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trictions on the sale of goods by jews became frequent the religious zeal fomented by the crusades at times burned as fiercely against the jews as against the muslims though attempts were made by bishops during the first crusade and the papacy during the second crusade to stop jews from being attacked both economically and socially the crusades were disastrous for european jews they prepared the way for the anti jewish legislation of pope innocent iii and formed the turning point in the medieval history of the jews one two five zero french bible illustration depicts jews identifiable by judenhut being massacred by crusaders the expulsions from england france germany and spain only a few expulsions of the jews are described in this section for a more extended list see history of anti semitism and also the history of the jews in england germany spain and france the practice of expelling the jews accompanied by confiscation of their property followed by temporary readmissions for ransom was utilized to enrich th |
e french crown during one two th one four th centuries the most notable such expulsions were from paris by philip augustus in one one eight two from the entirety of france by louis ix in one two five four by charles iv in one three two two by charles v in one three five nine by charles vi in one three nine four to finance his war to conquer wales edward i of england taxed the jewish moneylenders when the jews could no longer pay they were accused of disloyalty already restricted to a limited number of occupations the jews saw edward abolish their privilege to lend money choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a yellow patch the heads of jewish households were then arrested over three zero zero of them taken to the tower of london and executed while others killed in their homes the complete banishment of all jews from the country in one two nine zero led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of jews from england for three and a half centuries until one six five five |
when oliver cromwell reversed the policy in one four nine two ferdinand ii of aragon and isabella of castile issued general edict on the expulsion of the jews from spain see also spanish inquisition and many sephardi jews fled to the ottoman empire some to the land of israel in one seven four four frederick ii of prussia limited breslau to only ten so called protected jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other prussian cities in one seven five zero he issued revidiertes general privilegium und reglement vor die judenschaft the protected jews had an alternative to either abstain from marriage or leave berlin quoting simon dubnow in the same year archduchess of austria maria theresa ordered jews out of bohemia but soon reversed her position on condition that jews pay for readmission every ten years this extortion was known as malke geld queen s money in one seven five two she introduced the law limiting each jewish family to one son in one seven eight two joseph ii abolished most of persecution p |
ractices in his toleranzpatent on the condition that yiddish and hebrew are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled moses mendelssohn wrote that such a tolerance is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution anti judaism and the reformation luther s one five four three pamphlet on the jews and their lies martin luther an augustinian monk and an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the reformation wrote antagonistically about jews in his book on the jews and their lies which describes the jews in extremely harsh terms excoriating them and providing detailed recommendation for a pogrom against them and their permanent oppression and or expulsion according to paul johnson it may be termed the first work of modern anti semitism and a giant step forward on the road to the holocaust a history of the jews one nine eight seven p two four two in his final sermon shortly before his death however luther preached we want to treat them with christian love and to pray f |
or them so that they might become converted and would receive the lord weimar edition vol five one p one nine five still luther s harsh comments about the jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval christian anti semitism see also martin luther and antisemitism anti semitism in one nine th and two zero th century catholicism throughout the one nine th century and into the two zero th the catholic church still incorporated strong anti semitic elements despite increasing attempts to separate anti judaism the opposition to the jewish religion on religious grounds and racial anti semitism pope pius vii one eight zero zero one eight two three had the walls of the jewish ghetto in rome rebuilt after the jews were released by napoleon and jews were restricted to the ghetto through the end of the papacy of pope pius ix one eight four six one eight seven eight the last pope to rule rome additionally official organizations such as the jesuits banned candidates who are descended from the jewish race unless it i |
s clear that their father grandfather and great grandfather have belonged to the catholic church until one nine four six brown university historian david kertzer working from the vatican archive has further argued in his book the popes against the jews that in the one nine th and two zero th century the roman catholic church adhered to a distinction between good anti semitism and bad anti semitism the bad kind promoted hatred of jews because of their descent this was considered un christian because the christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity anyone could become a christian the good kind criticized alleged jewish conspiracies to control newspapers banks and other institutions to care only about accumulation of wealth etc many catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing jews on such grounds and when accused of promoting hatred of jews would remind people that they condemned the bad kind of anti semitism kertzer s work is not therefore without critics scholar of jewish christia |
n relations rabbi david g dalin for example criticized kertzer in the weekly standard for using evidence selectively the second vatican council the nostra aetate document and the efforts of pope john paul ii have helped reconcile jews and catholicism in recent decades however passion plays passion plays dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of jesus have historically been used in remembrance of jesus death during lent these plays historically blamed the jews for the death of jesus in a polemical fashion depicting a crowd of jewish people condemning jesus to crucifixion and a jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of jesus which the boston globe explains for centuries prompted vicious attacks or pogroms on europe s jewish communities time magazine in its article the problem with passion explains that such passages are highly subject to interpretation although modern scholars interpret the blood on our children matthew two seven two five as a specific group s o |
ath of responsibility some audiences have historically interpreted it as an assumption of eternal racial guilt this last interpretation has often incited violence against jews according to the anti defamation league passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the jews who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for jesus death the christian science monitor in its article capturing the passion explains that historically productions have reflected negative images of jews and the long time church teaching that the jewish people were collectively responsible for jesus death violence against jews as christ killers often flared in their wake christianity today in why some jews fear mel gibson s the passion of the christ observed that outbreaks of christian anti semitism related to the passion narrative have been numerous and destructive in two zero zero three and two zero zero four some compared mel gibson s recent film the passion of the christ to these k |
inds of passion plays but this characterization is hotly disputed an analysis of that topic is in the article on the passion of the christ despite such fears there have been no publicized anti semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie s influence racial anti semitism racial anti semitism replaced the hatred of judaism with the hatred of jews as a group in the context of the industrial revolution following the emancipation of the jews jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility with the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti semitism a combination of growing nationalism the rise of eugenics and resentment at the socio economic success of the jews led to the newer and more virulent racist anti semitism nationalism and anti semitism racial anti semitism was preceded especially in germany by anti semitism arising from romantic nationalism as racial theories developed especially from the mid nineteenth century onwards these nationalist ideas we |
re subsumed within them but their origins were quite distinct from racialism on the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the volk ideas of herder this led to anti semitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the one nine th century of which richard wagner s das judentum in der musik jewry in music is perhaps the most notorious example on the other hand radical socialists such as karl marx identified jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the capitalist system e g in his article on the jewish question from sources such as these and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued anti semitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought the rise of racial anti semitism modern european anti semitism has its origin in one nine th century pseudo scientific theories that the jewish people are a sub group of semitic peoples semitic people were thought by many europeans to be entirely differ |
ent from the aryan or indo european populations and that they can never be amalgamated with them in this view jews are not opposed on account of their religion but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic racial characteristics greed a special aptitude for money making aversion to hard work clannishness and obtrusiveness lack of social tact low cunning and especially lack of patriotism while enlightened european intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declass and a sign of ignorance because of this supposed scientific connection to genetics they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or race in order to differentiate between the two practices the term anti semitism was developed to refer to this acceptable bias against jews as a nationality as distinct from the undesirable prejudice against judaism as a religion concurrently with this usage some authors in germany began to use the term palestinians when referring to jews |
as a people rather than as a religious group as further proof of its pseudo scientific nature it is questionable whether jews in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting racial anti semitism this was especially true in places like germany france and austria where the jewish population tended to be more secular or at least less orthodox than that of eastern europe and did not wear clothing such as a yarmulke that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non jewish population many anthropologists of the time such as franz boas tried to use complex physical measurements like the cephalic index and visual surveys of hair eye color and skin tone of jewish vs non jewish european populations to prove that the notion of a separate jewish race was a myth the one nine th and early two zero th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various jewish groups see y chromosomal aaron the advent of racial |
anti semitism was also linked to the growing sense of nationalism in many countries the nationalist context viewed jews as a separate and often alien nation within the countries in which jews resided a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments elites and the use of anti semitism one eight eight nine paris france elections poster for self described candidat antis mite adolphe willette the jews are a different race hostile to our own judaism there is the enemy many analysts of modern anti semitism have pointed out that its essence is scapegoating features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable e g materialism the power of money economic fluctuations war secularism socialism communism movements for racial equality social welfare policies etc are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to emb |
