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orld fixity does not lie in a hidden decree therefore but in corporate unity of the church with christ whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith corporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the old testament and jewish law indeed most biblical scholarship is in agreement that judeo greco roman thought in the one st century was opposite of the western world s individual first mantra it was very collectivist in nature identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality according to romans nine one one supporters claim jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of jesus as messiah as a result of the new covenant god s chosen people are now the corporate body of christ the church sometimes called spiritual israel see also covenant theology pastor and theologian dr brian abasciano claims what paul says about jews gentiles and christians whether of their place in god s plan or their election or |
their salvation or how they should think or behave he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group these individuals act as members of the group to which they belong and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group these scholars also maintain that jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be in christ eph one three four through faith to be part of the elect joseph dongell professor at asbury theological seminary states the most conscipuous feature of ephesians one three two one zero is the phrase in christ which occurs twelve times in ephesians one three four alone this means that jesus christ himself is the chosen one the predestined one whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith one comes to share in jesus special status as chosen of god markus barth illustrates the inter connectedness election in christ must be understood as the election of god s people only as member |
s of that community do individuals share in the benefits of god s gracious choice comparison to other views understanding arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives pelagianism and calvinism arminianism like any major belief system is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would be supporters listed below are a few common misconceptions common misconceptions arminianism supports works based salvation no well known system of arminianism denies salvation by faith alone and by faith first to last this misconception is often directed at the arminian possibility of apostasy which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation to arminians however both intial salvation and eternal security are by faith alone hence by faith first to last belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the kingdom of god unbelief is the condition for exit from the kingdom of god not a lack of good works arminianism denies original sin and total depravity no system of ar |
minianism founded on arminius or wesley denies original sin or total depravity both arminius and wesley strongly affirmed that man s basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous understand god or seek god see the comparison to calvinism below for where the two systems diverge arminianism denies jesus substitutionary payment for sins both arminius and wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of christ s atonement through substitution arminius held that god s justice was satisfied individually while hugo grotius and many of wesley s followers taught that it was satisfied corporately comparison to pelagianism main article pelagianism see also semi pelagianism and history of calvinist arminian debate pelagius was a british monk and opponent of augustine of hippo and jerome in the early five th century ad when he arrived in christian rome from britain pelagius was appalled at the lack of holiness he found pelagius preached justification through faith alone but also believed salvation was finished |
through good works and moral uprightness furthermore pelagius completely denied the double predestination and irresistible grace affirmed by augustine several of his students notably caelestius went further than their teacher and rejected justification by faith through the influence of augustine and jerome the teachings of pelagius and caelestius were rejected by the papacy as heretical historically pelagianism has come to to represent any system that denies original sin holds that by nature humans are capable of good and maintains morality and works are part of the equation that yields salvation semi pelagianism is a variation on the original more akin to pelagius own thought that justification is through faith but that adam s original sin was merely a bad example humans can naturally seek god and salvation is completed through works both systems reject a calvinist understanding of predestination many critics of arminianism both historically and currently claim that arminianism condones accepts or even expl |
icitly supports pelagianism of either variety arminius refered to pelagianism as the grand falsehood and stated that he must confess that i detest from my heart the consequences of that theology david pawson a british pastor theologian decries this association as libelous when attributed to arminius or wesley s doctrine indeed most arminians reject all accusations of pelagianism nonetheless partially due to calvinist opponents the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage listed below are similarities and contrasts between arminianism and pelagianism similarities both systems reject doctrines of calvinistic predestination and irresistible grace both systems accept the biblical importance of works morality and striving to become more holy differences arminianism maintains original sin total depravity substitutionary atonement and salvation through faith alone arminianism maintains that works and holiness while important have no determining effect on salvation at any point in the process comparison to calvi |
nism main article calvinism ever since arminius and his followers revolted against calvinism in the early one seven th century soteriology has been largely divided between calvinism and arminianism on the conservative side of calvinism is hyper calvinism and on the liberal side of arminianism is pelagianism but the overwhelming majority of protestant evangelical pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between similarities total depravity arminians affirm with calvinists the doctrine of total depravity the differences come in the understanding of how god remedies this depravity substitutionary effect of atonement arminians also affirm with calvinists the substitutionary effect of christ s atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect classical arminians would agree with calvinists that this substitution was an individual penal satisfaction for all of the elect while most wesleyan arminians would maintain that the substitution was corporate and governmental in natu |
re differences extent of atonement arminians hold to a universal drawing and universal extent of atonement instead of the specific drawing and limited extent held by calvinism ashby states god could have sovereignly chosen to remedy humanity s situation differently than by the particularistic cause and effect means proposed by calvinism in other words when god saw his fallen human race in as bad a condition as it could possibly be in dead in sins and unable to do the least spiritual good logically nothing would have precluded him from sovereignly choosing to reach out to all people with enabling grace often referred to as prevenient grace in fact the apostle paul says that the grace of god that brings salvation has appeared to all men titus two one one nature of grace arminians believe that through god s prevenient grace he restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity individuals therefore are able either to accept the gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief calvinists hold that an |
individual s response to the gospel call is determined by god not man thus god s grace is irresistible ashby continues the calvinist recoils and says if all are enabled and all are drawn then universalism must surely result all would be saved to which i would say yes if god s grace were irresistable grace once again however god can sovereignly choose that his salvation is not going to proceed along the lines of a deterministic cause and effect relationship rather he is going to allow the sinner to resist the offer of grace which grace he has sovereignly enabled the sinner to accept conditionality of election arminians hold that election to eternal salvation comes through within jesus and therefore has the condition of faith attached the calvinist doctrine of unconditional election states that salvation cannot be earned and therefore has no human conditions faith is not a condition but rather a means jerry dongell uses an illustration of a terrorist prison camp with the sinner securely tied blindfolded gagged |
and drugged and contrasts the two versions of divine rescue offered the calvinist view of the divine invasion is simple god invades the camp carries the prisoner out strips the prisoner of her shackles and blinders and injects faith into the prisoner s veins the former prisoner having already been rescued from prison and positioned outside the walls now trusts the deliverer because of the potency of the administered faith serum god has been the lone actor throughout in the sense that the human response of faith is directly and irresistibly caused by god the classical arminian believes that god steals into the prison and makes it to the bedside of the victim god injects a serum that begins to clear the prisoner s mind of delusions and quell her hostile reactions god removes the gag from the prisoner s mouth and shines a flashlight around the pitch black room the prisoner remains mute as the rescuer s voice whispers do you know where you are let me tell you do you know who you are let me show you and the wooing |
begins divine truth begins to dawn on the prisoner s heart and mind the savior holds up a small mirror to show the prisoner her sunken eyes and frail body do you see what they ve done to you and do you see how you ve given yourself to them even in the dim light the prisoner s weakened eyes are beginning to focus the rescuer continues do you know who i am and that i want you for myself perhaps the prisoner makes no obvious advance but does not turn away the questions keep coming can i show you pictues of who you once were and the wondrous plans i have for you in the years to come the prisoner s heartbeat quickens as the savior presses on i know that part of you suspects that i have come to harm you but let me show you something my hands they re a bit bloody i crawled through the awful tangle of barbed wire to get you now here in this newly created sacred space in this moment of new possibility the savior whispers i want to carry you out of here right now give me your heart trust me perseverance arminians beli |
eve that future salvation and eternal life is secured in christ and protected from all external forces but is conditional on remaining in christ and can be lost through apostasy this conditional perseverance is in contrast to the doctrine of perseverance of the saints and concept of once saved always saved pawson comments the arminian position is accurately portrayed by someone throwing a lifeline to a drowning man and saying grab hold of this and keep holding on tightly until i pull you to safety i would maintain that no one rescued in this way would dream that he had saved himself or even made a contribution which merited his rescue he would be filled with gratitude towards his rescuer see also further reading pro ashby stephen m contributor and harper steven contributor four views on eternal security grand rapids zondervan two zero zero two isbn zero three one zero two three four three nine five stephen ashby and steven harper present and defend their cases for reformed arminianism classical and wesleyan a |
