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but not used to establish any doctrine in recent years prayer books or alternate services books of several countries have out of deference to a greater agreement with eastern conciliarism and a perceived greater respect accorded anglicanism by eastern orthodoxy than by roman catholicism instituted a number of historically eastern and oriental orthodox elements in their liturgies including replacing the gloria in excelsis with the trisagion and deleting the filioque from the creed for their part those anglicans who emphasise the reformed protestant nature of the church stress the reformation themes of salvation by grace through faith the two dominical sacraments of the gospel and scripture as containing all that is necessary to salvation in an explicit sense the range of anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the one nine th century as the anglo catholic and evangelical movements emphasised the more catholic or the more reformed sides of anglican christianity these groups or parties |
are still often equated with the terms high church and low church and these terms are commonly used to speak of the level of ceremony that is favoured these terms are also used to discuss the theological place of the organised church within the body of christ the spectrum of anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels most anglicans are broadly evangelical and catholic and in fact stress that anglicanism rightly understood is western christianity s via media middle way between what were considered medieval excesses of roman catholicism and the excesses of the fervent european continental protestantism represented strongly by geneva via media may also be understood as underscoring anglicanism s preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than either total relativism on the one hand or dogmatic absolutism on the other the nineteenth century saw new heights of intellectual activity in the anglican church since that time the theological contri |
butions of the church to the wider spectrum of christian thought have declined somewhat though there is some resurgence on anglicanism s theological left another recent trend has been the emergence of fundamentalism in some strands of anglicanism fundamentalism seen as an anti intellectual movement rejects all but the most literal readings of the bible this controversial doctrine is regarded by most as highly divisive rejecting all prior tradition and is seen by its critics as a reactionary measure by those who cannot cope with the relativisation of truth that has been a predominant feature of the post modernist epoch traditionally anglicanism had been associated with the english university systems and hence the literary criticism produced in those organisations has been applied to the study of ancient scriptures although not uncritically social issues a question of whether or not christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for anglicans in one nine three seven the anglican pacifist fe |
llowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of anglican theology the group rapidly gained popularity amongst anglican intellectuals including vera brittain evelyn underhill and former british political leader george lansbury whilst never actively endorsed by the anglican church many anglicans unofficially have adopted the augustinian just war doctrine the anglican pacifist fellowship remain highly active and rejects this doctrine the fellowship seeks to reform the church by reintroducing the pacifism inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest christians and present in their interpretation of christ s sermon on the mount confusing the matter all the more however is that the three seven th article of religion states clearly that it is lawful for christian men at the commandment of the magistrate to wear weapons and serve in the wars religious life a small yet influential aspect of anglicanism is its religious orders of monks and nuns shortly after the |
beginning of the revival of the catholic movement in the church of england there was felt to be a need for some anglican sisters of charity in the one eight four zero s mother priscilla lydia sellon became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the province of canterbury since the reformation and a series of letters were exchanged publically between her and the rev james spurrell vicar of great shelford cambs who criticised miss sellon s sisters of mercy from the one eight four zero s and throughout the next hundred years religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the uk the united states canada and india as well as in various countries of africa asia and the pacific anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities and thousands of religious an important aspect of anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to god under the vows of poverty chastity and obedience or in benedictine communi |
ties stability conversion of life and obedience by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the breviary in choir along with a daily eucharist plus service to the poor the mixed life combining aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of anglican religious life since the one nine six zero s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in most parts of the anglican communion just as in the roman catholic church many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women in the last few decades of the two zero th century novices have for most communities been few and far between some orders and communities have already become extinct there are however still several thousand anglican religious working today in approximately two zero zero communities around the world the most significant growth has been in the melanesian countries of the solomon islands vanu |
atu and papua new guinea the melanesian brotherhood founded at tabalia guadalcanal in one nine two five by ini kopuria is now the largest anglican community in the world with over four five zero brothers in the solomon islands vanuatu papua new guinea the philippines and the united kingdom the sisters of the church started by mother emily ayckbown in england in one eight seven zero has more sisters in the solomons than all their other communities the community of the sisters of melanesia started in one nine eight zero by sister nesta tiboe is a growing community of women throughout the solomon islands the society of saint francis founded as a union of various franciscan orders in the one nine two zero s has experienced great growth in the solomon islands other communities of religious have been started by anglicans in papua new guinea and in vanuatu most melanesian anglican religious are in their early to mid two zero s vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers at least will leave and ma |
rry in due course making the average age four zero to five zero years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries this growth is especially surprising because celibacy was not regarded as a melanesian virtue on the other hand it is perhaps more accurate to conceptualise melanesian religious as youth volunteers than as monastic orders on the medieval european model bibliography see also marian exiles congregationalism continuing anglican movement anglican use anglican prayer beads anglican church of canada anglican church of australia sydney anglicans christianity christian apologetics morning prayer evensong methodism presbyterianism puritans baptists episcopal church in the united states united and uniting churches church of south india church of north india church of pakistan church of bangladesh external links anglican communion the official site of the anglican communion what it means to be an anglican official cofe site anglicans online an unofficial site of the anglican communion one of t |
he biggest resources of anglicanism in the world anglican historical texts anglicanism religionfacts com articles on anglican history ritual and organisation plus an image gallery of people and places anglican pacifist fellowship the official site of the anglican church s peace movement anglicanism religion in the united kingdom christian denominations protestantism the term airplane typically refers to any fixed wing aircraft also known internationally as aeroplane airplane has several additional meanings airplane a one nine eight zero american comedy film jefferson airplane often referred to as airplane an american rock music band athens greek ath na ipa is the capital of greece and one of the most famous cities in the world modern athens is a large and cosmopolitan city ancient athens was a powerful city state and renowned centre of learning it was named after its goddess from ancient greek mythology athena athens is located at three eight zero zero two three seven two the metropolitan area of athens is ho |
me to some three nine million people currently the city metropolitan area is growing northwards and eastwards across attica greater athens athens is the dominant centre of economic cultural and political life in greece today ancient athens has often been called the cradle of western civilization due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the four th and five th centuries bc this heritage has left it with a number of ancient buildings monuments and artworks the most famous being the parthenon on the acropolis widely regarded as one of the finest examples of classical greek art and architecture many of these cultural landmarks were renovated for the two zero zero four olympic games the parthenon seen from the hill of the pnyx to the west name in ancient greek the name of athens was athenai plural of athene the greek name of the goddess athena the city s name was used in the plural like those of thebai thebes and mykenai mycenae because it consisted of several parts in the one nine th ce |
ntury this name was formally re adopted as the city s name since the official abandonment of katharevousa greek in the one nine seven zero s however the popular form ath nai has become the city s official name see also a list of alternative names for athens history main article history of athens one eight eight eight german map of athens athens was the leading city in greece during the greatest period of greek civilization during the one st millennium bc during the golden age of greece roughly five zero zero bc to three zero zero bc it was the world s leading cultural commercial and intellectual center and indeed it is in the ideas and practices of ancient athens that what we now call western civilization has its origins in four three one b c athens went to war with another city state sparta due to its losses during a plague athens was defeated by sparta and its walls were pulled down the schools of philosophy were closed in ad five two nine by the christian byzantine empire which disapproved of the schools p |
agan thinking during the byzantine era athens gradually lost a great deal of status and by the time of the crusades it was already reduced to a provincial town it faced a crushing blow between the one three th and one five th centuries when the city was fought over by the greek byzantines and the french and italian crusaders in one four five eight the city fell to the ottoman empire under sultan mehmet ii the conqueror as the emperor entered the city he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a firman imperial decree that athens ruins not be disturbed on pain of death the parthenon was in fact converted into a mosque and therefore preserved despite the sultan s good intentions to preserve athens as a model ottoman provincial capital the city s population went into decline and conditions worsened as the ottoman empire declined from the late one seven th century as time went by the ottoman administration slackened its care for athens old buildings the parthenon mosque was used as a |