race such views indeed it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the wasp establishment of the united states as well as other comparable western elites e g the british foreign office have harbored such attitudes and in the aftermath of the russian revolution some xenophobic anti semites have imagined world communism to be a jewish conspiracy harvard encyclopedia of american ethnic groups one nine eight zero p five nine zero the modern form of anti semitism is identified in the one nine one one edition of the encyclop dia britannica as a conspiracy theory serving the self understanding of the european aristocracy whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society the jews of europe then recently emancipated were relatively literate entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant bourgeois class as the aristocracy and its hangers on lost out to this new center of power in society they |
found their scapegoat exemplified in the work of arthur de gobineau that the jews were singled out to embody the problem was by this theory no more than a symptom of the nobility s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding on which its own legitimacy was founded dreyfus affair the treason conviction of alfred dreyfus demonstrated french anti semitism the dreyfus affair was a political scandal which divided france for many years during the late one nine th century it centered on the one eight nine four treason conviction of alfred dreyfus a jewish officer in the french army dreyfus was in fact innocent the conviction rested on false documents and when high ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes the writer mile zola exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper l aurore the dawn in a famous open letter to the pr sident de la r publique f lix faure titled j accuse i accuse on january one three one eight nine eight the dreyfus affair split france be |
tween the dreyfusards those supporting alfred dreyfus and the antidreyfusards those against him the quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly controversial in a heated political climate dreyfus was pardoned in one eight nine nine readmitted into the army and made a knight in the legion of honour an austrian jewish journalist named theodor herzl was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath the injustice of the trial and the anti semitic passions it aroused in france and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading zionist ultimately turning the movement into an international one also see alfred dreyfus and dreyfus affair pogroms the victims mostly jewish children of a one nine zero five pogrom in dnipropetrovsk pogroms were a form of race riots most commonly russia and eastern europe aimed specifically at jews and often government sponsored pogroms became endemic during a large scale wave of anti jewish riots that swept southern russia in one eight eight one after |
jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of tsar alexander ii in the one eight eight one outbreak thousands of jewish homes were destroyed many families reduced to extremes of poverty women sexually assaulted and large numbers of men women and children killed or injured in one six six russian towns the new czar alexander iii blamed the jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on jews large numbers of pogroms continued until one eight eight four with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities an even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in one nine zero three one nine zero six leaving an estimated two zero zero zero jews dead and many more wounded a final large wave of eight eight seven pogroms in russia and ukraine occurred during the russian revolution of one nine one seven in which between seven zero zero zero zero to two five zero zero zero zero civilian jews were killed by riots led by various sides during the early to mid one nine zero zero s pogroms also occurred in poland arge |
ntina and throughout the arab world extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during world war ii including the romanian ia i pogrom in which one four zero zero zero jews were killed and the jedwabne massacre in poland which killed between three eight zero and one six zero zero jews the last mass pogrom in europe was the post war kielce pogrom of one nine four six anti jewish legislation the nuremberg laws of one nine three five used a pseudo scientific basis for racial discrimination against jews people with four german grandparents white circles were of german blood while people were classified as jews if they descended from three or more jewish grandparents black circles in top row right one or more jewish grandparents made someone mixed blood since the racial differences between jews and germans are small the nazis used the religious observance of a person s grandparents to determine their race one nine three five chart from nazi germany used to explain the nuremberg laws anti semitism was officially adopted |
by the german conservative party at the tivoli congress in one eight nine two on the instigation of dr klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate werner von blumenthal official anti semitic legislation was enacted in various countries especially in imperial russia in the one nine th century and in nazi germany and its central european allies in the one nine three zero s these laws were passed against jews as a group regardless of their religious affiliation in some cases such as nazi germany having a jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as jewish in germany for example the nuremberg laws of one nine three five prevented marriage between any jew and non jew and made it that all jews even quarter and half jews were no longer citizens of their own country their official title became subject of the state this meant that they had no basic citizens rights e g to vote in one nine three six jews were banned from all professional jobs effectively preventing them having any influence in edu |
cation politics higher education and industry on one five november of one nine three eight jewish children were banned from going to normal schools by april one nine three nine nearly all jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits or had been persuaded to sell out to the nazi government this further reduced their rights as human beings they were in many ways officially separated from the german populace similar laws existed in hungary romania and austria even when anti semitism was not an official state policy governments in the early to middle parts of the two zero th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at jews for example the evian conference of one nine three eight delegates from thirty two countries neither condemned hitler s treatment of the jews nor allowed more jewish refugees to flee to the west the holocaust and holocaust denial racial anti semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the holocaust during world war ii in which about six mi |
llion european jews one five million of them children were systematically murdered holocaust deniers often claim that the jews or zionist conspiracy are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the holocaust critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the holocaust almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy anti semitic conspiracy theories two zero zero five syrian edition of the protocols of the elders of zion includes a historical and contemporary investigative study that repeats the blood libel and other anti semitic accusations and argues that the torah and talmud encourage jews to commit treason and to conspire dominate be arrogant and exploit other countries the rise of views of the jews as a malevolent race generated anti semitic conspiracy theories that the jews as a group were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world from t |
he early infamous russian literary hoax the protocols of the elders of zion published by the tzar s secret police a key element of anti semitic thought has been that jews influence or control the world in a recent incarnation extremist groups such as neo nazi parties and islamist groups claim that the aim of zionism is global domination they call this the zionist conspiracy and use it to support anti semitism this position is associated with fascism and nazism though increasingly it is becoming a tendency within parts of the left wing politics as well anti semitism and the muslim world anti semitism within islam is discussed in the article on islam and anti semitism anti semitism in the arab world is discussed in the article on arabs and anti semitism the qur an islam s holy book accuses the jews of corrupting the hebrew bible muslims refer to jews and christians as a people of the book islamic law demands that when under muslim rule they should be treated as dhimmis from the arab term ahl adh dhimma the writ |
er bat ye or introduced the modern word dhimmitude as a generic indication of this islamic attitude dhimmis were granted protection of life including against other muslim states the right to residence worship and work or trade and were exempted from military service and muslim religious duties personal law and tax they were obligated to pay other taxes jizyah and land tax and subject to various other restrictions regarding the contradiction of islam the qur an or muhammad proselytizing and at times a number of other restrictions on dress riding horses or camels carrying arms holding public office building or repairing places of worship mourning loudly wearing shoes outside a jewish ghetto etc anti semitism in the muslim world increased in the twentieth century as anti semitic motives and blood libels were imported from europe and as resentment against zionist efforts in british mandate of palestine spread while anti semitism has certainly been heightened by the arab israeli conflict there were an increasing n |
umber of pogroms against jews prior to the foundation of israel including nazi inspired pogroms in algeria in the one nine three zero s and massive attacks on the jews in iraq and libya in the one nine four zero s see farhud george gruen attributes the increased animosity towards jews in the arab world to several factors including the breakdown of the ottoman empire and traditional islamic society domination by western colonial powers under which jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial professional and administrative life of the region the rise of arab nationalism whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local jews through government channels resentment over jewish nationalism and the zionist movement and the readiness of unpopular regimes to scapegoat local jews for political purposes anti zionist propaganda in the middle east frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the holocaust to demonize israel and its leaders at the same time holocaust denial and holocaust minimi |
zation efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of middle eastern countries anti semitism and specific countries united states the kkk nazi salute and holocaust denial jews were often condemned by populist politicians alternately for their left wing politics or their perceived wealth at the turn of the century anti semitism grew in the years leading up to america s entry into world war ii father charles coughlin an anti semitic radio preacher as well as many other prominent public figures condemned the jews and henry ford reprinted the protocols of the elders of zion in his newspaper in one nine three nine a roper poll found that only thirty nine percent of americans felt that jews should be treated like other people fifty three percent believed that jews are different and should be restricted and ten percent believed that jews should be deported it has been estimated that one nine zero zero zero zero two zero zero zero zero zero jews could have been save |
