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ist libertarian socialist perspective see anarchism and capitalism for the spectrum of political ideologies in relation to capitalism see capitalism and related political ideologies anarcho capitalism is a radical development of liberalism therefore the same general arguments for and against liberalism laissez faire capitalism and capitalism apply excepting those points such as the justice system where anarcho capitalism diverges from the classical liberal tradition practical questions critics often assert that anarcho capitalism will degenerate into plutocracy or feudalism in practice they argue that it is a rational economic decision for organizations with the ability to exert coercion private police security and military forces to exploit groups with less power in this kind of environment piracy military imperialism and slavery can be very profitable taken to its logical extreme this argument assumes that allowing such security organizations to exert coercive power will inevitably lead to their becoming a |
de facto state the anarcho capitalist would respond that in the absence of what they call victim disarmament gun control such domination would be expensive even for the most powerful who would instead prefer peaceful trade with all skeptics often feel that anarcho capitalists rely on market solutions to the point of ridiculousness violence on a picket line critics of anarcho capitalism argue that private ownership of capital and the pursuit of profit are exploitative leading to class divisions and conflict minarchist and statist critics often argue that the free rider problem makes anarcho capitalism and by extension any anti statist political system fundamentally unworkable in modern societies they typically argue that there are some vital goods or services such as civil or military defense management of common environmental resources or the provision of public goods such as roads or lighthouses that cannot be effectively delivered without the backing of a government exercising effective territorial control |
and so that abolishing the state as anarcho capitalists demand will either lead to catastrophe or to the eventual re establishment of monopoly governments as a necessary means to solving the coordination problems that the abolition of the state created one counterargument by free market economists such as alex tabarrok emphasizes the private use of dominant assurance contracts some anarcho capitalists also contend that the problem of public goods is illusory and its invocation merely misunderstands the potential individual production of such goods others such as david friedman point out that problems of market failure are the exception in private markets but the norm in the political markets that control state action robert nozick argued in anarchy state and utopia that anarcho capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state even without violating any of its own nonaggression principles through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in |
everyone s interests to align with because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage therefore he felt that even to the extent that the anarcho capitalist theory is correct it results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world moral questions anarcho capitalists consider a choice or action to be voluntary in a moral sense so long as that choice or action is not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by another individual they also believe that maintaining private property claims is always defensive so long as that property was obtained in a way they believe to be legitimate thus so long as an employee and employer agree to terms employment is regarded as voluntary regardless of the circumstances of property restriction surrounding it some critics say this ignores constraints on action due to both human and nonhuman factors such as the need for food and shelter and active restriction of both used and unused resources by |
those enforcing property claims thus if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself it is said that the employer employee relationship cannot be voluntary because the employer restricts the use of resources from the employee in such a way that he cannot meet his needs this is essentially a semantic argument over the term voluntary anarcho capitalists simply do not use the term in that latter sense in their philosophy believing that sense to be morally irrelevant other critics argue that employment is involuntary because the distributions of wealth that make it necessary for some individuals to serve others by way of contract are supported by the enforcement of coercive private property systems this is a deeper argument relating to distributive justice some of these critics appeal to an end state theory of justice while anarcho capitalists and propertarians in general appeal to an entitlement theory other critics regard private property itself to either be an aggressive institution or a pot |
entially aggressive one rather than necessarily a defensive one and thus reject claims that relationships based on unequal private property relations could be voluntary critics also point out that anarcho capitalist ethics do not entail any positive moral obligation to help others in need see altruism the ethical doctrine like other right libertarianism libertarians anarcho capitalists may argue that no such moral obligation exists or argue that if a moral obligation to help others does exist that there is an overarching moral obligation to refrain from initiating coercion on individuals to enforce it anarcho capitalists believe that helping others should be a matter of free personal choice and do not recognize any form of social obligation arising from an individual s presence in a society they like all right libertarians believe in a distinction between negative and positive rights in which negative rights should be recognized as being legitimate and positive rights rejected critics often dismiss this stanc |
e as being unethical or selfish or reject the legitimacy of the distinction between positive and negative rights critics thereby redefine selfish to not include forcing other people to do what you want and disregarding the wishes of others property ownership rights and their extent are a source of contention among different philosophies most see the rights as less absolute than anarcho capitalists do the main issues are what kinds of things are valid property and what constitutes abandonment of property the first is contentious even among anarcho capitalists there is disagreement over the validity of intellectual property intangible goods that are not economically scarce some supporters of private property but critics of anarcho capitalism may question whether unused land is valid property agorism georgism geolibertarianism individualist anarchism the second issue is a common objection among socialists who do not believe in absentee ownership anarcho capitalists have strong abandonment criteria one maintains |
ownership more or less until one agrees to trade or gift it the critics of this view tend to have weaker abandonment criteria for example one loses ownership more or less when one stops personally using it also the idea of original appropriation is anathema to most types of socialism as well as any philosophy that takes common ownership of land and natural resources as a premise there are also philosophies that view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate thus rejecting anarcho capitalism as a philosophy that takes private ownership of land as a premise utilitarian critics simply argue that anarcho capitalism does not maximize utility contending that it would fall far short of that goal this kind of criticism comes from a variety of different political views and ideologies and different critics have different views on which other system does or would do a better job of bringing the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people anarcho capitalists consider the nonagg |
ression axiom to be a side constraint on civilized human action or a necessary condition for human society to be beneficial herbert spencer murray rothbard and thus should not be used as a trade off for vague utilitarian values another response implied by austrian economics is to argue that personal utility is not an additive quantity therefore concluding that all utilitarian arguments which invariably rely on aggregation of personal utilities are logically and mathematically invalid anarcho capitalist literature nonfiction the following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho capitalism murray rothbard father of modern anarcho capitalism man economy and state the ultimate austrian economics book power and market classification of state economic interventions the ethics of liberty moral justification of a free society frederic bastiat the law radical classical liberalism davidson political means vs economic means robert nozick anarchy state and utopia academic philosopher on libertari |
anism herbert spencer social statics includes the essay the right to ignore the state morris rational anarchism notes references benson bruce the enterprise of law justice without the state hart david m gustave de molinari and the anti statist liberal tradition retrieved one four september two zero zero five hoppe hans hermann a theory of socialism and capitalism hoppe hans hermann democracy the god that failed rothbard murray for a new liberty the libertarian manifesto rothbard murray the ethics of liberty spooner lysander one eight six seven no treason the constitution of no authority retrieved one nine may two zero zero five tannehill linda and morris the market for liberty tucker benjamin one eight eight eight state socialism and anarchism how far they agree and wherein they differ liberty five one six no one two zero one zero march one eight eight eight pp two three retrieved two zero may two zero zero five tucker benjamin one nine two six labor and its pay retrieved two zero may two zero zero five van n |
otten michael the law of the somalis two zero zero five see also books murray rothbard father of modern anarcho capitalism man economy and state the ultimate austrian economics book power and market classification of state economic interventions the ethics of liberty moral justification of a free society frederic bastiat the law radical classical liberalism davidson political means vs economic means robert nozick anarchy state and utopia academic philosopher on libertarianism herbert spencer social statics includes the essay the right to ignore the state morris anarchism theory faq is written from the perspective of an anarcho capitalist lewrockwell com is a widely read paleolibertarian news site it also hosts what it means to be an anarcho capitalist by stephan kinsella and the non aggression axiom of libertarianism by walter block jesus is an anarchist a free market libertarian anarchist that is otherwise what is called an anarcho capitalist by james redford november nine two zero zero five pdf an article o |
n the congruence of jesus s biblical teachings and anarcho capitalism the molinari institute a legacy of liberty and for a new liberty the libertarian manifesto by murray n rothbard panarchy another way of considering things that is considered by some ultimately equivalent to anarcho capitalism liberalia an anarcho capitalist site a brief introduction to philosophical anarchism from the viewpoint of an anarcho capitalist samizdata is a group blog by a varied group that includes wild eyed anarcho capitalists sovereign life and sovereign individual at sovereignlife com strike the root is an anarcho capitalist news site with an atheistic slant bureaucrash individualist anarchist society at uc berkeley a calvinist defense of anarcho capitalism argues that the christian bible supports anarcho capitalism anarcho capitalism lifestyle guide for anarcho capitalists sumit dahiya the home of the anti government pro enterprise movement of india criticisms section f is anarcho capitalism a type of anarchism an anarchist f |