rminianism respectively against michael horton classical calvinism norman geisler moderate calvinism and each other forlines leroy f pinson matthew j and ashby stephen m the quest for truth answering life s inescapable questions nashville randall house publications two zero zero one isbn zero eight nine two six five eight six four nine forlines and his co authors present a comprehensive systematic theology of salvation from an arminian perspective forster roger and marston paul god s strategy in human history two nd ed wipf and stock publishers two zero zero zero isbn one five seven nine one zero two seven three five the authors take a deep look at the grammatical and historical contexts of new testament passages dealing with predestination and election along with historical sources from the first three zero zero years a d and come to arminian conclusions pawson david once saved always saved a study in perseverance and inheritance london hodder once saved always saved picirilli robert grace faith free will co |
ntrasting views of salvation calvinism and arminianism nashville randall house publications two zero zero two isbn zero eight nine two six five six four eight four picirilli takes a closer look at the life and views of jacobus arminius and presents his historical and theological argument for reformation arminianism classical shank dr robert elect in the son bethany house publishers one nine eight nine isbn one five five six six one zero nine two zero the classic defense of arminianism first published in the mid two zero th century it remains one of the primary defenses of arminian thought walls jerry l and dongell joseph r why i am not a calvinist downer s grove intervarsity press two zero zero four isbn zero eight three zero eight three two four nine one walls and dongell present their scriptural and philosophical arguments against calvinism focusing primarily on the nature of human freedom divine sovereignty self consistency and the christian life con grudem wayne systematic theology grand rapids zondervan |
one nine nine five isbn zero three one zero two eight six seven zero zero a well reasoned and scriptural systematic theology that presents a calvinist view peterson robert a and williams michael d why i am not an arminian downer s grove intervarsity press two zero zero four isbn zero eight three zero eight three two four eight three the counterpoint to why i am not a calvinist presents a scriptural and philosophical case against arminianism white james r the potter s freedom calvary press two zero zero zero isbn one eight seven nine seven three seven four three four a calvinist response to norman geisler s chosen but free in which geisler presents a moderate calvinism that only holds to perseverance of the saints it is widely considered by both supporters and opponents to be a strong consistent portrayal of calvinism notes history see history of calvinist arminian debate for additional notes one the baptist faith and message two zero zero zero revision http www sbc net bfm bfm two zero zero zero asp iv two ha |
rmon richard w baptists and other denominations nashville convention press one nine eight four one seven one eight four five four six three walls jerry and dongell joseph why i am not a calvinist downer s grove intervarsity press two zero zero four one two one three one six one seven four ibid seven two zero classical arminianism five ashby stephen reformed arminianism four views on eternal security grand rapids zondervan two zero zero two one three seven six arminius james the writings of james arminius three vols tr james nichols and w r bagnall grand rapids baker one nine five six i two five two seven ibid i three one six eight ibid iii four five four nine ashby four views one four zero one zero picirilli robert grace faith free will contrasting views of salvation calvinism and arminianism nashville randall house publications two zero zero two one five four ff one one forlines leroy f pinson matthew j and ashby stephen m the quest for truth answering life s inescapable questions nashville randall house pub |
lications two zero zero one three one three three two one one two arminius writings iii three one one one three ibid one four pawson david once saved always saved a study in perseverance and inheritance london hodder wesleyan arminianism four views on eternal security grand rapids zondervan two zero zero two two two seven ff two zero ibid two three nine two four zero two one wesley john a call to backsliders the works of john wesley ed thomas jackson one four vols london wesley methodist book room one eight seven two repr grand rapids baker one nine eight six three two one one ff two two wesley john a plain account of christian perfection works two three wesley john the end of christ s coming works two four wesley john a plain account of christian perfection works other variations two five picirilli grace faith free will four zero picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between arminianism and open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections see five nine ff two six dongell joseph an |
d walls jerry why i am not a calvinist four five two seven picirilli grace faith free will four two four three five nine ff two eight ashby four views on eternal security one four six one four seven two nine picirilli grace faith free will four zero three zero ridderbos herman paul an outline of his theology trans john richard de witt grand rapids eerdmans one nine seven five three five zero three five one three one abasciano brian paul s use of the old testament in romans nine one nine an intertextual and theological exegesis t on predestination by john wesley the nature of wesleyan theology by j kenneth grider eternal security by gordon olson eternal security by daniel corner eternal security by frederick e lewis the perseverance of the saints pdf article showing the differences and similarities between arminian and calvinist viewpoints on the perseverance of the saints while arguing for assurance of salvation characteristics of wesley s arminianism by luke l keefer jr arminianism from the catholic encyclop |
edia a comparison of arminian theology with the calvinist tradition from a conservative calvinist perspective is arminianism biblical from a calvinist perspective armininaism exposed by mark herzer from a calvinist perspective christian theology methodism protestantism reformation theology arminianism the alan parsons project was a british progressive rock and pop group active between one nine seven five and one nine eight seven founded by alan parsons and eric woolfson most of their titles especially the early work share common traits likely influenced by pink floyd s dark side of the moon on which parsons was the audio engineer in one nine seven three they were concept albums they tended to begin with an instrumental introduction which faded into the first song often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second lp side and concluded with a quiet sad or powerful song the opening instrumental was largely done away with by one nine eight zero no later project album except eye in the sky featured one t |
he group was also unusual for its lack of a single lead vocalist lead vocal duties alternate between woolfson mostly for slow or sad songs and a stream of guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song woolfson sang lead on many of the group s hits including time and eye in the sky and the record company pressured parsons to use him more but parsons preferred real singers which woolfson admitted he was not in addition to woolfson chris rainbow lenny zakatek and colin blunstone made regular appearances other singers such as ambrosia s david pack vitamin z s geoff barradale and procol harum s gary brooker have recorded only once or twice with the project parsons himself only sang lead on one song the raven and can be heard singing backup on another to one in paradise both of those songs appeared on the group s first record tales of mystery and imagination an album containing music based on the stories and poetry of edgar allan poe although the vocalists varied a small number of musicians wo |
rked with the alan parsons project regularly they and parsons production are the reason listeners can instantly recognize a song as a project work even with an unfamiliar singer andrew powell composer and arranger of orchestral music throughout the life of the project ian bairnson guitar and richard cottle synthesizer and saxophone were integral parts of the project s sound powell is also notable for having composed a film score in the project style for richard donner s film ladyhawke behind the revolving lineup and the regular sidemen the true core of the project was the duo of parsons and woolfson eric woolfson was a lawyer by profession but is a classically trained composer and pianist as well alan parsons was a successful producer and accomplished engineer both worked together to craft noteworthy songs with impeccable fidelity and almost all songs on project albums are credited to woolfson parsons members alan parsons keyboards production engineering eric woolfson keyboards executive production andrew pow |
ell keyboards orchestral arrangements ian bairnson guitars bass david paton one nine seven five one nine eight five laurie cottle one nine eight five one nine eight seven drums percussion stuart tosh one nine seven five one nine seven seven stuart elliott one nine seven seven one nine eight seven saxophones keyboards mel collins one nine eight zero one nine eight four richard cottle one nine eight four one nine eight seven vocals eric woolfson lenny zakatek john miles chris rainbow colin blunstone david paton and many others including arthur brown trivia in the austin powers movie the spy who shagged me dr evil s laser was called the alan parsons project after the noted cambridge physicist dr parsons the project for developing a new site for the national library for the blind is officially called the alan parsons project sirius the instrumental piece that opens eye in the sky is popular in the nba as background music during player introductions it is perhaps best remembered as playing this role for all six ch |
icago bulls championship teams of the one nine nine zero s sirius and eye in the sky s other instrumental mammagamma were used as music under for a one nine eight seven weather channel special on thunderstorms this was far before the network engaged in regular non live programming alongside the music of jean michel jarre in the simpsons episode three f two one homerpalooza homer thought that the alan parsons project was some sort of hovercraft grandaddy s promo only single alan parsons in a winter wonderland is a humourous cover of the christmas song winter wonderland with lyrics altered to make the song about alan parsons discography one nine seven five tales of mystery and imagination based on stories by the writer edgar allan poe the later reissue on cd in one nine eight seven was remixed from the original master tapes enhancing some of the tracks and restoring the orson welles narration recorded a few weeks before his death that was left off the original due to record company concerns one nine seven seven |
i robot the title quotes isaac asimov s work a view of tomorrow through the eyes of today includes minor hits i wouldn t want to be like you and breakdown one nine seven eight pyramid ancient egypt surfaces repeatedly the album is called a view of yesterday through the eyes of today one nine seven nine eve about women this is the only project album to feature female lead vocalists and even then only on two tracks one nine eight zero the turn of a friendly card about gambling literally and figuratively includes their hits time and games people play one nine eight two eye in the sky presumably about surveillance life and the universe but some insist it is about forgotten and lost values album contains their most famous single eye in the sky one nine eight four ammonia avenue although this album has no discernable theme it is their most radio friendly album includes don t answer me and you don t believe the latter first appeared on a one nine eight three best of collection one nine eight four vulture culture a |