d during the second world war had it not been for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by breckinridge long and others unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century for example to limit the growing number of jewish students between one nine one nine one nine five zero s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed numerus clausus these included harvard university columbia university cornell university and boston university in one nine two five yale university which already had such admissions preferences as character solidity and physical characteristics added a program of legacy preference admission spots for children of yale alumni in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of jews in the student body this was soon copied by other ivy league and other schools and admissions of jews were kept down to one zero through the one nine five zero s such policies were for the most part discarded durin |
g the early one nine six zero s american anti semitism underwent a modest revival in the late two zero th century the nation of islam under louis farrakhan claimed that jews were responsible for slavery economic exploitation of black labor selling alcohol and drugs in their communities and unfair domination of the economy jesse jackson issued his infamous hymietown remarks during the one nine eight four presidential primary campaign according to adl surveys begun in one nine six four african americans are significantly more likely than white americans to hold anti semitic beliefs although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti semitic stereotypes europe the summary of a two zero zero four poll by the pew global attitudes project noted that despite concerns about rising anti semitism in europe there are no indications that anti jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade favorable ratings of jews are actually higher now in france germany and russia than they wer |
e in one nine nine one nonetheless jews are better liked in the u s than in germany and russia however according to two zero zero five survey results by the adl anti semitic attitudes remain common in europe over three zero of those surveyed indicated that jews have too much power in business with responses ranging from lows of one one in denmark and one four in england to highs of six six in hungary and over four zero in poland and spain the results of religious anti semitism also linger and over two zero of european respondents agreed that jews were responsible for the death of jesus with france having the lowest percentage at one three and poland having the highest number of those agreeing at three nine the vienna based european union monitoring center eumc for two zero zero two and two zero zero three identified france germany the united kingdom belgium and the netherlands as eu member countries with notable increases in incidents as these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti semitic |
acts and are engaged in combating anti semitism their data was readily available to the eumc governments and leading public figures condemned the violence passed new legislation and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts in western europe traditional far right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against jews and jewish properties disadvantaged and disaffected muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents in eastern europe with a much smaller muslim population skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti semitic incidents anti semitism remained a serious problem in russia and belarus and elsewhere in the former soviet union with most incidents carried out by ultra nationalist and other far right elements the stereotype of jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti semitic aggression france defacement of a jewish cemetery in france two zero zer |
o four anti semitism was particularly virulent in vichy france during wwii one nine three nine one nine four five the vichy government openly collaborated with the nazi occupiers to identify jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps today despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the population acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern as is tension between the jewish and muslim populations of france both the largest in europe according to the national advisory committee on human rights antisemitic acts account for a majority seven two of all in two zero zero three of racist acts in france see also the official statement of the french ministry of interior about antisemitic acts in two zero zero five the israeli newspaper the maariv found that eight two of french people questioned had favourable attitudes towards jews the second highest percentage of the countries questioned the netherlands was highest at eight five poland see history of the jews in poland in one two s |
ix four king boleslaus v of poland legislated a charter for jewish residence and protection hoping that jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the polish economy this charter which encouraged money lending was a slight variation of the one two four four charter granted by the king of austria to the jews by the sixteenth century poland had become the center of european jewry and the most tolerant of all european countries regarding the matters of faith although there were still occasionally violent anti semitic incidents at the onset of the seventeenth century however the tolerance began to give way to increased anti semitism elected to the polish throne king sigismund iii of the swedish house of vasa a strong supporter of the counter reformation began to undermine the principles of the warsaw confederation and the religious tolerance in the polish lithuanian commonwealth revoking and limiting privileges of all non catholic faiths in one six two eight he banned publication of hebrew books inc |
luding the talmud acclaimed twentieth century historian simon dubnow in his magnum opus history of the jews in poland and russia detailed at the end of the one six th century and thereafter not one year passed without a blood libel trial against jews in poland trials which always ended with the execution of jewish victims in a heinous manner ibid volume six chapter four in the one six five zero s the swedish invasion of the commonwealth the deluge and the chmielnicki uprising of the cossacks resulted in vast depopulation of the commonwealth as over three zero of the one zero million population has perished or emigrated in the related one six four eight five five pogroms led by the ukrainian haidamaks uprising against polish nobility szlachta during which approximately one zero zero zero zero zero jews were slaughtered polish and ruthenian peasants often participated in killing jews the jews in poland ken spiro two zero zero one the besieged szlachta who were also decimated in the territories where the uprisin |
g happened typically abandoned the loyal peasantry townsfolk and the jews renting their land in violation of rental contracts in the aftermath of the deluge and chmielnicki uprising many jews fled to the less turbulent netherlands which had granted the jews a protective charter in one six one nine from then until the nazi deportations in one nine four two the netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for jews in europe excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other european countries at the time and becoming one of the few jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of europe many jews also fled to england open to jews since the mid seventeenth century in which jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted historian berel wein notes in a reversal of roles that is common in jewish history the victorious poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless jews of the area accusing them of collaborating with the cossack invader the jews reeling from almost fi |
ve years of constant hell abandoned their polish communities and institutions triumph of survival one nine nine zero throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry townsfolk and jews threat of mob violence was a specter over the jewish communities in polish lithuanian commonwealth at the time on one occasion in one six nine six a mob threatened to massacre the jewish community of posin vitebsk the mob accused the jews of murdering a pole at the last moment a peasant woman emerged with the victim s clothes and confessed to the murder one notable example of actualized riots against polish jews is the rioting of one seven one six during which many jews lost their lives later in one seven two three the bishop of gda sk instigated the massacre of hundreds of jews the legendary walentyn potocki a polish nobleman who converted to judaism is said to have been burned by auto da fe on may two four one seven four nine in one seven five seven at the instigation of jacob frank and |
his followers the bishop of kamianets podilskyi forced the jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi christian frankists among the other charges the frankists claimed that the talmud was full of heresy against catholicism the catholic judges determined that the frankists had won the debate whereupon the bishop levied heavy fines against the jewish community and confiscated and burned all jewish talmuds polish anti semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by issac de pinto as follows polish jews who are deprived of all the privileges of society who are despised and reviled on all sides who are often persecuted always insulted that contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour issac de pinto philosopher and economist in a one seven six two letter to voltaire on the other hand it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents the polish lithuanian commonwealth was a relative haven for jews when compared to the period of t |
he partitions of poland and the plc s destruction in one seven nine five see imperial russia and the soviet union below anti jewish sentiments continued to be present in poland even after the country regained its independence one notable manifestation of these attitudes includes numerus clausus rules imposed by almost all polish universities in the one nine three zero s william w hagen in his before the final solution toward a comparative analysis of political anti semitism in interwar germany and poland article in journal of modern history july one nine nine six one three one details in poland the semidictatorial government of pilsudski and his successors pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right implemented many anti semitic policies tending in a similar direction while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in one nine three nine in the one nine three zero s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass |
limits on jewish export firms and increasingly on university admission itself in one nine two one two two some two five percent of polish university students were jewish but in one nine three eight three nine their proportion had fallen to eight percent while there are many examples of polish support and help for the jews during world war ii and the holocaust there are also numerous examples of anti semitic incidents and the jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the christian poles the polish institute for national memory identified twenty four pogroms against jews during world war ii the largest occurring at the village of jedwabne in one nine four one see massacre in jedwabne after the end of world war ii the remaining anti jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals which pinnacled in the march one nine six eight events these sentiments started to diminish only w |
ith the collapse of the communist rule in poland in one nine eight nine which has resulted in a re examination of events between jewish and christian poles with a number of incidents like the masscre at jedwabne being discussed openly for the first time violent anti semitism in poland in two one st century is marginal compared to elsewhere but there are very few jews remaining in poland still according to recent june seven two zero zero five results of research by b nai briths anti defamation league poland remains among the european countries with others being italy spain and germany with the largest percentages of people holding anti semitic views poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti semitism in two zero zero four the polish government approved a national action program against racism including anti semitism additionally the polish catholic church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with judaism germany der st rmer satan the caption reads the je |
