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ne it began with an account of the baptism it was used by the ebionites and was written according to zahn op cit ii seven four two about a d one seven zero other gospels mainly gnostic and almost all lost gospel of andrew this is condemned in the gelasian decree and is probably the gospel mentioned by innocent one ep iii seven and augustine contra advers leg et proph i two zero gospel of apelles mentioned by jerome in his prooem ad matt gospel of barnabas condemned in the gelasian decree see under barnabas ad fin gospel of bartholomew mentioned by jerome in his prooem ad matt and condemned in the gelasian decree gospel of basilides mentioned by origen tract two six in matt xxxiii three four and in his prooem in luc by jerome in his prooem in matt see harnack i one six one ii five three six five three seven zahn gesch kanons i seven six three seven seven four gospel of cerinthus mentioned by epiphanius haer li seven gospel of the ebionites a fragmentary edition of the canonical matthew according to epiphanius |
haer xxx one three used by the ebionites and called by them the hebrew gospel gospel of eve a quotation from this gospel is given by epiphanius haer xxvi two three it is possible that this is the gospel of perfection which he touches upon in xxvi two the quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism gospel of james the less condemned in the gelasian decree wisdom of jesus christ this third work contained in the coptic ms referred to under gospel of mary gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of valentinian origin apocryph of john this book which is found in the coptic ms referred to under gospel of mary and contains cosmological disclosures of christ is said to have formed the source of irenaeus account of the gnostics of barbelus i two nine three one thus this work would have been written before one seven zero gospel of judas iscariot references to this gospel as in use among the cainites are made by irenaeus i three one one epiphanius xxxviii one three gospel the living |
evangelium vivum this was a gospel of the manichaeans see epiphanius haer lxvi two photius contra manich i gospel of marcion on this important gospel see zahn gesch kanons i five eight five seven one eight descent of mary this book was an anti jewish legend representing zacharias as having been put to death by the jews because he had seen the god of the jews in the form of an ass in the temple epiphanius haer xxvi one two questions of mary great and little epiphanius haer xxvi eight gives some excerpts from this work gospel of mary this gospel is found in a coptic ms of the five th century according to schmidt s short account sitzungsberichte d preuss akad d wiss zu berlin one eight nine six pp eight three nine sqq this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter and the progress of the gnostic soul through the seven planets gospel of matthias though this gospel is attested by origen horm in luc i eusebius h e iii two five six and the list of sixty books not a shred of it has been preserved unless with |
zahn ii seven five one sqq we are to identify it with the traditions of matthias from which clement has drawn some quotations gospel of perfection evangelium perfectionis used by the followers of basilides and other gnostics see epiphanius haer xxvi two gospel of philip this gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world it is of a strongly encratite character and dates from the two nd century a fragment is preserved in epiphanius haer xxvi one three in preuschen reste p one three the quotation breaks off too soon see zahn ii seven six one seven six eight gospel of thaddaeus condemned by the gelasian decree gospel of thomas of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved in hippolytus philos v seven pp one four zero seq see zahn op cit i seven four six seq ii seven six eight seven seven three harnack ii five nine three five nine five gospel of truth this gospel is mentioned by irenaeus i one one nine and was used by the valentinians see zahn i seven four eight sqq acts and teachings of the |
apostles acts of andrew these acts which are of a strongly encratite character have come down to us in a fragmentary condition they belong to the earliest ages for they are mentioned by eusebius h e iii two five epiphanius haer xlvii one lxi one lxiii two philastrius haer lxviii as current among the manichaeans and heretics they are attributed to leucius a docetic writer by augustine c felic manich ii six and euodius de fide c manich three eight euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small fragments of the original acts on internal grounds the section recounting andrew s imprisonment bonnet acta apostolorum apocrypha ii three eight four five is also probably a constituent of the original work as regards the martyrdom owing to the confusion introduced by the multitudinous catholic revisions of this section of the acts it is practically impossible to restore its original form for a complete discussion of the various documents see lipsius apokryphen apostelgeschichte i five four three six two two |
also james in hastings bible dict i nine two nine three hennecke nt apokryphen in loc the best texts are given in bonnet s acta apostolorum apocrypha one eight nine eight ii i one one two seven these contain also the acts of andrew and matthew or matthias in which matthew or matthias is represented as a captive in the country of the anthropophagi christ takes andrew and his disciples with him and effects the rescue of matthew the legend is found also in ethiopic syriac and anglo saxon also the acts of peter and andrew which among other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye of a needle this work is preserved partly in greek but in its entirety in slavonic acts of john clement of alexandria in his hypotyposes on one john i one seems to refer to chapters xciii or lxxxix of these acts eusebius h e iii two five six epiphanius haer xlvii one and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of leucius charinus it is generally admitted that they were written in the two nd century th |
e text has been edited most completely by bonnet acta apostol apocr one eight nine eight one five one two one six the contents might be summarized with hennecke as follows arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in ephesus xviii lv return to ephesus and second sojourn history of drusiana lviii lxxxvi account of the crucifixion of jesus and his apparent death lxxxvii cv the death of john cvi cxv there are manifest gaps in the narrative a fact which we would infer from the extent assigned to it i e two five zero zero stichoi by nicephorus according to this authority one third of the text is now lost many chapters are lost at the beginning there is a gap in chapter xxxvii also before lviii not to mention others the encratite tendency in these acts is not so strongly developed as in those of andrew and thomas james anecdota ii one two five has given strong grounds for regarding the acts of john and peter as derived from one and the same author but there are like affinities existing between the acts of peter and |
those of paul for a discussion of this work see zahn gesch kanons ii eight five six eight six five lipsius apok apostelgesch i three four eight five four two hennecke nt apokryphen four two three four three two for bibliography hennecke nt apok handbuch four nine two sq acts of paul the discovery of the coptic translation of these acts in one eight nine seven and its publication by c schmidt acta pauli aus der heidelberger koptischen papyrushandschrift herausgegeben leipzig one eight nine four have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that the acts of thecla had formed a part of the larger acts of paul the acts therefore embrace now the following elements two quotations given by origen in his princip i two three and his comment on john xx one two from the latter it follows that in the acts of paul the death of peter was recounted apocryphal three rd epistle of paul to the corinthians and epistle from the corinthians to paul these two letters are connected by a short account which is intended t |
o give the historical situation paul is in prison on account of stratonice the wife of apollophanes the greek and latin versions of these letters have for the most part disappeared but they have been preserved in syriac and through syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the armenian bible immediately after two corinthians aphraates cites two passages from three corinthians as words of the apostle and ephraem expounded them in his commentary on the pauline epistles they must therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the four th century from the syriac bible they made their way into the armenian and maintained their place without opposition to the seven th century on the latin text see carri re and berger correspondance apocr de s p et des corinthiens one eight nine one for a translation of ephraem s commentary see zahn ii five nine two six one one and vetter der apocr three korinthien seven zero sqq one eight nine four the coptic version c schmidt acta pauli pp seven four eight |
two which is here imperfect is clearly from a greek original while the latin and armenian are from the syriac the acts of paul and thecla these were written according to tertullian de baptismo one seven by a presbyter of asia who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery this the earliest of christian romances probably before a d one five zero recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin thecla of iconium lipsius discovers gnostic traits in the story but these are denied by zahn gesch kanons ii nine zero two see lipsius op cit ii four two four four six seven zahn op cit ii eight nine two nine one zero the best text is that of lipsius acta apostol apocr one eight nine one i two three five two seven two there are syriac arabic ethiopic and slavonic versions as we have seen above these acts are now recognized as belonging originally to the acts of paul they were however published separately long before the gelasian decree four nine six jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent wor |
k thecla was most probably a real personage around whom a legend had already gathered in the two nd century of this legend the author of the acts of paul made use and introduced into it certain historical and geographical facts the healing of hermocrates of dropsy in myra through a comparison of the coptic version with the pseudo cyprian writing caena rolffs hennecke nt apok three six one concludes that this incident formed originally a constituent of our book the strife with beasts at ephesus this event is mentioned by nicephorus callistus h e ii two five as recounted in the of paul the identity of this work with the acts of paul is confirmed by a remark of hippolytus in his commentary on daniel iii two nine four ed bonwetsch one seven six so rolffs martyrdom of paul the death of paul by the sentence of nero at rome forms the close of the acts of paul the text is in the utmost confusion it is best given by lipsius acta apostol apocr i one zero four one one seven notwithstanding all the care that has been tak |
en in collecting the fragments of these acts only about nine zero zero stichoi out of the three six zero zero assigned to them in the stichometry of nicephorus have as yet been recovered the author was according to tertullian de baptism one seven a presbyter in asia who out of honour to paul wrote the acts forging at the same time three corinthians thus the work was composed before one nine zero and since it most probably uses the martyrdom of polycarp after one five five the object of the writer is to embody in st paul the model ideal of the popular christianity of the two nd century his main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh the tone of the work is catholic and anti gnostic for the bibliography of the subject see hennecke nt apok three five eight three six zero acts of peter these acts are first mentioned by eusebius h e iii three by name and first referred to by the african poet commodian about a d two five zero harnack who was the first to show that these acts were catholic in |