critique of consumerism and in particular american popular culture includes let s talk about me one nine eight five stereotomy the effect of fame and fortune on various people singers actors etc one nine eight seven gaudi songs inspired by the life of catalan architect antoni gaud with a song named after his most famous work la sagrada familia after those albums parsons released other titles under his name try anything once on air the time machine and a valid path while woolfson made concept albums named freudiana about sigmund freud s work on psychology and poe more tales of mystery and imagination continuing from the alan parsons project s first album about edgar allan poe s literature although the studio version of freudiana was produced by alan parsons and featured the regular project backing musicians making it an unofficial project album it was primarily eric woolfson s idea to turn it into a musical this eventually led to a rift between the two artists while alan parsons pursued his own solo career and |
took many members of the project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour eric woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the project s music freudiana gaudi and gambler were three musicals that included some project songs like eye in the sky time inside looking out and limelight the live music from gambler was only distributed at the performance site in cologne germany a collection called the instrumental works one nine nine zero now out of print includes many of the project s instrumental tracks english musical groups progressive rock groups alan parsons born december two zero one nine four nine is a british musician he began his musical career as a staff engineer at emi studios and first garnered significant industry exposure via his work on the beatles one nine six nine masterpiece abbey road parsons subsequently worked with paul mccartney on several of wings earliest albums he also oversaw recordings from al stewart cockney rebel pilot ambrosia and the hollies but solid |
ified his reputation by working on pink floyd s dark side of the moon alan parsons was known for going beyond what one would consider the normal scope of a recording engineer he considered himself to be a recording director and was known to compare what he did with albums to what stanley kubrick did on film this is obvious in his work with al stewart s year of the cat where parsons added the saxophone part and transformed the original folk concept into the jazz influenced ballad that put al stewart onto the charts it is also seen in parson s influence on the hollies he ain t heavy he s my brother and the air that i breathe sharp departures from their six zero s pop stay just one look stop stop stop bus stop or it s in his kiss although an accomplished vocalist and flutist parsons only sang infrequent and incidental parts on his albums recordings featuring his flute are virtually unknown influenced by his work on stewart s concept album time passages parsons decided to begin creating his own thematic records a |
long with songwriter eric woolfson he soon founded the alan parsons project although parsons played keyboards and infrequently sang on his records the project was designed primarily as a forum for a revolving collection of vocalists and session players among them arthur brown ex zombie colin blunstone cockney rebel s steve harley the hollies allan clarke and guitarist ian bairnson to interpret and perform parsons and woolfson s conceptually linked lushly synthesized music the project debuted in one nine seven six with tales of mystery and imagination a collection inspired by the work of edgar allen poe the album was remixed for release on cd and includes narration by orson wells which was left off the vinyl version similarly the science fiction of isaac asimov served as the raw material for one nine seven seven s follow up i robot with one nine eight zero s the turn of a friendly card a meditation on gambling the alan parsons project scored a top two zero hit games people play one nine eight two s eye in the |
sky was their most successful effort and notched a top three hit with its title track while one nine eight four s ammonia avenue went gold the project s subsequent lps earned little notice although records like one nine eight five s vulture culture and one nine eight seven s gaudi found favor with longtime fans following the breakup of the project he went on to create several solo albums one nine nine three try anything once one nine nine six on air includes cd rom containing some history of aviation one nine nine nine the time machine two zero zero four a valid path with david gilmour on return to tunguska external links official site one nine four nine births living people british record producers in mathematics the phrase almost all has a number of specialised uses almost all is sometimes used synonymously with all but finitely many see almost in number theory if p n is a property of positive integers and if p n denotes the number of positive integers n less than n for which p n holds and if p n n one as n |
see limit then we say that p n holds for almost all positive integers n and write forall infty n p n for example the prime number theorem states that the number of prime numbers less than or equal to n is asymptotically equal to n ln n therefore the proportion of prime integers is roughly one ln n which tends to zero thus almost all positive integers are composite however there are still an infinite number of primes occasionally almost all is used in the sense of almost everywhere in measure theory or in the closely related sense of almost surely in probability theory see also sufficiently large mathematical terminology mathematical notation in one eight four six charles babbage was invited to give a seminar at the university of turin about his analytical engine luigi menabrea a young italian engineer wrote up babbage s lecture in french and this transcript was subsequently published in the biblioth que universelle de gen ve in one eight four two babbage asked ada lovelace born ada byron to translate menabre |
a s paper into english he then further asked lady ada to augment the notes she had added to the translation and she spent most of a year doing this these notes which are more extensive than menabrea s paper were then published in the ladies diary and taylor s scientific memoirs under the initialism a a l her notes were labelled a b c d e f and g the last one being the longest in note g ada describes an algorithm for the analytical engine to compute bernoulli numbers it is generally considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer and for this reason she is considered by many to be the first computer programmer note g could possibly also be said to be the first expression of the modern computer phrase garbage in garbage out lovelace writes the analytical engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything it can do whatever we know how to order it to perform it can follow analysis but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths on the other |
hand proponents of artificial intelligence would dismiss the above quote as nonsense automated theorem proving could be cited as a counterexample according to linda talisman on baum baum joan the calculating passion of ada byron archon books hamden conn one nine eight six isbn zero two zero eight zero two one one nine one cites perl teri the ladies diary or woman s almanac one seven zero four one eight four one historica mathematica six one nine seven nine three six five three wallis ruth and peter female philomaths historica mathematica seven one nine eight zero five seven six four there were indeed women in mid century england who signed their names to mathematical articles in popular journals and there were influential periodicals such as the edinburgh review that lent intellectual women psychological support although the ladies diary the most popular of the mathematical periodicals encouraged women to join wit with beauty it attracted serious amateurs of both sexes it was a respectable place to pose mathe |
matical problems and sustain debate since there were few science periodicals in england until the one eight three zero s technical articles often appeared in general periodicals like the ladies diary it may have been something similar that originally sparked mrs somerville s interest in mathematics at a tea party one afternoon she recalled years later young mary fairfax had been given a ladies fashion magazine that contained a puzzle the answer to which was given in strange symbols these symbols turned out to be algebra and that magazine became her introduction to the world of euclidean geometry and number baum p three five external links sketch of the analytical engine invented by charles babbage by l f menabrea with notes upon the memoir by the translator ada augusta countess of lovelace ada lovelace s notes and the ladies diary history of computing augustine may refer to saints augustine of hippo three five four four three zero theologian author of the city of god confessions augustine of canterbury d six |
zero four first archbishop of canterbury or augustinians an order of catholic monk named after augustine of hippo augustine volcano on augustine island in alaska st augustine florida a city in the united states james augustine a power forward and center for the university of illinois men s basketball team an aromatic hydrocarbon abbreviated as ah or arene is a hydrocarbon the molecular structure of which incorporates one or more planar sets of six carbon atoms that are connected by delocalised electrons numbering the same as if they consisted of alternating single and double covalent bonds after the simplest possible aromatic hydrocarbon benzene such a configuration of six carbon atoms is known as a benzene ring benzene ring model toluene each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share one goes to the hydrogen atom and one each to the two neighboring carbons this leaves one to share with one of its two neighboring carbon atoms which is why the benzene molecule is drawn with alternating sin |
gle and double bonds around the hexagon many chemists just draw a circle around the inside of the ring to show that there are six electrons floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself this also accurately represents the equivalent nature of the six bonds all of bond order one five this equivalency is well explained by resonance forms the electrons float above and below the ring and the electromagnetic fields they generate keep the ring flat in modern terminology benzene rings can be described as compounds in which a continuous closed system of rings contains separate sets of sigma and pi electrons the atomic orbitals forming the sigma system are sp two hybridized and those forming the pi system are pure p orbitals properties they have close conjugation the carbon atoms are sp two hybridized and therefore have a trigonal planar structure the carbon hydrogen ratio is very large h ckel s rules apply they burn with a sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon hydrogen ratio th |
ey undergo electrophilic substitution reactions benzene and derivatives of benzene benzene aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic benzene c six h six is the simplest ah and was recognized as the first aromatic hydrocarbon with the nature of its bonding first being recognized by friedrich august kekul von stradonitz in the one nine th century pahs naphthalene some important arenes are the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons pah they are also called polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons they are composed of more than one aromatic ring the simplest pah is benzocyclobutene c eight h six pahs and the origins of life in january two zero zero four at the two zero three rd meeting of the american astronomical society it was reported as cited in battersby two zero zero four that a team led by a witt of the university of toledo ohio studied ultraviolet light emitted by the red rectangle nebula and found the spectral signatures of anthracene and pyrene no other such complex molecules had ever before been found i |