ws are our misfortune see main articles history of the jews in germany holocaust from the early middle ages to the one eight th century the jews in germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance though the one nine th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the jews emancipation followed in one eight four eight so that by the early two zero th century the jews of germany were the most integrated in europe the situation changed in the early one nine three zero s with the rise of the nazis and their explicity anti semitic program hate speech which referred to jewish citizens as dirty jews became common in anti semitic pamphlets and newspapers such as the v lkischer beobachter and der st rmer additionally blame was laid on german jews for having caused germany s defeat in world war i see dolchstosslegende nazi propaganda for german children from julius streicher s publication der giftpilz toadstool one nine three eight the caption reads the god of the jew is money |
and to gain money he will commit the greatest crimes anti jewish propaganda expanded rapidly nazi cartoons depicting dirty jews frequently portrayed a dirty physically unattractive and badly dressed talmudic jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by hasidic jews articles attacking jewish germans while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent jewish individuals also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas such as blood libel the nazi anti semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech starting in one nine three three repressive laws were passed against jews culminating in the nuremberg laws which removed most of the rights of citizenship from jews using a racial definition based on descent rather than any religious definition of who was a jew sporadic violence against the jews became widespread with the kristallnacht riots which targeted jewish homes businesses and places of worship killing hundreds across germany and austria the anti semitic agenda |
culminated in the genocide of the jews of europe known as the holocaust russia and the soviet union judaism without embellishments by trofim kichko published by the academy of sciences of the ukrainian ssr in one nine six three it is in the teachings of judaism in the old testament and in the talmud that the israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds racist theories and expansionist designs main articles history of the jews in russia and soviet union pogrom the pale of settlement was the western region of imperial russia to which jews were restricted by the tsarist ukase of one seven nine two it consisted of the territories of former polish lithuanian commonwealth annexed with the existing numerous jewish population and the crimea which was later cut out from the pale during one eight eight one one eight eight four one nine zero three one nine zero six and one nine one four one nine two one waves of anti semitic pogroms swept russian jewish communities at least some pogroms are believed to |
have been organized or supported by the russian okhranka although there is no hard evidence for this the russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms e g during the three day first kishinev pogrom of one nine zero three as well as to anti jewish articles in newspapers which often instigated the pogroms during this period the may laws policy was also put into effect banning jews from rural areas and towns and placing strict quotas on the number of jews allowed into higher education and many professions the combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass jewish emigration and by one nine two zero more than two million russian jews had emigrated most to the united states while some made aliya to the land of israel one of the most infamous anti semitic tractates was the russian okhranka literary hoax the protocols of the elders of zion created in order to blame the jews for russia s problems during the period of revolutionary activity even though many old bolsheviks |
were ethnically jewish they sought to uproot judaism and zionism and established the yevsektsiya to achieve this goal by the end of the one nine four zero s the communist leadership of the former ussr had liquidated almost all jewish organizations including yevsektsiya the anti semitic campaign of one nine four eight one nine five three against so called rootless cosmopolitans destruction of the jewish anti fascist committee the fabrication of the doctors plot the rise of zionology and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the anti zionist committee of the soviet public were officially carried out under the banner of anti zionism but the use of this term could not obscure the anti semitic content of these campaigns and by the mid one nine five zero s the state persecution of soviet jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the west and domestically see also jackson vanik amendment refusenik pamyat today anti semitic pronouncements speeches and articles are common in russia and there are |
a large number of anti semitic neo nazi groups in the republics of the former soviet union leading pravda to declare in two zero zero two that anti semitism is booming in russia over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti semitic signs apparently aimed at jews and other violent incidents including stabbings have been recorded though the government of vladimir putin takes an official stand against anti semitism some political parties and groups are explicitly anti semitic in spite of a russian law art two eight two against fomenting racial ethnic or religious hatred in two zero zero five a group of one five duma members demanded that judaism and jewish organizations be banned from russia in june five zero zero prominent russians including some two zero members of the nationalist rodina party demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient jewish texts as anti russian and ban judaism the investigation was actually launched but halted amid international outcry asia japan originall |
y japan with no jewish population had no anti semitism but nazi ideology and propaganda left an influence on japan during world war ii and the protocols of the elders of zion were translated into japanese today anti semitism and belief in jewish manipulation of japan and the world remains despite the lack of any jewish community in japan books about jewish conspiracies are best sellers according to a one nine eight eight survey eight of japanese had read one of these books anti semitism and anti zionism anti zionism is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view both historically and in current debates all expressing some form of opposition to zionism a large variety of commentators politicians journalists academics and others believe that criticisms of israel and zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind and attribute this to anti semitism in turn critics of this view believe that associating anti zionism with anti semitism is inte |
nded to stifle debate deflect attention from valid criticism and taint anyone opposed to israeli actions and policies this subject is discussed in the main article on anti zionism cartoon from the syrian arab daily newspaper tishreen apr three zero two zero zero zero negative zoomorphism is commonly used in anti semitic discourse new anti semitism in recent years some scholars of history psychology religion and representatives of jewish groups have noted what they describe as the new anti semitism which uses the language of anti zionism and criticism against israel to attack the jews more broadly the european commission on racism and intolerance formally defined some of the ways in which anti zionism may cross the line to anti semitism examples of the ways in which anti semitism manifests itself with regard to the state of israel taking into account the overall context could include denying the jewish people right to self determination e g by claiming that the existence of a state of israel is a racist endeav |
or applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation using the symbols and images associated with classic anti semitism e g claims of jews killing jesus or blood libel to characterize israel or israelis drawing comparisons of contemporary israeli policy to that of the nazis and holding jews collectively responsible for actions of the state of israel anti semitism in the two one st century according to the two zero zero five u s state department report on global anti semitism anti semitism in europe has increased significantly in recent years beginning in two zero zero zero verbal attacks directed against jews increased while incidents of vandalism e g graffiti fire bombings of jewish schools desecration of synagogues and cemeteries surged physical assaults including beatings stabbings and other violence against jews in europe increased markedly in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death on january one two zero zero six britain |
s chief rabbi sir jonathan sacks warned that what he called a tsunami of anti semitism was spreading globally in an interview with bbc s radio four sacks said that anti semitism was on the rise in europe and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted synagogues desecrated and jewish schools burned to the ground in france he also said that people are attempting to silence and even ban jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that jews must support the state of israel therefore they should be banned which is quite extraordinary because british jews see themselves as british citizens so it s that kind of feeling that you don t know what s going to happen next that s making some european jewish communities uncomfortable much of the new european anti semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running israeli arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant arab communities in european cities according to the stephen roth institute for |
the study of contemporary antisemitism and racism most of the current anti semitism comes from militant islamist and muslim groups and most jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young muslim immigrants reside similarly in the middle east anti zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the holocaust to demonize israel and its leaders this rhetoric often crosses the line separating the legitimate criticism of israel and its policies to become anti semitic vilification posing as legitimate political commentary at the same time holocaust denial and holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of middle eastern countries the problem of anti semitism is not only significant in europe and in the middle east but there are also worrying expressions of it elsewhere for example in pakistan a country without a jewish community anti semitic sentiment fanned by anti semitic articles in the press is widespread this |
reflects the more recent phenomenon of anti semitism appearing in countries where historically or currently there are few or even no jews see also jews and judaism jewish history other articles on anti semitism history of anti semitism christianity and anti semitism christian opposition to anti semitism anti globalization and anti semitism arab anti semitism saudi arabia and anti semitism islam and anti semitism new anti semitism persecution of the jews related topics allophilia anti zionism judeophobia self hating jew racism topics related to religious anti semitism anti judaism spanish inquisition blood libel beilis trial in russia host desecration edgardo mortara anti semitic laws policies and government actions pogroms in russia may laws in russia march one nine six eight events in poland dreyfus affair in france farhud in iraq general order no one one in the united states historical revisionism political nazi germany and the holocaust racial policy of nazi germany anti semitic websites jew watch radio is |