character and not gnostic as had previously been alleged assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that hippolytus was not acquainted with them but even were this assumption true it would not prove the non existence of the acts in question according to photius moreover the acts of peter also were composed by this same leucius charinus who according to zahn gesch kanons ii eight six four wrote about one six zero op cit p eight four eight schmidt and ficker however maintain that the acts were written about two zero zero and in asia minor these acts which ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical acts of the apostles deal with peter s victorious conflict with simon magus and his subsequent martyrdom at rome under nero it is difficult to determine the relation of the so called latin actus vercellenses which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the with the acts of john and paul schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the |
latter james that the acts of peter and of john were by one and the same author but ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought no less close affinities exist between our acts and the acts of thomas andrew and philip in the case of the acts of thomas the problem is complicated sometimes the acts of peter seem dependent on the acts of thomas and sometimes the converse for the relation of the actus vercellenses to the martyrdom of the holy apostles peter and paul acta apostol apocr i one one eight one seven seven and to the acts of the holy apostles peter and paul acta apostol apocr i one seven eight two three four see lipsius ii one eight four sqq the acts of xanthippe and polyxena first edited by james texts and studies ii three one eight nine three and assigned by him to the middle of the three rd century as well as the acts of the disputation of archelaus bishop of mesopotamia and the heresiarch ma |
nes acta disputationis archelai episcopi mesopotamiae et manetis haeresiarchae in routh s reliquiae sacrae v three six two zero six have borrowed largely from our work the text of the actus vercellenses is edited by lipsius acta apostol apocr i four five seven nine an independent latin translation of the martyrdom of peter is published by lipsius op cit i one two two martyrium beati petri apostoli a lino episcopo conscriptum on the coptic fragment which schmidt maintains is an original constituent of these acts see that writer s work die alten petrusakten im zusammenhang der apokryphen apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten fragment and texte und untersuch n f ix one one nine zero three for the literature see hennecke neutestamentliche apokryphen handbuch three nine five sqq preaching of peter this book gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles clement of alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of peter s teaching heracleon had previously |
used it see origen in evang johann t xiii one seven it is spoken unfavourably of by origen de prin praef eight it was probably in the hands of justin and aristides hence zahn gives its date as nine zero one zero zero at latest dobsch tz as one zero zero one one zero and harnack as one one zero one three zero the extant fragments contain sayings of jesus and warnings against judaism and polytheism they have been edited by hilgenfeld nov test extra can one eight eight four iv five one six five and by von dobsch tz das kerygma petri one eight nine three salmon dict christ biog iv three two nine three three zero thinks that this work is part of a larger work a preaching of peter and a preaching of paul implied in a statement of lactantius inst div iv two one but this view is contested by zahn see gesch kanons ii eight two zero eight three four particularly pp eight two seven eight two eight chase in hastings bible dict iv seven seven six acts of thomas this is one of the earliest and most famous of the gnostic ac |
ts it has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands these acts were used by the encratites epiphanius haer xlvii one the manichaeans augustine contra faust xxii seven nine the apostolici epiphanius lxi one and priscillianists the work is divided into thirteen acts to which the martyrdom of thomas attaches as the fourteenth it was originally written in syriac as burkitt journ of theol studies i two seven eight sqq has finally proved though macke and n ldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view the greek and latin texts were edited by bonnet in one eight eight three and again in one nine zero three ii two the greek also by james apoc anec ii two eight four five and the syriac by wright apocr acts of the gospels one eight seven one i one seven two three three three photius ascribes their composition to leucius charinus therefore to the two nd century but lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the three rd see lipsius apokryphen apostelgeschichten i two two five three four seven hennecke n t |
apokryphen four seven three four eight zero teaching of the twelve apostles didache this important work was discovered by philotheos bryennios in constantinople and published in one eight eight three since that date it has been frequently edited the bibliography can be found in schaff s and in harnack s editions the book divides itself into three parts the first i vi contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a jewish and probably pre christian document which forms the basis also of the epistle of barnabas the second part consists of vii xv and treats of church ritual and discipline and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second advent the book is variously dated by different scholars zahn assigns it to the years a d eight zero one two zero harnack to one two zero one six five lightfoot and funk to eight zero one zero zero salmon to one two zero see salmon in dict of christ biog iv eight zero six eight one five also article didache apostolical constitutions for the various coll |
ections of these ecclesiastical regulations the syriac didascalia ecclesiastical canons of the holy apostles cure thee of thy disease and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year two zero zero see dict christ biog iv eight seven eight eight eight one with the literature there mentioned the above correspondence which appears also in syriac is inwoven with the legend of addai or thaddaeus the best critical edition of the greek text will be found in lipsius acta apostolorum apocrypha one eight nine one pp two seven nine two eight three see also abgar epistle of barnabas the special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into judaism the date is placed by some scholars as early as seven zero seven nine by others as late as the early years of the emperor hadrian one one seven the text has been edited by hilgenfeld in one eight seven seven gebhardt and harnack in one eight seven eight and funk i |
n one eight eight seven and one nine zero one in these works will be found full bibliographies see further barnabas epistle of clement the object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of corinth which had been vexed by internal discussions the epistle may be safely ascribed to the years nine five nine six the writer was in all probability the bishop of rome of that name he is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by clement of alexandria strom iv one seven one zero five and as late as the time of eusebius h e iii one six it was still read in some of the churches critical editions have been published by gebhardt and harnack patr apost op one eight seven six and in the smaller form in one nine zero zero lightfoot one eight nine zero funk one nine zero one the syriac version has been edited by kennet epp of st clement to the corinthians in syriac one eight nine nine and the old latin version by morin s clementis romani ad corinthios epistulae versio latina antiquissima one |
eight nine four clement s two nd ep to the corinthians this so called letter of clement is not mentioned by any writer before eusebius h e iii three eight four it is not a letter but really a homily written in rome about the middle of the two nd century the writer is a gentile some of his citations are derived from the gospel to the egyptians clement s epistles on virginity these two letters are preserved only in syriac which is a translation from the greek they are first referred to by epiphanius and next by jerome critics have assigned them to the middle of the two nd century they have been edited by ian theodor beelen louvain one eight five six clement s epistles to james on these two letters which are found in the clementine homilies see smith s dict of christian biography i five five nine five seven zero and lehmann s monograph die clementischen schriften gotha one eight six seven in which references will be found to other sources of information epistles of ignatius there are two collections of letters |
bearing the name of ignatius who was martyred between one zero five and one one seven the first consists of seven letters addressed by ignatius to the ephesians magnesians trallians romans philadelphians smyrnaeans and to polycarp the second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated and six others of mary to ignatius of ignatius to mary to the tarsians antiochians philippians and hero a deacon of antioch the latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the four th century or the beginning of the five th the authenticity of the first collection also has been denied but the evidence appears to be against this contention the literature is overwhelming in its extent see zahn patr apost op one eight seven six funk die apostol v ter one nine zero one lightfoot apostolic fathers one eight eight nine epistle of polycarp the genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the ignatian epistles see article in smith s dictionary of christian biography iv four two three four three one ligh |
tfoot apostolic fathers i six two nine seven zero two also polycarp pauline epistles to the laodiceans and the alexandrians the first of these is found only in latin this according to lightfoot see colossians two seven two two nine eight and zahn is a translation from the greek such an epistle is mentioned in the muratorian canon see zahn op cit ii five six six five eight five the epistle to the alexandrians is mentioned only in the muratorian canon see zahn ii five eight six five nine two for the third epistle of paul to the corinthians and epistle from the corinthians to paul see under acts of paul above the council of jamnia at least until the council of jamnia in nine two ad jews did not have a single unified canon of scripture some ancient jewish sects including the essenes as evidenced in the dead sea scrolls included as scripture much that modern jews consider non canonical the council explicitly excluded certain books for reasons that included their late composition or because they were not written in |
hebrew although some parts of the hebrew bible or tanakh itself are in biblical aramaic the word apocrypha means hidden writing and it was given to such books by the jews to distinguish them from the books which they accepted as canonical gentiles continued to use a greek translation made in the period from the third to the first centuries bc in alexandria egypt this work which became known as the septuagint included several books that were rejected at jamnia while jews do not accept these books saying they lack the unction of the prophetic books of the canon they regard them as consistent for most part with the wisdom which rests on the fear of god and loyalty to his law and some jews have at various times drawn from them as a legitimate part of jewish literary creativity even using elements from them as the basis for two important parts of the jewish liturgy in the mahzor high holy day prayer book a medieval jewish poet used the book of sirach as the basis for a beautiful poem ke ohel hanimtah a closing pi |
yyut in the seder avodah section in the yom kippur musaf begins how glorious indeed was the high priest when he safely left the holy of holies like the clearest canopy of heaven was the dazzling countenance of the priest mahzor replaces the medieval piyyut with the relevant section from ben sira which is more direct apocrypha have even formed the basis of the most important of all jewish prayers the amidah the shemonah esrah sirach provides the vocabulary and framework for many of the amidah s blessings which were instituted by the men of the great assembly the description of the origins of hanukkah is also to be found in the books rejected at jamnia while the texts themselves may not be accepted as canonical some of their contents are regarded as historical truth in particular one maccabees is cited by jewish scholars as highly reliable history and was used by josephus in his history of the maccabean revolt majority christian usage the roman catholic church and the eastern orthodox and oriental orthodox chur |
