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achill people are forced to look for work abroad agriculture plays a small role and is only profitable because of european subsidies the fact that the island is mostly bog means that it is limited largely to sheep farming in the past fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now at one stage the island was known for its shark fishing basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil there was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s before which life was tough and difficult on the island since that heyday the common perception is that tourism has been slowly declining architecture the deserted village at the foot of slievemore was a booley village see transhumance some of the recent building development on the island over the last four zero years or so has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of whitewashed barged roofed cottages because of the inhospitable cl |
imate very few houses date from before the twentieth century an example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the deserted village ruins near the graveyard at the foot of slievemore even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as even as recently as a hundred years ago some people still used beehive style houses small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabitated cottages date from the activities of the congested districts board for ireland a body set up around the turn of the twentieth century in ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns most of the homes in achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages the cdb subsidised the building of new more spacious though still small by modern standards homes outside of the traditional villages famous people the artist paul henry stayed on the island for a number of years in the ea |
rly one nine zero zero s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island the nobel prize winning author heinrich b ll visited the island and wrote of his experience in his irish journal irisches tagebuch the b lls later bought a cottage near dugort and lived in it periodically until two zero zero one when they donated it to be used as an artists residence graham greene also spent time on achill island see also connacht irish external links achill island web site visit achill multilingual visitor s guide achill tourism web site scoil acla web site achill field school web site islands of ireland allen ginsberg in later life irwin allen ginsberg june three one nine two six april five one nine nine seven was an american beat poet born in newark new jersey ginsberg is best known for howl one nine five six a long poem about consumer society s negative human values life ginsberg was born on june three one nine two six into a jewish family in newark new jersey his father louis ginsbe |
rg was a poet and his mother was a high school teacher ginsberg s mother naomi levy ginsberg who was affected by epileptic seizures and mental illnesses such as paranoia was also an active member of the communist party usa and often took ginsberg and his brother eugene to party meetings ginsberg later said that his mother made up bedtime stories that all went something like the good king rode forth from his castle saw the suffering workers and healed them as a teenager ginsberg began to write letters to the new york times about political issues such as world war ii and workers rights when he was a junior in high school he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist the trip disturbed ginsberg and he later described it along with his relationship with his mother in his long autobiographical poem kaddish for naomi ginsberg one eight nine four one nine five six in one nine four three ginsberg graduated from high school and briefly attended montclair state university before entering columbia university on a sc |
holarship from the young men s hebrew association of paterson one nine four nine in his freshman year he met fellow undergraduate lucien carr who introduced him to a number of future beat writers including jack kerouac william s burroughs and john clellon holmes carr also introduced ginsberg to neal cassady one of the many that ginsberg loved kerouac later described the meeting between ginsberg and cassady in the first chapter of his one nine five seven novel on the road in one nine five four ginsberg met peter orlovsky a young man of two one with whom he fell in love and who remained his life long lover and with whom he eventually shared his interest in tibetan buddhism later in his life ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the one nine five zero s and the hippies of the one nine six zero s befriending among others timothy leary gregory corso bob kaufman herbert huncke rod mckuen and bob dylan in one nine six five ginsberg was deported from cuba for for publicaly protesting against cuba s an |
ti marijuana stance and its penchant for throwing homosexuals in jail the cubans sent him to czechoslovakia where one week after being named the king of a may day parade ginsberg was labeled an immoral menace by the czech government and deported in one nine eight two he was featured on ghetto defendant a song by the clash on their album combat rock ginsberg died of cancer on april five one nine nine seven career ginsberg s poetry was strongly influenced by modernism romanticism the beat and cadence of jazz and his kagyu buddhist practice and jewish background he considered himself to have inherited the visionary and homoerotic poetic mantle handed from the english poet and artist william blake on to walt whitman the power of ginsberg s verse its searching probing focus its long and lilting lines as well as its new world exuberance all echo the continuity of inspiration which he claimed other influences included the american poet william carlos williams ginsberg s principal work howl is well known to many for |
its opening line i saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness it was considered scandalous at the time of publication due to the rawness of the language which is frequently explicit shortly after its one nine five six publication by san francisco s city lights bookstore it was banned for obscenity the ban became a cause c l bre among defenders of the first amendment and was later lifted after judge clayton w horn declared the poem to possess redeeming social importance ginsberg s leftist and generally anti establishment politics attracted the attention of the fbi who regarded ginsberg as a major security threat allen ginsberg ginsberg s spiritual journey began early on with his reported spontaneous visions and continued with an early trip to india and a chance encounter on a new york city street they both tried to catch the same cab with ch gyam trungpa rinpoche a tibetan buddhist meditation master of the vajrayana school who became his friend and life long teacher ginsberg helped found the jack |