n space this discovery was considered confirmation of a hypothesis that as nebulae of the same type as the red rectangle approach the ends of their lives convection currents cause carbon and hydrogen in the nebulae s core to get caught in stellar winds and radiate outward as they cool the atoms supposedly bond to each other in various ways and eventually form particles of a million or more atoms witt and his team inferred as cited in battersby two zero zero four that since they discovered pahs which may have been vital in the formation of early life on earth in a nebula nebulae by necessity are where they originate external links carcinogenic fac list in portable document format toxicological profiles of pah list of pah abiogenic gas debate one one two zero zero two explorer references american astronomical society n d meeting program contents retrieved january one one two zero zero four from http www aas org meetings aas two zero three battersby s two zero zero four space molecules point to organic origins r |
etrieved january one one two zero zero four from http www newscientist com news news jsp id ns nine nine nine nine four five five two aromatic hydrocarbons hydrocarbons origin of life this article is about an abbey as a christian monastic community for other uses see abbey disambiguation an abbey from the latin abbatia which is derived from the syriac abba father is a christian monastery or convent under the government of an abbot or an abbess who serve as the spiritual father or mother of the community a priory only differed from an abbey in that the superior bore the title of prior instead of abbot priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys to the abbots of which they continued subordinate however the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost by the renaissance do not confuse the term convent with the term monastery both nuns and monks live in monasteries sisters members of active orders live in convents nuns who are cloistered live in monasteries the earliest known christian mo |
nastic communities see monasticism consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism but without any attempt at orderly arrangement such communities were not an invention of christianity the example had been already set in part by the essenes in judea and perhaps by the therapeutae in egypt in the earliest age of christian monasticism the ascetics were accustomed to live singly independent of one another not far from some village church supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor increasing religious fervour aided by persecution drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts the deserts of egypt swarmed with the cells or huts of these anchorites anthony the great who had retired to the egyptian thebaid during the persecution of maximian a d three o |
ne two was the most celebrated among them for his austerities his sanctity and his power as an exorcist his fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity the deeper he withdrew into the wilderness the more numerous his disciples became they refused to be separated from him and built their ceils round that of their spiritual father thus arose the first monastic community consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling united together under one superior anthony as neander remarks church history vol iii p three one six clark s trans without any conscious design of his own had become the founder of a new mode of living in common coenobitism by degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts they were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment or the houses in a street from this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as laurae laurai streets or lanes the real founder of cenobitic koinos common and bios life mo |
nasteries in the modern sense was pachomius an egyptian of the beginning of the four th century the first community established by him was at tabennae an island of the nile in upper egypt eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime numbering three zero zero zero monks within fifty years from his death his societies could claim five zero zero zero zero members these coenobia resembled villages peopled by a hard working religious community all of one sex the buildings were detached small and of the humblest character each cell or hut according to sozomen h r iii one four contained three monks they took their chief meal in a common refectory or dining hall at three p m up to which hour they usually fasted they ate in silence with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them the monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour palladius who visited the egyptian monasteries about the close of the four th century fo |
und among the three zero zero members of the coenobium of panopolis under the pachomian rule one five tailors seven smiths four carpenters one two cameldrivers and one five tanners each separate community had its own oeconomus or steward who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment all the produce of the monks labour was committed to him and by him shipped to alexandria the money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities and what was over was devoted to charity twice in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at the chief monastery under the presidency of an archimandrite the chief of the fold from miandra a sheepfold and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year the coenobia of syria belonged to the pachomian institution we learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of antioch from chrysostom s writings the monks lived in separate huts kalbbia forming a religious hamlet on the mount |
ain side they were subject to an abbot and observed a common rule they had no refectory but ate their common meal of bread and water only when the day s labour was over reclining on strewn grass sometimes out of doors four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms santa laura mount athos the necessity for defence from hostile attacks for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium large piles of building were erected with strong outside walls capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts usually surrounded with cloisters the usual eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the holy laura mount athos this monastery like the oriental monasteries generally is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall enclosi |
ng an area of between three and four acres one two zero zero zero and one six zero zero zero m the longer side extends to a length of about five zero zero feet there is only one main entrance on the north side a defended by three separate iron doors near the entrance is a large tower m a constant feature in the monasteries of the levant there is a small postern gate at l the enceinte comprises two large open courts surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone the outer court which is much the larger contains the granaries and storehouses k and the kitchen h and other offices connected with the refectory g immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two storied guest house opening from a cloister c the inner court is surrounded by a cloister ee from which open the monks cells ii in the centre of this court stands the catholicon or conventual church a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical byzantine type approached by a domed narthex in front of the church stands a ma |
rble fountain f covered by a dome supported on columns opening from the western side of the cloister but actually standing in the outer court is the refectory g a large cruciform building about one zero zero feet three zero m each way decorated within with frescoes of saints at the upper end is a semicircular recess recalling the triclinium of the lateran palace at rome in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot this apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells the annexed plan of a coptic monastery from lenoir shows a church of three aisles with cellular apses and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery benedictine abbeys monasticism in the west owes its extension and development to benedict of nursia born a d four eight zero his rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on monte cassino through the whole of western europe and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far e |
xceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour few great towns in italy were without their benedictine convent and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in england france and spain the number of these monasteries founded between a d five two zero and seven zero zero is amazing before the council of constance a d one four one five no fewer than one five zero seven zero abbeys had been established of this order alone the buildings of a benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan modified where necessary as at durham and worcester where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances we have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the benedictine order they have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man but we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great swiss monastery of st gall erected about a d eight two zero which puts us in possession of the w |
hole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the nine th century this curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by keller z rich one eight four four and by professor robert willis arch journal one eight four eight vol v pp eight six one one seven to the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description as well as for the plan reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent the general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them it is evidently planned in compliance with the benedictine rule which enjoined that if possible the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates it should comprise a mill a bakehouse stables and cow houses together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within th |
e walls so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits abbey of jumi ges normandy the general distribution of the buildings may be thus described the church with its cloister to the south occupies the centre of a quadrangular area about four three zero feet square the buildings as in all great monasteries are distributed into groups the church forms the nucleus as the centre of the religious life of the community in closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements the refectory for eating the dormitory for sleeping the common room for social intercourse the chapter house for religious and disciplinary conference these essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court surrounded by a covered arcade affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings the infirmary for sick monks with the physician s house and physic garden lies to the east in the same group with the in |
firmary is the school for the novices the outer school with its headmaster s house against the opposite wall of the church stands outside the convent enclosure in close proximity to the abbot s house that he might have a constant eye over them the buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups one for the reception of distinguished guests another for monks visiting the monastery a third for poor travellers and pilgrims the first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church not far from the abbot s house that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings the monks are lodged in a guest house built against the north wall of the church the group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings the kitchen buttery and offices are reached by a pass |