ches thus the great majority of christians accept as part of the old testament some books excluded from the jewish canon roman catholics refer to them as deuterocanonical books a term first used by sixtus of siena in one five six six signifying that definitive recognition of their canonical status came later than that of the other books catholics and orthodox do not call these books apocrypha a term they apply only to other books that fall within the definition given in the first paragraph of this article the deuterocanonical books are tobit judith one maccabees two maccabees wisdom of solomon sirach ecclesiasticus and baruch as well as some parts of esther and daniel eastern orthodox churches sometimes also consider three maccabees four maccabees one esdras and or two esdras to be deuterocanonical and include psalm one five one with the psalms while the ethiopian orthodox venerate additional books such as jubilees enoch and the rest of the words of baruch the inclusion of enoch is justified on the grounds th |
at the book of jude quotes it as scripture see here for conflicting accounts on what is actually included in the ethiopian canon since there was no fixed canon even among jews until the council of jamnia c seven zero nine zero ce it is not surprising that historically there have been hesitations among christians especially in the early centuries about which old testament books to consider canonical the inability of christians to use in controversy with jews books that the latter did not accept as divinely inspired was one reason why some attributed lesser authority to these books st jerome explicitly denied the canonical character of any old testament book not included in the hebrew bible but later in his preface to the book of tobit pl two nine two four two five stated that he translated the deuterocanonical books into latin as a concession to the authority of the bishops and in four zero two ce declared he had not really denied the inspiration of these books but had only given the opinion of the jews apol c |
ontra ruf one one three three pl two three four seven six in view of that controversy a list of canonical books with the deuterocanonical books included was drawn up at councils in africa and approved though not in ex cathedra form which would have been anachronistic in any event by the pope of the time this was generally accepted in the west while in the east particularly in syria general agreement was reached only in the seventh century within the roman catholic church individual leaders and scholars even at a later date sometimes expressed contrary views but the matter was definitively settled in one five four six when the council of trent reacting to the views of the protestant reformers declared that it accepted all the books of the old and new testaments with equal feelings of piety and reverence and named them in accordance with the list of the fifth century african councils the first vatican council reaffirmed this declaration protestant views martin luther rejected the books that do not appear in the |
jewish tanakh partly because of the stress the reformers laid on translating from the original text and partly because some passages contradicted his views especially where two maccabees speaks by implication of purgatory it is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead that they may be loosed from sins one two four six protestants called the deuterocanonical books apocrypha luther and the anglican church regarded them as useful for edification but not to be relied upon for doctrine while calvin and in general his followers attached no value to them beyond that of any other human writing and objected to any use of them in church in one six one five the archbishop of canterbury imposed a year s imprisonment for publishing bibles without the apocrypha but in later printings of the bible in english these books were omitted more and more in the early nineteenth century the edinburgh bible society denounced them as superstitious and absurd and soon all the bible societies decided not to publish t |
hem more recently in spite of the expense involved protestant bibles in english have again sometimes included them placing them in a separate section either between the old testament and the new or at the end what most christians consider to be integral parts of esther and daniel are in some instances counted by protestants as additional books in the book of esther it is difficult to separate these from the rest since they are tightly integrated into the greek text and even the common parts of the book contain small variations from the hebrew text protestant bibles therefore sometimes give the entire book of esther in two versions one based on the hebrew text as part of the protestant old testament and one translated from the greek in the apocrypha section not all protestants have omitted the deuterocanonical books for example all luther bibles in the lutheran areas of germany included them until world war ii only after the war when american bible societies offered funding on condition that the apocrypha were |
omitted they began to be dropped from most editions additionally the original edition of the kjv one six one one included them between the old and new testaments see also books of the bible a side by side comparison of the jewish catholic protestant and orthodox canons latter day saint views adherents of latter day saint denominations believe that joseph smith jr as a prophet received a revelation from jesus christ in answer to a question about the validity of the protestant apocrypha at kirtland ohio on march nine one eight three three which is now section nine one of the doctrine and covenants the section reads in part there are many things contained therein that are true and it is mostly translated correctly there are many things contained therein that are not true which are interpolations by the hands of men therefore whoso readeth it let him understand for the spirit manifesteth truth and whoso is enlightened by the spirit shall obtain benefit therefrom this echoes the sentiment of most american protest |
ants of his day although the church of jesus christ of latter day saints lds the largest latter day saint denomination typically uses editions of the king james version kjv of the bible that do not currently include the apocrypha these have been used by members and leaders in the past especially when such editions were more readily available in non english speaking lands latter day saints use bibles other than the kjv some of which include the apocrypha the lds church plays a part in distributing such bibles latter day saints generally believe that the apocrypha are of questionable authenticity but have some value however they place more emphasis on other hidden records which have been revealed and are believed to be reliable such as the book of mormon the joseph smith translation book of abraham a translation of writings of john see doctrine and covenants nine three six one eight and other ancient records or hidden books which will come forth in time and be revealed as mankind are ready to accept new knowled |
ge references external links extensive research into nt apocrypha good research resource and timeline complete nt apocrypha the largest claimed collection of nt apocrypha online major collection of pseudepigrapha large number of nt and ot apocrypha and general pseudepigrapha german apocrypha research scholarly research site on individual manuscripts deuterocanonical books full text from saint takla haymanot church website also available the full text in arabic the unknown lives of jesus and mary from the apocrypha and other little known sources lds bible dictionary apocrypha definition lds pov including brief book descriptions read the apocrypha apocrypha discordia de seconde edityon one one m pdf noncanonical literature apocrypha christian texts judaism for the emperor see augustus for his last wife see julia augusta augustus plural augusti is latin for majestic or venerable the feminine form is augusta the greek equivalent is sebastos or a mere grecization by changing of the ending augustos origin and natur |
e although the use of the cognomen augustus as part of one s name is generally understood to identify the emperor augustus this is somewhat misleading augustus was the most significant name associated with the emperor but it did not actually represent any sort of constitutional office the imperial dignity was not an ordinary office but rather an extraordinary concentration of ordinary powers in the hands of one man augustus was the name that unambiguously identified that man the first augustus and first man counted as a roman emperor was gaius julius caesar octavianus who was given that name by the roman senate on january one six two seven bc over the next forty years caesar augustus as he is now known literally set the standard by which subsequent emperors could be recognised by accumulating various offices and powers and making his own name augustus identifiable with the consolidation of powers although the name signified nothing in constitutional theory it was recognised as representing all the powers that |
caesar augustus had accumulated as princeps senatus lit prince of the senate first man of the senate he was the parliamentary leader of the house in the senate and received diplomatic embassages on behalf of that body as pontifex maximus lit greatest bridgemaker he was the chief priest of the roman state religion as bearing consular imperium he had authority equal to the official chief and eponymous magistrates within rome and as bearing imperium maius he had authority greater than theirs outside rome because of this he outranked all provincial governors and was also supreme commander of all roman legions as bearing tribunicia potestas tribunician power he had personal inviolability sacrosanctitas and the right to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate within rome in a famous passages of res gestae augustus claims for him as princeps auctoritas has underlined philosopher giorgio agamben this concentration of powers became the model by which all subsequent emperors ruled rome in constitutional theory in p |
ractice this systematic and sophisticated theory gradually lost any resemblance to reality in the iii and iv centuries when the emperors became rather more reminiscent of oriental despots than first among equals octavian caesar augustus also set the standard by which roman emperors were named the three titles used by the majority of roman emperors imperator caesar and augustus were all used personally by caesar augustus he officially styled himself imperator caesar augustus of these names only augustus was unique to the emperor himself as others could and did bear the titles imperator and caesar it should be noted however that the emperor s mother or wife could bear the name augusta it became customary for an emperor designate to adopt the name nn caesar where nn is the individual s personal name or later nn nobilissimus caesar nn most noble caesar and occasionally to be awarded the title princeps iuventutis prince of youth upon accession to the purple the new emperor usually adopted the name imperator caesar |
nn augustus later emperors took to inserting pius felix pious and blest and invictus unconquered between their personal names and augustus in this usage by signifying the complete assumption of all imperial powers augustus is roughly analogous to emperor though a modern reader should be careful not to project onto the ancients a modern monarchical understanding of what an emperor is as noted there was no constitutional office associated with the imperial dignity the emperor s personal authority dignitas and influence auctoritas derived from his position as princeps senatus and his legal authority derived from his consulari imperium and tribunicia potestas in roman constitutional theory one might consider augustus as being shorthand for princeps senatus et pontifex maximus consulari imperio et tribuniciae potestate loosely leader of the house and chief priest with consular imperium and tribunician power in many ways augustus is comparable to the british dignity of prince it is a personal title dignity or attr |
