion to experience the transforming power of new ideas and new facts the contemporary religious literature of judaism outside the canon was composed of apocryphal books the bulk of which bore an apocalyptic character and dealt with the coming of the messianic kingdom these naturally became the popular religious books of the rising jewish christian communities and were held by them in still higher esteem if possible than by the jews occasionally these jewish writings were re edited or adapted to their new readers by christian additions but on the whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a system of reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies christianity moreover moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as judaism gave birth to new christian apocryphs though in the case of most of them the subject matter was to a large extent traditional and derived from jewish sourc |
es another prolific source of apocryphal gospels acts and apocalypses was gnosticism while the characteristic features of apocalyptic literature were derived from judaism those of gnosticism sprang partly from greek philosophy partly from oriental religions they insisted on an allegorical interpretation of the apostolic writings they alleged themselves to be the guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid claim to prophetic inspiration with them as with the bulk of the christians of the one st and two nd centuries apocryphal books as such were highly esteemed they were so designated by those who valued them it was not till later times that the term became one of reproach we have remarked above that the jewish apocrypha especially the apocalyptic section and the host of christian apocryphs became the ordinary religious literature of the early christians and this is not strange seeing that of the former such abundant use was made by the writers of the new testament the new testament shows undoubtedly an |
acquaintance with several of the apocryphal books thus james i one nine shows dependence on sirach v ii hebrews i three on wisdom vii two six hebrews xi three five on ii maccabees vi romans ix two one on wisdom xv seven two cor v one four on wisdom ix one five tertullian praescript two two two seven true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age and universal acceptance by the church was required as a proof of apostolic authorship under the action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass into the class of spurious and heretical writings esoteric writings turning now to the consideration of the word apocryphal itself we find that in its earliest use it was applied in a laudatory sense to writings which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge which was too profound or too sacred to be imparted to any save the initiated thus it occurs in a magical book of moses which has been edited from a leiden papyrus of the three rd or four th century by dieterich abraxas one zero n |
ine this book which may be as old as the one st century is entitled a holy and secret book of moses called eighth or holy the disciples of the gnostic prodicus boasted clem alex strom i one five six nine that they possessed the secret books of zoroaster four ezra is in its author s view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the canonical scriptures xiv four four sqq because of its transcendent revelations of the future it is in a like laudatory meaning that gregory reckons the new testament apocalypse as oratio in suam ordinationem iii five four nine ed migne cf epiphanius haer li three the word enjoyed high consideration among the gnostics cf acts of thomas one zero two seven four four questionable writings but the word was applied to writings that were kept from public circulation not because of their transcendent but of their secondary or questionable value thus origen distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings iii three six see zahn gesch kanons i o |
ne two six sqq thus the meaning of is here practically equivalent to excluded from the public use of the church and prepares the way for the third and unfavourable sense of this word spurious writings the word came finally to mean what is false spurious bad heretical if we may trust the text this meaning appears in origen prolog in cant cantic lommatzsch xiv three two five de scripturis his quae appellantur apocryphae pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem other meanings in addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the term appear in the western church thus the gelasian decree includes the works of eusebius tertullian and clement of alexandria under this designation augustine de civ dei xv two three explains it as meaning obscurity of origin while jerome protogus galeatus declares that all books outside the hebrew canon belong to this class of apocrypha jerome s practice however did not square wi |