aq from infoshop org the anarchist international website retrieved two zero may two zero zero five anarcho capitalism sucks a collection of links to anti anarcho capitalist resources anarcho capitalism vs individualist anarchism jeff draughn s between anarchism and libertarianism defining a new movement is a contemporary left anarchist critique of anarcho capitalism a critique of anarcho capitalist claims to anarchist tradition the critiques of libertarianism website contains critiques of both libertarianism and anarcho capitalism collection of critical articles ecology or anarcho capitalism by ian macsaorsa interview with noam chomsky in which he discusses anarcho capitalism anarcho hucksters the new right and anarcho capitalism from chapter three six of demanding the impossible a history of anarchism by peter marshall criticisms by other radical capitalists robert j binidotto s the contradiction in anarchism paul birch s a fatal instability in anarcho capitalism and anarcho capitalism dissolves into city st |
ates tony hollick s impossibility of anarcho capitalism capitalism org s rejection of the anarchist title a short selection by leonard peikoff ayn rand s intellecutal heir concerning anarchism the anarcho libertarian utopia a critique by drieu godefridi hayek institute other can anarcho capitalism function by stefan molyneux the state by stefan molyneux anarchy and invention how does somalia s private sector cope without government something resembling rudimentary anarcho capitalism is developing organically in somalia telecoms thriving in lawless somalia somali telecommunications infrastructure without government somalianarchy defending and celebrating somalis freedom and prosperity forum and news source for discussion of real world approximation of anarcho capitalism now functioning in somalia the american experiment in anarcho capitalism the not so wild wild west anarcho capitalism in the old wild west in the u s american anarchism one nine th century individualist anarchists influence on anarcho capitalis |
m american liberal anarchism from the conquest of power by albert weisbord the philosophy of liberty animated economic means to freedom part iv two five anarcho capitalist things you can do now by frederick mann the liberal theory of power a solution to complete anarcho capitalism with effective solutions to the public good problem and to practical implementation it is planned to be implemented by software on the web peter sabatini s libertarianism bogus anarchy on peter sabatini s libertarianism bogus anarchy by richard a gardner per l anarco capitalismo by guglielmo piombini the anarcho capitalist political theory of murray n rothbard in its historical and intellectual context by roberta modugno crocetta anarcho capitalist pod casts radio by stefan molyneux anarcho capitalist blogs molyneyux liberty murphy and others anarchism libertarianism political movements political theories economic ideologies august nine is the two two one st day of the year in the gregorian calendar two two two nd in leap years with |
one four four days remaining events four eight bc roman civil war battle of pharsalus julius caesar decisively defeats pompey at pharsalus and pompey flees to egypt three seven eight battle of adrianople a large roman army led by emperor valens is defeated by the visigoths in present day turkey valens is killed along with two three of his army six eight one bulgaria is founded as a khanate on the south bank of the danube after defeating the byzantine armies of emperor constantine iv south of the danube delta one zero four eight pope damasus ii dies in rome after reigning for only two three days one one seven three construction of the leaning tower of pisa begins and it takes two centuries to complete one four eight three opening of the sistine chapel one eight four two webster ashburton treaty is signed establishing the united states canada border east of the rocky mountains one eight six two american civil war battle of cedar mountain at cedar mountain virginia confederate general stonewall jackson narrowly |
defeats union forces under general john pope one eight seven seven indian wars battle of big hole a small band of nez perc indians clash with the united states army one eight nine two thomas edison receives a patent for a two way telegraph one nine zero two edward vii is crowned king of the united kingdom one nine three six one nine three six summer olympics jesse owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games becoming the first american to win four medals in one olympics one nine four two indian leader mohandas gandhi is arrested in bombay by british forces launching the quit india movement one nine four four the united states forest service and the wartime advertising council release posters featuring smokey the bear for the first time one nine four five world war ii an atomic bomb is dropped on the city of nagasaki japan killing an estimated seven zero zero zero zero nine zero zero zero zero one nine six five singapore seceded from the newly formed federation of malaysia one nine six five space disasters a |
fire at a titan missile base near little rock arkansas kills five three construction workers one nine six seven vietnam war operation cochise initiated united states marines begin a new operation in the que son valley one nine six nine members of a cult led by charles manson murder five people one nine seven four richard nixon becomes the first president of the united states to resign from office his vice president gerald ford becomes president one nine eight three peter jennings hosts his first broadcast of abc s world news tonight as sole anchor one nine eight six the headington shark is erected in oxford one nine eight seven nine people are shot dead and one seven more injured as one nine year old julian knight opens fire at random in the hoddle street massacre in clifton hill one nine eight eight wayne gretzky is traded from the edmonton oilers to the los angeles kings in one of the most controversial transactions in hockey history one nine eight nine kaifu toshiki becomes prime minister of japan one nin |
e nine three the liberal democratic party of japan loses a three eight year hold on national leadership one nine nine three king albert ii of belgium is sworn into office one nine nine five netscape launches ipo one nine nine nine russian president boris yeltsin fires his prime minister sergei stepashin and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet one nine nine nine the diet of japan enacts a law establishing the hinomaru and kimi ga yo as the official national flag and national anthem two zero zero zero a piper navajo and a piper seminole collide in mid air over a housing development in burlington new jersey killing one one two zero zero one us president george w bush announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic stem cells two zero zero one in jerusalem one five people die and one three zero wounded in the sbarro restaurant suicide bombing two zero zero five space shuttle discovery makes successful touchdown at edwards air force base california births one two zero one arnold |
fitz thedmar english chronicler d one two seven four one five nine three izaak walton english angler d one six eight three one six three one john dryden english poet laureate d one seven zero zero one six four eight johann michael bach german composer d one six nine four one six five three john oldham english poet d one six eight three one six seven four franti ek maxmili n ka ka czech architect d one seven six six one seven two two augustus william prince of prussia d one seven five eight one seven two six francesco cetti italian jesuit scientist d one seven seven eight one seven five seven thomas telford scottish civil engineer d one eight three four one seven seven six amedeo avogadro italian chemist d one eight five six one seven nine seven charles robert malden british naval officer d one eight five five one eight zero five joseph locke english railway and civil engineer d one eight six zero one eight four five brother andre canadian religious figure d one nine three seven one eight seven one leonid and |
reyev russian writer d one nine one nine one eight seven two joseph august archduke of austria austrian field marshal d one nine six two one eight seven four reynaldo hahn venezuelan composer and conductor d one nine four seven one eight nine six jean piaget swiss psychologist d one nine eight zero one eight nine six lev vygotsky russian psychologist d one nine three four one eight nine six erich h ckel german physicist d one nine eight zero one eight nine nine p l travers australian author d one nine nine six one nine zero two zino francescatti french violinist d one nine nine one one nine zero nine adam von trott zu solz german diplomat opposing the nazi regime executed d one nine four four one nine one one william alfred fowler american physicist nobel prize laureate d one nine nine six one nine one four tove jansson finnish author d two zero zero one one nine one nine joop den uyl prime minister of the netherlands d one nine eight seven one nine one nine ralph houk baseball player and manager one nine two |
one j james exon nebraska senator and governor one nine two two philip larkin english poet d one nine eight five one nine two seven daniel keyes american author one nine two seven robert shaw english actor d one nine seven eight one nine two eight bob cousy american basketball player one nine three one m rio zagallo brazilian football coach and player one nine three three tetsuko kuroyanagi japanese television personality and children s author one nine three eight leonid kuchma ukrainian politician one nine three eight rod laver australian tennis player one nine three nine romano prodi italian politician president of the european commission one nine three nine brito brazilian football player one nine four four sam elliott american actor one nine four five ken norton american boxer one nine four five posy simmonds english cartoonist one nine four eight bill campbell american baseball player one nine four nine jonathan kellerman american writer one nine five two prateep ungsongtham hata thai politician one nin |
e five three robert cray blues musician one nine five seven melanie griffith american actress one nine five nine stuart hughes canadian actor one nine six two kevin mack american football player one nine six three whitney houston american singer and actress one nine six four brett hull canadian born hockey player one nine six seven deion sanders american football player one nine six eight gillian anderson american actress one nine six eight eric bana australian actor one nine six nine troy percival baseball player one nine seven two juanes colombian singer one nine seven three kevin mckidd scottish actor one nine seven three filippo inzaghi italian footballer one nine seven four matt morris baseball player one nine seven six jessica capshaw american actress one nine seven six rhona mitra english actress one nine seven seven chamique holdsclaw american basketball player one nine seven seven mikael silvestre french footballer one nine seven eight audrey tautou french actress deaths one one seven trajan roman em |
peror b five three three seven eight valens roman emperor killed in battle b three two eight eight zero three byzantine empress irene one one zero seven emperor horikawa of japan b one zero seven nine one two five zero king eric iv of denmark b one two one six one five three four cardinal cajetan italian theologian b one four seven zero one six three four william noy english jurist b one five seven seven one seven two zero simon ockley english orientalist b one six seven eight one seven four four james brydges one st duke of chandos english patron of the arts b one six seven three one eight eight six samuel ferguson northern irish poet and artist b one eight one zero one nine one nine ruggiero leoncavallo italian composer b one eight five seven one nine four two edith stein st teresa benedicta of the cross executed b one eight nine one one nine four five harry hillman american athlete b one eight eight one one nine six two hermann hesse german born writer nobel prize laureate b one eight seven seven one nine |