ibute rather than a title of nobility such as duke or king the emperor was most commonly referred to as princeps basileus sovereign in greek women of the imperial dynasty originally the title augusta was only exceptionally bestowed on women of the imperial dynasties for these women it meant a fortification of their worldly power and a status near to divinity there was no qualification with higher prestige the first woman to receive it was livia drusilla by the last will of her husband emperor augustus one four ad hence she was known as julia augusta as much as augustus was the model for all further augustusses julia augusta was the model for all further augustas a model that included scheming for a son to become successor to the throne and falling in disgrace under the new emperor if the scheming had been successful agrippina minor becoming augusta under her last husband claudius would oblige to the model being sent to death by her son nero a few years after he had become emperor if augustus as honorific coul |
d be compared to the title of prince in moderner societies then augusta would not so much be princess than rather something more exceptional like princess royal deliberately given by the reigning monarch in rare cases to a relative that received by this title prominence among other members of the royal household of course it s only a partial comparison princess royal was a title most often received by younger women while augusta was rather reserved for the aged in this sense augusta has something of the connotation of queen mum too further the akin to divinity does not really translate in any of these moderner titles or understood honorifics in the divided roman empire later under the tetrarchy the rank of augustus referred to the two senior emperors in east and west while caesar referred to the junior sub emperors the aforementioned three principal titles of the emperors imperator caesar and augustus were rendered as autokrat r kaisar and augustos or sebastos in greek the greek title continued to be used in |
the byzantine empire until its extinction in one four five three although sebastos lost its imperial exclusivity persons who were not the emperor could receive titles formed from sebastos and autokrat r became the exclusive title of the emperor legacy the latin title of the holy roman emperors was usually imperator augustus which conveys the modern understanding of emperor rather than the original roman sense i e the first citizen of the republic ironically although the german word for emperor is kaiser a clear derivative of caesar that was the only one of the three principal titles of the latin and greek speaking roman emperors that was not regularly used in latin by the german speaking holy roman emperors see also archons auctoritas basileus imperium roman empire ancient roman titles honorifics roman law the antarctic treaty and related agreements collectively called the antarctic treaty system or ats regulate the international relations with respect to antarctica earth s only uninhabited continent for the |
purposes of the treaty system antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of the southern six zero th parallel the treaty was signed by one two countries including the soviet union and the united states and set aside antarctica as a scientific preserve established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that continent this was the first arms control agreement established during the cold war graham bertram nava one nine nine six conceptual flag for antarctica the antarctic treaty system research stations and territorial claims in antarctica two zero zero two the main antarctic treaty the main treaty was opened for signature on december one one nine five nine and officially entered into force on june two three one nine six one the original signatories were the one two countries active in antarctica during the international geophysical year of one nine five seven five eight and willing to accept a us invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated these cou |
ntries were argentina australia belgium chile france japan new zealand norway south africa the u s s r the united kingdom and the united states which opened the amundsen scott south pole station for the international geophysical year articles of the antarctic treaty article one area to be used for peaceful purposes only military activity such as weapons testing is prohibited but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose article two freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue article three free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the united nations and other international agencies article four does not recognize dispute or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force article five prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes article six includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of six zero degrees zero zero minutes south article s |
even treaty state observers have free access including aerial observation to any area and may inspect all stations installations and equipment advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given article eight allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states article nine frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations article one zero treaty states will discourage activities by any country in antarctica that are contrary to the treaty article one one disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or ultimately by the international court of justice articles one two one three one four deal with upholding interpreting and amending the treaty among involved nations the main objective of the ats is to ensure in the interests of all mankind that antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord the treaty forbids any measures of a |
military nature but not the presence of military personnel per se it also defers the question of territorial claims asserted by some nations and not recognized by others other agreements stamp usa one nine nine one other agreements some two zero zero recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include agreed measures for the conservation of antarctic fauna and flora one nine six four entered into force in one nine eight two the convention for the conservation of antarctic seals one nine seven two the convention for the conservation of antarctic marine living resources one nine eight zero the convention on the regulation of antarctic mineral resource activities one nine eight eight although it was signed in one nine eight eight it was subsequently rejected and never entered into force the protocol on environmental protection to the antarctic treaty was signed four october one nine nine one and entered into force one four january one nine nine eight this agreement prevent |
s development and provides for the protection of the antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution fauna and flora environmental impact assessments waste management and protected areas it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research meetings the antarctic treaty system s yearly antarctic treaty consultative meetings atcm are the international forum for the administration and management of the region only two eight of the four five parties to the agreements have the right to participate in these meetings these parties are the consultative parties and in addition to the twelve original signatories include one six countries that have demonstrated their interest in antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there members signatory consulting territorial claim claims overlap reserved the right to claim areas at the end of two zero zero four there were four five treaty member nations two eight consultative and one seven acceding consulta |
tive voting members include the seven nations that claim portions of antarctica as national territory the two zero nonclaimant nations do not recognize the claims of others legal system antarctica has no government various countries claim areas of it but most countries do not recognize those claims the area between nine zero degrees west and one five zero degrees west is the only land on earth not claimed by any country argentina and chile according to argentine regulations any crime committed within five zero kilometers of any argentine base is to be judged in ushuaia as capital of tierra del fuego antarctica and south atlantic islands in the part of argentine antarctica that is also claimed by chile the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there united states the law of the united states including certain criminal offenses by or against u s nationals such as murder may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries to this end the united states now stations special deputy u s marshals in |
antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence some u s laws directly apply to antarctica for example the antarctic conservation act one six u s c section two four zero one et seq provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities unless authorized by regulation of statute the taking of native mammals or birds the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals entry into specially protected or scientific areas the discharge or disposal of pollutants the importation into the u s of certain items from antarctica violation of the antarctic conservation act carries penalties of up to one zero zero zero zero in fines and one year in prison the departments of treasury commerce transportation and interior share enforcement responsibilities public law nine five five four one the antarctic conservation act of one nine seven eight requires expeditions from the u s to antarctica to notify in advance the office of oceans and polar affairs of the state department which reports such plans to other natio |
ns as required by the antarctic treaty further information is provided by the office of polar programs of the national science foundation see also external links seven zero south info on the antarctic treaty antarctic treaty secretariat full text of the antarctic treaty national science foundation office of polar programs list of all antarctic treaty consultative meetings an antarctic solution for the koreas san diego union tribune august two five two zero zero five both south korea and north korea are members of the antarctic treaty antarctica cold war treaties new zealand and the antarctic treaties algernon swinburne portrait by rossetti algernon charles swinburne april five one eight three seven april one zero one nine zero nine was a victorian era english poet his poetry was highly controversial in its day much of it containing recurring themes of sadomasochism death wish lesbianism and anti christian sentiments swinburne was born in london and raised on the isle of wight and at capheaton hall near wallin |
gton northumberland he was associated with the pre raphaelite movement and counted among his best friends dante gabriel rossetti he is considered a decadent poet albeit that he professed to perhaps rather more vice than he actually indulged in a fact which oscar wilde notably and acerbically commented upon many of his early and still admired poems evoke the victorian fascination with the middle ages and some of them are explicitly medieval in style tone and construction these representatives notably being the leper laus veneris and st dorothy he was an alcoholic and a highly excitable character his health suffered as a result until he finally broke down and was taken into care by his friend theodore watts who looked after him for the rest of his life in putney thereafter he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability his vocabulary rhyme and metre arguably make him one of the best poets of the english language but his poetry has been criticized as overly flowery and m |
eaningless choosing words to fit the rhyme rather than to contribute towards meaning works include atalanta in calydon poems and ballads series i ii and iii these contain most of his more controversial works songs before sunrise lesbia brandon novel published posthumously he also wrote poems in favour of the unification of italy he was a student at balliol college oxford and his work in his day was very popular among undergraduates at oxford and cambridge though today it has largely gone out of fashion this at least is the current popular and even the academic view of the decline of swinburne s reputation but it contains some distortion in fact swinburne s poems and ballads first series and his atalanta in calydon have never been out of critical favor it was swinburne s misfortune that the two works published when he was nearly three zero soon established him as england s premier poet the successor to alfred lord tennyson and robert browning this was a position he held in the popular mind until his death but |