warehouse for ammunition during the venetian siege of athens in one six eight seven and consequently the temple was severely damaged when a venetian shell targeted the site and set off several casks of gunpowder stored inside the parthenon mosque the ottoman empire relinquished control of athens after the greek war of independence the city was inhabited by just around five zero zero zero people at the time it was adopted as the capital of the newly established kingdom of greece on one eight september one eight three four during the next few decades the city was rebuilt into a modern city adhering mainly to the neoclassic style in one eight nine six athens became the first host city of the revived one eight nine six summer olympics the next large expansion occurred in the one nine two zero s when suburbs were created to house greek refugees from asia minor during world war ii the city was occupied by germany and fared badly in the war s later years after the war the city started to grow again this time into a |
concrete jungle seeing the near total destruction of its neoclassical heritage location and setting the academy designed by theofil hansen and completed in one eight eight five is flanked by the national library and the university of athens along with its numerous suburbs athens has a population of about three nine million representing approximately one third of the total population of greece athens grew rapidly in the years following world war ii until ca one nine eight zero and suffered from overcrowding and traffic congestion greek entry into the eec in one nine eight one brought new unprecedented investment into the city along with problems of increasingly worsening industrial congestion and air pollution throughout the one nine nine zero s the city s authorities undertook a series of decisive measures in order to combat the smog which used to form over the city particularly during the hottest days of the year even though athens is considered the most polluted capital in europe those measures proved to be |
successful and nowadays smog or nefos in greek is less of an issue for athens even when temperatures soar above four zero c as far as the situation with the traffic congestion is concerned the latter has been considerably improved even though it is not resolved as yet part of this improvement is attributed both to the transformation of the once highly problematic kiffissos avenue into a modern eight lane urban motorway that stretches for more than one one km along the ancient kifissos river linking many of athens western suburbs from peristeri to the port of piraeus and to the construction of the attiki odos motorway nevertheless athens is still not a driver friendly city today athens is a vibrant metropolis with improved infrastructure world class ancient monuments and museums a legendary nightlife and increasing number of shopping malls athens sprawls across the central plain of attica which is bound by mount aegaleo in the west mount parnitha in the north mount penteli in the northeast mount hymettus in t |
he east and the saronic gulf in the southwest athens has expanded to cover the entire plain making it difficult to significantly grow further in size in the future due to the forementioned existing natural boundaries the geomorphology of the city frequently causes the so called temperature inversion phenomenon that was partly responsible for the air pollution problems athens faced in the recent past los angeles has similar geomorphology and similar problems the ancient site of the city is centered on the rocky hill of the acropolis in ancient times the port of piraeus modern name pireas was a separate city but it has now been absorbed into greater athens the centre of the city is syntagma square constitution square site of the former royal palace now the greek parliament and other one nine th century public buildings this is essentially the core of the city the place where most of the famous ancient monuments are located all within a radius of two km panorama of athens showing the acropolis and other ancient |
sites athens was the host of the two zero zero four summer olympics athens was also the host of the one eight nine six summer olympics and of the one nine zero six intercalated games tourist attractions athens has been a popular tourist destination even since antiquity visitors from all over the globe have always been eager to visit its famous ancient monuments over the past decade the infrastructure and social amenities of athens have been radically improved as a result of the city s successful bid to stage the two zero zero four olympic games the greek state aided by the e u has poured money into infrastructure projects such as the new state of the art eleftherios venizelos international airport the massive expansion of the metro system and the new attiki odos ring road as a result the numbers of international visitors are only expected to rise even further in the coming years currently athens is the six th most visited capital in europe athens is home to a vast number of five and four star hotels some of w |
hich were refurbished ahead of the two zero zero four olympics entire parts of the downtown area have also been redeveloped under a masterplan called unification of archaeological sites of athens in one of the most important projects of the scheme the famous dionysiou aeropagitou street has been pedestrianized thus forming a fascinating scenic route the route starts from the temple of olympian zeus at vasilissis olgas avenue continues under the southern slopes of the acropolis near plaka and finishes just outside the temple of hephaestus in theseum this remarkable route provides the visitors breathtaking views of the parthenon and the agora the meeting point of ancient athenians away from the bustle and hustle of the city centre near syntagma square described above stands the highly impressive kallimarmaro stadium the place where the first modern olympic games took place in one eight nine six it is a replica of the ancient athens stadium it holds a special interest not only for romantic reasons but also becau |
se it is the only major stadium six zero zero zero zero spectators made entirely of white marble from penteli the same as the one used for the construction of the parthenon the city s classic museums like the national archaeological museum at patission street which holds the world s greatest collection of greek art the benaki museum in piraeus street including its new islamic art branch the byzantine museum or the museum of cycladic art in the kolonaki district strongly recommended for its collection of elegant white metamodern figures more than three zero zero zero years old were all renovated ahead of the two zero zero four olympics a new acropolis museum is being built in the central makriyanni district according to a design by acclaimed swiss french architect bernard tschumi not to be missed is also the very impressive athens planetarium considered to be among the world s best the old campus of the university of athens located in the middle section of panepistimiou avenue is one of the finest buildings in |
the city this combined with the adjacent national library and the athens academy form the imposing athens trilogy built in the mid one nine th century however most of the university s functions have been moved to a much larger modern campus located in the eastern suburb of zogr fou the second most significant academic institution of the city is the athens polytechnic school ethniko metsovio politechnio located in patission street more than two zero students were killed inside the school in november one seven one nine seven three during the athens polytechnic uprising against the military junta that ruled the nation from april two one one nine six seven untill july two three one nine seven four entertainment and night life athens is full of possibilities catering for most tastes and cultures to begin with it has a large number of multiplex but especially unique open air garden cinemas it enjoys more theatres than any other european city including ancient marble ones that are home to the athens festival from m |
ay to october and many music venues including a state of the art music hall known as the megaron moussikis that attracts world famous artists all year round the athens coastline extending from the major commercial port of piraeus to the southernmost suburb of vouliagmeni for more than two five km is also connected to the city centre with a very slow tram and it boasts a series of high class restaurants cafes exciting music venues and sports facilities in addition athens is packed with trendy and fashionable bars and nightclubs that are literally crowded by the city s youth on a daily basis especially during the summer the southern elegant suburbs of glyfada voula and vouliagmeni become home to countless such places situated all along poseidonos and alkyonidon avenues turning now to the city centre the psiri neighborhood aka athens meat packing district has acquired many new mainstream bars thus becoming a hotspot for many glitratti it also features a number of live music restaurants called rebetadika after re |
betiko a unique kind of music that blossomed in syros and athens from the one nine two zero s till the one nine six zero s rebetiko is admired by many therefore virtually every night rebetadika get crammed by people of all ages that will sing dance and drink wine until the dawn plaka remains the traditional top tourist destination with many tavernas featuring traditional music but the food though very good is often more expensive compared to other parts of the city plaka lying just beneath the acropolis is famous for its numerous neoclassic buildings making it one of the most scenic districts in central athens monastiraki on the other hand is famous for its string of small tourist shops as well as its crowded flea market and the tavernas that specialize in souvlaki another district notably famous for its student crammed stylish cafes is theseum lying just west of monastiraki theseum or thission is home to the remarkable ancient temple of hephaestus standing on top of a small hill the gazi area one of the late |
st in full redevelopment is located around a historic gas factory in downtown athens that has been converted into the technopolis athens s new cultural multiplex for all the family and has a number of expensive small clubs bars and restaurants as well as athens nascent gay village the chic kolonaki area near syntagma square is full of boutiques catering to well heeled customers by day and bars and restaurants by night ermou street an approximately one km pedestrian road connecting syntagma square to monastiraki has traditionally been considered a consumer paradise for both the athenians and foreign tourists full of fashion shops and shopping centers featuring most international brands it has become one of the most expensive roads in europe huge malls such as the attica mall in panepistimiou avenue and the mall athens located in the classy northern suburb of maroussi also offer an enormous variety of international selections that can totally satisfy even the most demanding customer some central areas mostly ju |
st south of omonoia square are mainly peopled by immigrants and are therefore full of colorful ethnic restaurants and shops a panoramic view of athens from the lykavittos hill casinos operate on both mount parnitha some three zero km from downtown athens accessible by car or cable car and the nearby town of loutraki accessible by car via the athens corinth national highway or the suburban railway an entirely new attraction is the massively upgraded main olympic complex known by its greek acronym oaka the whole area has been redeveloped under designs by the spanish architect santiago calatrava with steel arches lanscaped gardens fountains futuristic passages and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main stadium a second olympic complex next to the sea at the beach of kallithea faliron also boasts futuristic stadiums shops and an elevated esplanade many of athens southern suburbs such as alimos palaio faliro elliniko voula vouliagmeni and vari host a number of beautiful sandy beaches most of wh |
ich are operated by the hellenic tourism organization this means that one has to pay a fee in order to get in none the less this fee is not expensive in most cases and it includes a number of related convenient services like parking facilities coctail drinks and umbrellas these beaches are extremely popular in the summer by both athenians and foreign tourists the city is also surrounded by four easily accessible mountains parnitha and penteli to the north hemmettus to the southeast and egaleo to the west mount parnitha in particular is the tallest of all one four five three m and it has been declared a protected national park it has tens of well marked paths gorges springs torrents and caves and you may even meet deer or bears while exploring its dense forests hiking and mountain biking in all four mountains have been and still remain popular outdoor activities for many athenians what is more lykavittos is the tallest hill of the city that according to an ancient legend was actually a boulder thrown down by g |