th his theory the western church did not accept jerome s definition of apocrypha but retained the word in its original meaning though great confusion prevailed thus the degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books have been held in the church has varied much according to place and time as they stood in the septuagint or greek canon along with the other books and with no marks of distinction they were practically employed by the greek fathers in the same way as the other books hence origen clement and others often cite them as scripture divine scripture inspired and the like on the other hand teachers connected with palestine and familiar with the hebrew canon rigidly exclude all but the books contained there this view is reflected for example in the canon of melito of sardis and in the prefaces and letters of jerome augustine however de doct christ ii eight attaches himself to the other side two well defined views in this way prevailed to which was added a third according to which the books though not t |
o be put in the same rank as the canonical scriptures of the hebrew collection yet were of value for moral uses and to be read in congregations and hence they were called ecclesiastical a designation first found in rufinus ob four one zero notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held in africa which were in favour of the view of augustine these diverse opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to prevail in the church down through the ages till the great dogmatic era of the reformation at that epoch the same three opinions were taken up and congealed into dogmas which may be considered characteristic of the churches adopting them in one five four six the council of trent adopted the canon of augustine declaring he is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books with all their parts as they have been accustomed to be read in the catholic church and are found in the ancient editions of the latin vulgate as sacred and canonical the whole of the books in question with the exception o |
f one st and two nd esdras and the prayer of manasses were declared canonical at trent on the other hand the protestants universally adhered to the opinion that only the books in the hebrew collection are canonical already wycliffe had declared that whatever book is in the old testament besides these twenty five hebrew shall be set among the apocrypha that is without authority or belief yet among the churches of the reformation a milder and a severer view prevailed regarding the apocrypha both in the german and english translations luther s one five three seven coverdale s one five three five but while in some confessions e g the westminster a decided judgment is passed on them that they are not to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings a milder verdict is expressed regarding them in many other quarters e g in the argument prefixed to them in the geneva bible in the sixth article of the church of england where it is said that the other books the church doth read for example of life |
and instruction of manners though not to establish doctrine and elsewhere old testament apocryphal books we shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books first the apocrypha proper and next the rest of the old and new testament apocryphal literature the apocrypha proper or the apocrypha of the old testament as considered by english speaking protestants consists of the following books one esdras two esdras tobit judith additions to esther wisdom of solomon ecclesiasticus sirach baruch epistle of jeremiah additions to daniel prayer of azariah song of the three holy children history of susannah and bel for the latin vulgate was revised by jerome according to the hebrew and where hebrew originals were wanting according to the septuagint furthermore the vulgate rejects three and four maccabees and psalm cli which generally appear in the septuagint while the septuagint and luther s bible reject four ezra which is found in the vulgate and the apocrypha proper luther s bible moreover rejects also three ezra it |
should further be observed that the vulgate adds the prayer of manasses and three and four ezra after the new testament as apocryphal it is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to some objection in any case the classification must be to some extent provisional since scholars are still divided as to the original language date and place of composition of some of the books which must come under our classification thus some of the additions to daniel and the prayer of manasseh are most probably derived from a semitic original written in palestine yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed under hellenistic jewish literature again the slavonic enoch goes back undoubtedly in parts to a semitic original though most of it may have been written by a greek jew in egypt we may however discriminate the palestinian and the hellenistic literature of the old testament though even this distinction is open to serious objections the former literature was generally written in hebrew |
or aramaic and seldom in greek the latter naturally in greek next within these literatures we shall distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the subject with which they deal thus the books of which we have to treat will be classed as historical legendary haggadic apocalyptic didactic or sapiential the apocrypha proper then would be classified as follows palestinian jewish literature historical one i e three ezra one maccabees legendary book of baruch book of judith apocalyptic two i e four ezra see also apocalyptic literature didactic sirach see ecclesiasticus tobit hellenistic jewish literature historical and legendary additions to daniel additions to esther epistle of jeremy two maccabees prayer of manasses didactic book of wisdom since all these books are dealt with in separate articles they call for no further notice here references texts holmes and parsons vet test graecum cum var lectionibus oxford one seven nine eight one eight two seven swete old testament in greek i iii cambridge |