lam institute for historical review organizations working against anti semitism simon wiesenthal center anti defamation league jewish defense league other concepts religious persecution persecution of christians persecution of muslims persecution of hindus persecution of atheists references john m g barclay jews in the mediterranean diaspora from alexander to trajan three two three bce one one seven ce university of california one nine nine nine pieter willem van der horst philo s flaccus the first pogrom philo of alexandria commentary series brill two zero zero three bodansky yossef islamic anti semitism as a political instrument freeman center for strategic studies one nine nine nine gideon bohak the ibis and the jewish question ancient anti semitism in historical context in menachem mor et al jews and gentiles in the holy land in the days of the second temple the mishna and the talmud jerusalem yad ben zvi press two zero zero three p two seven four three carr steven alan hollywood and anti semitism a cultu |
ral history up to world war ii cambridge university press two zero zero one cohn norman warrant for genocide eyre serif one nine nine six freudmann lillian c antisemitism in the new testament university press of america one nine nine four gillan audrey chief rabbi fears tsunami of hatred the guardian january two two zero zero six hilberg raul the destruction of the european jews holmes kike a documentary history of anti semitism in america new york one nine seven two u s state department report on global anti semitism two zero zero five anti semitism and prejudice in america peter schafer judeophobia cambridge harvard university press one nine nine seven p two zero eight external links why the jews a perspective on causes of anti semitism coordination forum for countering antisemitism with up to date calendar of anti semitism today annotated bibliography of anti semitism hosted by the hebrew university of jerusalem s center for the study of antisemitism sicsa anti semitism and responses the stephen roth insti |
tute for the study of contemporary anti semitism and racism hosted by the tel aviv university includes an annual report jews the end of the vertical alliance and contemporary antisemitism an israeli point of view on antisemitism by steve plaut the anti semitic disease an analysis of anti semitism by paul johnson in commentary magazine council of europe ecri country by country reports state university of new york at buffalo the jedwabne tragedy jews in poland today anti defamation league s report on international anti semitism the middle east media research institute documents antisemitism in middle eastern media map of attitudes toward jews in one two european countries based on a two zero zero five adl survey judeophobia a short course on the history of anti semitism at zionism and israel information center arab and muslim anti zionism and anti semitiem a mini study with extensive links and resources if not together how research by april rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism and related t |
eaching tools about antisemitism for activists anti semitism this article describes the geography of american samoa american samoa tutuila island nasa nlt landsat seven visible color satellite image location oceania group of islands in the south pacific ocean about two thirds of the way from hawaii to new zealand geographic coordinates map references oceania area total one nine nine km land one nine nine km water zero km note includes rose atoll and swains island area comparative slightly larger than washington dc land boundaries zero km coastline one one six km maritime claims exclusive economic zone two zero zero nm three seven zero four km territorial sea one two nm two two two km climate tropical marine moderated by southeast trade winds annual rainfall averages about three m rainy season from november to april dry season from may to october little seasonal temperature variation island names in order of size tutuila ta ofu olosega aunu u swains island rose atoll terrain five volcanic islands with rugged p |
eaks and limited coastal plains two coral atolls rose and swains elevation extremes lowest point pacific ocean zero m highest point lata nine six six m natural resources pumice pumicite land use arable land five permanent crops one zero permanent pastures zero forests and woodland seven zero other one five one nine nine three est irrigated land na km natural hazards hurricane season from december to march hurricane heta struck tutuila and manu a january two zero zero four landslides environment current issues limited natural fresh water resources the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to expand well system improve water catchments and pipelines geography note pago pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the south pacific ocean sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds strategic location in the south pacific ocean mapquest zoom level four shows the location with respect to the state of samoa american sa |
moa geography by country demographics of american samoa data of fao year two zero zero five number of inhabitants in thousands population five seven nine zero two july two zero zero four est age structure zero one four years three six six male one zero nine eight three female one zero two zero eight one five six four years six zero three male one eight zero one zero female one six nine three three six five years and over three one male six nine nine female one zero six nine two zero zero four est population growth rate zero zero four two zero zero four est birth rate two four four six births one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est death rate three three nine deaths one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est net migration rate two zero seven one migrant s one zero zero zero population two zero zero four est sex ratio at birth one zero six male s female under one five years one zero eight male s female one five six four years one zero six male s female six five years and over zero six fiv |
e male s female total population one zero five male s female two zero zero four est infant mortality rate nine four eight deaths one zero zero zero live births two zero zero four est life expectancy at birth total population seven five six two years male seven two zero five years female seven nine four one years two zero zero four est total fertility rate three four one children born woman two zero zero zero est nationality noun american samoan s adjective american samoan ethnic groups samoan polynesian eight nine caucasian two tongan four other five religions christian congregationalist five zero roman catholic two zero protestant and other three zero languages samoan closely related to hawaiian and other polynesian languages english note most people are bilingual literacy definition age one five and over can read and write total population nine seven male nine eight female nine seven one nine eight zero est see also american samoa american samoa politics of american samoa takes place in a framework of a pre |
sidential representative democratic dependency whereby the governor is the head of government and of a pluriform multi party system american samoa is a unincorporated and unorganized territory of the united states administered by the office of insular affairs us department of the interior its constitution was ratified one nine six six and came into effect one nine six seven executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature the party system is a copy of the united states party system the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature executive branch president of the united states george w bush republican two zero january two zero zero one governor togiola tulafono democrat two six march two zero zero three the governor and the lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four year terms legislative branch the legislature or fono has two chambers the house of representatives has eighteen members elected for |
a two year term seventeen in single seat constituencies and one by a public meeting on swain island the senate has eighteen members elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands political parties and elections at the two november two zero zero four election eni f h faleomavaega of the democratic party united states defeated the republican candidate and was re elected judicial branch the high court chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the us secretary of the interior international organization participation escap associate interpol subbureau ioc spc politics of american samoa economy overview this is a traditional polynesian economy in which more than nine zero of the land is communally owned economic activity is strongly linked to the us with which american samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector with canned tuna the primary export transfers from the us government add substantially |
to american samoa s economic well being attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by samoa s remote location its limited transportation and its devastating hurricanes tourism a developing sector may be held back by the current financial difficulties in east asia numbers gdp purchasing power parity five zero zero million two zero zero zero est gdp real growth rate na gdp per capita purchasing power parity eight zero zero zero two zero zero zero est gdp composition by sector agriculture na industry na services na two zero zero two population below poverty line na two zero zero two est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest one zero na highest one zero na inflation rate consumer prices na two zero zero three est labor force one four zero zero zero one nine nine six labor force by occupation government three three tuna canneries three four other three three one nine nine zero unemployment rate six two zero zero zero budget revenues one two one million th |
ree seven in local revenue and six three in us grants expenditures one two seven million including capital expenditures of na fy nine six nine seven industries tuna canneries largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels handicrafts industrial production growth rate na electricity production one three zero gwh two zero zero one electricity production by source fossil fuel one zero zero hydro zero nuclear zero other zero two zero zero one electricity consumption one two zero nine gwh two zero zero one electricity exports zero kwh two zero zero one electricity imports zero kwh two zero zero one oil production zero barrel day two zero zero one est oil consumption three eight zero zero barrel day six zero four m d two zero zero one oil exports na oil imports na agriculture products bananas coconuts vegetables taro breadfruit yams copra pineapples papayas dairy products livestock exports three zero million two zero zero two exports commodities canned tuna nine three exports partners indonesia seven zero australia s |
ix seven japan six seven samoa six seven two zero zero two imports one two three million two zero zero two imports commodities materials for canneries five six food eight petroleum products seven machinery and parts six imports partners australia three six six new zealand two zero three south korea one six three mauritius four nine two zero zero two debt external na two zero zero two est economic aid recipient na note important financial support from the us more than four zero million in one nine nine four currency us dollar usd currency code usd exchange rates us dollar is used fiscal year one october three zero september see also american samoa american samoa economies by country oceangoing canoe telephones main lines in use one five zero zero zero two zero zero one telephones mobile cellular two three seven seven one nine nine nine telephone system domestic good telex telegraph facsimile and cellular telephone services domestic satellite system with one comsat earth station international country code one s |
ix eight four satellite earth station one intelsat pacific ocean radio broadcast stations am one fm one shortwave zero one nine nine eight radios five seven zero zero zero one nine nine seven television broadcast stations one one nine nine seven televisions one four zero zero zero one nine nine seven internet service providers isps samoa teleco internet country code as internet users na see also american samoa american samoa communications by country railways zero km highways total three five zero km paved one five zero km unpaved two zero zero km ports and harbors aunu u auasi fale sao ofu pago pago merchant marine none one nine nine nine est airports three two zero zero three est airports with paved runways total three two four three eight to three zero four seven m one under nine one four m two two zero zero five est airports with unpaved runways total zero see also american samoa list of highways in american samoa american samoa transportation by country john howard mp prime minister of australia and lead |