oddess athena located in the city center near alexandras and vassilisis sofia s avenues it offers magnificent literally breathtaking views of sprawling athens that lies underneath on top of it stands the picturesque st george s church which is definitely a must see the nearby islands of salamina aigina poros hydra and spetses are also sites of spectacular natural beauty and historical architecture work is underway to transform the grounds of the old athens airport named hellinikon in the southern suburbs into a massive landscaped park considered to be the largest in europe when ready the athens municipality maintains a site of tourist interest http www cityofathens gr two zero th century architecture in athens east terminal by eero saarinen at former hellenikon airport one nine six zero six three american embassy by walter gropius at vassilis sophias avenue one nine six one athens olympic sports complex by santiago calatrava two zero zero one two zero zero four sketches and models national bank at aiolou str |
sopholeous str by mario botta in two zero zero two bridge at metro station katehaki by santiago calatrava two zero zero four new acropolis museum by bernard tschumi two zero zero one two zero zero six transportation a greek map of the greater athens area shows the metro tram and suburban railway lines as well as the eleftherios venizelos airport and the various olympic facilities the public transport system in athens consists of bus metro tram and suburban railway services the athens metro is one of the most modern and efficient systems in the world it has four lines three of which are distinguished by the colours used in maps and signs green blue and red the green line which is the oldest and for the most part runs on the ground connects piraeus to kifissia the other two lines were constructed mainly during the one nine nine zero s and the first sections opened in january two zero zero zero they run entirely underground the blue line runs from monastiraki to doukissis plakentias and the eleftherios venizelos |
international airport and the red line from aghios antonios to aghios dimitrios extensions to both lines are under construction most notably westwards to egaleo and eastwards to the old hellinikon airport east terminal future metropolitan park the fourth line is the proastiakos suburban which runs from the eleftherios venizelos international airport to athens central train station the whole network is managed by three different companies isap line one attiko metro lines two in that case if the one halting it happens to go to the same direction as the customer and the customer does not mind although this is never brought up or an issue he is also allowed in and each one pays normally as if they were the only customer athens is served since march two zero zero one by the eleftherios venizelos international airport at spata east of the city about a four five minute taxi ride from the city centre there is also an express bus service connecting the airport to the metro system and two express bus services connecti |
ng the airport to piraeus port and the city centre respectively athens is also the hub of the greek national railway system and ferries from piraeus port travel to all greek islands there are two motorways that travel to the west towards patra gr eight a e nine four and to the north towards thessaloniki gr one e seven five in two zero zero one two zero zero four a ring road toll motorway attiki odos was gradually completed which extends from elefsina on the west to the airport after circling the city from the north plus another from kaisariani to glyka nera where it meets the main road for eleusis and the airport its total length is now about seven zero km up from one eight km in march two zero zero one when the first section opened to traffic there are about two one exits and four junctions up from eight see athens mass transit system for more on this topic municipality municipality of athens seal the modern city of athens consists of what were formerly distinct towns and villages which gradually expanded an |
d merged into a single large metropolis most of this expansion occurred in the second half of the two zero th century greater athens is now divided into five four municipalities the largest of which is the municipality of athens or dimos athinaion with about seven five zero zero zero zero people the next largest are municipality of piraeus municipality of peristeri and municipality of kallithea athens can therefore refer either to the entire metropolitan area or to the municipality of athens each of the municipalities of athens has an elected district council and a directly elected mayor mrs dora bakoyanni of the conservative new democracy party was mayor of athens from one january two zero zero three until one five february two zero zero six when she joined greek cabinet as minister of foreign affairs she was the seven six th mayor of athens and the first female to hold the post in the history of the city she was replaced by theodoros mpehrakis the municipality of athens is divided into seven municipal distr |
icts or demotika diamerismata the seven district division however is mainly used for administrative purposes while for athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its neighborhoods usually referred to as areas in english each with its own distinct history and characteristics for someone unfamiliar with athens getting to know about these neighborhoods can often come very handy for exploring and understanding the city olympics two zero zero four simulated view of athens from above athens was awarded the two zero zero four summer olympics on september five one nine nine seven in lausanne switzerland after having lost a previous bid to host the one nine nine six summer olympics the celebration of the one zero zero th anniversary of the modern olympic games to atlanta usa it was to be the second time athens had hosted the olympic games the first being in one eight nine six in one nine nine seven athens made an improved bid based largely on an appeal to olympic history in the last round of |
voting athens defeated rome six six votes to four one before this buenos aires stockholm and cape town had already been eliminated from consideration after receiving fewer votes in the first three years of preparations the international olympic committee repeatedly expressed concerns over the status of progress of construction work of the new olympic venues in two zero zero zero the organizing committee s president was replaced by gianna angelopoulos daskalaki who was the president of the bidding committe back in one nine nine seven and preparations began at an accelerated pace although the heavy cost was criticized as is not unusual with olympic preparations athens was transformed into a modern city that enjoys state of the art technology in transportation and urban development some of the most modern sporting venues in the world were created almost all of which were fully ready on schedule the two zero zero four games were adjudged a huge success as both security and organization were exceptionally good an |
d only a few visitors reported minor problems mainly concerning transportation or accommodation issues essentially the only notable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some preliminary events during the first days of competition eventually however a total of more than three two million tickets were sold which was higher than any other olympics with the exception of sydney more than five million tickets were sold there in two zero zero zero see also athens metro eurovision song contest two zero zero six hellenic civilization politics of greece university of athens cities nicknamed athens see athens disambiguation for other cities named athens athens of the east madurai india athens of the west berkeley california athens of the south nashville tennessee athens of the north edinburgh scotland athens of america boston massachusetts spree athens berlin germany athens on the isar munich germany athens of latin america bogot colombia athens of finland jyv skyl finland serbian athens novi sad serbia and monte |
negro athens of ireland cork ireland external links city of athens official website pictures of athens take a long virtual tour of athens athens contemporary architecture and suggested walking routes timeout athens find out what s on in athens athenorama the city s oldest weekly entertainment guide in greek journey planner by the city s transport authority two zero zero four olympics official website interactive map of central athens real time traffic map of athens the athenian constitution aristotle earth from space athens athens archaeological sites in greece capitals in europe cities and towns in greece coastal cities greek prefectural capitals host cities of the summer olympic games eurovision host cities see anguillidae for the zoological genus align center colspan two style border bottom three px solid gray national motto each endeavouring all achieving align center colspan two image locationanguilla png width one one five px official language english political status non sovereign overseas territory of |
the u k capital the valley governor alan huckle chief minister osbourne fleming area total water ranked n a nine one km three five mi negligible population total two zero zero two density one two eight zero zero one four zero km three six three mi currency east caribbean dollar time zone utc four national song god bless anguilla internet tld ai calling code one two six four anguilla is a british overseas territory in the caribbean the most northerly of the leeward islands in the lesser antilles it consists of five islands with the capital the valley situated on the main island of anguilla the total area of the territory is one zero two square kilometres three nine four mi with a population of approximately one four zero zero zero in two zero zero five history first colonized by english settlers in one six five zero anguilla was incorporated into a single british dependency along with the neighbouring islands of saint kitts and nevis in the early one nine th century much to the objections of many anguillans i |
n one nine eight zero however anguilla formally withdrew from the territory becoming a separate british dependency which it remains politics executive authority is invested in the queen who is represented in the territory by the governor the governor is appointed by the queen on the advice of the british government defence and foreign affairs remain the responsibility of the united kingdom the constitution of anguilla came into force in one nine eight two amended in one nine nine zero the head of the government is the chief minister who is appointed by the governor the legislative branch consists of a unicameral parliament the house of assembly made up of one one members elections are held for seven seats in the house of assembly two members being ex offcio and two appointed the current governor is alan huckle appointed in may two zero zero four the current chief minister is osbourne fleming following the victory of the united front in elections held during february two zero zero five geography anguilla is a |
collection of flat and low lying islands and cays of coral and limestone in the caribbean sea east of puerto rico the islands and cays in the territory of anguilla besides the largest anguilla itself include anguillita island dog island little scrub island prickly pear cays sandy island scrub island seal island sombrero economy map of anguilla the island s main industries are fishing and tourism with offshore banking playing an increasing role in the economy demographics the majority of anguillans are protestant and are of african descent culture miscellaneous topics communications in transportation in reference external links free anguilla a network of anguilla forums non partisan discussion anguilla news news people profiles talk carnival and more government of anguilla official web site library of congress portals on the world anguilla cia the world factbook anguilla cia s factbook on anguilla anguilla resources map of anguilla overlooking sandy ground anguilla anguilla caribbean islands special territorie |