six seven joe orton english writer b one nine three three one nine six nine abigail folger american heiress b one nine four three one nine six nine wojciech frykowski polish writer b one nine three six one nine six nine cecil frank powell british physicist nobel prize laureate b one nine zero three one nine six nine jay sebring american hair stylist b one nine three three one nine six nine sharon tate american actress murdered b one nine four three one nine seven five dmitri shostakovich russian composer b one nine zero six one nine nine five jerry garcia american guitarist grateful dead b one nine four two two zero zero zero john harsanyi hungarian born economist bank of sweden prize winner b one nine two zero two zero zero two peter neville anarchist sociologist and peace activist two zero zero three ray harford english footballer and manager b one nine four five two zero zero three gregory hines american actor and dancer b one nine four six two zero zero five matthew mcgrory american actor b one nine seven |
three two zero zero five judith rossner american novelist b one nine three five holidays and observances feast day of jean vianney edith stein and saint romanus ostiarius in the roman catholic church feast day of the great martyr saint panteleimon in russian orthodox church south africa national women s day singapore national day india quit india day external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day august eight august one zero july nine september nine listing of all days bust of aristophanes aristophanes c four four eight bc three eight zero bc greek was a greek comic dramatist the place and even exact date of his birth are unknown but he was probably educated in athens he was from the athenian deme of kudathenaium he is famous for writing comedies such as the birds for the two athenian festivals the dionysia and the lenea he wrote forty plays eleven of which still survive and his plays are the only surviving examples of old attic comedy many of his plays were political and often satirized the w |
ell known citizens of athens and their conduct in the peloponnesian war he is known to have been prosecuted for athenian law s equivalent of libel more than once a famous comedy the frogs was given the unprecedented honor of a second performance according to a later biographer he was also awarded a civic crown for the frogs he appears in plato s symposium giving a humorous mythical account of the origin of love the clouds a disastrous production resulting in a humiliating and long remembered cf the revised parabasis of the clouds and the parabasis of next year s the wasps last place finish at the city dionysia satirizes the new sophistic learning en vogue among the aristocracy at the time socrates was the principal target and in the play he emerges as a typical sophist no matter how inaccurate the portrayal may be lysistrata was written during the peloponnesian war between athens and sparta and presents a pacifist theme in a comical manner the women of the two states show off their bodies and deprive their hu |
sbands of sex until they stop fighting this play was later illustrated at length by pablo picasso surviving plays the acharnians four two five bc the knights four two four bc the clouds original four two three bcuncompleted revised version survives four one eight four one five bc the wasps four two two bc peace first version four two one bc the birds four one four bc lysistrata four one one bc thesmophoriazusae the festival women first version ca four one zero bc the frogs four zero five bc ecclesiazousae the assemblywomen ca three nine two bc plutus wealth second version three eight eight bc dated non surviving plays banqueters four two seven bc babylonians four two six bc farmers four two four bc merchant ships four two three bc the clouds first version four two three bc proagon four two two bc amphiaraos four one four bc plutus wealth first version four zero eight bc gerytades uncertain probably four zero seven bc koskalos three eight seven bc aiolosikon second version three eight six bc undated non surviv |
ing plays aiolosikon first version anagyros broilers daidalos danaids dionysos shipwrecked centaur niobos heroes islands lemnian women old age peace second version phoenician women poetry polyidos seasons storks telemessians triphales thesmophoriazusae the festival women second version women encamping see also agathon greek literature asteroid two nine three four aristophanes named after the dramatist external links aristophanes texts biography and texts of aristophanes the texts of aristophanes plays in translation contribution to the english language four four eight bc births three eight zero bc deaths ancient greek dramatists and playwrights ancient athenians satirists albert schweitzer etching by arthur william heintzelman albert schweitzer om january one four one eight seven five september four one nine six five was a german theologian musician philosopher and physician he was born in kaysersberg elsass lothringen germany now in haut rhin alsace france he received the one nine five two nobel peace prize |
in one nine five three theology as a young theologian his first major work by which he gained a great reputation was the quest of the historical jesus one nine zero six in which he interpreted the life of jesus in the light of jesus own eschatological convictions he established his reputation further as a new testament scholar by other theological studies like the mysticism of paul the apostle one nine three zero in these studies he examined the eschatological beliefs of paul and through this the message of the new testament during his tenure as a priest for st nicholas church in strasbourg he blessed the wedding of theodor heuss who was to become the first president of germany of the german federal republic music albert schweitzer was a famous organist in his day and was highly interested in the music of johann sebastian bach he developed a simple style of performance which he thought to be closer to what bach had meant it to be he based his interpretation mainly on his reassessment of bach s religious inten |
tions through the book johann sebastian bach the final version of which he completed in one nine zero eight he advocated this new style which has had great influence in the way bach s music is now being treated albert schweitzer was also a famous organ constructor recordings of schweitzer playing the music of bach are available on cds philosophy schweitzer s worldview was based on his idea of reverence for life which he believed to be his greatest single contribution to humankind his view was that western civilization was in decay because of gradually abandoning its ethical foundations those of affirmation of life it was his firm conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle in a similar kind of exaltation of life to that of friedrich nietzsche a recently influential philosopher of the time schweitzer admittedly followed the same line as that of the russian leo tolstoy some people in his days compared his philosophy with that of francis of assisi a comparison he did not object to in his philos |
ophy of civilisation all quotes in this section from chapter two six of the same book he wrote true philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness i am life that wants to live in the midst of life that wants to live life and love in his view are based on and follow out of the same principle respect for every manifestation of life and a personal spiritual relationship towards the universe ethics according to schweitzer consists in the compulsion to show to the will to live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one s own in circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism since the will to live renews itself again and again as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension however as schweitzer himself pointed out it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend a life of not following it the history of world philosophies and religions clearly shows many instances of de |
nial of the principle of reverence for life he points to the prevailing philosophy in the european middle ages and the indian brahminic philosophy nevertheless this kind of attitude lacks in genuineness since we enter the world it offers us a horrible drama it consists in the fact that the will to live looked as a sum of all the individual wills is divided against itself one existence is antagonised against another one destroys another only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other will to live and desirious of solidarity with it this solidarity however cannot be brought about because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life but as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity and to put a stop to this disunion of the will to live so far as it is within one s power schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life the historical enlightenment wan |
ed and corrupted itself schweitzer held because it has not been well enough grounded in thought but compulsively followed the ethical will to live hence he looked forward to a renewed and more profound rennaisance and enlightenment of humanity a view he expressed in the epilogue of his out of my life and thought albert schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the universe his optimism was based in belief in truth the spirit generated by conceiving of truth is greater than the force of circumstances he persistently emphasized the necessity to think rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions never for a moment do we lay aside our mistrust of the ideals established by society and of the convictions which are kept by it in circulation we always know that society is full of folly and will deceive us in the matter of humanity humanity meaning consideration for the existence and the happiness of individual human |
beings respect for life resulting from contemplation on one s own conscious will to live leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature schweitzer was very much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life schweitzer died in gabon africa after years of serving others as a physician in africa stance on racial relations schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in africa to be his response to jesus call to become fishers of men but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of european colonizers who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they the coloured peoples have suffered at the hands of europeans if a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible on the edge of the primeval forest p one one five schweitzer w |
as sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards africans for instance he thought gabonese independence came too early without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances edgar berman quotes schweitzer speaking these lines in one nine six zero no society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow in africa with schweitzer p one three nine chinua achebe has quoted schweitzer as saying the african is indeed my brother but my junior brother which achebe criticized him for medicine albert schweitzer spent most of his life in lambar n in what is now gabon africa after his medical studies in one nine one three he went there with his wife to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post he treated and operated on literally thousands of people he took care of hundreds of leprosy and treated many victims of the african sleeping sickness in one nine one four world war i beg |
an and because he was a german on french territory schweitzer and his wife were taken captive and temporarily confined to their house in one nine one seven they were interned in garaison france and in one nine one eight in saint remy de provence there he studied and wrote as much as possible in preparation for among others his famous book culture and ethics published in one nine two three in july one nine one eight he was a free man again and while working as a medical assistant and assistant pastor in strasbourg he was able to finish the book in the meantime he began to speak and lecture about his ideas wherever he was invited not only did he want his philosophy on culture and ethics to become widely known it also served as a means to raise money for the hospital in lambar n for which he had already emptied his own pockets in one nine two four he returned to lambar n where he managed to rebuild the decayed hospital after which he resumed his medical practices soon he was no longer the only medical doctor in |