er of the liberal party kim beazley mp leader of the opposition and leader of the australian labor party the politics of australia take place within the framework of parliamentary democracy the government of australia is a federation and australians elect state and territory legislatures as well as a bicameral parliament of australia based on the westminster system at the national level elections are held at least once every three years the prime minister can advise the governor general to call an election for the house of representatives at any time but senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the constitution the last general election was in october two zero zero four the parliament of the commonwealth of australia consists of two chambers the house of representatives has one five zero members elected for a three year term in single seat constituencies with a system of alternative vote known as preferential voting the senate has seven six members elected through a preferential |
system in one two seat state constituencies and two seat territorial constituencies with a system of single non transferable vote electors choose territorial senators for a three year term the state senators serve for a six year term with half of the seats renewed every three years political parties and elections more info australian legislative election two zero zero four three political parties dominate australian politics of these two govern together in a coalition the liberal party is a party of the centre right which broadly represents business the suburban middle classes and many rural people its junior coalition partner is the national party of australia formerly the country party and now known for electoral purposes as the nationals a conservative party which represents rural interests the australian labor party alp is a social democratic party founded by the trade union movement and broadly represents the urban working class although it increasingly has a base of middle class support minor parties in |
clude the australian democrats a party of middle class liberals the australian greens a left wing politics wing and environmentalist party the country liberal party a party which only represents the northern territory it is part of the liberal national coalition the family first party a party appealing to conservative christians the proportional representation system allows these parties to win seats in the australian senate and in the state upper houses but they have usually been unable to win seats in the house of representatives the greens won a house seat at a two zero zero two by election but lost it in the two zero zero four general election the liberal national coalition came to power in the march one nine nine six election ending one three years of labor government and making john howard prime minister he was subsequently re elected in october one nine nine eight november two zero zero one and october two zero zero four the coalition now holds a comfortable majority in the house of representatives in |
the senate the liberal national coalition was in a minority until the two zero zero four election but from july two zero zero five it has a working majority there until two zero zero four lacking a majority in the senate the liberal national coalition relied on negotiations with the smaller parties and independents to secure the passage of legislation since its election howard s conservative coalition has moved to reduce the government s fiscal deficit and the influence of organised labour placing more emphasis on workplace based collective bargaining for wages the howard government also accelerated the pace of privatisation of government owned enterprises that began with the hawke labor government during its first two terms the government s most sweeping change was the introduction of a goods and services tax with the re election of the howard government in two zero zero four several significant and controversial bills have been passed due to the government s newly acquired senate majority these major change |
s have included a radical revamp of industrial relations laws an introduction of voluntary student unionism and the full privatisation of telecommunications company telstra these changes have sparked major debate within australia forcing many critics to question whether the howard government has lived up to its promise to use its senate majority wisely the howard government has reversed the foreign policy of its predecessor placing renewed emphasis on relations with australia s traditional allies the united states and britain and downgrading support for the united nations in favour of bilateralism both major parties support maintaining good relations with regional powers such as china japan and indonesia although issues such as the independence of east timor have sometimes made this difficult australia has become increasingly involved in the internal difficulties of its smaller neighbours such as papua new guinea solomon islands fiji and nauru the list of political parties in australia comprises the names and |
federal leaders of significant political parties as well as the names of other parties including formerly significant parties administrative divisions in the states and territories elections are held at least once every four years except in queensland which has three year terms in new south wales victoria south australia and the australian capital territory election dates are fixed by legislation however the other state premiers and territory chief ministers have the same discretion in calling elections as the prime minister at the national level see main articles australian electoral system electoral systems of the australian states and territories regional or local government within each state is handled by local government areas and unlike other equivalent forms of local government such as those of the united states have relatively little power compared to the state governments see main article local government in australia see also list of australian politicians politics of australia and canada compared |
politics of australia and new zealand compared political blogs in australia politics of australia august one three is the two two five th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two two six th in leap years with one four zero days remaining events three one one four bc according to the lounsbury corollation the maya calendar starts five two three john succeeds hormisdas as pope one zero nine nine paschal ii elected pope one three one five louis x of france marries clemence d anjou one three two six aradia de toscano according to legend folklore is initiated into a dianic witchcraft cult subsequently founds the tradition of stregheria later known as the malandanti one four one five henry v of england lands at chef en caux france with eight zero zero zero men one five one six treaty of noyon between france and spain signed in it francis recognizes charles s claim to naples and charles recognizes francis s claim to milan one five two one tenochtitl n present day mexico city falls to conquistador hern n cort s |
one five three six buddhist monks from kyoto s enryaku temple set fire to two one nichiren temples throughout kyoto in the tenbun hokke disturbance traditional japanese date july two seven one five three six one five five three michael servetus arrested by john calvin in geneva as a heretic one seven zero four war of the spanish succession battle of blenheim english and austrians victorious over french and bavarians one eight one four the convention of london a treaty between the united kingdom and the united provinces is signed in london one nine zero five norway holds referendum in favour of dissolving the union with sweden one nine one three otto witte an acrobat is crowned king of albania one nine one three invention of stainless steel by harry brearley one nine one eight women enlist in the united states marine corps for the first time opha mae johnson is the first woman to enlist one nine two zero polish soviet war battle of warsaw begins lasts till august two five the red army is defeated one nine two |
three first major sea going ship arrives at gdynia newly constructed polish seaport one nine three seven battle of shanghai one nine three seven begins one nine four zero world war ii battle of britain begins the luftwaffe launches a series of attacks on british fighter bases and radar installations one nine four two walt disney s fifth animated feature bambi premiers one nine six zero the central african republic declares independence from france one nine six one the german democratic republic closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of berlin to thwart its inhabitants attempts to escape to the west one nine six eight alexandros panagoulis attempts to assassinate the greek dictator colonel g papadopoulos in varkiza athens greece one nine eight seven u s president ronald reagan assumes responsibility for his role in the iran contra scandal one nine nine six marc dutroux his wife michelle martin and michel leli vre are arrested on suspicion of kidnapping all are found guilty on june two two tw |
o zero zero four with sentences of life three zero and two five years respectively one nine nine seven south park debuts on comedy central two zero zero four the two eight th summer olympics opens in athens greece two zero zero four hurricane charley a category four storm strikes the fort myers florida area two zero zero four black friday crackdown by nss on a peaceful protest in the capital city of maldives mal two zero zero four one five six congolese tutsi refugees massacred at the gatumba refugee camp in burundi two zero zero four adam curry s first daily source code is created launching podcasting births five eight two arnulf of metz french bishop and saint d six four zero one three one one king alfonso xi of castile and leon d one three five zero one three one three aradia de toscano italian insurrectionist teacher and witch one five eight four theophilus howard two nd earl of suffolk english politician d one six four zero one six two five rasmus bartholin danish physician mathematician and physicist d |
one six nine eight one six six two charles seymour six th duke of somerset english politician d one seven four eight one six six six william wotton english scholar d one seven two seven one seven zero zero heinrich count von br hl german statesman d one seven six three one seven one seven louis fran ois i prince of conti french military leader d one seven seven six one seven two one jacques lelong french bibliographer b one six six five one seven nine two adelaide of saxe meiningen queen of william iv of the united kingdom d one eight four nine one eight zero three vladimir odoevsky russian philosopher and writer d one eight six nine one eight one four anders jonas ngstr m swedish physicist d one eight seven four one eight one eight lucy stone american suffragette d one eight nine three one eight one nine george gabriel stokes french physicist d one nine zero three one eight two zero sir george grove english music historian d one nine zero zero one eight two three goldwin smith english born historian and jour |
nalist d one nine one zero one eight five one felix adler german born educator d one nine three three one eight six zero annie oakley american sharpshooter d one nine two six one eight six six giovanni agnelli italian industrialist d one nine four five one eight seven two richard willst tter german chemist nobel prize laureate d one nine four two one eight seven nine john ireland english composer d one nine six two one eight eight seven julius freed american inventor and banker d one nine five two one eight eight eight john logie baird scottish television pioneer d one nine four six one eight nine five bert lahr american actor d one nine six seven one eight nine nine sir alfred joseph hitchcock english film director d one nine eight zero one nine zero two felix wankel german engineer and inventor d one nine eight eight one nine zero four charles buddy rogers american actor d one nine nine nine one nine zero seven sir basil spence scottish architect d one nine seven six one nine one two ben hogan american golf |