s of the european union ashmore and cartier islands the territory of ashmore and cartier islands are two groups of small low lying uninhabited tropical islands in the indian ocean situated on the edge of the continental shelf north west of australia and south of the indonesian island of roti at the territory includes ashmore reef west middle and east islets and cartier island seven zero km east with a total area of one nine nine four five km two within the reefs and including the lagoons and one one four four zero zero m two of dry land while they have a total of seven four one km of shoreline measured along the outer edge of the reef there are no ports or harbors only offshore anchorage nearby hibernia reef four two km northeast of ashmore reef is not part of the territory it has no permanently dry land area although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide ashmore reef one five five four zero km two area within reef including lagoon west islet five one two zero zero m land area middle islet tw |
o one two zero zero m land area east islet two five zero zero zero m land area cartier reef four four zero three km two area within reef including lagoon cartier island one seven zero zero zero m land area there is an automatic weather station on west islet the territory is administered from canberra by the australian department of the environment and heritage the data code is at defence is the responsibility of australia with periodic visits by the royal australian navy and royal australian air force the islands are visited by seasonal caretakers the ashmore reef marine national nature reserve was established in august one nine eight three it is of significant biodiversity value as it is in the flow of the indonesian throughflow current from the pacific ocean through the indonesian archipelago to the indian ocean it is also in a surface current west from the arafura sea and timor sea there are one four distinct species of sea snake in the area more than in any other area there is also an unusually high level |
of species diversity of coral mollusks and fish a memorandum of understanding between the australian and indonesian governments allows indonesian fishermen access to their traditional fishing grounds within the region subject to limits cartier island marine reserve includes the entire sand cay of cartier island the reef surrounding it the ocean for a seven two km radius around the island and one zero zero zero m below the seafloor it was proclaimed in two zero zero zero there is no economic activity in the territory as ashmore reef is the closest point of australian territory to indonesia it has been a popular target for people smugglers to take asylum seekers to australia they were transported at great personal risk and expense in leaky fishing boats and dumped on the island expecting to be rescued by australia and granted refugee status there as australia was not the country of first asylum for these boat people australia did not consider it had a responsibility to accept them a number of things were done |
to discourage the practice such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in indonesia mandatory detention of all arrivals until their status could be determined the so called pacific solution of processing them in third countries and finally excising these and many other small islands from the australian migration zone external link cartier island marine reserve cia the world factbook ashmore and cartier islands cia s factbook on ashmore and cartier islands geoscience australia ashmore and cartier islands department of the environment and heritage ashmore reef national nature reserve australian states and territories islands fluid dynamics acoustic theory is the field relating to mathematical description of sound waves it is derived from fluid dynamics see acoustics for the engineering approach the propagation of sound waves in air can be modeled by an equation of motion conservation of momentum and an equation of continuity conservation of mass with some simplifications in particular constant dens |
ity they can be given as follows rho zero frac mathbf mathbf t nabla p mathbf t zero frac p mathbf t rho zero c two nabla cdot mathbf mathbf t zero where p mathbf t is the acoustic pressure and mathbf mathbf t is the acoustic fluid velocity vector mathbf is the vector of spatial coordinates x y z t is the time rho zero is the static density of air and c is the speed of sound in air see also transfer function sound pressure acoustic impedance acoustic resistance law of gases frequency fourier analysis instrumental acoustics music theory voice production formant speech synthesis loudspeaker acoustics lumped component model alexander mackenzie pc january two eight one eight two two april one seven one eight nine two a building contractor and writer was the second prime minister of canada from november seven one eight seven three to october eight one eight seven eight he was born in logierait perth and kinross scotland he emigrated to canada in one eight four two after completing an education in public schools at |
perth moulin and dunkeld scotland mackenzie married helen neil one eight two six one eight five two in one eight four five and with her had three children with only one girl surviving infancy in one eight five three he married jane sym one eight two five one eight nine three when the macdonald government fell due to the pacific scandal in one eight seven three the governor general lord dufferin had to call on someone to form a government there was no clear leader of the liberal party mackenzie was the fourth person called upon and the first to accept the post of prime minister mackenzie formed a government and then asked the governor general to call an election for january one eight seven four the liberals won and mackenzie remained prime minister until the one eight seven eight election when macdonald s conservatives returned to power with a majority government as prime minister alexander mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government he introduced the secret ballot created the supreme |
court of canada established the royal military college of canada in kingston ontario in one eight seven four created the office of the auditor general in one eight seven eight and struggled to launch the national railway after his government s defeat mackenzie remained leader of the opposition until one eight eight zero when he relinquished the party leadership to edward blake at the time it was customary for the british monarch to knight all canadian prime ministers alexander mackenzie declined all offers of a british knighthood he died in toronto ontario from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall he is buried in the lakeview cemetery sarnia ontario supreme court appointments mackenzie appointed the following justices to the supreme court of canada sir william buell richards chief justice september three zero one eight seven five january one zero one eight seven nine sir william johnstone ritchie september three zero one eight seven five september two five one eight nine two sir samuel h |
enry strong september three zero one eight seven five november one eight one nine zero two jean thomas taschereau september three zero one eight seven five october six one eight seven eight telesphore fournier september three zero one eight seven five september one two one eight nine five william alexander henry september three zero one eight seven five may three one eight eight eight sir henri elzear taschereau october seven one eight seven eight may two one nine zero six helen neil mackenzie helen neil mackenzie october two one one eight two six january four one eight five two was the first wife of alexander mackenzie she had three children and died after being married to mackenzie for seven years helen and alexander only had one child two other children died in infancy a girl named mary mackenzie it was because of helen who previously emigrated to canada with her family that alexander himself came to canada external links biography at the dictionary of canadian biography online one eight two two births one |
eight nine two deaths canadian businesspeople canadian writers leaders of the liberal party of canada natives of perth and kinross prime ministers of canada sarnians scottish canadians scottish business people scottish writers teetotalers pre confederation ontario people annexation latin ad to and nexus joining is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo political entity either adjacent or non contiguous usually it is implied that the territory and population being annexed is the smaller more peripheral or weaker of the two merging entities it can also imply a certain measure of coercion expansionism or unilateralism on the part of the stronger of the merging entities because of this more positive words like political union or reunification are sometimes preferred more detailed overview annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another through purchase or other treaty or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence or occupation through military |
conquest a city might annex unincorporated areas or a country might annex other disputed territories the assumption of a protectorate over another state or of a sphere of influence is not strictly annexation the latter implying the complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was previously ruled in international relations the term annexation is usually applied when the emphasis is placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through treaties or negotiations the cession of alsace lorraine to germany by france although brought about by the war of one eight seven zero was for the purposes of international law a voluntary cession under the treaty of december one seven one eight eight five between the french republic and the queen of madagascar a french protectorate was established over this island in one eight nine six this protectorate was converted by france into an annexation and madagascar then became french territor |
y the formal annexation of bosnia herzegovina by austria october five one nine zero eight was an unauthorized conversion of an occupation authorized by the treaty of berlin one eight seven eight which had however for years operated as a de facto annexation a case of conquest was that effected by the south african war second boer war of one eight nine nine one nine zero two in which the transvaal republic and the orange free state were extinguished first de facto by occupation of the whole of their territory and then de jure by terms of surrender entered into by the boer generals acting as a government by annexation as between civilized peoples the annexing state takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to the ceded territory subject only to any modifying conditions contained in the treaty of cession these however are binding only as between the parties to them in the case of the annexation of the territories of the transvaal republic and orange free state a rather complicated |
situation arose out of the facts on the one hand that the ceding states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous ruling authority and on the other that having no means owing to the de facto british occupation of raising money by taxation the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain securities more especially a large holding of shares in the south african railway company to neutral purchasers the british government repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the british government had already displaced the question of at what point in a war of conquest the state succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy as early as january six one nine zero zero the high commissioner at cape town issued a proclamation giving notice that the british government would not recognize as valid or effectual any conveyance transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the transvaal republic or orange free state subsequent |