one eight eight seven one eight nine four fritzsche libri apocryphi v t graece one eight seven one commentaries o f fritzsche and grimm kurzgef exeget handbuch zu den apok des a t leipzig one eight five one one eight six zero e c bissell apocrypha of the old testament edinburgh one eight eight zero zockler apok des a t munchen one eight nine one wace the apocrypha speaker s commentary one eight eight eight introduction and general literature e sch rer geschichte des jud volkes vol iii one three five sqq and his article on apokryphen in herzog s realencykl i six two two six five three porter in hastings bible dic i one one one one two three other old testament apocryphal literature historical history of johannes hyrcanus legendary book of jubilees paralipomena jeremiae or the rest of the words of baruch martyrdom of isaiah pseudo philo s liber antiquitatum books of adam jannes and jambres joseph and asenath apocalyptic see apocalyptic literature historical history of johannes hyrcanus the history of johannes h |
yrcanus is mentioned in one macc xvi two three two four but no trace has been discovered of its existence elsewhere it must have early passed out of circulation as it was unknown to josephus legendary book of jubilees the book of jubilees was written in hebrew between the year of the accession of hyrcanus to the high priesthood in one three five and his breach with the pharisees some years before his death in one zero five b c jubilees was translated into greek and from greek into ethiopic and latin it is preserved in its entirety only in ethiopic jubilees is the most advanced pre christian representative of the midrashic tendency which was already at work in the book of chronicles this is a rewriting of the book of genesis and the early chapters of exodus his work constitutes an enlarged targum on these books and its object is to prove the everlasting validity of the law which though revealed in time was superior to time writing in the palmiest days of the maccabean dominion he looked for the immediate adven |
t of the messianic kingdom this kingdom was to be ruled over by a messiah sprung not from judah but from levi that is from the reigning maccabean family this kingdom was to be gradually realized on earth the transformation of physical nature going hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man for a fuller account see book of jubilees paralipomena jeremiae or the rest of the words of baruch this book has been preserved in greek ethiopic armenian and slavonic the greek was first printed at venice in one six zero nine and next by ceriani in one eight six eight under the title paralipomena jeremiae it bears the same name in the armenian but in ethiopic it is known by the second title see baruch martyrdom of isaiah this jewish work has been in part preserved in the ascension of isaiah to it belong i one two a six b one three a ii one eight one zero iii one two v one c one four of that book it is of jewish origin and recounts the martyrdom of isaiah at the hands of manasseh see ascension of isaiah pseudo phil |
o s liber antiquitatum biblicarum though the latin version of this book was thrice printed in the one six th century in one five two seven one five five zero and one five nine nine it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it was recognized by f c conybeare and discussed by cohn in the jewish quarterly review one eight nine eight pp two seven nine three three two it is an haggadic revision of the biblical history from adam to the death of saul its chronology agrees frequently with the lxx against that of the massoretic text though conversely in a few cases the latin is undoubtedly translated from the greek greek words are frequently transliterated while the lxx is occasionally followed in its translation of biblical passages in others the massoretic is followed against the lxx and in one or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both on many grounds cohn infers a hebrew original the eschatology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the book of enoch in fact eth en li one is |
reproduced in this connexion prayers of the departed are said to be valueless the book was written after a d seven zero for as cohn has shown the exact date of the fall of herod s temple is predicted life of adam and eve writings dealing with this subject are extant in greek latin slavonic syriac armenian and arabic they go back undoubtedly to a jewish basis but in some of the forms in which they appear at present they are christianized throughout the oldest and for the most part jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in greek armenian latin and slavonic the greek published under the misleading title in tischendorf s apocalypses apocryphae one eight six six deals with the fall and the death of adam and eve ceriani edited this text from a milan ms monumenta sacra et profana v i this work is found also in armenian and has been published by the mechitharist community in venice in their collection of uncanonical writings of the old testament and translated by conybeare jewish quarterly review vii t |