er d one nine nine seven one nine one two salvador luria italian born biologist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine nine one one nine one three fred davis english snooker player d one nine nine eight one nine one eight frederick sanger english chemist nobel pirze laureate one nine one nine george shearing british musician one nine two zero neville brand american actor d one nine nine two one nine two six fidel castro cuban revolutionary and politician one nine three zero don ho american musician one nine three three doctor joycelyn elders united states surgeon general one nine four one erin fleming canadian actress d two zero zero three one nine four four kevin tighe american actor one nine four eight kathleen battle american soprano one nine four nine bobby clarke canadian hockey player one nine five one dan fogelberg american singer one nine five two herb ritts american photographer d two zero zero four one nine five nine danny bonaduce american actor one nine six one sandra mi |
randa puerto rican hair stylist and entrepeneur one nine six seven am lie nothomb belgian writer one nine six nine midori ito japanese figure skater one nine seven zero matthew hyson american professional wrestler one nine seven zero alan shearer english footballer one nine seven one nichola holt contestant in big brother uk series one and porn actress one nine seven two hani hanjour september one one two zero zero one pilot and terrorist one nine seven three brittany andrews american model and actress one nine seven five joe perry english snooker player one nine seven seven michael klim australian swimmer one nine seven nine taizo sugimura japanese politician one nine eight two shani davis american speed skater deaths five eight six radegund queen of clotaire i nine zero zero zwentibold last king of lotharingia b eight seven zero one three eight two eleanor of aragon queen of john i of castile b one three five eight one five two three gerard david flemish painter one six one seven johann jakob grynaeus swiss |
protestant clergyman b one five four zero one six six seven jeremy taylor irish author and bishop b one six one three one six eight six louis maimbourg french born historian b one six one zero one seven four four john cruger dutch born mayor of new york b one six seven eight one seven four nine johann elias schlegel german critic and poet b one seven one nine one seven five five francesco durante italian composer b one six eight four one eight two six ren la nnec french physician b one seven eight one one eight six three eug ne delacroix french painter b one seven nine eight one eight six five ignaz semmelweis austro hungarian physician b one eight one eight one nine one zero florence nightingale english nurse b one eight two zero one nine one two jules massenet french composer b one eight four two one nine one seven eduard buchner german chemist nobel prize laureate b one eight six zero one nine four six h g wells english writer b one eight six six one nine five eight otto witte acrobat and king of albania |
b one eight six eight one nine six five ikeda hayato prime minister of japan b one eight nine nine one nine eight four tigran petrosian georgian chess player b one nine two nine one nine eight nine tim richmond american race car driver b one nine five five one nine nine four elias canetti bulgarian born writer nobel prize laureate b one nine zero five one nine nine five jan k esadlo czech born writer b one nine two six one nine nine five mickey mantle baseball player b one nine three one one nine nine six david tudor american pianist and composer b one nine two six one nine nine nine jaime garz n colombian journalist and comedian murdered b one nine six zero two zero zero three ed townsend american songwriter and producer b one nine two nine two zero zero four julia child american chef and television personality b one nine one two two zero zero five david lange prime minister of new zealand b one nine four two holidays and observances roman festivals vertumnalias in honor of vertumnus and also diana on the av |
entine hill rc saints pontianus and hippolytus radegunde help against the pox cassianus of imola patron of shorthand writers international lefthanders day in brasil friday one three august agosto is considered to be especially filled with sorrow desgosto external links bbc on this day august one two august one four july one three september one three listing of all days the works of avicenna the greatest of the medieval islamic physicians played a crucial role in the european renaissance ab al al usayn ibn abd all h ibn s n arabic often refered to by his latinized name avicenna was a persian muslim physician philosopher and scientist who was born in nine eight zero in kharmaithen near bukhara now in uzbekistan then iran and died june one zero three seven in hamadan iran he was the author of four five zero books on a wide range of subjects many of these concentrated on philosophy and medicine he is considered by many to be the father of modern medicine george sarton called ibn sina the most famous scientist of |
islam and one of the most famous of all races places and times his most famous works are the book of healing and the canon of medicine also known as the qanun full title al qanun fil tibb early life his life is known to us from authoritative sources an autobiography covers his first thirty years and the rest are documented by his disciple al juzajani who was also his secretary and his friend he was born in three seven zero ah nine eight zero ad in afshana his mother s home a small city now part of uzbekistan then part of the islamic caliphate and his father from balkh now part of afghanistan then also part of the islamic caliphate his native language was persian his father an official of the samanid administration had him very carefully educated at bukhara although traditionally influenced by the ismaili branch of islam his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen ibn sina was put under the charge of a tutor an |
d his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours he displayed exceptional intellectual behaviour and was a child prodigy who had memorized the koran by the age of one zero and a great deal of arabic poetry as well from a greengrocer he learned arithmetic and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young however he was greatly troubled by metaphysical problems and in particular the works of aristotle so for the next year and a half he also studied philosophy in which he encountered greater obstacles in such moments of baffled inquiry he would leave his books perform the requisite ablutions then go to the mosque and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties deep into the night he would continue his studies stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat s milk and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution forty times it is said he read through the metaphysics of aristotle till the words w |
ere imprinted on his memory but their meaning was hopelessly obscure until one day they found illumination from the little commentary by farabi which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems so great was his joy at the discovery thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery that he hastened to return thanks to god and bestowed alms upon the poor he turned to medicine at one six and not only learned medical theory but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had according to his own account discovered new methods of treatment the teenager achieved full status as a physician at age one eight and found that medicine is no hard and thorny science like mathematics and metaphysics so i soon made great progress i became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients using approved remedies the youthful physician s fame spread quickly and he treated many patients without asking for payment his first appointment was that of physician to the emir who owed him his recovery from a da |
ngerous illness nine nine seven ibn sina s chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the samanids well known patrons of scholarship and scholars when the library was destroyed by fire not long after the enemies of ibn sina accused him of burning it in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge meanwhile he assisted his father in his financial labours but still found time to write some of his earliest works when ibn sina was two two years old he lost his father the samanid dynasty came to its end in december one zero zero four ibn sina seems to have declined the offers of mahmud of ghazni and ibn sina proceeded westwards to urgench in the modern uzbekistan where the vizier regarded as a friend of scholars gave him a small monthly stipend the pay was small however so ibn sina wandered from place to place through the districts of nishapur and merv to the borders of khorasan seeking an opening for his talents shams al ma li q btis the generous ruler of dailam himself a poet and |
a scholar with whom ibn sina had expected to find an asylum was about that date one zero five two starved to death by his own revolted soldiery ibn sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness finally at gorgan near the caspian sea ibn sina met with a friend who bought a dwelling near his own house in which ibn sina lectured on logic and astronomy for this patron several of ibn sina s treatises were written and the commencement of his canon of medicine also dates from his stay in hyrcania poland commemorated avicenna s life and work in this postage stamp ibn sina subsequently settled at rai in the vicinity of the modern tehran present day capital of iran the home town of rhazes where majd addaula a son of the last emir was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother seyyedeh khatun at rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son amir shamsud dawala compelling the scholar to quit the place after a br |
ief sojourn at qazvin he passed southwards to hamad n where that prince had established himself at first ibn sina entered into the service of a high born lady but the emir hearing of his arrival called him in as medical attendant and sent him back with presents to his dwelling ibn sina was even raised to the office of vizier the amir consented that he should be banished from the country ibn sina however remained hidden for forty days in a sheikh s house till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post even during this perturbed time ibn sina prosecuted his studies and teaching every evening extracts from his great works the canon and the sanatio were dictated and explained to his pupils among whom when the lesson was over he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players on the death of the amir ibn sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an apothecary where with intense assiduity he continued the composition of his works meanwhil |
e he had written to abu ya far the prefect of the dynamic city of isfahan offering his services the new emir of hamadan hearing of this correspondence and discovering where ibn sina s was hidden incarcerated him in a fortress war meanwhile continued between the rulers of isfahan and hamad n in one zero two four the former captured hamadan and its towns expelling the turkish mercenaries when the storm had passed ibn sina returned with the amir to hamadan and carried on his literary labours later however accompanied by his brother a favourite pupil and two slaves ibn sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a sufite ascetic after a perilous journey they reached isfahan receiving an honourable welcome from the prince avicenna also introduced medical herbs late life the remaining ten or twelve years of avicenna s life were spent in the service of abu ya far ala addaula whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser even in his numerous campaigns during these years he began to stu |
dy literary matters and philology instigated it is asserted by criticisms on his style but amid his restless study ibn sina never forgot his love of enjoyment unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures versatile lighthearted boastful and pleasure loving he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of averroes his bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution a severe colic which seized him on the march of the army against hamad n was checked by remedies so violent that ibn sina could scarcely stand on a similar occasion the disease returned with difficulty he reached hamad n where finding the disease gaining ground he refused to keep up the regimen imposed and resigned himself to his fate his friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately he refused however stating that i prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length on his deathbed remorse seized him he bestowed his goods on the poor restored |