sophisticated critics like a e housman felt rightly or wrongly that the job of being one of england s very greatest poets was beyond him swinburne may have felt this way himself he was a highly intelligent man and in later life a much respected critic and he himself believed that the older a man was the more cynical and less trustworthy he became swinburne may have been one of the first people not to trust anyone over thirty this of course created problems for him after he himself passed that age after the first poems and ballads swinburne s later poetry is devoted more to politics and philosophy he does not utterly stop writing love poetry but he is far less shocking his versification and especially his rhyming technique remain masterful to the end he is the virtual star of the third volume of george saintsbury s famous history of english prosody and housman a more measured and even somewhat hostile critic devoted paragraphs of praise to his rhyming ability it should also be noted that swinburne continues to |
impact today s culture though in small degree in the cradle of filth song the forest whispers my name from the album the principle of evil made flesh one nine nine four the following selection from swinburne s the garden of proserpine can be found pale beyond porch and portal crowned with leaves she stands who gathers all things mortal with cold immortal hands her languid lips are sweeter than love s who fears to greet her to men that mix and meet her from many times and lands the other lyrics of cradle of filth also follow a similar vein as the writings of swinburne themes of romance love lost mythical imagery and the macabre are frequent and a clear swinburne influence is apparent some of his poems hymn to proserpine the triumph of time further reading a modern study of his religious attitudes swinburne and his gods the roots and growth of an agnostic poetry by margot kathleen louis isbn zero seven seven three five zero seven one five nine trivia ernest wheldrake was a fictional character invented by swinb |
urne who reviewed imaginary works by him this was as a satire on the spasmodic poets wheldrake is also a character used by michael moorcock in his fiction external links one eight three seven births one nine zero nine deaths english poets old etonians alfred william lawson one eight six nine one nine five four was a professional baseball player from one eight eight seven through one nine zero eight and went on to play a pioneering role in the us aircraft industry publishing an early aviation trade journal during this time he also wrote a novel born again clearly inspired by the popular utopian fantasy looking backward by edward bellamy an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his career would take he is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and claimed to have been the first to deliver air mail on a schedule however his several attempts at building his own airplanes all ended in crashes which discouraged investors in the one nine two zero s he promoted vegetarianism and claimed to have found the |
secret of living to two zero zero he also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics according to which such concepts as penetrability and zig zag and swirl were discoveries on par with einstein s theory of relativity numerous books confidently expounding on these concepts flowed from his pen all set in the distinctive typography which makes lawson publications recognizable at five zero paces most of the books confidently predict the worldwide adoption of lawsonian principles by the year two zero zero zero he later propounded his own philosophy lawsonomy and the lawsonian religion he also developed during the great depression the populist economic theory of direct credits according to which banks are the cause of all economic woe the oppressors of both capital and labour lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers his rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early three zero s mainly in the upper midwest but by the la |
te three zero s the crowds had dwindled in one nine four three he founded the so called university of lawsonomy in des moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of knowlegian but after various irs and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in one nine five four the year of lawson s death lawson s financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day and in later years he seems to have owned little property moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes a one nine five two attempt to haul him before a senate investigative committee and get to the bottom of his operation ended with the cagey old gentleman leaving the senators outwitted and baffled a farm near racine wisconsin is the only remaining university facility although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as wichita kansas he has been described as the leonardo da vinci of kooks quotation when i look into the vastness of space and see the marvelous workings of its contents i sometimes think i was bo |
rn ten or twenty thousand years ahead of time alfred lawson external links lawson s progress an elaborate web tribute the three volumes of lasonomy written by lawson one eight six nine births one nine five four deaths alcs american league championship series in american baseball alcs transaction monitor a transaction processing monitor for the airline industry bales of hay on a farm near ames iowa ames is a city located in story county iowa as of the two zero zero zero census the city had a total population of five zero seven three one the city was named after one nine th century u s congressman oakes ames of massachusetts who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad ames was founded near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the skunk river it is located roughly three zero miles four eight km north of the state capital des moines two small rivers run through the town the skunk river and squaw creek ames is home of iowa state university of science sauer danfos |
s a hydraulics manufacturer barilla a pasta manufacturer pella a window manufacturer and ball a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles geography location of ames iowa ames is located at four two one three eight north nine three three seven five four west four two zero two seven three three five nine three six three one five eight six according to the united states census bureau the city has a total area of five five nine km two one six mi five five nine km two one six mi of it is land and zero one km zero zero four mi of it is water the total area is zero zero nine water ames is located on interstate three five us highways three zero two three five two three mi there are one eight seven five seven housing units at an average density of three three five seven km eight six nine seven mi the racial makeup of the city is eight seven three four white seven seven zero asian two six five african american one nine eight hispanic american or latino of any race zero one five native american zero zero four pac |
ific islander zero seven six from other races and one three six from two or more races there are one eight zero eight five households out of which two two three have children under the age of one eight living with them four two zero are married couples living together five three have a female householder with no husband present and five zero four are non families two eight five of all households are made up of individuals and five nine have someone living alone who is six five years of age or older the average household size is two three zero and the average family size is two eight five in the city the population is spread out with one four six under the age of one eight four zero zero from one eight to two four two three seven from two five to four four one three nine from four five to six four and seven seven who are six five years of age or older the median age is two four years for every one zero zero females there are one zero nine three males for every one zero zero females age one eight and over there |
are one zero nine nine males a large number of ames residents are university students in two zero zero four for example there were two six three nine zero students enrolled at iowa state the median income for a household in the city is three six zero four two and the median income for a family is five six four three nine males have a median income of three seven eight seven seven versus two eight one nine eight for females the per capita income for the city is one eight eight eight one two zero four of the population and seven six of families are below the poverty line out of the total population nine two of those under the age of one eight and four one of those six five and older are living below the poverty line important events prof john v atanasoff and his graduate student clifford berry are now credited with the creation of the first true electronic digital computer in the basement of the physics department during the years one nine three seven one nine four two the atanasoff berry computer used binary |
arithmetic circuits regenerative memory and logic circuits these seminal ideas were communicated by atanasoff to john mauchly during a visit to iowa state in the one nine four zero s who then used them in the design of the better known eniac built some years later ames has been selected to host the first national special olympics in two zero zero six summer ames has regularly hosted numerous statewide athletic events such as the iowa games and iowa shrine bowl ada hayden heritage park opened in summer of two zero zero four it lies west of us six nine just north of ames it is a large park complex featuring two connected lakes former quarries and walking biking trails points of interest reiman gardens jack trice stadium farm house museum brunnier art museum art on campus collection iowa state university for more information visit www museums iastate edu people neal stephenson author grew up in ames iowa peter schickele musician was born in ames iowa george washington carver inventor was an alumni and a professo |
r at isu billy sunday evangelist and major league baseball player born in ames fred hoiberg nba basketball player native of ames and isu graduate carrie chapman catt women s rights activist isu graduate ted kooser u s poet laureate was raised in ames iowa and attended iowa state university external links maps from isu gis support and research facility ames jewish congregation union for reform judaism bridgeway congregation reformed church in america ames dining guide on chefmoz the main street cultural district dragon arts martial arts and cultural center cities in iowa story county iowa university towns for other uses see abalone disambiguation a piece of abalone shell the outside of an abalone shell the inside surface of an abalone shell the raw meat of abalone abalone is the american english variant of the spanish name abul n used for various species of shellfish mollusks from the haliotidae family genus haliotis the abalones belong to the large class of gastropods gastropoda there is only one genus in the |
family haliotidae and about four to seven subgenera the taxonomy is somewhat confused the number of species range from about one zero zero to about one three zero species due to the occurrence of hybrids characterized by a richly coloured on the inside the outside is rough and mostly brown shell yielding mother of pearl this is also commonly called ear shell in guernsey ormer fr ormier for oreille de mer perlemoen in south africa and p ua in new zealand abalone is also prevalent in australian and south african coastal waters and is highly valued the meat of an abalone is also considered an expensive delicacy in certain parts of south east and east asia especially in japan although it has a high cholesterol content distribution and characteristics the haliotid family has a worldwide distribution along the coastal waters of every continent except south america and the eastern coast of the usa most abalones are found off the southern hemisphere coasts of new zealand south africa and australia and western north |