wo one six sqq one eight nine five and by issaverdens in one nine zero one the vita adae et evae is closely related and in part identical with the it was printed by w meyer in abh d m nch akad philos philol cl xiv one eight seven eight the slavonic adam book was published by jajic along with a latin translation denkschr d wien akad d wiss xlii one eight nine three this version agrees for the most part with the it has moreover a section two eight three nine which though not found in the is found in the vita before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other members of this literature which though derivable ultimately from jewish sources are christian in their present form the book of adam and eve also called the conflict of adam and eve with satan translated from the ethiopic one eight eight two by malan this was first translated by dillmann das christl adambuch des morgenlandes one eight five three and the ethiopic book first edited by trump abh d m nch akad xv one eight seven zero one eight eight |
one a syriac work entitled die schalzh hle translated by bezold from three syriac mss in one eight eight three and subsequently edited in syriac in one eight eight eight this work has close affinities to the conflict but is said by dillmann to be more original armenian books on the death of adam uncanonical writings of o t pp eight four sqq one nine zero one translated from the armenian creation and transgression of adam op cit three nine sqq expulsion of adam from paradise op cit four seven sqq penitence of adam and eve op cit seven one sqq are mainly later writings from christian hands returning to the question of the jewish origin of vita slavonic adam book we have already observed that these spring from a common original as to the language of this original scholars are divided the evidence however seems to be strongly in favour of hebrew how otherwise are we to explain such hebraisms or syriacisms as thou shalt have pangs in fact hebraisms abound throughout this book see fuchs apok u pseud d a t ii five |
one one jewish encyc i one seven nine sq jannes and jambres these two men are referred to in two tim iii eight as the egyptian magicians who withstood moses the book which treats of them is mentioned by origen ad matt xxiii three seven and xxvii nine jannes et mambres liber and in the gelasian decree as the paenitentia jamnis et mambre the names in greek are generally as in the targ jon on exod i one five vii ii in the talmud they appear as since the western text of two tim iii eight has westcott and hort infer that this form was derived from a palestinian source these names were known not only to jewish but also to heathen writers such as pliny and apuleius the book therefore may go back to pre christian times see sch rer iii two nine two two nine four ency biblica ii two three two seven two three two nine joseph and asenath the statement in gen xli four five five zero that joseph married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave offence to later judaism and gave rise to the belief that asenath was rea |
lly the daughter of shechem and dinah and only the foster daughter of potipherah targ jon on gen xli four five tractat sopherim xxi nine jalkut shimoni c one three four see oppenheim fabula josephi et asenethae one eight eight six pp two four origen also was acquainted with some form of the legend selecta in genesin ad gen xli four five ed lommatzsch viii eight nine nine zero the christian legend which is no doubt in the main based on the jewish is found in greek syriac armenian slavonic and medieval latin since it is not earlier than the three rd or four th century it will be sufficient here to refer to smith s dict of christ biog i one seven six one seven seven hastings bible dict i one six two one six three sch rer iii two eight nine two nine one didactic or sapiential pirke aboth the pirke aboth a collection of sayings of the jewish fathers are preserved in the nine th tractate of the fourth order of the mishnah they are attributed to some sixty jewish teachers belonging for the most part to the years a d |
seven zero one seven zero though a few of them are of a much earlier date the book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as the book of proverbs in the bible the sayings are often admirable thus in iv one four who is wise he that learns from every man who is mighty he that subdues his nature who is rich he that is contented with his lot who is honoured he that honours mankind see further pirke aboth new testament apocryphal literature new testament apocrypha books similar to those in the new testament but rejected by catholics orthodox and protestants include several gospels and lives of apostles some of them were clearly produced by gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox many were discovered in the one nine th and two zero th centuries and produced lively speculation about the state of affairs in early christianity though protestants catholics and in general orthodox agree on the canon of the new testament the ethiopian orthodox are reported by some scholars to add i f |