the hospital and whenever possible he went to europe to lecture at universities gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged not only in europe but worldwide later life from one nine three nine one nine four eight he stayed in lambar n unable to go back to a europe in war three years after the end of world war ii in one nine four eight he returned for the first time to europe and kept travelling back and forth and once to the usa as long as he could until his death in one nine six five from one nine five two until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with albert einstein and bertrand russell in one nine five seven and one nine five eight he broadcast four speeches over radio oslo which were published in peace or atomic war in one nine five seven schweitzer was one of the founders of the committee for a sane nuclear policy his life was portrayed in the one nine five two movie il est minuit docteur schweitzer starring pierre fresnay as albert schweitzer and jeanne moreau as h |
is nurse marie his cousin anne marie schweitzer sartre was the mother of jean paul sartre he was chevalier of the military and hospitaller order of saint lazarus of jerusalem he died on september four one nine six five in lambar n gabon selected bibliography the decay and the restoration of civilization one nine two three civilization and ethics one nine two three indian thought and its development one nine three five the kingdom of god and primitive christianity publ one nine six seven my life and thought one nine three one autobiography according to the preface of the reviewed edition henry holt and company one nine nine one schweitzer personally considered to be his most important book peace or atomic war one nine five eight out of my life and thought an autobiography by albert schweitzer isbn zero eight zero one eight six zero nine seven zero the quest of the historical jesus a critical study of its progress from reimarus to wrede timeline one eight nine three studied philosophy and theology at the univer |
sities of strassburg berlin and paris one nine zero zero curate of the church of st nicolas in strassburg one nine zero one principal of the theological seminary in strassburg one nine zero five one nine one three studied medicine and surgery one nine one two married helene bresslau one nine one three physician in lambar n africa one nine one five developed his ethic reverence for life one nine one seven interned in france one nine one eight medical assistant and assistant pastor in strassburg one nine one nine first major speech about reverence for life at the university of uppsala sweden one nine one nine birth of daughter rhena one nine two four return to lambar n as physician frequent visits to europe for speaking engagements one nine three nine one nine four eight lambar n one nine four nine visit to the usa one nine four eight one nine six five lambar n and europe one nine five three nobel peace prize for the year one nine five two one nine five seven one nine five eight four speeches against nuclear ar |
mament and tests see also christian eschatology references and external links albert schweitzer a biography by james brabazon the definitive biography albert schweitzer information on albert schweitzer s life and thought friends of albert schweitzer uk a charity promoting reverence for life the albert schweitzer page albert schweitzer fellowship readings on reverence for life biography information on the one nine five two nobel peace prize laureate bruderhof peacemakers guide profile on albert schweitzer page at the nobel e museum schweitzer nobel presentation speech by gunnar jahn schweitzerforlaget norwegian text only one eight seven five births one nine six five deaths biblical scholars cat lovers german theologians humanists humanitarians members of the order of merit nobel peace prize winners polymaths unitarian universalists vegetarians the austrian school is a school of economic thought that rejects opposing economists reliance on methods used in natural science for the study of human action and instea |
d bases its formalism of economics on relationships through logic or introspection called praxeology its most famous adherents are carl menger eugen von b hm bawerk friedrich von wieser ludwig von mises friedrich hayek murray rothbard israel kirzner and hans hermann hoppe while often controversial and standing to some extent outside of the mainstream of neoclassical theory as well as being staunchly against much of keynes theory and its results the austrian school has been widely influential because of its emphasis on the creative phase of economic productivity and their questioning of the basis of the behavioral theory underlying neoclassical economics the austrian school is generally associated with groups that label themselves classical liberals or libertarian in their ideas of social political and economic organization history classical economics focused on the exchange theory of value in late one nine th century however there was a focus on the concept of the marginal cost and value see marginalism carl |
menger s one eight seven one book principles of economics is considered one of the crucial works that began the period known as neoclassical economics while marginalism was generally influential there was also a more specific school that grew up around menger which came to be known as the vienna school or austrian school austrian economics is currently closely associated with advocacy of radical laissez faire views however earlier austrian economists were more cautious compared to later economists such as ludwig von mises with eugen von b hm bawerk saying that he feared that unbridled free competition would lead to anarchism in production and consumption however the austrian school especially through the works of friedrich hayek would be influential in the revival of laissez faire thought in the one nine eight zero s the school originated in vienna and owes its name to members of the historical school of economics who during the methodenstreit where the austrians defended the reliance that classical economist |
s placed on logic over observation their prussian opponents derisively named them the austrian school to emphasize a departure from mainstream german thought and to suggest a provincial approach menger s contributions were closely followed by eugen von b hm bawerk and friedrich von wieser austrian economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from neoclassical economics during the economic calculation debate with ludwig von mises and friedrich von hayek representing the austrian position where they contended that without monetary prices or private property meaningful economic calculation was impossible the austrian economists were the first liberal economists to systematically challenge the marxist school this was partly a reaction to the methodenstreit when they attacked the hegelian doctrines of the historical school though many marxist authors have attempted to portray the austrian school as a bourgeois reaction to marx such an interpretation is untenable menger wrote his principles of ec |
onomics at almost the same time as marx was completing das kapital the austrian economists were however the first to clash directly with marxism since both dealt with such subjects as money capital business cycles and economic processes b hm bawerk wrote extensive critiques of marx in the one eight eight zero s and one eight nine zero s and several prominent marxists including rudolf hilferding attended his seminar in one nine zero five zero six in contrast the classical economists had shown little interest in such topics and many of them did not even gain familiarity with marx s ideas until well into the twentieth century the school was no longer centered in austria after hitler came to power austrian economics was ill thought of by most economists after world war ii due to its rejection of observational methods its reputation has lately risen with work by students of israel kirzner and ludwig lachmann as well as an interest in hayek after he won the bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alf |
red nobel however it remains a distinctly minority position even in such areas as capital value austrian economics can be broken into two general trends one exemplified by hayek while distrusting of many neoclassical concepts generally accepts their formulations the other exemplified by the ludwig von mises institute seeks a different formalism for economics the primary areas of contention between neoclassical theory and the austrian school are on the possibility of consumer indifference neoclassical theory says it is possible where as mises rejected it as being impossible to observe in practice and when mises and his students argued that utility functions are ordinal and not cardinal that is one can only rank preferences and not measure their intensity finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by mises and other austrians who argue for a different means of risk assessment an area that is often overlooked is the influence that austrian school ideas have had on keynesian macroeconomics the |
source of this influence is the period of time where the london school of economics brought in hayek and other continental economists while their students flew the coop refusing to join the austrian school many of the concepts particularly relating time to the value of capital and its importance would find their way into the work of keynesians such as john hicks alan greenspan speaking of the originators of the school said in two zero zero zero the austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and in my judgment probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country the long time u s federal reserve chairman said he attended a seminar hosted by ludwig von mises analytical framework austrian economists reject observation as a tool applicable to economics saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions acting human beings are too complex for this treatm |
ent instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action a discipline named praxeology by ludwig von mises austrians view entrepreneurship as the driving force in economic development see private property as essential to the efficient use of resources and often see government interference in market processes as counterproductive as with neoclassical economists austrians reject classical cost of production theories most famously the labor theory of value instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals this psychological aspect to menger s economics has been attributed to the school s birth in turn of the century vienna supply and demand are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals following the precepts of methodological individualism which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions and marginalist arguments which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes contemporary neo austrian economists claim to adopt eco |
nomic subjectivism more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms for example while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an equilibrium system with supply and demand in balance austrian economists emphasize its dynamic perpetually dis equilibrated nature the core of the austrian framework can be summarized as taking a subjectivist approach to marginal economics and a focus on the idea that theory should absolutely overrule observation austrians focus completely on the opportunity cost of goods as opposed to balancing downside or disutility costs it is an austrian assertion that everyone is better off in a mutually voluntary exchange or they would not have carried it out a fuller explanation of this in more exact terms is available at the new school s economic pages this focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the time value of a good has a strict relationship since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in t |