unjust gains freed his slaves and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the qur an he died in june one zero three seven in his fifty eighth year and was buried in hamedan iran works ibn sina is comparable to such greats as abu bakr mohammad ibn zakariya al razi however despite such glorious tributes to his work ibn sina is rarely remembered in the west today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the european reawakening go largely unrecognised ibn sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician his philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today unfortunately the west only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy which is known as the latin avicennaian school and his other significant philosophical contribution which had been hailed by suhrawardi is still unknown to west this notable part is called hikmat al mashriqqiyya by him in some of his writings he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement heavily influenced b |
y ibn sina suhrawardi made philosophical contributions which have developed much from ibn sina s work later founding illuminationist philosophy and believing to have finished what ibn sina began ibn sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of philosophy logic ethics metaphysics and other disciplines all his works were written in arabic which was the de facto scientific language of that time and some were written in the persian language of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure persian languagecitation needed unlike aquinas who more or less sanctified aristotle as church dogma ibn sina corrected him often encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of peer review as we know it today his influence on that process being profound at least and perhaps even decisive about one zero zero treatises were ascribed to ibn sina some of them are tracts of a few pages others are works extending |
through several volumes the best known amongst them and that to which ibn sina owed his european reputation is his one four volume the canon of medicine which was a standard medical text in western europe for seven centuries it classifies and describes diseases and outlines their assumed causes hygiene simple and complex medicines and functions of parts of the body are also covered it asserts that tuberculosis was contagious which was later disputed by europeans but turned out to be true it also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes an arabic edition of the canons appeared at rome in one five nine three and a hebrew version at naples in one four nine one of the latin version there were about thirty editions founded on the original translation by gerard of cremona the one five th century has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the canon grouping around it all that theory had imagined and all that practice had observed other medical works translated into latin are the med |
icamenta cordialia canticum de medicina and the tractatus de syrupo acetoso it was mainly accident which determined that from the one two th to the one seven th century ibn sina should be the guide of medical study in european universities and eclipse the names of rhazes ali ibn al abbas and averroes his work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor rhazes because he presented the doctrine of galen and through galen the doctrine of hippocrates modified by the system of aristotle but the canon of avicenna is distinguished from the al hawi continens or summary of rhazes by its greater method due perhaps to the logical studies of the former the work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom and others like averroes holding it useful only as waste paper in modern times it has been more criticized than read the vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties and over subtlety in the discrimination of diseases it includes five books |
of which the first and second treat of physiology pathology and hygiene the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies this last part contains some personal observations he is like all his countrymen ample in the enumeration of symptoms and is said to be inferior to ali in practical medicine and surgery he introduced into medical theory the four causes of the peripatetic system of natural history and botany he pretended to no special knowledge up to the year one six five zero or thereabouts the canon was still used as a textbook in the universities of leuven and montpellier scarcely any member of the arabian circle of the sciences including theology philology mathematics astronomy physics and music was left untouched by the treatises of ibn sina many of which probably varied little except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent he wrote at least one treatise on alchemy but several oth |
ers have been falsely attributed to him his book on animals was translated by michael scot his logic metaphysics physics and de caelo are treatises giving a synoptic view of aristotelian doctrine the logic and metaphysics have been printed more than once the latter e g at venice in one four nine three one four nine five and one five four six some of his shorter essays on medicine logic part of it on the de anima appeared at pavia one four nine zero as the liber sextus naturalium and the long account of ibn sina s philosophy given by shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis and in many places a reproduction of the al shifa a shorter form of the work is known as the an najat liberatio the latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied there is also a philosophia orientalis mentioned by roger bacon and now lost which according to averroes was pantheistic in tone in the museum at bukhara there are displays showing many of his writ |
ings surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment in iran he is considered a persian hero he is often regarded as one of the greatest persians who have ever lived many of his portraits and statues remain in iran today an impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the doctor of doctors still stands outside the bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the hall of the faculty of medicine in the university of paris ibn sina was interested in the effect of the mind on the body and wrote a great deal on psychology likely influencing ibn tufayl and ibn bajjah along with rhazes ibn nafis al zahra and al ibadi he is considered an important compiler of early muslim medicine there is a crater on the moon called avicenna which was named after him references for ibn sina s life see ibn khallikan s biographical dictionary translated by de slane one eight four two f w stenfeld s geschichte der arabischen aerzte und naturforscher gottingen one eight four zero f |
or his medicine see sprengel histoire de la medecine for his philosophy see shahrastani german translation vol ii two one three three three two k prantl geschichte der logik im abendland ii three one eight three six one albert st ckl philosophie des mittelalters ii three five eight salomon munk m langes three five two three six six b haneberg in the abhandungen der philosophische philologisches classifikation der bayerischen academie one eight six seven carra de vaux avicenne paris one nine zero zero for a list of extant works c brockelmann s geschichte der arabischen litteratur weimar one eight nine eight vol i pp four five two four five eight xv w g w t for an overview of his career see shams inati ibn sina in history of islamic philosophy ed hossein seyyed nasr and oliver leaman new york routledge one nine nine six see also list of persian scientists iranian philosophy history of medicine early muslim medicine muslim philosophy islamic scholars al qumri external links biography of avicenna in english ibn s |
ina biography of avicenna catholic encyclopedia avicenna the ontology of ibn sina avicenna source history of islamic philosophy by henry corbin persian people medieval philosophers aristotelian philosophers muslim philosophers persian philosophers history of medicine alchemists nine eight zero births one zero three seven deaths iranian scientists polymaths muslim scientists the ashes urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt bails symbolising the death of english cricket the ashes is a biennial test cricket contest played between england and australia the ashes is one of cricket s fiercest and most celebrated rivalries and certainly the oldest such in international cricket dating back to one eight eight two the two zero zero five ashes series was played in england and was won by england australia had held the ashes for one six years prior to that the next ashes series will be in australia in two zero zero six zero seven the next series in england will be in two zero zero nine the series is named after a satiri |
cal obituary published in the sporting times in one eight eight two following the match at the oval in which australia beat england in england for the first time the obituary stated that english cricket had died and the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to australia the english media dubbed the next english tour to australia as the quest to regain the ashes a small terracotta urn was presented to the england captain ivo bligh by a group of melbourne women after england s victory in the test series the urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt bails symbolising the ashes of english cricket while the urn has come to symbolise the ashes series the name the ashes predates the existence of the urn the urn is not used as a trophy for the ashes series and whichever side holds the ashes the urn remains in the mcc museum at lord s since the one nine nine eight nine nine ashes series a waterford crystal trophy has been presented to the winners notable ashes series took place in one nine three two three three the |
bodyline tour one nine four eight sir donald bradman s invincibles australian side one nine eight one in which an england team spearheaded by ian botham won a thrilling series and two zero zero five when england eventually won the ashes back after a drought of one six years the obituary the obituary notice that appeared in the sporting times the first test match between england and australia had been played in one eight seven seven but the ashes legend dates back only to their ninth test match played in one eight eight two on the one eight eight two tour the australians played only one test at the oval in london it was a low scoring game on a difficult pitch australia made only six three runs in their first innings and england led by monkey hornby took a three eight run lead with a total of one zero one in the second innings australia made one two two leaving england to score only eight five runs to win australian bowler fred spofforth refused to give in declaring this thing can be done he devastated the eng |
lish batting taking the final four wickets while conceding only two runs to leave england a mere seven runs short of victory in one of the closest and most nail biting finishes in cricket history when england s last batsman went in the team needed only one zero runs to win but the final batsman peate scored only two before being bowled by boyle the astonished crowd fell silent not believing that england could possibly have lost by seven runs when what had happened had sunk in the crowd cheered the australians when peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by wg grace for not allowing his partner at the wicket charles studd to get the runs despite studd being one of the best batsman in england peate replied i had no confidence in mr studd sir so thought i had better do my best the defeat was widely recorded in the english press the most notable report was a mock obituary written by reginald shirley brooks printed in the sporting times on the following saturday september two one eight eight two the obit |
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