aith without works is dead two two six he had a similar feeling about the epistle to the hebrews the epistle of jude and the revelation and relegated those four books to an appendix in his bible later lutherans included these books as full parts in their new testament but kept them behind all the other books the lutheran new testament at least in german is thus arranged slightly differently from that of most other churches the new testament apocryphal book that is most famous today is the gospel of thomas the only complete text of which was found in nag hammadi along with other works most of which were new testament apocrypha the entry on gnosticism lists more recovered texts considered to be of gnostic origin while the new testament apocrypha are not seen as divinely inspired artists and theologians have drawn on them for such matters as the names of dismas and gestas and details about the three wise men the first explicit expression on the perpetual virginity of mary is found in the pseudepigraphical infanc |
y gospel of james an extensive online archive of new testament apocrypha is available at www comparative religion com christianity apocrypha and comprises more than eight zero works including fragments among the new testament apocrypha are the following gospels uncanonical sayings of the lord in christian and jewish writings gospel according to the egyptians gospel according to the hebrews protevangel of james gospel of nicodemus gospel of peter gospel of thomas gospel of the twelve gnostic gospels of andrew apelles barnabas bartholomew basilides cerinthus and some seventeen others acts and teachings of the apostles acts of andrew and later forms of these acts acts of john acts of paul acts of peter preaching of peter acts of thomas teaching of the twelve apostles apostolic constitutions epistles the abgar epistles epistle of barnabas epistle of clement clement s two nd epistle of the corinthians clement s epistles on virginity clement s epistles to james epistles of ignatius epistle of polycarp pauline epp t |
o the laodiceans and alexandrians three pauline ep to the corinthians apocalypses see under apocalyptic literature see also new testament apocrypha a listing of books rejected by most christians gospels uncanonical sayings of the lord in christian and jewish sources main article agrapha under the head of canonical sayings not found in the gospels only one is found i e that in acts xx three five the uncanonical sayings have been collected by preuschen reste der ausserkanonischen evangelien one nine zero one pp four four four seven and hennecke ntliche apok nine one one the same subject is dealt with in the elaborate volumes of resch aussercanonische paralleltexte zu den evangelien vols i iii one eight nine three one eight nine five to this section belongs also the fayum gospel fragment and the logia published by grenfell and hunt these editors have discovered one nine zero seven a gospel fragment of the two nd century which represents a dialogue between our lord and a chief priest a pharisee the former contain |
s two sayings of christ and one of peter such as we find in the canonical gospels matt xxvi three one three four mark xiv two seven three zero the papyrus which is of the three rd century was discovered by gustav bickell among the rainer collection who characterized it z f kath theol one eight eight five pp four nine eight five zero four as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels mentioned in luke i one on the other hand it has been contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily see zahn gesch kanons ii seven eight zero seven nine zero harnack texte und untersuchungen v four preuschen op cit p one nine the logia is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf by its discoverers grenfell and hunt they think the papyrus was probably written about a d two zero zero according to harnack it is an extract from the gospel of the egyptians all the passages referring to jesus in the talmud are given by laible jesus christus im talmud with an appendix die talmudischen texte by gusta |
f dalman two nd ed one nine zero one the first edition of this work was translated into english by a w streane jesus christ in the talmud one eight nine three in hennecke s ntliche apok handbuch pp four seven seven one there is a valuable study of this question by a meyer entitled jesus jesu j nger und das evangelium im talmud und verwandten j dischen schriften to which also a good bibliography of the subject is prefixed gospel according to the egyptians this gospel is first mentioned by clem alex strom iii six four five nine six three six six one three nine two subsequently by origen hom in luc i and epiphanius haer lxii two and a fragment is preserved in the so called two clem rom xii two it circulated among various heretical circles amongst the encratites clem strom iii nine the nassenes hippolyt philos v seven and the sabellians epiph haer lxii two only three or four fragments survive see lipsius smith and wace dict of christ biog ii seven one two seven one three zahn gesch kanons ii six two eight six fou |
r two preuschen reste d ausserkanonischen evangelien one nine zero one p two which show that it was a product of pantheistic gnosticism with this pantheistic gnosticism is associated a severe asceticism the distinctions of sex are one day to come to an end the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this view hence christ is represented as coming to destroy the work of the female clem alex strom iii nine six three lipsius and zahn assign it to the middle of the two nd century it may be earlier protevangel of james this title was first given in the one six th century to a writing which is referred to as the book of james by origen tom xi in matt its author designates it as for various other designations see tischendorf evang apocr one seq the narrative extends from the conception of the virgin to the death of zacharias lipsius shows that in the present form of the book there is side by side a strange admixture of intimate knowledge and gross ignorance of jewish thought and custom and that accordingly we m |