ime as they are now the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold a factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth this means that the business cycle is driven by miscoordination between sectors of the same economy caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time this means in the austrian context the correct way to prevent imbalances in the economy is to make people want to buy the correct goods rather than controlling when people buy goods contributions some contributions of austrian economists a theory of distribution in which factor prices result from the imputation of prices of consumer goods to goods of higher order that is goods used in the production of consumer goods goods of the first order an emphasis on opportunity cost and reservation demand in defining value and a refusal to consi |
der supply as an otherwise independent cause of value the british economist philip wicksteed adopted this perspective an emphasis on the forward looking nature of choice seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics see also time preference a fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena this was seen as an evolutionary or genetic causal approach against the stresses of equilibrium and perfect competition found in mainstream neoclassical economics see also praxeology eugen von b hm bawerk s critique of marx centered around the untenability of the labor theory of value in the light of the transformation problem there was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers they accommodate workers by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce eugen von b hm bawerk s capital theory which equates capita |
l intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes the mises hayek business cycle theory which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by monetary policy setting interest rates inconsistent with individual time preferences hayek s concept of intertemporal equilibrium john hicks took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in value and capital a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after world war ii mises and hayek s view of prices as permitting agents to make use of dispersed tacit knowledge the time preference theory of interest which explains interest rates through intertemporal choice the different time preferences of the borrower or lender rather than as a price paid for a factor of production stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions rather than relying on homo economicus or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions the fact that p |
erfect knowledge never exists means that all economic activity implies risk seeing the entrepreneurs role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks the economic calculation debate between austrian and marxist economists with the austrians claiming that marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production and so socialism could not calculate best uses in the same way capitalism does major austrian economists other related economists richard cantillon frederic bastiat precursor henry hazlitt introduced the austrian school to the usa school of salamanca renaissance precursors tienne bonnot de condillac louis say jean baptiste say l on walras jules dupuit lionel robbins wilhelm r pke joseph schumpeter a r j turgot critics bryan caplan seminal works principles of economics by carl menger capital and interest by eugen von b hm bawerk the theory of money and credit by ludwig von mises socialism by ludwig von mises human action by ludwig von mise |
s man economy and state by murray n rothbard individualism and economic order by friedrich hayek see also chicago school economics classical liberalism keynesian school neoclassical school socialist school supply side economics school of salamanca renaissance pre austrians external links what is austrian economics austrian school as defined by the ludwig von mises institute the mises institute a large selection of online books video audio journal archives and research on austrian economics society for the development of austrian economics largest professional organization of austrian economists austrian school on newschool edu compare austrian versus other schools the austrian economists by eugen von b hm bawerk one eight nine one a great revolution in economics vienna one eight seven one and after by houmanidis and leen austrian economics forum discussion about the austrian school and libertarianism by economics students and professors the mont pelerin society the origins of the austrian school of economics |
by john moser austrian school directory of links from the open source directory a list of academic critiques of austrian economics austrian economics forum discussion message board concerning austrian economic theory in french in french in french in french in french the austrian economists austrian addiction economic theories macroeconomics austrian school abscess an abscess is a collection of pus collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process usually caused by bacteria or parasites or other foreign materials e g splinters or bullet wounds it is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body the organisms or foreign materials that gain access to a part of tissue kill the local cells release toxins and trigger an inflammatory response by drawing huge amounts of white blood cells to the area and increasing the regional blood flow so pus is a collection of local dead tissue cells white blood cells infecting organisms o |
r foreign material and toxins released by both organisms and blood cells the final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to build a barrier around the pus that limits the infected material from neighbouring structures manifestations the cardinal symptoms and signs of any kind of inflammatory process are redness heat swelling and pain abscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface where they may be superficial pustules boils or deep skin abscesses in the lungs brain kidneys and tonsils major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death gangrene abscesses in most parts of the body rarely heal themselves so prompt medical attention is indicated at the first suspicion of an abscess treatment the abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause requiring surgical removal surgical drainage of the abscess e g lancing is us |
ually indicated once the abscess has developed from a harder serous inflammation to a softer pus stage as staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause an anti staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used it is important to note that antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective in critical areas where surgery presents a high risk such as the brain surgery may be delayed or used as a last resort the drainage of the lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for skin abscess perianal abscess perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example inflammatory bowel disease such as crohn s disease or diabetes often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration or hard stool this wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal |
area and then develops into an abscess this often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with the passage of time like other abscesses perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment such as an incision and debridement or lancing see also boil sterile abscess infectious diseases external links medlineplus medical encyclopedia abscess medlineplus medical encyclopedia skin abscess the abwehr was a german intelligence organization from one nine two one to one nine four four the verb abwehren means to ward off implying counterespionage this term was used as a concession to allied demands that germany s post world war i intelligence activities be for defensive purposes only after february four one nine three eight its name in full was amt ausland abwehr im oberkommando der wehrmacht foreign bureau defence of the armed forces high command despite its name the purpose of the abwehr was to obtain military intelligence concerning nations of interest to the german |
government its headquarters were located at seven six seven eight tirpitzufer in berlin adjacent to the offices of the oberkommando der wehrmacht okw the abwehr before canaris the abwehr was created in one nine two one as part of the ministry of defence when germany was allowed to form the reichswehr the military organization of the weimar republic the first head was major friedrich gempp a former deputy to col walther nicolai the head of german inteligence during world war i at that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff by the one nine two zero s it was organized into three sections i reconnaissance ii cipher and radio monitoring iii counterespionage the german navy s intelligence staff merged with the abwehr in one nine two eight in the one nine three zero s with the rise of the nazi movement the ministry of defence was reorganized surprisingly on june seven one nine three two a naval officer capt konrad patzig was named chief of the abwehr despite the f |
act that it was staffed largely by army officers but perhaps not surprisingly due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time it was unsuitable for a more ambitious army officer another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs however all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff because of abwehr sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with poland patzig soon had confrontations with heinrich himmler head of the ss army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on poland patzig was fired in january one nine three five as a result and was sent to command the new pocket battleship admiral graf spee he later became chief of naval personnel his replacement was another reichsmarine captain wilhelm canaris the abwehr under canaris before the war wilhelm canaris before he took over the abwehr on january one the soon to b |
e admiral canaris was warned by patzig of attempts by himmler and reinhard heydrich to take over all german intelligence organs canaris a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life thought he knew how to deal with them but even while he tried to maintain an at least cordial relationship with them the antagonism between the abwehr and the ss did not stop with canaris at the helm it came to a head in one nine three seven when adolf hitler decided to help josef stalin in the latter s purge against the soviet military hitler ordered that the german army staff should be kept in the dark about stalin s intentions for fear that they would warn their soviet counterparts accordingly special ss teams accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police broke into the secret files of the general staff and the abwehr and removed documents related to german soviet collaboration to conceal the thefts fires were started at the break ins which included abwehr headquarters when hitler replaced the minis |
try of war with the oberkommando der wehrmacht okw the abwehr became its intelligence agency although with some degree of independence therefrom canaris reorganized the agency in one nine three eight establishing the following major departments which existed until its dissolution i espionage g false documents h west army west anglo american intelligence h ost army east soviet intelligence ht army technical i communications l airforce m naval t lw technical air force w economics ii sabotage and special tasks iii counterespionage both army and navy officers headed these sections in this reorganizaton canaris took care to surround himself with a hand picked staff notably his second in command hans oster and erwin von lahousen section ii chief all but one were not members of the nazi party the exception was rudolf bamler who was appointed as chief of section iii to cement himmler s trust in him but canaris made sure to keep a tight leash on him and gave him limited access to operational information the abwehr dur |