america and japan in the northern hemisphere the family has unmistakable characteristics the shell is rounded to oval with two to three whorls and the last one auriform grown into a large ear giving rise to the common name ear shell the body whorl has a series of holes four to ten depending on the species near the anterior margin there is no operculum the back is convex ranging from highly arched to very flattened these shells cling solidly with their muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths the color is very variable from species to species the inside of the shell consists of iridiscent silvery white to greenred mother of pearl through to haliotis iris which can comprise of pinks and reds with predominant deep blues greens and purples abalones reach maturity at a small size their fertility is high and increases with size from one zero zero zero zero to one one million eggs at a time the larvae feed on plankton the adults are herbivores and feed on macroalgae preferring red algae sizes vary from |
two zero mm haliotis pulcherrima to two zero zero mm or even more haliotis rufescens abalone diving in california sport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a california fishing license and an abalone stamp card abalone may only be taken while free diving as opposed to scuba diving taking of abalone is not permited south of the mouth of the san francisco bay there is a size minimum of seven inches measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and two four per year abalone may only be taken in season transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still in the shell sale of sport obtained abalone is illegal including the shell only red abalone may be taken black white pink and flat abalone are protected by law an abalone diver is normally equipped with a very thick wetsuit including a hood booties and gloves he or she would also wear a mask snorkel weight belt abalone iron and abalone gauge it is common to dive for abalone in water six to two zero feet deep abalon |
e are normally found on rocks in kelp beds they eat kelp the abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down visibility is normally five to ten feet divers commonly dive out of boats kayaks tube floats and directly off shore an eight inch abalone is considered a good catch nine inches extremely good and a ten inch plus two five zero mm abalone would be a trophy catch rock picking is a separate method from diving where the rock picker feels underneath rocks at low tides for abalone there has been a trade in diving to catch abalones off parts of the usa coast from before one nine three nine in world war ii many of these abalone divers were recruited into the usa armed forces and trained as frogmen abalone diving in new zealand abalone farm there is an extensive global black market in the collection and export of abalone meat in new zealand where abalone is called p ua in the m ori language this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest p ua can be gran |
ted legally under m ori customary rights when such permits to harvest are abused it is frequently difficult to police the legal recreational daily limit is one zero p ua per diver with a minimum shell length of one two five mm the limit is strictly enforced by roving ministry of fisheries officers with the backing of the police force p ua poaching is a major industry in new zealand with many thousands being taken illegally often undersized convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear boats and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases imprisonment the ministry of fisheries expects in the year two zero zero four zero five nearly one zero zero zero tons of p ua will be poached with seven five of that being undersized highly polished new zealand p ua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue green and purple iridescence the muscle tissue of the mollusk is often eaten and the gonads of the abalone are delicacies in china and japan ormers in the channel islands ormers haliot |
is tuberculata are considered a delicacy in the channel islands and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals unfortunately this has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the one nine th century and ormering is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks the gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of ormering tides from the january one to april three zero which occur on the full or new moon and two days following no ormers may be taken from the beach that are under eight cm in shell length diving is strictly prohibited any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a heavy fine the demand for ormers is such that they led to the world s first underwater arrest when a mr kempthorne leigh of guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers abalone shell in addition material scientists at the university of california san diego are studying abalone s strong calcium carbonate tiled structure for insight into |
a new wave of bullet proof body armor list of species with common name pink abalone haliotis corrugata haliotis ancile shield abalone haliotis aquatilis japanese abalone haliotis asinina ass s ear abalone haliotis assimilis threaded abalone haliotis australis australian abalone austral abalone haliotis brazieri brazier s abalone haliotis coccoradiata reddish rayed abalone haliotis conicopora conical pore abalone brownlip abalone haliotis corrugata pink abalone haliotis crachedorii black abalone white abalone haliotis sorenseni haliotis crebrisculpta close sculptures abalone haliotis cyclobates whirling abalone haliotis dalli dall s abalone haliotis discus disk abalone haliotis diversicolor variously coloured abalone haliotis dohrniana dhorn s abalone haliotis elegans elegant abalone haliotis emmae emma s abalone haliotis ethologus mimic abalone haliotis fulgens green abalone haliotis gigantea giant abalone haliotis glabra glistening abalone haliotis hargravesi hargraves s abalone haliotis howensis lord howe |
abalone haliotis iris blackfoot abalone haliotis iris rainbow abalone paua abalone haliotis jacnensis jacna abalone haliotis kamschatkana pinto abalone haliotis laevigata smooth australian abalone greenlip abalone haliotis melculus honey abalone haliotis midae midas ear abalone perlemoen abalone haliotis multiperforata many holed abalone haliotis ovina oval abalone sheep s ear abalone haliotis parva canaliculate abalone haliotis planata planate abalone haliotis pourtalesii pourtale s abalone haliotis pulcherrima most beautiful abalone haliotis queketti quekett s abalone haliotis roei roe s abalone haliotis rosacea rosy abalone haliotis rubra ruber abalone haliotis rufescens red abalone haliotis scalaris staircase abalone ridged ear abalone haliotis semiplicata semiplicate abalone haliotis sorenseni white abalone haliotis spadicea blood spotted abalone haliotis speciosa splendid abalone haliotis squamata scaly australian abalone haliotis squamosa squamose abalone haliotis tuberculata european edible abalone tu |
be abalone tuberculate ormer haliotis varia variable abalone haliotis venusta lovely abalone haliotis virginea virgin abalone haliotis walallensis northern green abalone flat abalone other species haliotis clathrata haliotis barbouri haliotis crebrisculpta haliotis dissona haliotis exigua haliotis fatui haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana haliotis madaka haliotis mariae haliotis patamakanthini haliotis pustulata haliotis roberti haliotis rubiginosa haliotis rubra haliotis rugosa haliotis thailandis haliotis unilateralis research lin a and meyers m a two zero zero five growth and structure in abalone shell materials science and engineering a three nine zero jan one five two seven four one see abstract california red abalone bullet proof abalone abalone varieties external links abalone farming on a boat abalone biology online archive of california conchology specimen shells many pictures man and mollusk many links natural abalone horn pearls sample photos imagemap of worldwide |
abalone distribution gastropods chinese cuisine seafood tree of life cleanup an abbess latin abbatissa fem form of abbas abbot is the female superior or mother superior of an abbey or convent of nuns the mode of election position rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an abbot the office is elective the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body the abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross and holds for life though liable to be deprived for misconduct the council of trent fixed the qualifying age at forty with eight years of profession abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns over whom they exercise discipline extending even to the power of expulsion subject however to the bishop as a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot she cannot ordain confer the veil nor excommunicate in eng |
land abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils e g that of becanfield in six nine four where they signed before the presbyters by celtic usage abbesses presided over joint houses of monks and nuns this custom accompanied celtic monastic missions to france and spain and even to rome itself at a later period a d one one one five robert the founder of fontevraud abbey near chinon and saumur france committed the government of the whole order men as well as women to a female superior in the german evangelical church the title of abbess btissin has in some cases e g itzehoe survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the protestant reformation have continued as stifte i e collegiate foundations which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies generally of noble birth called canonesses kanonissinen or more usually stiftsdamen this office of abbess is of considerable social dignity and was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses religious work religious executives roman catholic church |
offices one nine one one britannica the human abdomen from the latin word meaning belly is the part of the body between the pelvis and the thorax anatomically the abdomen stretches from the thorax at the thoracic diaphragm to the pelvis at the pelvic brim the pelvic brim stretches from the lumbosacral angle the intervertebral disk between l five and s one to the pubic symphysis and is the edge of the pelvic inlet the space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the abdominal cavity the boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear functionally the human abdomen is where most of the alimentary tract is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here the alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower oesophagus the stomach the duodenum the jejunum ileum the cecum and the appendix the ascending transverse and descending colons the sigmoid colon and the rectum other vital organs inside the abdomen inclu |
de the liver the kidneys the pancreas and the spleen the abdominal wall is split into the posterior back lateral sides and anterior front walls there is a common set of layers covering and forming all the walls the deepest being the extraperitoneal fat the parietal peritoneum and a layer of fascia which has different names over where it covers eg transversalis psoas fascia superficial to these but not present in the posterior wall are the three layers of muscle the transversus abdominus tranvserse abdominal muscle the internal obliquus internus and the external oblique obliquus externus muscles of the abdominal wall henry gray one eight two five one eight six one anatomy of the human body the obliquus externus external oblique muscle is the outermost muscle covering the side of the abdomen it is broad flat and irregularly quadrilateral it originates on the lower eight ribs and then curves down and forward towards its insertion on the outer anterior crest of the ilium and via the sheath of the rectus abdominus |