ust distinguish between an original jewish christian writing and a gnostic recast of it the former was known to justin dial seven eight one zero one and clem alex strom vii one six and belongs at latest to the earliest years of the two nd century the gnostic recast lipsius dates about the middle of the three rd century from these two works arose independently the protevangel in its present form and the latin pseudo matthaeus evangelium pseudo matthaei the evangelium de nativitate mariae is a redaction of the latter see lipsius in smith s dict of christ biog ii seven zero one seven zero three but if we except the zachariah and john group of legends it is not necessary to assume the gnostic recast of this work in the three rd century as is done by lipsius the author had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about mary one of these groups is certainly of non jewish origin as it conceives mary as living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of isis the other group is m |
ore in accord with the orthodox gospels the book appears to have been written in egypt and in the early years of the two nd century for since origen states that many appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of jesus were sons of joseph by a former marriage the book must have been current about a d two zero zero from origen we may ascend to clem alex who strom vi nine three shows acquaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the book the perpetual virginity of mary finally as justin s statements as to the birth of jesus in a cave and mary s descent from david show in all probability his acquaintance with the book it may with good grounds be assigned to the first decade of the two nd century so zahn gesch kanons i four eight five four nine nine five zero two five zero four five three nine ii seven seven four seven eight zero for the greek text see tischendorf evang apocr one five zero b p grenfell an alexandrian erotic fragment and other papyri one eight nine six pp one three one seven for the |
syriac wright contributions to apocryphal literature of the n t one eight six five pp three seven a s lewis studia sinaitica xi pp one two two see literature generally in hennecke ntliche apok handbuch one zero six seq gospel of nicodemus this title is first met with in the one three th century it is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the older mss also gesta salvatoris domini inventa theodosio magno imperatore in ierusalem in praetorio pontii pilati in codicibus publicis see tischendorf evang apocr pp three three three three three five this work gives an account of the passion i xi the resurrection xii xvi and the descensus ad inferos xvii xxvii chapters i xvi are extant in the greek coptic and two armenian versions the two latin versions and a byzantine recension of the greek contain i xxvii see tischendorf evangelia apocrypha pp two one zero four five eight all known texts go back to a d four two five if one may trust the reference to theodosius but this was only a revision for as early as |
three seven six epiphanius haer i one presupposes the existence of a like text in three two five eusebius h e ii two was acquainted only with the heathen acts of pilate and knew nothing of a christian work tischendorf and hofmann however find evidence of its existence in justin s reference to the apol i three five four eight and in tertullian s mention of the acta pilati apol two one and on this evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the two nd century but these references have been denied by scholten lipsius and lightfoot recently schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in the petrine gospel but not in the canonical gospels from the original acta pilati while zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two works rendel harris one eight nine nine advocated the view that the gospel of nicodemus as we possess it is merely a prose version of the gospel of nicodemus written originally in homeric centones as early as the two nd century lipsius and dobsch tz relegate the book to the f |
our th century the question is not settled yet see lipsius in smith s dict of christ biography ii seven zero eight seven zero nine and dobsch tz in hastings bible dictionary iii five four four five four seven gospel according to the hebrews this gospel was cited by ignatius ad smyrnaeos iii according to jerome viris illus one six and in jes lib xviii but this is declared to be untrustworthy by zahn op cit i nine two one ii seven zero one seven zero two it was written in aramaic in hebrew letters according to jerome adv pelag iii two and translated by him into greek and latin both these translations are lost a collection of the greek and latin fragments that have survived mainly in origen and jerome will be found in hilgenfeld s nt extra canonem receptum nicholson s gospel according to the hebrews one eight seven nine westcott s introd to the gospels and zahn s gesch des ntlichen kanons ii six four two seven two three preuschen op cit three eight this gospel was regarded by many in the first centuries as the h |