ing world war ii under canaris the abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war its most notable success was operation nordpol which was an operation against the dutch underground network which at the time was supported by the british special operations executive in march one nine four one the germans forced a captured soe radio operator to transmit messages to britain in a code that the germans had obtained even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised the receiver in britain did not notice this thus the germans had been able to penetrate the dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and sabotage reports until the british caught on but it was ineffective overall for several reasons much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the german leadership moreover it was in direct competition conflict with ss intelligence activities under reinhard he |
ydrich and walter schellenberg the animosity between the ss and abwehr did not stop there many of the abwehr s operatives including canaris himself were in fact anti nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against hitler including the most serious one on july two zero one nine four four canaris even employed jews in the abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of jews to escape from germany into switzerland but perhaps the biggest reason was that canaris himself sought to undermine the nazi cause despite the abwehr s many intelligence coups its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who with canaris s blessing aided the allies in whatever covert means were necessary he personally gave false information which discouraged hitler from invading switzerland he also persuaded francisco franco not to allow german forces to pass through spain to invade gibraltar he even provided intelligence to the allies on german intentions as well the ss continually undermined the abwehr by putting se |
veral abwehr officers under investigation believing them correctly to be involved in anti hitler plots the ss also accused canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments especially on the russian campaign one such briefing reportedly resulting in hitler seizing canaris by the lapels and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that germany would lose the war the frau solf tea party and the end of the abwehr the incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the abwehr came to be known as the frau solf tea party which took place on september one zero one nine four three frau johanna or hanna solf the widow of dr wilhelm solf a former colonial minister under kaiser wilhelm ii and ex ambassador to japan had long been involved in the anti nazi intellectual movement in berlin at a tea party hosted by her a new member was included in the circle an attractive young swiss doctor named reckse it turned out that dr reckse was an agent of the gestapo to which he reported on |
the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents the solf circle was tipped off and had to flee for their lives but they were all rounded up on january one two one nine four four eventually everyone who was involved in the solf circle except frau solf and her daughter the countess lagi gr fin von ballestrem were executed one of those executed was otto kiep an official in the foreign office who had friends in the abwehr among whom were erich vermehren and his wife the former countess elizabeth von plettenberg who were stationed as agents in istanbul both were summoned to berlin by the gestapo in connection with the kiep case fearing for their lives they contacted the british and defected it was mistakenly believed in berlin that the vermehrens absconded with the abwehr s secret codes and turned them over to the british that proved to be the last straw for hitler despite the efforts of the abwehr to shift the blame to the ss or even to the foreign ministry hitler had had enough of canaris and he to |
ld himmler so twice he summoned the chief of the abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the abwehr to fall into bits canaris quietly agreed that it was not surprising as germany was already losing the war hitler fired canaris on the spot and on february one eight one nine four four hitler signed a decree that abolished the abwehr its functions were taken over by the rsha this action deprived the armed forces and the anti nazi conspirators of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened himmler s control over the generals canaris by this time a vice admiral was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the office of commercial and economic warfare he was arrested on july two three one nine four four in the aftermath of the july two zero plot against hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war along with oster his deputy the functions of the abwehr were then totally absorbed by the sicherheitsdienst a sub office of the schutzstaffel ss security command the rsha chiefs |
of the abwehr col friedrich gempp one nine two one one nine two seven major g nther schwantes one nine two seven one nine two nine lt col ferdinand von bredow one nine two nine one nine three two rear adm konrad patzig one nine three two one nine three five vice adm wilhelm canaris one nine three five one nine four four see also hans oster canaris deputy erwin von lahousen chief of german sabotage nikolaus ritter dietrich bonhoeffer oskar schindler another abwehr agent german intelligence agencies german loanwords cliff palace mesa verde national park ancient pueblo people or ancestral puebloans is a preferred term for the cultural group of people often known as anasazi who are the ancestors of the modern pueblo peoples the ancestral puebloans were a prehistoric native american civilization centered around the present day four corners area of the southwest united states archaeologists still debate when a distinct culture emerged but the current consensus based on terminology defined by the pecos classificati |
on suggests their emergence around one two zero zero b c the basketmaker ii era the civilization is perhaps best known for the jacal adobe and sandstone dwellings that they built along cliff walls particularly during the pueblo ii and pueblo iii eras the best preserved examples of those dwellings are in parks such as chaco culture national historical park mesa verde national park hovenweep national monument bandelier national monument and canyon de chelly national monument these villages called pueblos by mexican settlers were often only accessible by rope or through rock climbing the ancestral puebloans are also known for their unique style of pottery today considered valuable for their rarity they also created many petroglyphs and pictographs the ancestral puebloans migrated from their ancient homeland for several complex reasons these may include pressure from numic speaking peoples moving onto the colorado plateau as well as climate change which resulted in agricultural failures confirming evidence for cl |
imatic change in north america is found in excavations of western regions in the mississippi valley between a d one one five zero and one three five zero which show long lasting patterns of warmer wetter winters and cooler dryer summers most modern pueblo peoples whether keresans hopi or tanoans and historians like james w loewen in his book lies across america assert these people did not vanish as is commonly portrayed but merged into the various pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in arizona and new mexico this perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early two zero th century anthropologists including frank hamilton cushing j walter fewkes and alfred v kidder many modern pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements in the anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors the mogollon for example the san ildefonso pueblo people believe that their ancestors lived in both the mesa verde area and the current bandelier anasazi as a cultural label the term anasazi wa |
s established in archaeological terminology through the pecos classification system in one nine two seven archaeologist linda cordell discussed the word s etymology and use the name anasazi has come to mean ancient people although the word itself is navajo meaning enemy ancestors the navajo word is anaas z anaa enemy s z ancestor it is unfortunate that a non pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral pueblo the term was first applied to ruins of the mesa verde by richard wetherill a rancher and trader who in one eight eight eight one eight eight nine was the first anglo american to explore the sites in that area wetherill knew and worked with navajos and understood what the word meant the name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by alfred v kidder the acknowledged dean of southwestern archaeology kidder felt that is was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worrie |
d that because the pueblos speak different languages there are different words for ancestor and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages some modern pueblo peoples object to the use of the term anasazi although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative the modern hopi use the word hisatsinom in preference to anasazi however navajo nation historic preservation department nnhpd spokeman ronald maldonado has indicated the navajo do not favor use of the term ancestral puebloan in fact reports submitted for review by nnhpd are rejected if they include use of the term cultural divisions archaeological cultural units such as anasazi hohokam patayan or mogollon are used by archaeologists to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio cultural units which may be understood as equivalent to modern tribes societies or peoples the names and divisions are classificatory devices based on theoretical perspectives analytical methods and d |
ata available at the time of analysis and publication they are subject to change not only on the basis of new information and discoveries but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community it should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio political entity such as a tribe when making use of modern cultural divisions in the american southwest it is important to understand three limitations in the current conventions archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people s activities fragments of pottery vessels human remains stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings however many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible languages spoken by these people and their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relatio |
nships the ancient residents may have recognized modern cultures in this region many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles social organization language and religious beliefs this suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest the modern term style has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or architecture can be interpreted within a people different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group for example in modern western cultures there are alternative styles of clothing that characterized older and younger generations some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions on teaching from one generation or school to another other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture perhaps defining status gender clan or guild affiliation religious belief or cultural alliances variations may also simply reflect the di |
fferent resources available in a given time or area defining cultural groups such as the ancient pueblo peoples tends to create an image of territories separated by clear cut boundaries like modern state lines these simply did not exist prehistoric people traded worshipped and collaborated most often with other nearby groups cultural differences should therefore be understood as clinal increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases plog p seven two departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers in the southwest mountain ranges rivers and most obviously the grand canyon can be significant barriers for human communities likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the mogollon and ancient pueblos and their greater differences from the hohokam and patayan is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the |