muscle the midline linea alba the obliquus internus internal oblique muscle is triangularly shaped and is smaller and thinner than the external oblique muscle that overlies it it originates from poupart s ligament inguinal ligament and the inner anterior crest of the ilium the lower two thirds of it insert in common with fibers of the external oblique and the underlying transversus abdominus into the linea alba the upper third inserts into the lower six ribs the transversus abdominus muscle is flat and triangular with its fibers running horizontally it lies between the internal oblique and the underlying transversalis fascia it originates from poupart s ligament the inner lip of the ilium the lumbar fascia and the inner surface of the cartilages of the six lower ribs it inserts into the linea alba behind the rectus abdominis the rectus abdominis muscles are long and flat they originate at the pubic bone run up the abdomen on either side of the linea alba and insert into the cartilages of the fifth sixth and |
seventh ribs the muscle is crossed by three tendinous intersections called the linae transversae the rectus abdominus is enclosed in a thick sheath formed as described above by fibers from each of the three muscles of the lateral abdominal wall the pyramidalis muscle is small and triangular it is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis it originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba half way up to the umbilicus belly button abdominal organs the relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen the abdomen contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract as well as several solid organs hollow abdominal organs include the stomach the small intestine and the colon with its attached appendix organs such as the liver its attached gallbladder and the pancreas function in close association with the digestive tract and communicate with it via ducts the spleen kidneys and adrenal glands also lie within the abdomen along with many blood vessels including the |
aorta and inferior vena cava anatomists may consider the urinary bladder uterus fallopian tubes and ovaries as either abdominal organs or as pelvic organs finally the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the peritoneum a fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs whereas it may cover only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall anatomists call the latter type of organs retroperitoneal surface landmarks of the abdomen in the mid line a slight furrow extends from the ensiform cartilage xiphoid process above to the symphysis pubis below representing the linea alba in the abdominal wall at about its midpoint sits the umbilicus or navel on each side of it the broad recti muscles stand out in muscular people the outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the lineae transversae there is usually one about the ensiform cartilage one at the umbilicus and one between it is the combination of the linea alba and the linea transve |
rsae which form the abdominal six pack sought by body builders the upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs eight nine one zero joining one another the lower lateral limit is the anterior crest of the ilium and poupart s ligament which runs from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis these lower limits are marked by visible grooves just above the pubic spines on either side are the external abdominal rings which are openings in the muscular wall of the abdomen through which the spermatic cord emerges in the male and through which an inguinal hernia may rupture one method by which the location of the abdominal contents can be appreciated is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines the highest of the former is the transpyloric line of c addison which is situated half way between the suprasternal notch and the top of the symphysis pubis and often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid |
line the hilum of each kidney is a little below it while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the spleen it corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind the second line is the subcostal drawn from the lowest point of the subcostal arch tenth rib it corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra and it is an inch or so above the umbilicus it indicates roughly the transverse colon the lower ends of the kidneys and the upper limit of the transverse three rd part of the duodenum the third line is called the intertubercular and runs across between the two rough tubercles which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches six zero mm from the anterior superior spine this line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra and passes through or just above the ileo caecal valve where the small intestine joins the large the two vertical or mid poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symph |
ysis on each side vertically upward to the costal margin the right one is the most valuable as the ileo caecal valve is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line the orifice of the vermiform appendix lies an inch lower at mcburney s point in its upper part the vertical line meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs usually the ninth and here the gallbladder is situated the left mid poupart line corresponds in its upper three quarters to the inner edge of the descending colon the right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the liver while the right nipple is about half an inch above the upper limit of this viscus these three horizontal and two vertical lines divide the abdomen into nine regions these regions are the left and right hypchondria the left and right lateral regions the left and right inguinal regions the epigastrium the umbilical region and the pubic region see also waist list of muscles of the human body alimentary canal abdominal pain references tortora gerard |
j anagnostakos nicholas p one nine eight four principles of anatomy and physiology harper row publishers new york isbn zero zero six zero four six six five six one gray henry one nine seven seven anatomy descriptive and surgical gray s anatomy bounty books taber clarence wilber one nine eight one taber s cyclopedic medical dictionary one four edition f a davis company philadelphia isbn zero eight zero three six eight three zero seven three abdomen human anatomy the term abdominal surgery broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the abdomen surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ see stomach kidney liver etc diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names e g appendicitis the three most common abdominal surgeries are described below exploratory laparotomy this refers to the opening of the abdominal cavity for direct examination of its contents for example to locate a source of bleeding or tr |
auma it may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem appendectomy surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the appendix typically performed as definitive treatment for appendicitis although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure laparoscopy a minimally invasive approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity the tubes allow introduction of a small camera surgical instruments and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen the abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and often a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room the surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy gallbladder removal the most common laparoscopic procedure the laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduce |
s blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional open cholecystecomy complications of abdominal surgery include bleeding infection shock and ileus short term paralysis of the bowel sterile technique aseptic post operative care antibiotics and vigilant post operative monitoring greatly reduce the risk of these complications planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions the contents of the bowel are unsterile and thus leakage of bowel contents as from trauma substantially increases the risk of infection see also abdominoplasty general surgery types of surgery abduction may refer to kidnapping as a near synonym in criminal law but sometimes used particularly in cases involving a woman or child abduction physiology a type of movement involving a change in organ or limb position abductive reasoning a method of reasoning in logic child abduction the abduction or kidnapping of a young child or baby by an older person abducti |
on phenomenon an umbrella term used to describe a number of hypotheses claims or assertions stating that extraterrestrial creatures kidnap individuals north korean abductions of japanese or north korean abductions of south koreans a policy of abduction during the one nine seven zero s and one nine eight zero s pursued by the north korean government abduction the megumi yokota story a two zero zero five american documentary film abensberg is a town in bavaria germany it used to be a spa town located at on the abens a tributary of the danube one eight m s w of regensburg with which it is connected by rail and motorway a nine three pop two zero zero four about one two five zero zero it has a small spa and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and gout the water is not used any more the town is the castra abusina of the romans and roman remains exist in the neighbourhood here in the battle of abensberg on the two zero th of april one eight zero nine napoleon gained a signal victory over the |
austrians under the archduke louis and general hiller abensberg is the birthplace of johannes aventinus abensberg is also a seal district of the hallertau hop planting area references towns in bavaria spa towns pl abensberg for the armenian nationality see armenia or the armenian language for the theological doctrines of arius see arianism arminianism is a school of soteriological thought in protestant christian theology founded by the dutch theologian jacobus arminius its acceptence stretches through much of mainstream protestantism particularly evangelicalism due to the influence of john wesley it is perhaps most prominent in the methodist movement arminianism is historically viewed as the primary opponent of calvinism its main tenets hold that all men are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation god s election is conditional on faith in jesus jesus atonement was potentially for all people god s grace does not act in a deterministic fashion salvation can be lost as continued salvation is condi |
tional upon continued faith within the broad scope of church history arminianism and calvinism are closely related nonetheless debates from respective followers are often so heated and public that direct references to both doctrines appear frequently in american culture arminianism is most accurately used to define those who affirm the original beliefs of jacobus arminius himself but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a larger grouping of ideas including those of hugo grotius john wesley clark pinnock and others there are two primary perspectives on how the system is applied in detail classical arminianism which sees arminius as its figurehead and wesleyan arminianism which as the name suggests sees john wesley as its figurehead wesleyan arminianism is sometimes synonomous with methodism additionally arminianism is understood by its critics to also include pelagianism though supporters from both primary perspectives deny this vehemently history main artcle history of calvinist arminian debate |
jacobus arminius was a dutch pastor and theologian in the late one six th and early one seven th centuries he was taught by theodore beza calvin s hand picked successor but he rejected his teacher s theology as making god the author of sin instead arminius proposed that the election of god was of believers thereby making it conditional on faith arminius s views were challenged by the dutch calvinists but arminius died before a national synod could occur arminius followers not wanting to adopt their leader s name called themselves the remonstrants when arminius died before he could satisfy holland s state general s request for a one four page paper outlining his views the remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the five articles of remonstrance after some political manuevering the dutch calvinists were able to convince prince maurice of nassau deal with the situation maurice systematically removed arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at dordrecht this synod of dort was open primarily |