age from the west end of the refectory and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse which are placed still farther away the whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops stables and farm buildings the buildings with some exceptions seem to have been of one story only and all but the church were probably erected of wood the whole includes thirty three separate blocks the church d is cruciform with a nave of nine bays and a semicircular apse at either extremity that to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade leaving an open paradise e between it and the wall of the church the whole area is divided by screens into various chapels the high altar a stands immediately to the east of the transept or ritual choir the altar of saint paul b in the eastern and that of st peter c in the western apse a cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse ff the cloister court g on the south side of the nave of the church has on its east side the pisali |
s or calefactory h the common sitting room of the brethren warmed by flues beneath the floor on this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter house the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising it appears however from the inscriptions on the plan itself that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter house and was fitted up with benches on the long sides above the calefactory is the dormitory opening into the south transept of the church to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness a passage at the other end leads to the necessarium i a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care the southern side is occupied by the refectory k from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen l is reached this is separated from the main buildings of the monastery and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brewhouse m and the sleeping rooms of the servants the upper story of the refector |
y is the vestiarium where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept on the western side of the cloister is another two story building n the cellar is below and the larder and store room above between this building and the church opening by one door into the cloisters and by another to the outer part of the monastery area is the parlour for interviews with visitors from the external world o on the eastern side of the north transept is the scriptorium or writing room p one with the library above to the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments each complete in itself each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings i e refectory dormitory etc and a church or chapel on one side placed back to back a detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen one of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the oblati or novices q the other to the sick monks as an infirmary r the residence of the physicians s stands contiguous to t |
he infirmary and the physic garden t at the north east corner of the monastery besides other rooms it contains a drug store and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill the house for bloodletting and purging adjoins it on the west u the outer school to the north of the convent area contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition and surrounded by fourteen little rooms termed the dwellings of the scholars the head master s house w is opposite built against the side wall of the church the two hospitia or guest houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees x one x two comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre surrounded by sleeping apartments each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses there is also an hospitium for strange monks abutting on the north wall of the church y beyond the cloister at the extre |
me verge of the convent area to the south stands the factory z containing workshops for shoemakers saddlers or shoemakers sellarii cutlers and grinders trencher makers tanners curriers fullers smiths and goldsmiths with their dwellings in the rear on this side we also find the farm buildings the large granary and threshing floor a mills c malthouse d facing the west are the stables e ox sheds f goatstables gl piggeries h sheep folds i together with the servants and labourers quarters k at the south east corner we find the hen and duck house and poultry yard m and the dwelling of the keeper n hard by is the kitchen garden o the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them onions garlic celery lettuces poppy carrots cabbages etc eighteen in all in the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs and the cemetery p those of the trees apple pear plum quince etc planted there westminster abbey westminster abbey is another example of a great benedictine abbey identical in its gen |
eral arrangements so far as they can be traced with those described above the cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church parallel to the nave on the south side of the cloister was the refectory with its lavatory at the door on the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept the chapter house opens out of the same alley of the cloister the small cloister lay to the south east of the larger cloister and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers the abbot s house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance close to the inner gateway considerable portions of this remain including the abbot s parlour celebrated as the jerusalem chamber his hall now used for the westminster king s scholars and the kitchen and butteries beyond york st mary s abbey york of which the ground plan is annexed exhibits the usual ben |
edictine arrangements the precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides the river ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth side the entrance was by a strong gateway u to the north close to the entrance was a chapel where is now the church of st olaf w in which the new comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival near the gate to the south was the guest hall or hospitium t the buildings are completely ruined but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church a the cloister court with the chapterhouse b the refectory i the kitchen court with its offices k o o and the other principal apartments the infirmary has perished completely fig four st mary s abbey york benedictine churton s monnastic ruins a church o offices b chapter house p cellars c vestibule to ditto q uncertain e library or scriptorium r passage to abbot s house f calefactory s passage to common house g necessary t hospitium h parlour u great gate i refectory v porter s lodge k great kitche |
n and court w church of st olaf l cellarer s office x tower m cellars y entrance from bootham n passage to cloister the history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival with growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth leading to luxury and worldliness the first religious ardour cooled the strictness of the rule was relaxed until by the one zero th century the decay of discipline was so complete in france that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of st benedict and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all the reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders with new and more stringent rules requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements one of the earliest of these reformed orders was the cluniac this order took its name from the little village of cluny one two miles n w of macon near which about a d nine zero nine a reformed benedictine abbey was founded by william duke of aq |
uitaine and count of auvergne under berno abbot of beaume he was succeeded by odo who is often regarded as the founder of the order the fame of cluny spread far and wide its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old benedictine abbeys who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society while new foundations sprang up in large numbers all owing allegiance to the archabbot established at cluny by the end of the one two th century the number of monasteries affiliated to cluny in the various countries of western europe amounted to two zero zero zero the monastic establishment of cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in france we may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded that when in a d one two four five pope innocent iv accompanied by twelve cardinals a patriarch three archbishops the two generals of the carthusians and cistercians the king st louis and three of his sons the queen mother baldwin count of flanders and emperor of constantinople the duke of b |
urgundy and six lords visited the abbey the whole party with their attendants were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks four zero zero in number nearly the whole of the abbey buildings including the magnificent church were swept away at the close of the one eight th century when the annexed ground plan was taken shortly before its destruction nearly all the monastery with the exception of the church had been rebuilt the church the ground plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of lincoln cathedral was of vast dimensions it was six five six ft high the nave g had double vaulted aisles on either side like lincoln it had an eastern as well as a western transept each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east the western transept was two one three ft long and the eastern one two three ft the choir terminated in a semicircular apse f surrounded by five chapels also semicircular the western entrance was approached by an ante church or narthex b itself an aisled church of no mean d |
imensions flanked by two towers rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross to the south of the church lay the cloister court h of immense size placed much farther to the west than is usually the case on the south side of the cloister stood the refectory p an immense building one zero zero ft three zero m long and six zero ft one eight m wide accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables it was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey and with scriptural subjects the end wall displayed the last judgment we are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings n the abbot s residence k still partly standing adjoined the entrance gate the guest house l was close by the bakehouse m also remaining is a detached building of immense size english cluniac the first english house of the cluniac order was that of lewes founded by the earl of warren c a d one zero seven seven of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist th |
e best preserved cluniac houses in england are castle acre norfolk and wenlock shropshire ground plans of both are given in britton s architectural antiquities they show several departures from the benedictine arrangement in each the prior s house is remarkably perfect all cluniac houses in england were french colonies governed by priors of that nation they did not secure their independence nor become abbeys till the reign of henry vi the cluniac revival with all its brilliancy was but short lived the celebrity of this as of other orders worked its moral ruin with their growth in wealth and dignity the cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors and a fresh reform was needed cistercian cistercian abbey of senanque the next great monastic revival the cistercian arising in the last years of the one one th century had a wider diffusion and a longer and more honourable existence owing its real origin as a distinct foundation of reformed benedictines in the year |
one zero nine eight to stephen harding a native of dorset educated in the monastery of sherborne and deriving its name from citeaux cistercium a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude on the borders of champagne and burgundy the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of st bernard abbot of the first of the monastic colonies subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first cistercian houses the far famed abbey of clairvaux de clara valle a d one one one six the rigid self abnegation which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the benedictine order extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them the characteristic of the cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness only one tower a central one was permitted and that was to be very low unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited the triforium was omitted the windows were to be plain and undivided and it |