southwest references cordell linda s ancient pueblo peoples st remy press and smithsonian institution one nine nine four isbn zero eight nine five nine nine zero three eight five fagan brian m ancient north america tha archaeology of a continent part five thames and hudson inc new york new york one nine nine one isbn zero five zero zero zero five zero seven five nine plog stephen ancient peoples of the american southwest thames and hudson london england one nine nine seven isbn zero five zero zero two seven nine three nine x sofaer anna director mystery of chaco canyon one nine nine nine dvd vhs bullfrog films blurb unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern pueblo indians sequel to the sun dagger see also chacoans cliff palace hopi kiva kokopelli matrilocality newspaper rock state historic monument pueblo people sipapu taos pueblo zuni external links homepage of the anasazi heritage center southwest pueblo pottery holmes anthropology museum ancient peoples archaeological cultures native american culture |
native american history pottery view of aalborg railroad station from j f kennedy s square two zero zero four aalborg is a municipality danish kommune in north jutland county on the jutland peninsula in northern denmark the municipality straddles the limfjord the waterway which connects the north sea and the kattegat east to west and which separates the main body of the jutland peninsula from the island of vendsyssel thy north to south it is also the name of the municipality s main city and the site of its municipal council as well as the name of a seaport the municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as aalborg although the new spelling lborg is used in other contexts such as lborg bay lborg bugt the body of water which lies to the east of the jutland peninsula the municipality which includes the island of egholm covers an area of five six zero km and has a total population of one nine two three five three two zero zero five the mayor of the municipality is henning |
g jensen a member of the social democrats socialdemokraterne political party neighboring municipalities are sejlflod and hals to the east dronninglund and br nderslev to the north aabybro and nibe to the west and st vring and sk rping to the south the waters splitting the municipality are called langerak to the east and gj l bredning to the west the island of egholm is located in gj l bredning and is connected by ferry to the city of aalborg at its southern shore by january one two zero zero seven aalborg municipality will as the result of kommunalreformen the municipality reform of two zero zero seven be merged with existing hals nibe and sejlflod municipalities to form the new aalborg municipality this will create a municipality with an area of one one seven one km the new municipality will belong to the new region nordjylland north jutland region surroundings the area is typical for the north of jutland to the west the limfjord broadens into an irregular lake salt water with low marshy shores and many isl |
ands northwest is store vildmose greater wild bog a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer southeast lies the similar lille vildmose lesser wild bog store vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the two zero th century and lille vildmose is now the largest moor in denmark the city of aalborg the city of aalborg is the fourth largest city in denmark after copenhagen aarhus and odense it is the location of aalborg air base an important base of the danish air force and is the seat of a lutheran bishop railway connects aalborg with hj rring frederikshavn and skagen to the north and with aarhus and the lines from germany to the south as well as to copenhagen in the east over the island of funen the harbour is good and safe though fairly difficult to access history aalborg traces its history back over one zero zero zero years it was originally settled as a trading post because of its position on the limfjord the sites of what were two settlements and a visible burial ground can be seen on lind |
holm h je a hill overlooking the city the size of these settlements emphasise the significance of this place as a crossroads the first mention of aalborg under its original name alabu is found on a coin dated to one zero four zero during the middle ages aalborg prospered and became one of the largest cities in denmark this prosperity was further enhanced when in one five one six aalborg was granted a monopoly in salt herring aalborg received town privileges in one three four two and the bishopric dates from one five five four during the german invasion of denmark in one nine four zero the aalborg aerodrome was captured by nazi paratroopers very early in the action industry aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre exporting grain cement and fish it is home to de danske spritfabrikker s danish distillers aquavit snaps production facility for the distillation of the aalborg family of akvavits consisting of one seven different brands danish distillers is scandinavia s largest producer and supplier of |
spirits for consumption and is the world s largest producer and exporter of aquavit supplying over one four zero geographic markets it is also the centre of a growing telecomunications industry originating from the aalborg university nytorv next to limfjord carnival in aalborg the annual carnival takes place the last weekend in may during the carnival aalborg receives about one zero zero zero zero zero people friday the battle of carnival bands is an exciting and colourful evening with processions through the city when all the participating groups compete to be the leading carnival group the carnival itself is the following saturday on this day the city centre is full of life the streets are filled with gaily dressed people who are in a real spring mood in kilde park concerts are given from various stages all day to midnight the carnival ends with a grand firework display on the harbour architecture and tourist attractions the old castle aalborghus castle aalborghus slot and some picturesque houses of the on |
e seven th century remain in the center of the town the half timbered bindingsv rk castle was built in one five five zero by king christian iii and was converted to government administration offices in the one nine five zero s budolfi church cathedral dates mostly from the middle of the one eight th century while vor frue kirke church of our lady was partially burnt in one eight nine four the foundations of both churches are from the one four th century or earlier there are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities on the north side of the limfjord is n rresundby which is connected to aalborg by a road bridge an iron railway bridge as well as a motorway tunnel running under the limfjord n rresundby is the site of the lindholm h je settlement and burial ground from the germanic iron age and viking times there is also a museum on the site aalborgt rnet a tripod tower erected in one nine three three the tower still gives an exquisite view over the fjord and the city from its one zero five m ri |
se over the sea level twinning aalborg maintains cultural economic and educational ties with some two five cities around the globe among others edinburgh scotland thus aalborg has the most twin cities in denmark every five years aalborg gathers youth from the majority of its twin cities for a week of sports games known as ungdomslegene the youth games other information the city has a football team playing in the danish superleague aalborg boldspilklub which is known as aab the city has the highest number of hairdresser shops tattoo shops bars night clubs pubs and solariums per inhabitant in denmark see also aalborg monastery external links municipality s official website the new aalborg municipality s website danish only aalborg tourist office aalborg university aalborg akvavit lborgt rnet satellite image from google maps interaalborg dk an independent guide and information of the city website made by aalborg university students references municipal statistics netborger kommunefakta delivered from kmd aka kom |
munedata municipal data municipal mergers and neighbors eniro new municipalities map municipalities of denmark cities and towns in denmark for the aarhus convention on public participation see aarhus convention the city hall of aarhus aarhus also commonly known by its danish spelling rhus is the second largest city in denmark it is the principal port on the east coast of jutland aarhus is also the location of the council of both aarhus municipality and aarhus county demographics the city s population is two nine four nine five four july two zero zero five one the town lies at the junction of railway lines from all parts of the country in a low lying fertile and well wooded district to the southwest one three miles by rail a picturesque region that contains the guden and several lakes extends west from the railway junction of skanderborg and rises to ground exceeding five zero zero feet in the himmelbjerget the railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to silkeborg a modern town with on |
e of the most attractive situations in the kingdom the harbour is good and safe and agricultural produce is exported while coal and iron are among the chief imports the bishopric of aarhus dates back at least from nine five one aarhus one three th century cathedral the rhus domkirke is the largest church in denmark as well as the second largest in northern europe being only one five ft shorter than its counterpart in trondheim aarhus is also home to one of the few ghettos in denmark gellerup one major tourist attraction in aarhus is the old town danish den gamle by which is not actually an old part of the city itself but a collection of old buildings from danish history gathered from all around the country the lord mayor of aarhus is nicolai wammen of the social democrats aarhus is the home of university of aarhus aarhus school of business and the university college of aarhus history the name in medieval times the city was called arus and in icelandic chronicles it was known as r ss it is a compound of the tw |
o words r genitive of river modern danish and ss mouth obsolete in modern danish in modern icelandic this word is still used for river delta the city is located on the mouth of the small river rhus through regular sound development medieval danish arus became aars or oes a form which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the two zero th century in one four zero six aarhus became revalent in the written sources and gradually became the norm in the one seven th century aarhus is probably a remodelling after the numerous low german place names in husen possibly as a result of the influence of german merchants the city is mentioned the first time by adam of bremen who mentions that reginbrand bishop of the church of aarhus harusam participates in a church meeting in the city of ingelham in germany viking times the oldest archaelogical findings in aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the seven th century half buried long houses used both as homes and workshops for the vikings have |
also been found in the houses and the adjoining archaelogical layers combs jewelry and basic multi purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year nine zero zero digs in the spring of two zero zero five revealed a so called city ditch from the year eight five zero which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built the finding of six rune stones in and around aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year one zero zero zero as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them one six zero zero one seven zero zero during the wars of the one seven th century it is probable that the city suffered a great deal fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the german imperial campaigns between one six two seven and one six two nine in one six four four sweden taxed the city harshly and between one six five seven and one six five nine it was occupied by swedish troops on several occasions in spite of these and other misfortunes such as |