to dutch calvinists arminians were excluded with token calvinist representatives from other countries and in one six one eight published a condemnation of arminius and his followers as heretics part of this publication was the famous five points of calvinism in response to the five articles of remonstrance arminians across holland were removed from office imprisoned banished and sworn to silence twelve years later holland officially granted arminianism protection as a religion although animosity between arminians and calvinists continued the debate between calvin s followers and arminius followers is distinctive of post reformation church history the heated discussions between friends and fellow methodist ministers john wesley and george whitfield were characteristic of many similar debates wesley was a champion of arminius teachings defending his soteriology in a periodical titled the arminian and writing articles such as predestination calmly considered he defended arminius against charges of semi pelagian |
ism holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity at the same time wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the ability to lose salvation wesley also clarified the doctrine of prevenient grace and preached the ability of christians to attain to perfection current landscape advocates of both arminianism and calvinism find a home in many protestant denominations denominations leaning in the arminian direction include anglicans methodists general baptists pentecostals and charismatics denominations leaning in the calvinist direction include particular baptists reformed baptists presbyterians and congregationalists the majority of southern baptists including billy graham accept arminianism with an exception allowing for perseverance of the saints although many see calvinism as growing in acceptance the majority of lutherans hold to a mediating view taught by philip melanchthon the current scholarly support for arminianism is |
wide and varied one particular thrust is a return to the teachings of arminius a system termed classical arminianism by f leroy forlines author of the quest for truth answering life s inescapable questions stephen ashby professor at ball state university and contributor to four views on eternal security and robert picirilli pastor former academic dean and professor at free will baptist bible college and author of grace faith and free will are two of the more prominent supporters through methodism wesley s teachings also inspire a large scholarly following with vocal proponents including j kenneth grider stanley hauerwas and william willimon recent influence of the new perspective on paul movement has also strongly influenced arminianism primarily through a view of corporate election proponents of this movement include james dunn and n t wright other arminian theologians holding similar perspectives but not directly aligned with the new perspectives movement include robert shank author of elect in the son davi |
d pawson british teacher theologian and author of once saved always saved paul marston and roger forster co authors of god s strategy in human history jerry walls and joseph dongell professors at asbury theological seminary and co authors of why i am not a calvinist theology arminian theology usually falls into one of two groups classical arminianism drawn from the teaching of jacobus arminius and wesleyan arminian drawing primarily from wesley both groups overlap substantially in addition classical arminianism portrait of jacobus arminius classical arminianism sometimes titled reformed arminianism or reformation arminianism is the theological system that was presented by jacobus arminius and maintained by the remonstrants its influence serves as the foundation for all arminian systems a list of beliefs is given below depravity is total arminius states in this fallen state the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded infirm bent and weakend but it is also imprisoned destroyed and lost and it |
s powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by divine grace atonement is intended for all jesus death was for all people jesus draws all people to himself and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith jesus death satisfies god s justice the penalty for the sins of the elect are paid in full through jesus work on the cross thus christ s atonement is intended for all but requires faith to be effected arminius states justification when used for the act of a judge is either purely the imputation of righteoussness through mercy or that man is justified before god according to the rigour of justice without any forgiveness stephen ashby clarifies arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified one by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law or two purely by god s imputation of christ s righteousness grace is resistible god takes initiative in the salvation process and his |
grace comes to all people this grace often called prevenient or pre regenerating grace acts on all people to convict them of the gospel draw them strongly towards salvation and enable the possibility of sincere faith picrilli states indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted the offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistably in a purely cause effect deterministic method but rather in an influence and response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied man has free will to respond or resist free will is limited by god s sovereignty but god sovereignly allows all men the choice to accept the gospel of jesus through faith simultaneously allowing all men to resist election is conditional arminius defined election as the decree of god by which of himself from eternity he decreed to justify in christ believers and to accept them unto eternal life god alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all wh |
o believe jesus through faith will be justified according to arminius god regards no one in christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith god predestines the elect to a glorious future predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe but rather the predetermination of the believer s future inheritance the elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption glorification and eternal life eternal security is also conditional all believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in christ salvation is conditioned on faith therefore perseverance is also conditioned apostasy turning from christ is only commited through a deliberate willful rejection of jesus and renouncement of belief the five articles of remonstrance that arminius followers formulated in one six one zero state the above beliefs regarding i conditional election ii unlimited atonement iii total depravity iv total depravity and resistable grace and v possibility of apostasy note however that the |
five articles completely denied perseverance of the saints arminius himself said that i never taught that a true believer can fall away from the faith yet i will not conceal that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect and those answers to them which i have been permitted to see are not of such as kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding the core beliefs of jacobus arminius and the remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian stephen ashby one prior to being drawn and enabled one is unable to believe able only to resist two having been drawn and enabled but prior to regeneration one is able to believe able also to resist three after one believes god then regenerates one is able to continue believing able also to resist four upon resisting to the point of unbelief one is unable again to believe able only to resist wesleyan arminianism see also methodism apart from arminius himself john wesley has historically been the strongest proponent of arminianism w |
esley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what arminius taught maintaining strong doctrines of original sin total depravity conditional election prevenient grace unlimited atonement and possibly apostasy portrait of john wesley wesley departs from tradition and forges into new theological territory on three issues primarily atonement wesley s atonement is a hybrid of the penal substitution theory and hugo grotius a lawyer and one of the remonstrants governmental theory steven harper states wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework rather it is the need to bring into proper relationship the justice between god s love for persons and god s hatred of sin it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation possibility of apostasy wesley fully acknowledges the possibility that christians could apostasize and lose their salvation wesley s sermon a call to backsliders is one of his more influential sermons and ha |
rper summarizes as follows the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy wesley disagrees with arminius however in maintaining that apostasy was not final wesley himself when talking about those who have made shipwrecks of their faith one tim one one nine claims that not one or a hundred only but i am persuaded several thousands innumerable are the instances of this kind of those who had fallen but now stand upright christian perfection christian perfection according to wesley is purity of intention dedicating all the life to god and the mind which was in christ enabling us to walk as christ walked it is loving god with all our heart and our neighbor as ourselves it is a restoration not only to the favour but likewise to the image of god our being filled wit |
h the fullness of god wesley was clear that christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment it also does not mean we no longer violate the will of god for involuntary transgressions remain perfected christians remain subject to temptation and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness it is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love furthermore wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection but rather says that even perfect holiness is acceptable to god only through jesus christ other variations since the time of arminius his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs some of these beliefs such as pelagianism see below are not considered to be within arminianism orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere some doctrines however do adhere to the arminian foundation and while minority views are highlighted below open theism main article open theism the doctrine of open theism states that god is not all powerful all knowing all pres |
ent but is rather most powerful most knowing most present as such open theists resolve the issue of human free will and god s sovereignty by claiming that god is not logically capable of predetermining human choices salvation or otherwise clark pinnock is one of the most well known propenents some arminians such as professor and theologian robert picirilli reject the doctrine of open theism as a deformed arminianism joseph dongell stated that open theism actually moves beyond classical arminianism towards process theology the majority arminian view accepts classical theism the belief that god s power knowledge and presence have no limits outside of his divine character most arminians reconcile human free will with god s sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points human free will is limited by original sin though god s prevenient grace restores to humanity the ability to accept god s call of salvation god purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent in other words he |
has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means god s foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action god does not determine the future but he does know it god s certainty and human contingency are compatible corporate view of election see also conditional election the majority arminian view is that election is individual and based on god s foreknowledge of faith but a second perspective deserves merit these arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely prefering to understand the doctrine in corporate terms according to this corporate election god never chose individuals to elect to salvation but rather he chose to elect the believing church to salvation dutch reformed theologian herman ridderbos says the certainty of salvation does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain number but that it belongs to christ from before the foundation of the w |
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