ly to october one zero one eight nine nine the date of the commencement of the war a proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to the authority of the state issuing it like paper blockades and fictitious occupations of territory such premature proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being jure gentium the proclamation was succeeded on march nine one nine zero zero by another of the high commissioner at cape town reiterating the notice but confining it to lands railways mines or mining rights and on september one one nine zero zero lord roberts proclaimed at pretoria the annexation of the territories of the transvaal republic to the british dominions that the war continued for nearly two years after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was the difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the south african railway shares held by the transvaal government was sat |
isfactorily terminated by the purchase by the british government of the total capital of the company from the different groups of shareholders see on this case sir thomas barclay law quarterly review july one nine zero five and professor westlake in the same review october one nine zero five in a judgment of the judicial committee of the privy council in one eight nine nine cook v sprigg a c five seven two lord chancellor halsbury made an important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession the case in question was a claim of title against the crown represented by the government of cape colony it was made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern pondoland from a native chief before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession pondoland was annexed to cape colony the colonial government refused to recognize the grant on different grounds the chief of them being that the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore could confer none |
afterwards a sufficiently good ground in itself the judicial committee however rested its decision chiefly on the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state and that no municipal court had authority to enforce such an obligation as the duty of the new government to respect existing titles it is no answer said lord halsbury to say that by the ordinary principles of international law private property is respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private property within the ceded territory all that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the well understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect private property but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation and if there is either an express or a well understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is made that private |
property shall be respected that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure in an editorial note on this case the law quarterly review of january one nine zero zero p one dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation the writer observes that we can read this only as meant to lay down that on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is expressly made known and that although the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private rights there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take notice so construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international law but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as sir f pollock there is no warrant for it in english common law an interesting point of united states constit |
utional law arose out of the cession of the philippines to the united states through the fact that the federal constitution does not lend itself to the exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers such as are vested in the british parliament the sole authority for the powers of the federal congress is a written constitution with defined powers anything done in excess of those powers is null and void the supreme court of the united states on the other hand declared that by the constitution a government is ordained and established for the united states of america and not for countries outside their limits ross s case one four zero u s four five three four six four and that no such power to legislate for annexed territories as that vested in the british crown in council is enjoyed by the president of the united states field v clark one four three u s six four nine six nine two every detail connected with the administration of the territories acquired from spain under the treaty of paris december one zero |
one eight nine eight gave rise to minute discussion examples of annexation hawai i in one eight nine eight hawaii having moved from a kingdom to a republic five years earlier in the overthrow of queen liliuokalani was annexed into the united states texas in one eight three six the people of texas voted to request that the united states annex texas concerned with the constitutionality of annexation and for fear of offending the controlling power mexico however the van buren administration rejected the request which was eventually withdrawn in one eight four three the united states became concerned with british designs on texas a new president john tyler became a proponent of annexation following acceptance of the terms of annexation by the people of texas the young nation became a part of the united states in one eight four six ohio city ohio city a suburb and fierce rival of cleveland ohio was peacefully annexed to the city on june five one eight five four city of atlanta in one nine zero nine the u s city o |
f atlanta then located only in fulton county annexed into part of neighboring dekalb county from which fulton county had originally been divided the situation continues to provide some problems such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in georgia state law and city police must determine which county s jail they must be taken to jerusalem in the aftermath of the one nine six seven six day war in which israel had occupied east jerusalem as well as the west bank gaza and the golan heights israel declared east and west jerusalem one united city incorporating the eastern part into one municipality but soon after declaring to the un that its measures were not annexation in one nine eight zero israel passed the jerusalem law which redeclared the unity of jerusalem as israel s capital but did not declare its borders some consider the latter act annexation but without explict declaration of sovereignty this is in doubt israel s measures are not internationally recognized golan in one nine eight one isra |
el extended its laws jurisdiction and administration to the golan heights including the shebaa farms which it captured from syria in the one nine six seven six day war this not entirely clear annexation declaration was declared null and void and without international legal effect by the united nations kuwait after being allied with iraq during the iran iraq war largely due to desiring iraqi protection from islamic iran kuwait was invaded and annexed by iraq under saddam hussein in august one nine nine zero hussein s primary justifications included a charge that kuwaiti territory was in fact an iraqi province and that annexation was retaliation for economic warfare kuwait had waged through slant drilling into iraq s oil supplies the monarchy was deposed after annexation and an iraqi governor installed though initially ambiguous toward a potential annexation of kuwait by iraq us president george h w bush ultimately condemned hussein s actions and moved to drive out iraqi forces authorized by the un security cou |
ncil an american led coalition of three four nations fought the persian gulf war to reinstate the kuwaiti emir hussein s invasion and annexation was deemed illegal and kuwait remains an independent nation today western sahara in one nine seven five morocco invaded the former spanish colony of western sahara and proclaimed it part of the kingdom this has never been recognized internationally and a nationalist movement the polisario front representing the evicted sahrawi native population persists in claiming the area for an exiled sahrawi republic a united nations peace process was initiated in one nine nine one but it has been stalled and the resumption of hostilities remain a possibility wales wales was annexed to the legal system of england by the laws in wales acts one five three five one five four two to create a single jurisdiction but references in legislation for england were still taken as excluding wales the wales and berwick act one seven four six meant that in all future laws england would by defau |
lt include wales and berwick upon tweed in one nine six seven the wales and berwick act insofar as it applied to wales was repealed for many administrative and judicial purposes they are still treated as the single entity england and wales korea on august two two one nine one zero korea was officially annexed by japan with the korea japan annexation treaty signed by lee wan yong prime minister of korea and masatake terauchi japanese resident general in korea who became the governor general of korea korea continued to be ruled by japan until japan s surrender to the allied forces on one five august one nine four five see korea under japanese rule for further information austria on march one two one nine three eight nazi germany annexed austria in the anschluss austria s annexation marked the first major steps in adolf hitler s long desired expansion of germany the country was liberated from nazi power at the end of world war ii by the allied forces ethiopia on may nine one nine three six ethiopia was annexed b |
y italy only to be liberated during the allied east african campaign see also expansionism fait accompli status quo ante bellum lebensraum irredentism revanchism reunification canadian annexationist movement references carman f randolph law and policy of annexation new york and london one nine zero one charles henry butler treaty making power of the united states new york one nine zero two vol i p seven nine et seq international law political geography emperor ashoka a possible picturisation ashoka the great devanagari iast transliteration was the emperor of the mauryan empire from two seven three bce to two three two bce after a number of military conquests ashoka reigned over most of south asia and beyond from present day afghanistan to bengal and as far south as mysore an early supporter of buddhism ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of shakyamuni buddha and according to buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of buddhism in his e |
dicts he is reffered to as devaanaampriya or the beloved of the gods the name ashoka means without sorrow in sanskrit ashoka was the first ruler of ancient bharatavarsha india after the famed mahabharata rulers to unify such a vast territory under his empire which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present day republic of india the british author h g wells wrote of ashoka in the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves their highnesses their majesties and their exalted majesties and so on they shone for a brief moment and as quickly disappeared but ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star even unto this day historical sources information about the life and reign of ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of buddhist sources in particular the sanskrit ashoka avadana story of ashoka and the two p li chronicles of sri lanka the dipavamsa and mahavamsa provide most of the currently known information about asoka additional informa |
tion is contributed by the edicts of asoka whose authorship was finally attributed to the ashoka of buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts priyadarsi meaning good looking or favored by the gods as a title or additional name of ashoka mauriya the use of buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of ashoka and the interpretations of his edicts building on traditional accounts early scholars regarded ashoka as a primarily buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the buddhist monastic institution later scholars have tended to question this assessment the only source of information not attributable to buddhist sources the ashokan edicts make only a few references to buddhism directly despite many references to the concept of dharma sanskrit dharma some interpreters have seen this as an indication that ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusi |
ve poly religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of ashoka s age such as the jains buddhists orthodox brahmanists and ajivikas most likely the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest modern scholars and adherants of the traditional buddhist perspective both tend to agree that ashoka s rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths early life ashoka was the son of the mauryan emperor bindusara by a relatively lower ranked queen known as dharma dharma it is said was the daughter of a poor brahmin who was introduced into the harem by her father as it was predicted that her son would be a great king understandably her status in the harem was very low ashoka had several elder half brothers and just one younger sibling vitthashoka an |
other son of dharma the buddhist sources also indicate that he was quite ugly rise to power developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman ashoka went on to command several regiments of the mauryan army his growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by bindusara to become the next emperor the eldest of them prince susima the traditional heir to the throne persuaded bindusara to send ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of takshashila in the north west province of sindh of which prince susima was the governor takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war like indo greek population and mismanagement by susima himself this had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest ashoka complied and left for the troubled area as news of ashoka s visit with his army trickled in he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight the province revolted once more during the rule of ashoka bu |
t this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist ashoka s success made his half brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor and more incitements from susima led bindusara to send ashoka into exile he went into kalinga and stayed incognito there there he met a fisherwoman named kaurwaki with whom he fell in love recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen meanwhile there was again a violent uprising in ujjain emperor bindusara summoned ashoka back after an exile of two years ashoka went into ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured but his generals quelled the uprising ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the susima group could not harm him he was treated by buddhist monks and nuns this is where he first learned the teachings of the buddha and it is also where he met devi who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent vidisha after recovering he married her ashoka at this time was already married to a |
sandhimitra who was to be his much loved chief queen for many years till her death she seems to have stayed on in patliputra all her life the following year passed quite peacefully for him and devi was about to deliver his first child in the meantime emperor bindusara took ill and was on his death bed a clique of ministers lead by radhagupta who hated susima summoned ashoka to take the crown though bindusara preferred susima as the buddhist lore goes in a fit of rage prince ashoka attacked pataliputra modern day patna and killed all his brothers including susima and threw their bodies in a well in pataliputra it is not known if bindusara was already dead at this time at that stage of his life many called him chanda ashoka meaning murderer and heartless ashoka the buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time most are incredible and must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation buddhism brought about later ascending the throne ashoka expanded his empire o |
ver the next eight years expanding it from the present day boundaries of bangladesh and the state of assam in india in the east to the territory of present day iran and afghanistan in the west from the pamir knots in the north to the almost peninsular part of southern india at that stage of his life he was called chakravarti which literally translates to he for whom the wheel of law turns broadly meaning the emperor conquest of kalinga after the battle of kalinga ashoka ruled most of the indian subcontinent while the early part of ashoka s reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty he became a follower of the buddha s teaching after his conquest of kalinga on the east coast of india in the present day state of orissa kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy with its monarchical cum parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient bharata as there existed the concept of rajdharma meaning the duty of the rulers which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery |
and kshatriya dharma the pretext for the start of the kalinga war two six five bc or two six three bc is uncertain one of susima s brothers might have fled to kalinga and found official refuge there this enraged ashoka immensely he was advised by his ministers to attack kalinga for this act of treachery ashoka then asked kalinga s royalty to submit before his supremacy when they defied this diktat ashoka sent one of his generals to kalinga to make them submit the general and his forces were however completely routed through the skilled tactics of kalinga s commander in chief ashoka baffled at this defeat attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in indian history until then kalinga put up a stiff resistance but they were no match for ashoka s brutal strength the whole of kalinga was plundered and destroyed ashoka s later edicts say that about one zero zero zero zero zero people were killed on the kalinga side and one zero zero zero zero from ashoka s army thousands of men and women were deported embra |
ce of buddhism as the legend goes one day after the war was over ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses this sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation what have i done the brutality of the conquest led him to adopt buddhism and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights as far as ancient rome and egypt from that point ashoka who had been described as the cruel ashoka chandashoka started to be described as the pious ashoka dharmashoka he propagated the vibhajjvada school of buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about two five zero bc emperor ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a buddhist polity silver punch mark coins of the mauryan empire bear buddhist symbols such as the dharma wheel the elephant previous form of the buddha the tree under which enlightenment happened and the burial mound where the buddha died obverse three rd century bc |
prominent in this cause were his son venerable mahindra and daughter sanghamitra whose name means friend of the sangha who established buddhism in ceylon now sri lanka he built thousands of stupas and viharas for buddhist followers the stupas of sanchi are world famous and the stupa named sanchi stupa one was built by emperor ashoka during the remaining portion of ashoka s reign he pursued an official policy of nonviolence or ahimsa even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished wildlife became protected by the king s law against sport hunting and branding limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned allowing them outside one day each year he attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture he treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion p |
olitics and caste the kingdoms surrounding his so easily overthrown were instead made to be well respected allies he is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout india dharmashoka defined the main principles of dharma dharma in p li as nonviolence tolerance of all sects and opinions obedience to parents respect for the brahmans and other religious teachers and priests liberal towards friends humane treatment of servants and generosity towards all these principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object bilingual edict greek and aramaic by king ashoka from kandahar kabul museum some critics say that ashoka was afraid of more wars but among his neighbors including the seleucid empire and the greco bactrian kingdom established by diodotus i none could match his strength he was a contemporary of both antiochus i soter and his successor antiochus ii theos of the seleucid dynasty as well as diodotus i and his son diodotus ii |
of the greco bactrian kingdom if his inscriptions and edicts are well studied one finds that he was familiar with the hellenic world but never in awe of it the edicts of ashoka which talk of friendly relations give the names of both antiochus of the seleucid empire and ptolemy iii of egypt but the fame of the mauryan empire was widespread from the time that ashoka s grandfather chandragupta maurya defeated seleucus nicator the founder of the seleucid dynasty the ashoka pillar at sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by ashoka made of sandstone this pillar records the visit of the emperor to sarnath in the three rd century bc it has a four lion capital four lions standing back to back which was adopted as the emblem of the modern indian republic the lion symbolises both ashoka s imperial rule and the kingship of the buddha in translating these monuments historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the mauryan empire it is difficult to determine whether certain events ever ha |
ppened but the stone etchings depict clearly of how ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered ashoka s own words as known from his edicts are all men are my children i am like a father to them as every father desires the good and the happiness of his children i wish that all men should be happy always edward d cruz interprets the ashokan dharma as a religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire see also edicts of ashoka death and legacy ashoka s first rock inscription at girnar emperor ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years and after his death the maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years ashoka had many wives and children but their names are lost to time mahindra and sanghamitra were twins born by his fourth wife devi in the city of ujjain he had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion buddhism more popular across the known and the unknown world mahindra and sanghamitra went i |
nto sri lanka and converted the king the queen and their people to buddhism so they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him in his old age he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife tishyarakshita it is said that she had got his son kunala the regent in takshashila blinded by a wily stratagem when ashoka discovered this he had kunala s son samprati declared the successor but his rule did not last long after ashoka s death the emblem of india is a replica of ashoka pillar the reign of emperor ashoka maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by and would have if he had not left behind a record of his trials the testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone what ashoka left behind was the first written language in india since the ancient city of harappa rather than sanskrit the language used for inscription |
was the current spoken form called prakrit in the year one eight five bc about fifty years after ashoka s death the last mauryan ruler brhadrata was brutally murdered by the commander in chief of the mauryan armed forces pusyamitra sunga while he was taking the guard of honor of his forces pusyamitra sunga founded the sunga dynasty one eight five bc seven eight bc and ruled just a fragmented part of the mauryan empire not until some two zero zero zero years later under akbar the great and his great grandson aurangzeb would as large a portion of the subcontinent as that ruled by ashoka again be united under a single ruler when india gained independence from the british empire it adopted ashoka s emblem for its own placing the dharma wheel the wheel of rightious duty that crowned his many columns on the flag of the newly independent state ashoka was ranked five three on michael h hart s list of the most influential figures in history a semi fictionalized portrayal of ashoka s life was produced as a motion pictu |