plague and city wide fires aarhus was still quite a significant city in denmark due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading trade came mainly from the inland of jutland but also from norway l beck amsterdam england france and spain in the middle of the one eight th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately one zero zero ships one eight zero zero in the one nine th century the city gained more independence from the dominance of copenhagen and hamburg while it had been the third largest city in jutland during the early one nine th century its population surpassed randers in one eight four zero and in one eight five zero lborg thus becoming the largest city in jutland and the second largest in denmark the city s material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew culturally it marketed itself as the capital of jutland and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library universities the aarhus |
theater and hospitals suburbs of aarhus listed by zip code eight zero zero zero rhus c eight two zero zero rhus n eight two one zero rhus v eight two two zero brabrand eight two three zero byh j eight two four zero risskov eight two five zero eg eight two six zero viby j eight two seven zero h jbjerg eight three one zero tranbjerg j eight three two zero m rslet eight three three zero beder eight three four zero malling eight three five five solbjerg eight three six one hasselager eight three eight zero trige eight three eight one tilst eight four six two harlev eight four seven one sabro eight five two zero lystrup eight five three zero hjortsh j eight five four one sk dstrup buildings and constructions telecommunication tower arhus concrete tower with guyed mast on its top not accessible for visitors skejby sygehus the second largest hospital in denmark external links official websites official city web portal visit rhus the official tourism site of rhus educational institutions university of aarhus aarhus s |
chool of business university college of aarhus technical college culture rhus kommunes biblioteker aarhus public libraries kulturcenter huset cultural centre aros aarhus kunstmuseum museum of arts den gamle by the old town moesg rd museum archaeological and ethnographic museum musikhuset aarhus concert hall aarhus festival of contemporary art two zero zero four minority report aarhus cities and towns in denmark regnum animalia phylum chordata classis actinopterygii ordo percopsiformes familia amblyopsidae genus amblyopsis species a spelea binomial amblyopsis spelea binomial authority dekay one eight four two the nothern cavefish also know as the northern blindfish amblyopsis spelea is found in caves through kentucky and southern indiana it is listed as a threatened species in the united states and the iucn lists the species as vulnerable the white river flowing east to west south of bedford indiana delimits the northern range of amblyopsis spelea these fish are not found in caves north of the white river perc |
opsiformes references the term abandonment has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra legal uses this signpost article provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length uses in law abandonment in law the relinquishment of an interest claim privilege or possession this broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law in common law jurisdictions both common law abandonment and statutory abandonment of property may be recognized a common law abandonment may be generally defined as the relinquishment of a right in property by the owner thereof without any regard to future possession by himself or any other person and with the intention to foresake or desert the right one corpus juris secundum abandonment two one nine eight five emphasis added footnotes and citations omitted common law abandonment is the voluntary relinquishment of a thing by its owner with the intention of terminating |
his ownership and without the intention of vesting ownership in any other person the giving up of a thing absolutely without reference to any particular person or purpose id emphasis added footnotes and citations omitted an example of statutory abandonment in a common law jurisdiction is abandonment by a bankruptcy trustee under abandonment of an action see judicature acts relates to a plaintiff s discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the high court of justice of england and wales and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the united kingdom in one eight seven five in marine insurance parlance abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer in the domain of copyrights abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the public domain however statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use r |
ather than strictly abandoning copyright for more information consult disclaimer of interest in the military practice and law abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called desertion and the condition of being away from that post can be called being away without leave in family circumstances child abandonment is often recognized as a crime in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of infanticide abandonment of domicile is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile the presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case in the united states a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there the landlord must then send notice |
of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it how long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment the rest must be set aside for the former tenant should she or he eventually return abandonment of an easement is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another s land such as right of way free access of light and air etc see easement abandonment of railways has a legal signification in england recognized by statute by authority of which the board of trade may under certain circumstances grant a warrant to a railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it abandonment of trademark is understood to happen when a trademark is not used for three or more years or when it is deliberately discontinued trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended an example of an abandoned trademark is aspirin once a mark of the bayer |
company now considered a generic term extra legal uses outside of legal circles abandonment has additional meanings and uses abandonment is a play about love death identity and evolution it is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think written by kate atkinson child abandonment in film and literature bachelor mother garson kanin us one nine three nine abandonment of a patient in medicine is where a health care professional usually a physician nurse dentist or paramedic has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need without securing the services of an adequate substitute or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one it is a crime in many countries and can result in the loss of one s license to practice also because of the public policy in favor of keeping people alive the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient s inability to pay for s |
ervices the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one s insurance coverage or the patient s inability to stop screaming because of extreme pain legal terms the word abatement has various meanings many of them legal the word came through french abattre from latin ab late latin battuere to beat which came from germanic it means a beating down or reducing or doing away with something abatement of a nuisance the remedy allowed by law to a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance letting him destroy or remove it if doing so causes no breach of the peace in the case of private nuisances abatement is also allowed if it causes no breach of the peace and no damage beyond what removing the nuisance requires abatement of freehold happens where after the person last seised dies a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee and keeps the heir or devisee out of possession intrusion an entry by a stranger when a tenant for life dies to the prejudice of the reversioner |
or remainder man disseisin the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold abatement of debts and legacies a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors their debts must abate proportionately abatement in pleading or plea in abatement was a plea by the defendant defeating or quashing a legal action by some matter of fact such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the parties suing it did not involve the merits of the cause but left the right of action subsisting in criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a common practice in answer to an indictment and was set up to defeat the indictment as framed by alleging that the defendant was wrongly named misnomer or was otherwise wrongly described its effect for this purpose was nullified by the criminal law act one eight two six which required the court to amend according to the truth and the criminal procedure a |
ct one eight five one see criminal procedure which rendered description of the defendant unnecessary all pleas in abatement are now abolished r s g order two one r two zero abatement in litigation in civil proceedings no action abates because any of the parties marries or dies or becomes bankrupt if the cause of the action survives or continues and does not become defective because any estate or title is assigned or created or devolved pendente lite r s c order one seven r one criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor being in theory instituted by the crown but the crown may terminate them without deciding on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor abatement of false lights by the merchant shipping act one eight five four the general lighthouse authority has power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a custom house from the fixed duties on ce |
rtain kinds of goods on account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses the rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated in england by the customs consolidation act one eight five three see also drawback and rebate marketing abatement heraldry is a badge in coat armour indicating some kind of degradation or dishonour it is also called rebatement though most abatements have existed only in theory there has been at least one imposition of an abatement in scotland legal terms ale is an ancient word for a fermented alcoholic beverage obtained chiefly from malted barley before the introduction of hops into england from the netherlands in the one five th century the name ale was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages the term beer being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops this distinction no longer applies a modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature strain of yeast an ale yeast is normally considered to be a top ferm |
enting yeast though a number of british brewers such as fullers and weltons use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment more quickly than lager yeasts they convert less of the sugar into alcohol giving a sweeter fuller body and they produce more esters which give a fruity taste and diacetyl which gives a buttery taste fermenting temperature ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer one five two three c six zero seven five f ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products and the result is a beer with slightly fruity compounds resembling but not limited to apple pear pineapple banana plum or prune stylistic difference to lager stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize steam beer k lsch and some modern british golden summer beers are seen as hybrids using elements of both lager and ale |
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