was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass all needless ornament was proscribed the crosses must be of wood the candlesticks of iron the renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye the same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries the more dismal the more savage the more hopeless a spot appeared the more did it please their rigid mood but they came not merely as ascetics but as improvers the cistercian monasteries are as a rule found placed in deep well watered valleys they always stand on the border of a stream not rarely as at fountains the buildings extend over it these valleys now so rich and productive wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement wide swamps deep morasses tangled thickets wild impassable forests were their prevailing features the bright valley clara vallis of st bernard was known as the valley of wormwood infamous as a den of robbers it was a savage dreary solitude so utte |
rly barren that at first bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves milman s lat christ vol iii p three three five abbey church of st denis see abbey church of st denis clairvaux abbey see clairvaux abbey citeaux abbey see citeaux abbey kirkstall abbey see kirkstall abbey fountains abbey see fountains abbey austin canons the buildings of the austin canons or black canons so called from the colour of their habit present few distinctive peculiarities this order had its first seat in england at colchester where a house for austin canons was founded about a d one one zero five and it very soon spread widely as an order of regular clergy holding a middle position between monks and secular canons almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations the choir is usually long and is sometimes as at llanthony and christchurch twynham shut off from the aisles or as at bolton kirkham etc is destitute of aisles altoget |
her the nave in the northern houses not unfrequently had only a north aisle as at bolton brinkburn and lanercost the arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type the prior s lodge was almost invariably attached to the s w angle of the nave the above plan of the abbey of st augustine s at bristol now the cathedral church of that city shows the arrangement of the buildings which departs very little from the ordinary benedictine type the austin canons house at thornton in lincolnshire is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate house the upper floors of which formed the guest house of the establishment and for possessing an octagonal chapter house of decorated date premonstratensians the premonstratensian regular canons or white canons had as many as three five houses in england of which the most perfect remaining are those of easby yorkshire and bayham kent the head house of the order in england was welbeck this order was a reformed branch of the austin canons founded a d one one |
one nine by norbert born at xanten on the lower rhine c one zero eight zero at premontre a secluded marshy valley in the forest of coucy in the diocese of laon the order spread widely even in the founder s lifetime it possessed houses in syria and palestine it long maintained its rigid austerity until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline and its members sank into indolence and luxury the premonstratensians were brought to england shortly after a d one one four zero and were first settled at newhouse in lincolnshire near the humber the ground plan of easby abbey owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river is singularly irregular the cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it but the cloister garth as at chichester is not rectangular and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion the church follows the plan adopted by the austin canons in their northern |
abbeys and has only one aisle to the nave that to the north while the choir is long narrow and aisleless each transept has an aisle to the east forming three chapels the church at bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir the latter terminated in a three sided apse this church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length extending in longitudinal dimensions two five seven ft it is not more than two five ft broad stern premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations and cared for no possessions therefore they built their church like a long room the premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these chanones de premontre now run the former benedictine abbey at conques in south west france which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the way of saint james from le puy en velay in auvergne to santiago de compostella in galicia spain carthusian the carthusian order on its establishment by st bruno about a d one zero eight four developed a gre |
atly modified form and arrangement of a monastic institution the principle of this order which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan this plan which was first adopted by st bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at chartreux near grenoble was maintained in all the carthusian establishments throughout europe even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed and the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the certosas of pavia and florence according to the rule of st bruno all the members of a carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence each occupied a small detached cottage standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister in these cottages or cells a carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism only leaving his |
solitary dwelling to attend the services of the church except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory the peculiarity of the arrangements of a carthusian monastery or charter house as it was called in england from a corruption of the french chartreux is exhibited in the plan of that of clermont from viollet le duc clermont the whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall furnished at intervals with watch towers the enclosure is divided into two courts of which the eastern court surrounded by a cloister from which the cottages of the monks open is musch the larger the two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery including the church the sanctuary divided from the monks choir by a screen with two altars the smaller cloister to the south surrounded by the chapter house the refectory and the chapel of pontgibaud the kitchen with its offices lies behind the refectory accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister to the north of the church beyond the sacristy |
and the side chapels there is the cell of the sub prior with its garden the lodgings of the prior occupy the centre of the outer court immediately in front of the west door of the church and face the gateway of the convent a small raised court with a fountain is before it this outer court also contains the guest chambers the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers the barns and granaries the dovecot and the bakehouse there is also a prison in this outer court in all the earlier foundations as at witham there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks the outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel the number of cells surrounding the great cloister is one eight they are all arranged on a uniform plan each little dwelling contains three rooms a sitting room warmed by a stove in winter a sleeping room furnished with a bed a table a bench and a bookcase and a closet between the cell and th |
e cloister gallery is a passage or corridor cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations the superior had free access to this corridor and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen there is a hatch or turn table in which the daily allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose affording no view either inwards or outwards the above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation in all the charter houses of western europe the yorkshire charterhouse of mount grace founded by thomas holland the young duke of surrey nephew of richard ii and marshal of england during the revival of the popularity of the order about a d one three nine seven is the most perfect and best preserved english example it is characterized by all the simplicity of the order the church is a modest building long narrow and aisleless within the wall of enclosure are two courts the smaller of the two the south presents the usual arrang |
ement of church refectory etc opening out of a cloister the buildings are plain and solid the northern court contains the cells one four in number it is surrotmded by a double stone wall the two walls being about three zero ft or four zero ft apart between these each in its own garden stand the cells low built two storied cottages of two or three rooms on the ground floor lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the side and provided with a doorway to the court and one at the back opposite to one in the outer wall through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the eremus beyond by the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily pittance of food was supplied so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out a very perfect example of this hatch an arrangement belonging to all carthusian houses exists at miraflores near burgos which remains nearly as it was completed in one four eight zer |
o there were only nine carthusian houses in england the earliest was that at witham in somerset founded by henry ii by whom the order was first brought into england the wealthiest and most magnificent was that of sheen or richmond in surrey founded by henry v about one four one four the dimensions of the buildings at sheen are stated to have been remarkably large the great court measured three zero zero by two five zero ft nine one by seven six m the cloisters were a square of five zero zero ft one five two m the hall was one one zero ft three four m in length by six zero ft one eight m in breadth mendicant friars an article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the mendicant or preaching friars including the black friars or dominicans the grey or franciscans the white or carmelites the eremite or augustinian friars these orders arose at the beginning of the one three th century with the growth of towns and cities whereas benedictines and their various branches h |
ad worked to achieve self sufficient agricultural estates the mendicant friars operated differently planting themselves as a rule in large towns and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts the preaching friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site regularity of arrangement therefore was not possible even if they had studied it their churches built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers form a class by themselves totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground plan and character they were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts the nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies one containing the stalls of the brotherhood the other left entirely free for the congregation the constructional choir is often wanting the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure with a continuous range of windows the east end was usually square but the friars church at winchelsea had a polygonal apse we not unfrequent |
ly find a single transept sometimes of great size rivalling or exceeding the nave this arrangement is frequent in ireland where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground plan the friars churches were at first destitute of towers but in the one four th and one five th centuries tall slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir the grey friars at lynn where the tower is hexagonal is a good example the arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic we miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders at the jacobins at paris a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles while the refectory a room of immense length quite detached from the cloister stretched across the area before the west front of the church at toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles but the choir is apsidal with radiating chapel the refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the |