re recently under the title asoka ashoka and buddhist kingship one of the more enduring legacies of ashoka maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between buddhism and the state throughout theravada southeast asia the model of rulership embodied by ashoka replaced the brahmanist notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated in the angkor kingdom for instance under this model of buddhist kingship the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source but by supporting and earning the approval of the buddhist sangha following ashoka s example kings established monasteries funded the construction of stupas and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha as ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign this development ultimately lead to a close association in many southeast asian countries between the mona |
rchy and the religious hierarchy an association that can still be seen today in the state supported buddhism of thailand and the traditional role of the thai king as both a religious and secular leader ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner ashoka in popular culture asoka is a film based on his life asoka ki chinta is a famous hindi poem by jaishankar prasad the poem portrays asoka s mindset during kalinga war in some conspiracy theories ashoka is mentioned as the founder of a powerful secret society called the nine unknown men ashoka is a character in the turn based strategy game civilization four sources swearer donald buddhism and society in southeast asia anima books chambersburg pa one nine eight one isbn zero eight nine zero one two zero two three four external links king asoka and buddhism historical and literary studies mauryan dynasty buddhists indian monarchs theravada buddhism history of orissa the archaea also called archaebacteria |
are a major division of living organisms although there is still uncertainty in the exact phylogeny of the groups archaea eukaryotes and bacteria are the fundamental classifications in what is called the three domain system archaea are like bacteria single cell organisms lacking nuclei and are therefore classified as prokaryotes known as monera in the five kingdom taxonomy they were originally described in extreme environments but have since been found in all types of habitats history archaea were identified in one nine seven seven by carl woese and george fox based on their separation from other prokaryotes on one six s rrna phylogenetic trees these two groups were originally named the archaebacteria and eubacteria treated as kingdoms or subkingdoms woese argued that they represented fundamentally different branches of living things he later renamed the groups archaea and bacteria to emphasize this and argued that together with eukarya they comprise three domains of living things archaea bacteria and eukary |
otes archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of cell structure and metabolism however their genetic transcription and translation the two central processes in molecular biology do not show the typical bacterial features but are extremely similar to those of eukaryotes for instance archaean translation uses eukaryotic initiation and elongation factors and their transcription involves tata binding proteins and tfiib as in eukaryotes several other characteristics also set the archaea apart like bacteria and eukaryotes archaea possess glycerol based phospholipids however three features of the archaeal lipids are unusual the archaeal lipids are unique because the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the reverse of that found in bacteria and eukaryotes this is strong evidence for a different biosynthetic pathway most bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes composed mainly of glycerol ester lipids whereas archaea have membranes composed of glycerol ether lipids even when bacteria have ether linked lipi |
ds the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the bacterial form this differences may be an adaptation on the part of archaea to hyperthermophily however it is worth noting that even mesophilic archaea have ether linked lipids archaeal lipids are based upon the isoprenoid sidechain this is a five carbon unit that is also common in rubber and as a component of some vitamins common in bacteria and eukaryotes however only the archaea incorporate these compounds into their cellular lipids frequently as c two zero four monomers or c four zero eight monomers sidechains in some archaea the c four zero isoprenoid side chain is actually long enough to span the membrane forming a monolayer for a cell membrane with glycerol phosphate moieties on both ends although dramatic this adaptation is most common in the extremely thermophilic archaea although not unique the archaeal cell walls are also unusual for instance the cell walls of most archaea are formed by surface layer proteins or an s layer s layers are common in bacteri |
a where they serve as the sole cell wall component in some organisms like the planctomyces or an outer layer in many organisms with peptidoglycan with the exception of one group of methanogens archaea lack a peptidoglycan wall even in this case the peptidoglycan is very different from the type found in bacteria archaeans also have flagella that are notably different in composition and development from the superficially similar flagella of bacteria a phylogenetic tree based on rrna data showing the separation of bacteria archaea and eukaryotes habitats many archaeans are extremophiles some live at very high temperatures often above one zero zero c as found in geysers and black smokers others are found in very cold habitats or in highly saline acidic or alkaline water however other archaeans are mesophiles and have been found in environments like marshland sewage and soil many methanogenic archaea are found in the digestive tracts of animals such as ruminants termites and humans archaea are usually harmless to |
other organisms and none are known to cause disease form individual archaeans range from zero one m to over one five m in diameter and some form aggregates or filaments up to two zero zero m in length they occur in various shapes such as spherical rod shape spiral lobed or rectangular they also exhibit a variety of different types of metabolism of note the halobacteria can use light to produce atp although no archaea conduct photosynthesis with an electron transport chain as occurs in other groups evolution and classification archaea are divided into two main groups based on rrna trees the euryarchaeota and crenarchaeota two other groups have been tentatively created for certain environmental samples and the peculiar species nanoarchaeum equitans discovered in two zero zero two by karl stetter but their affinities are uncertain woese argued that the bacteria archaea and eukaryotes each represent a primary line of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral progenote with poorly developed genetic machiner |
y this hypothesis is reflected in the name archaea from the greek archae or ancient later he treated these groups formally as domains each comprising several kingdoms this division has become very popular although the idea of the progenote itself is not generally supported some biologists however have argued that the archaebacteria and eukaryotes arose from specialized eubacteria the relationship between archaea and eukarya remains an important problem aside from the similarities noted above many genetic trees group the two together some place eukaryotes closer to eurarchaeota than crenarchaeota are although the membrane chemistry suggests otherwise however the discovery of archaean like genes in certain bacteria such as thermotoga makes their relationship difficult to determine some have suggested that eukaryotes arose through fusion of an archaean and eubacterium which became the nucleus and cytoplasm which accounts for various genetic similarities but runs into difficulties explaining cell structure single |
gene sequencing for systematics has led to whole genome sequencing currently two four archaeal genomes have been completed with two two partially completed external links archaea archaeaweb by unsw information about archaea introduction to the archaea ecology systematics and morphology extremophiles bioprospecting for antimicrobials dr sarah maloney citat ground breaking research on extremophiles continues to this day with the recently discovered two two nd genetically encoded amino acid pyrrolysine from the archaeon methanosarcina barkeri hao et al two zero zero two srinivasan et al two zero zero two bbc news july two one one nine nine nine toughest bug reveals genetic secrets citat it pyrococcus abyssi likes conditions that the vast majority of other organisms would find impossible to live in it thrives best at temperatures of about one zero three degrees celsius and under pressures of about two zero zero atmospheres pyrococcus abyssi home page at genoscope references archaea extremophiles american when us |
ed as an adjective most frequently is used to mean of the united states of america in the english language less frequently in a united states context it means of or relating to the americas when used as a noun it most frequently is used to mean united states citizen less frequently residing in the americas or american english american in the americas the word america was derived by german cartographer martin waldseem ller from the latinized version of the name of amerigo vespucci americus vespucius an italian merchant and cartographer whose exploratory journeys in the late one four zero zero s and early one five zero zero s brought him to the eastern coastline of south america and to the caribbean the term american was subsequently used as an adjective describing the new world and its native people starting by one seven zero zero the word american was used by europeans for the indians in the new world in one seven six five came the first use to describe the british colonists that usage was widespread by one s |
even seven four and in one seven seven six the declaration of independence proclaimed a new country the united states of america at that time america was also used to designate continents in atlases published in europe but very few people ever saw those books the american revolution was closely followed in europe and the term became common for the inhabitants of the new nation since one seven seven six the term american has gained universal usage in reference to residents of the united states of america controversy has arisen over whether this usage is appropriate or whether the term should only be used as an adjective covering the whole of north america and south america geographers disagree among themselves english language atlases display two continents north america and south america while spanish language atlases display one continent america proponents of the usage of american as a lexical attachment to america broadly defined as the continent s of north and south america argue that current usage is at |
best inaccurate historically incorrect and at worst redolent of perceived us imperialism they add that the main purpose of clear language is to avoid ambiguity proponents of the usage of american to refer to the united states argue that the usa is the only sovereign nation in the world with the word america in its official name additionally other nations including mexico presently and brazil in the past have or have had the term united states in their official names thus to many referring to u s citizens as americans is convenient and legitimate while using u s could in fact be ambiguous also there is tradition to consider as the term has been applied to residents of the u s from the very beginning of that country critics opposed to the change say that essentialism regarding words is an error lexicographers tell how people use the word they do not issue edicts that say america can only refer to geographical continents rather than a country every major dictionary makes clear that american applied to residents |
of the u s is standard usage and has been for over two zero zero years in every anglophone country in canada the term american is widely understood to refer exclusively to citizens of the u s and canadians do not refer to themselves as americans on the other hand in spain people who have lived in the western hemisphere but now live in spain may be called in spanish americanos translated into english as americans in discussions of geography one might specify north america central america or south america when the reference is to a continent or region residents of the western hemisphere rarely call themselves north american or south american the term central american is more common many alternative neologisms to american have been proposed to refer to the united states of america but they have failed to garner widespread acceptance this has given rise to terms like mexican american or canadian american to refer to people of mexican or canadian origin living in the united states either as first generation immigr |