ebrew original of the canonical matthew jerome in matt xii one three adv pelag iii one with the canonical gospel it agrees in some of its sayings in others it is independent it circulated among the nazarenes in syria and was composed according to zahn op cit ii seven two two between the years one three five and one five zero jerome identifies it with the gospel of the twelve adv pelag iii two and states that it was used by the ebionites comm in matt xii one three zahn op cit ii six six two seven two four contests both these statements the former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of origen hom i in luc lipsius on the other hand accepts the statements of jerome smith and wace dict of christian biography ii seven zero nine seven one two and is of opinion that this gospel in the form in which it was known to epiphanius jerome and origen was a recast of an older original which written originally in aramaic was nearly related to the logia used by st matthew and the ebionitic writing used by st luke which itsel |
f was only a later redaction of the logia according to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the gospel according to the hebrews was current among the nazarenes and ebionites as early as one zero zero one two five since ignatius was familiar with the phrase i am no bodiless demon a phrase which according to jerome comm in is xviii belonged to this gospel the name gospel according to the hebrews cannot have been original for if it had been so named because of its general use among the hebrews yet the hebrews themselves would not have used this designation it may have been known simply as the gospel the language was western aramaic the mother tongue of jesus and his apostles two forms of western aramaic survive the jerusalem form of the dialect in the aramaic portions of daniel and ezra and the galilean in isolated expressions in the talmud three rd century and in a fragmentary five th century translation of the bible the quotations from the old testament are made from the massoretic text this gos |
pel must have been translated at an early date into greek as clement and origen cite it as generally accessible and eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books the gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to matthew though in the resurrection accounts it has affinities with luke like mark it seems to have had no history of the birth of christ and to have begun with the baptism for the literature see hennecke ntliche apok handbuch two one two three gospel of peter before one eight nine two we had some knowledge of this gospel thus serapion bishop of antioch a d one nine zero two zero three found it in use in the church of rhossus in cilicia and condemned it as docetic eusebius h e vi one two again origen in matt tom xvii one zero says that it represented the brethren of christ as his half brothers in one eight eight five a long fragment was discovered at akhmim and published by bouriant in one eight nine two and subsequently by lods robinson harnack zahn schubert swete gospel |
of thomas this gospel professes to give an account of christ s boyhood it appears in two recensions the more complete recension bears the title and treats of the period from the seven th to the one two th year tischendorf evangelia apocrypha one eight seven six one four zero one five seven the more fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the five th to the eight th year and is entitled tischendorf op cit pp one five eight one six three two latin translations have been published in this work by the same scholar one on pp one six four one eight zero the other under the wrong title pseudo matthaei evangelium on pp nine three one one two a syriac version with an english translation was published by wright in one eight seven five this gospel was originally still more docetic than it now is according to lipsius its present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded so far as possible all gnostic traces lipsius smith s dict of christ biog ii seven zero three assigns it to the latter h |
alf of the two nd century but zahn gesch kan ii seven seven one on good grounds to the earlier half the latter scholar shows that probably it was used by justin dial eight eight at all events it circulated among the marcosians irenaeus haer i two zero and the naasenes hippolytus refut v seven and subsequently among the manichaeans and is frequently quoted from origen downwards hom i in luc if the stichometry of nicephorus is right the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original compass for literature see hennecke ntliche apokryphen handbuch one three two seq gospel of the twelve this gospel which origen knew hom i in luc is not to be identified with the gospel according to the hebrews see above with lipsius and others who have sought to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these two distinct works the only surviving fragments of the gospel of the twelve have been preserved by epiphanius haer xxx one three one six two two see preuschen op cit nine one o |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.