cloister which lies to the north of the church having the chapter house and sacristy on the east norwich gloucester as examples of english friaries the dominican house at norwich and those of the dominicans and franciscans at gloucester may be mentioned the church of the black friars of norwich departs from the original type in the nave now st andrew s hall in having regular aisles in this it resembles the earlier examples of the grey friars at reading the choir is long and aisleless an hexagonal tower between the two like that existing at lynn has perished thc cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north the dominican convent at gloucester still exhibits the cloister court on the north side of which is the desecrated church the refectory is on the west side and on the south the dormitory of the one three th century this is a remarkably good example there were one eight cells or cubicles on each side divided by partitions the bases of which remain on the east side was the prior s hou |
se a building of later date at the grey or franciscan friars the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies each gabled with a continuous range of windows there was a slender tower between the nave and the choir hulne of the convents of the carmelite or white friars we have a good example in the abbey of hulne near alnwick the first of the order in england founded a d one two four zero the church is a narrow oblong destitute of aisles one two three ft long by only two six ft wide the cloisters are to the south with the chapter house etc to the east with the dormitory over the prior s lodge is placed to the west of the cloister the guest houses adjoin the entrance gateway to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area the nave of the church of the austin friars or eremites in london is still standing it is of decorated date and has wide centre and side aisles divided by a very light and graceful arcade some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the grey friars |
remained among the buildings of christ s hospital the blue coat school while they were still standing of the black friars all has perished but the name taken as a whole the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the benedictine of st alban s matthew paris the friars who have been founded hardly four zero years have built residences as the palaces of kings these are they who enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices encircling them with lofty walls lay up in them their incalculable treasures imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity cells every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices while other examples were miniature monasteries for five or one zero monks t |
he outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges they were usually staffed by lay brothers sometimes under the supervision of a single monk abbots and abbesses as rulers some cities were ruled by heads of a certain abbey for more information see abbey principality nunnery a nunnery is a convent of nuns the first nunnery in england was built at folkestone in about six three five by king eadbald see also list of abbeys and priories external links abbey catholic encyclopedia abbey encyclopaedia britannica one nine one one abbeys and monasteries index sacred destinations abbeys of france sacred destinations abbeys art history the annales school is a school of historical writing named after the french scholarly journal annales d histoire conomique et sociale later called annales economies soci t s civilisations then renamed in one nine nine four as annales histoire sciences sociales where it was first expounded annales school history is best known for incorpo |
rating social scientific methods into history the annales was founded and edited by marc bloch and lucien febvre in one nine two nine while they were teaching at the university of strasbourg these authors quickly became associated with the distinctive annales approach which combined geography history and the sociological approaches of the annee sociologique many members of which were their colleagues at strasbourg to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics diplomacy and war of many one nine th century historians instead they pioneered an approach to a study of long term historical structures la longue dur e over events geography material culture and what later annalistes called mentalities or the psychology of the epoch are also characteristic areas of study an eminent member of this school georges duby wrote in the forward of his book le dimanche de bouvines that the history he is teaching rejected on the sidelines the sensational was reluctant to the simple acounting of event |
s strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and neglecting the surface trepidations wanted to observe on the long and medium term the evolution of economy society and civilisation bloch was shot by the gestapo during the german occupation of france in world war ii and febvre carried on the annales approach in the one nine four zero s and one nine five zero s it was during this time that he trained fernand braudel who would become one of the best known exponents of this school braudel s work came to define a second era of annales historiography and was very influential throughout the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s especially for his work on the mediterranean region in the era of philip ii of spain while authors such as emmanuel le roy ladurie and jacques le goff continue to carry the annales banner today the annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history and economic history see also historiography references fernand braudel and the an |
nales school by david moon further reading peter burke the french historical revolution the annales school one nine two nine one nine eight nine stanford university press one nine nine one fran ois dosse the new history in france the triumph of the annales university of illinois press one nine nine four lynn hunt and jacques revel eds histories french constructions of the past the new press one nine nine four a collection of essays with many pieces from the annales the long introduction is excellent and contains many good references historiography historiosophy for the physics of antimatter see the article on antiparticles for the cubanate album see antimatter album antimatter or contra terrene matter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute normal matter if a particle and its antiparticle come in contact with each other the two annihilate and produce a burst of energy which results in the production of other particles and antiparticles or electromagnetic radiation in these rea |
ctions rest mass is not conserved although as in any other reaction energy e mc is conserved history in one nine two eight paul dirac developed a relativistic equation for the electron now known as the dirac equation curiously the equation was found to have negative energy solutions in addition to the normal positive ones this presented a problem as electrons tend toward the lowest possible energy level energies of negative infinity are nonsensical as a way of getting around this dirac proposed that the vacuum can be considered a sea of negative energy the dirac sea any electrons would therefore have to sit on top of the sea thinking further dirac found that a hole in the sea would have a positive charge at first he thought that this was the proton but hermann weyl pointed out the hole should have the same mass as the electron the existence of this particle the positron was confirmed experimentally in one nine three two by carl d anderson today s standard model shows that every particle has an antiparticle fo |
r which each additive quantum number has the negative of the value it has for the normal matter particle the sign reversal applies only to quantum numbers properties which are additive such as charge but not to mass for example the positron has the opposite charge but the same mass as the electron an atom of antihydrogen is composed of a negatively charged antiproton being orbited by a positively charged positron antimatter production artificial production the artificial production of antimatter specifically antihydrogen first became a reality in the early one nine nine zero s charles munger of the slac and associates at fermilab realised that an antiproton travelling at relativistic speeds and passing close to the nucleus of an atom would have the potential to force the creation of an electron positron pair it was postulated that under this scenario the antiproton would have a small chance of pairing with the positron ejecting the electron to form an antihydrogen atom in one nine nine five cern announced tha |
t it had successfully created nine antihydrogen atoms by implementing the slac fermilab concept during the ps two one zero experiment the experiment was preformed using the low energy antiproton ring lear and was lead by walter oelert and mario macri fermilab soon confirmed the cern findings by producing approximately one zero zero antihydrogen atoms at their facilities the antihydrogen atoms created during ps two one zero and subsequent experiments at both cern and fermilab were extremely energetic hot and were not well suited to study to resolve this hurdle and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen two collaborations were formed in the late one nine nine zero s athena and atrap the primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic cold antihydrogen better suited to study in one nine nine nine cern activated the antiproton decelerator a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from three five gev c to five three mev still too hot to produce study effective antihydrogen but a h |
uge leap forward in late two zero zero two the athena project announced that they had created the worlds first cold antihydrogen the antiprotons used in the experiment were cooled sufficiently by decelerating them using the antiproton decelerator passing them through a thin sheet of foil and finally capturing them in a penning trap the antiprotons also underwent stochastic cooling at several stages during the process the athena team s antiproton cooling process is effective but highly inefficient approximately two five million antiprotons leave the antiproton decelerator roughly one zero thousand make it to the penning trap in early two zero zero four athena researchers released data on a new method of creating low energy antihydrogen the technique involves slowing antiprotons using the antiproton decelerator and injecting them into a penning trap specifically a penning malmberg trap once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the |
antiprotons the resulting coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately four k while the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap the mixing trap exciting the resonance of the mixing trap s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap s environment the positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled the antiproton electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap containing the positrons the electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing traps electrical field when the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further coulomb collisions occur resulting in further cooling of the antiproto |