ants or their descendants these terms are never used to refer to natives of mexico or canada geo politically speaking such terms are redundant canadians in particular have devoted a great deal of attention to proclaiming that they are not americans meaning us citizens both in their own cultural products and when they travel outside the region and are frequently mistaken as coming from the united states american in the us census american ancestry in us counties in the united states census millions of people describe their main ethnic origin as american particularly those belonging in southern states this region has a high percentage of people who trace their descent to the colonial origins of the united states and often lack records of the particular but generally british countries of their ancestor s origins american in cultural usages american culturally generally refers to things which originated within the united states of america some foods such as hamburgers are seen as american cuisine some sports such |
as baseball or american football are seen as american even though they may be played in other countries some music such as jazz country music or american folk music are seen as american even though they may be popular in other countries american in other languages english speakers commonly use american to refer to the united states only in the united kingdom the use of us as an adjective is preferred where it can be comfortably used and is prevalent in media and government house styles in spanish americano tends to refer to any resident of the americas and not from the united states english spoken in latin america often makes this distinction as well us american is another option and is the dominant demonym in german us amerikaner latin americans also have the euphemism norteamericano north american which itself conflates the usa and canada and possibly mexico united statian is awkward in english but it exists in spanish estadounidense and occasionally in german vereinigten staatler and in portuguese both in |
portugal and brazil where the term estadunidense is growing and it is considered more appropriate than the common term norte americano the word gringo is widely used in all of latin america particularly in mexico to make a reference to u s residents not necessarily in a pejorative way yanqui yankee is also very common in some regions there have been a number of attempts to coin an alternative to american as an adjective a demonym for a citizen of the united states that would not simultaneously mean a citizen of the americas with the one nine nine four passage of the north american free trade agreement the following words were used to label the united states section of that organization in canadian french tatsunien in spanish estadounidense seeking alternate names many people use the word american to indicate any inhabitant of the americas which many people in other parts of the world tend to consider a single continent called america rather than specifically a citizen of the united states and perceive the lat |
ter usage of american to be potentially ambiguous and perhaps aggressive in tone or imperialistic a rather widespread view in latin america however many in the us assert that the word america in united states of america denotes the country s proper name and is not a geographical indicator they argue that the interpretation of united states of america to mean a country named united states located in the continent of america is mistaken instead they argue that the preposition of is equivalent to the of in federative republic of brazil commonwealth of australia federal republic of germany that is the of indicates the name of the state in addition other countries use united or states in their names as well indeed the formal name of mexico is estados unidos mexicanos currently officially translated as united mexican states had in the past been translated as united states of mexico regardless many question a nation s right to formally appropriate the name of a continent for itself citing the fact that america exist |
ed long before the united states of america indeed amerigo vespucci who travelled extensively throughout the caribbean basin never set foot on present us territory some u s citizens and latin americans alike have no problem with the simultaneous usage of american as an adjective for all inhabitants of the americas and make the distinction between the demonym for a country and the demonym for a continent or continents they argue that there is no reason the two cannot share the term if it is used in distinct but equally legitimate contexts in other cases the motivation is not so much political as it is academic to avoid a perceived ambiguity for instance in legal circles a citizen of the united states is usually referred to as a u s citizen not an american citizen which could arguably apply to citizens of other american nation states as well a modern alternative term used by latin speakers to reffer the people from the united sates in their language is usen situable short for united states citizen the alternati |
ves attempts to create such a name have failed to gain widespread use proposals have included americanite appalacian now only considered an accurate term for the people of appalachia colonican columbard columbian hence the district of columbia frede or fredonian nacirema statesider uesican pronounced or uessian pronounced unisan or unisian united states american united stater united stateser united statian united statesian or united statesman usaian u s american usan usan usanian usian pronounced u s ian or usonian pronounced usen vespuccino washingtonian references to these words have been around since the early days of the republic but american has become by far the most common term usonian is used in architectural circles and washingtonian remains as the adjective for the state of washington and the city of washington d c several of these terms have direct parallels in languages other than english many languages have already created their own distinct word for a citizen of the united states united statian |
directly parallels the spanish term estadounidense norteamericano north american is common in latin america but suffers from the same kind of ambiguity as american since canadians and mexicans amongst others are also north americans in portuguese norte americano is the most commonly used term estadunidense is gaining some popularity specifically in brazil where its usage traditionally rises during times of tension with the usa amerikan is a derogatory spelling after the eastern european spelling made popular in the west by franz kafka s one nine four six novel usonian from usonia a term frank lloyd wright used to describe his vision for american architecture homes and cities and used by john dos passos in his u s a trilogy the esperanto term for the united states of america is usono this is generally thought to come from usonia in esperanto one forms the word for a citizen of a given country using the suffix an which means member of therefore a citizen of the united states is usonano such derived words are no |
t capitalized esperanto terms for the american geographic regions and their people are ameriko amerikano norda ameriko nordamerikano meza ameriko mezamerikano and suda ameriko sudamerikano usanian is derived from the ido word usana yankee often shortened to yank is used all over the world in an informal manner similar to the use of the mexican word gringo both terms may occasionally be used in an affectionate or pejorative sense on occasion some u s citizens will take offense at the term yankee particularly southerners residents of the southeastern united states who use yankee to refer to northerners residents of the northeastern united states sometimes in a derogatory way some people from scotland or wales may use yankee as a deliberate riposte to people from the us who refer to them as english from the enduring misconception that england is coterminous with the united kingdom the colloquial term yank for a u s citizen used in britain and australia is a derivative of yankee in australia the cockney rhyming s |
lang term sepo survives derived from septic tank in french tats unien ne tatsunien ne or tasunien ne are gaining some popularity in italian the term statunitense from stati uniti united states is quite widespread especially referring to sporting events in german us amerikaner may be used to avoid ambiguity or to be politically correct but it may come across as pedantic if used conversationally amerikaner is in general usage in german and is widely accepted to refer to the united states ami is a colloquialism which unambiguously refers to us citizens the german usage of ami is akin to the mexican usage of gringo in that it can be neutral patronizing or perhaps even affectionate in icelandic the term bandar kjamenn is quite widespread bandar kin united states and menn for people persons less serious alternatives less serious terms that have been popular on the internet at various times include leftpondian from the fact that the usa is on the left side of the atlantic ocean the pond as seen on a map with north a |
t the top this term is often used to include canadians as well merkin from the way some americans pronounce the word american but also playing on the word s other meaning see also americas terminology alternative words for british scholarly sources allen irving l the language of ethnic conflict social organization and lexical culture one nine eight three herbst philip h color of words an encyclopaedic dictionary of ethnic bias in the united states one nine nine seven isbn one eight seven seven eight six four nine seven eight external links the trouble with americans by the guardian on the use of the word american meaning us citizen september seven one nine nine eight american culture ada is a structured statically typed imperative computer programming language designed by a team led by jean ichbiah of cii honeywell bull during one nine seven seven one nine eight three it addresses many of the same tasks as c or c but with one of the best type safety systems available in a statically typed programming language |
ada was named after ada lovelace often credited as the first computer programmer features ada was originally targeted at embedded and real time systems and is still commonly used for those purposes the ada nine five revision designed by s tucker taft of intermetrics between one nine nine two and one nine nine five improved support for systems numerical and financial programming notable features of ada include strong typing modularity mechanisms packages run time checking parallel processing tasks exception handling and generics ada nine five added support for object oriented programming including dynamic dispatch ada supports run time checks in order to protect against access to unallocated memory buffer overflow errors off by one errors array access errors and other avoidable bugs these checks can be disabled in the interest of efficiency but can often be compiled efficiently it also includes facilities to help program verification for these reasons it is very widely used in critical systems like avionics w |
eapons and spacecraft it also supports a large number of compile time checks to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code ada s dynamic memory management is safe and high level like java and unlike c the specification does not require any particular implementation though the semantics of the language allow automatic garbage collection of inaccessible objects most implementations do not support it ada does support a limited form of region based storage management invalid accesses can always be detected at run time unless of course the check is turned off and sometimes at compile time the ada language definition is unusual among iso standards in that it is free content one result of this is that the standard document known as the ada reference manual or arm is the usual reference ada programmers resort to for technical details in the same way as a particular standard textbook serves other programming langua |
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