ns when the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not effected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields using this method athena researchers predict they will be able to create to one zero zero antihydrogen atoms per operational second athena and atrap are now seeking to further cool the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an inhomogeneous field while antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral their spin produces magnetic moments these magnetic moments vary depending on the spin direction up or down of the atom and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge the biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons recent data released by cern states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing one zero seven antiprotons per second assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen which is fa |
r from true it would take two billion years give or take a few thousand to produce one gram of antihydrogen another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage as stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen the athena project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for one zero s of seconds just enough time to briefly study their behaviour antimatter matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging such as positron emission tomography pet in some kinds of beta decay a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron in the same event a proton becomes a neutron and neutrinos are also given off nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a cyclotron and are widely generated for medical use naturally occurring production antiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high energy particle collisions take place high energy cosmic rays impacting earth s atmosphere or any other matter in the solar system produce min |
ute quantities of antimatter in the resulting particle jets which is immediately destroyed by contact with nearby matter it may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the milky way galaxy where very energetic celestial events occur the presence of the resulting antimatter is detected by the gamma rays produced when it annihilates with nearby matter antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold the region of space near a black hole s event horizon can be thought of as being such an environment with the resulting matter and antimatter being a component of hawking radiation during the period of baryogenesis when the universe was extremely hot and dense matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated the presence of remaining matter and absence of detection of remaining antimatter is attributed to violation of the cp symmetry relating matter and antimatter the exact mechanism of t |
his violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery notation physicists need a notation to distinguish particles from antiparticles one way is to denote an antiparticle by adding a bar or macron over the symbol for the particle for example the proton and antiproton are denoted as mathrm and bar respectively another convention is to distinguish particles by their electric charge thus the electron and positron are denoted simply as e and e adding a bar over the e symbol would be redundant and is not done antimatter as fuel in antimatter matter collisions the entire rest mass of the particles is converted to energy the energy per unit mass is about one zero orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy and about two orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using chemical reactions or nuclear fission fusion the reaction of one kg of antimatter with one kg of matter would produce one eight one zero one seven j one eight zero petajoules of energy by the equation e mc in contras |
t burning a kilogram of gasoline produces four two one zero seven j and nuclear fusion of a kilogram of hydrogen would produce two six one zero one five j not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology because as much as five zero of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by neutrinos so for all intents and purposes it can be considered lost the scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel although it could be used in antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter due to inefficiencies in the process known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter counterbalancing this when antimatter ann |
ihilates with ordinary matter energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated so energy storage in the form of antimatter could in theory be one zero zero efficient antimatter production is currently very limited but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in one nine five five the current antimatter production rate is between one and one zero nanograms per year and this is expected to increase dramatically with new facilities at cern and fermilab with current technology it is considered possible to attain antimatter for us two five million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters given current electricity generation costs antimatter production costs in mass production are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs so economical pure antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as deuterium tritium fusion power however it should be noted that in two zero zero four the a |
nnual production of antiprotons at cern was several picograms at a cost of two zero million this means to produce one gram of antimatter cern would need to spend one zero zero million trillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for one zero zero billion years several nasa institute for advanced concepts funded studies are exploring whether the antimatter that occurs naturally in the van allen belts of earth and ultimately the belts of gas giants like jupiter might be able to be collected with magnetic scoops at hopefully a lower cost per gram since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms the thrust to weight equation used in antimatter rocketry and spacecraft would be very different in fact the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to mars in about a month the mars global surveyor took eleven months to reach mars it is hoped that antimatter could be used as fuel for interplanetary travel or possibly interstellar travel but it is also feared th |
at if humanity ever gets the capabilities to do so there could be the construction of antimatter weapons the antiuniverse dirac himself was the first to consider the existence of antimatter in an astronomical scale but it was only after the confirmation of his theory with the discovery of the positron antiproton and antineutron that real speculation began on the possible existence of an antiuniverse in the following years motivated by basic symmetry principles it was believed that the universe must consist of both matter and antimatter in equal amounts if however there were an isolated system of antimatter in the universe free from interaction with ordinary matter no earthbound observation could distinguish its true content as photons being their own antiparticle are the same whether they are in a universe or an antiuniverse but assuming large zones of antimatter exist there must be some boundary where antimatter atoms from the antimatter galaxies or stars will come into contact with normal atoms in those reg |
ions a powerful flux of gamma rays would be produced this has never been observed despite deployment of very sensitive instruments in space to detect them it is now thought that symmetry was broken in the early universe when charge and parity symmetry was violated cp violation standard big bang cosmology tells us that the universe initially contained equal amounts of matter and antimatter however particles and antiparticles evolved slightly differently it was found that a particular heavy unstable particle which is its own antiparticle decays slightly more often to positrons e than to electrons e how this accounts for the preponderance of matter over antimatter has not been completely explained the standard model of particle physics does have a way of accommodating a difference between the evolution of matter and antimatter but it falls short of explaining the net excess of matter in the universe by about one zero orders of magnitude after dirac the sci fi writers had a field day with visions of antiworlds an |
tistars and antiuniverses all made of antimatter and it is still a common plot device however suppositions of the existence a coeval antimatter duplicate of this universe are not taken seriously in modern cosmology see also what is direct cp violation antimatter in popular culture the extremely large amount of energy released by matter antimatter annihilation has inspired many appearances in fiction a famous fictional example of antimatter in action is in the science fiction franchise star trek where it is a common energy source for starships large reactors generate power by mixing supercooled deuterium and antideuterium with the annihilation reaction regulated by dilithium crystals it is also used as a weapon as in photon torpedoes antimatter engines also appear in various books of the dragonriders of pern series by anne mccaffrey in niven s ringworld series antimatter appears as a weapon useful against even the super dense matter scrith dan brown explores the use of antimatter as a weapon in his novel angel |
s and demons where terrorists threaten to destroy the vatican with potentially unstable antimatter stolen from cern in the night s dawn trilogy by peter f hamilton antimatter is characterized as the most dangerous substance imaginable and outlawed across the galaxy antimatter is briefly referenced in the one nine six six movie batman the movie several evil henchmen are turned into antimatter when they are revived using heavy water from the batcave but the concept remains completely unexplained in this example in the episode of doctor who the planet of evil the scientist dr sorenson is transformed into an antiman due to exposure to antimatter late in the rocky horror picture show riff confirms to dr furter that the pitchfork like weapon he has pointed at him is a laser capable of emitting a beam of pure antimatter this misuse of the term led to the audience response line then it s not a laser in comic books produced by dc comics the notion of an antiuniverse or in dc s parlance anti matter universe was first u |
tilized in the green lantern series in the one nine six zero s the anti matter universe contains a world known as qward home to the green lantern corps sworn enemies the weaponers of qward in the city of heroes comic book the superhero positron is capable of generating anti matter and utilizing it as a weapon in one nine eight five a powerful twisted denizen of the anti matter universe known as the anti monitor succeeded in destroying most of the dc multiverse during the events of the twelve issue limited series crisis on infinite earths the protoss race of starcraft uses antimatter for both propulsion and weaponry see also gravitational interaction of antimatter elementary particle positron references footnotes external links and references cern webcasts realplayer required what is antimatter from the frequently asked questions at the center for antimatter matter studies some interesting faqs from cern that contain lots of information about antimatter aimed at the general reader antimatter matter quantum fie |
ld theory particle physics physics in fiction casa batll pronounce casa batyo is a building designed by antoni gaudi and built in years one nine zero five one nine zero seven located at four three passeig de gr cia passeig is catalan for promenade or avenue part of the illa de la disc rdia in the eixample district of barcelona catalonia spain the local name for the building is casa dels ossos house of bones and indeed it does have a visceral skeletal organic quality it was originally designed for a middle class family and situated in a prosperous district of barcelona the building looks very remarkable like everything gaudi designed only identifiable as art nouveau in the broadest sense the ground floor in particular is rather astonishing with tracery irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work it seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely much of the fa ade is decorated with a mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles that starts in shades of golden orange moving into gre |
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