kerouac school of disembodied poetics at naropa university in boulder colorado a school founded by ch gyam trungpa rinpoche music and chanting were both important parts of his live delivery during poetry readings he often accompanied himself on a handheld organ called a harmonium and was often accompanied by a guitarist attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career no matter where in the world he appeared ginsberg won the national book award for his book the fall of america in one nine nine three the french minister of culture awarded him with the medal of chevalier des arts et des lettres the order of arts and letters in one nine nine four when the international lesbian and gay association successfully banished all connections to the north american man boy love association in order to gain consultative status in the united nations ginsberg opposed together with modern gay rights founder harry hay he said that he supported nambla s right to free speech because the |
hysteria over pederasty reminded him of the hysteria over homosexuality itself while he was growing up while his poetry praised the love of youths his interests lay mostly in young men above the age of consent quotations our goal was to save the planet and alter human consciousness that will take a long time if it happens at all poetry is not an expression of the party line it s that time of night lying in bed thinking what you really think making the private world public that s what the poet does pot is fun the only thing that can save the world is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world that s what poetry does master thyself and others will follow first thought best thought referring to his and other beat writers unique style of writing poetry the cia and the mafia are in cahoots bibliography howl and other poems one nine five six kaddish and other poems one nine six one reality sandwiches one nine six three the yage letters one nine six three with william s burroughs planet news one nine six eight the |
gates of wrath rhymed poems one nine four eight one nine five one one nine seven two the fall of america poems of these states one nine seven three iron horse one nine seven two mind breaths one nine seven eight plutonian ode poems one nine seven seven one nine eight zero one nine eight two collected poems one nine four seven one nine eight zero one nine eight four white shroud poems one nine eight zero one nine eight five one nine eight six cosmopolitan greetings poems one nine eight six one nine nine three one nine nine four howl annotated one nine nine five illuminated poems one nine nine six selected poems one nine four seven one nine nine five one nine nine six death and fame poems one nine nine three one nine nine seven one nine nine nine further reading miles barry ginsberg a biography london virgin publishing ltd two zero zero one paperback six two eight pages isbn zero seven five three five zero four eight six three schumacher michael edt family business selected letters between a father and son blo |
omsbury two zero zero two paperback four four eight pages isbn one five eight two three four two one six four schumacher michael dharma lion a biography of allen ginsberg new york st martin s press one nine nine four bullough vern l before stonewall activists for gay and lesbian rights in historical context harrington park press two zero zero two pp three zero four three one one notes allen ginsberg s life by ann charters modern american poetry website accessed one zero two zero zero five biographical notes on allen ginsberg by bonesy jones on the biography project accessed one zero two zero zero five ibid allen ginsberg s life by ann charters modern american poetry website accessed one zero two zero zero five ibid external links one nine eight five audio interview with allen ginsberg by don swaim of cbs radio realaudio allen ginsberg on poets org with audio clips poems and related essays from the academy of american poets allen ginsberg ginsberg s celestial homework the clearing house for all things ginsberg |
on allen ginsberg by ralph lichtensteiger the great marijuana hoax allen ginsberg the first half of which was written on marijuana allenginsberg org mp three files and much more naropa audio archives allen ginsberg class august six th one nine seven six streaming audio and six four kbit s mp three zip naropa audio archives anne waldman and allen ginsberg reading including howl august nine th one nine seven five streaming audio and six four kbit s mp three zip article on allen ginsberg lit kicks essay on ginsberg s in back of the real blue neon alley allen ginsberg directory spike magazine interview ginsberg s memorial page review of exhibit featuring photographs by ginsberg one nine two six births one nine nine seven deaths allen ginsberg american poets american anarchists anti war people beat generation beat writers buddhists columbia alumni gay writers greenwich village scene jewish american writers jewish anarchists pederasty people from new jersey tax resisters american communists in mathematics a field |
f is said to be algebraically closed if every polynomial in one variable of degree at least one with coefficients in f has a zero root in f as an example the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed because the polynomial equation three x two one zero has no solution in real numbers even though both of its coefficients three and one are real the same argument proves that the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed also no finite field f is algebraically closed because if a one a two a n are the elements of f then the polynomial x a one x a two x a n one has no zero in f by contrast the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed this is stated by the fundamental theorem of algebra another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of algebraic numbers given a field f the assertion f is algebraically closed is equivalent to each one of the following every polynomial p x of degree n one with coefficients in f splits into linear factors in other words there are elements k x |
one x two x n in f such that p x k x x one x x two x x n the field f has no proper algebraic extension for each natural number n every linear map from f n into itself has some eigenvector every rational function in one variable x with coefficients in f can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a x b n where n is a natural number and a and b are elements of f if f is an algebraically closed field a is an element of f and n is a natural number then a has an nth root in f since this is the same thing as saying that the equation x n a zero has some root in f however there are fields in which every element has an nth root for each natural number n but which are not algebraically closed in fact even assuming that every polynomial of the form x n a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed every field f has an algebraic closure which is the smallest algebraically closed field of which f is a subfield references s lang algeb |
ra springer verlag two zero zero four isbn zero three eight seven nine five three eight five x b l van der waerden algebra i springer verlag one nine nine one isbn zero three eight seven nine seven four two four five abstract algebra august six is the two one eight th day of the year in the gregorian calendar two one nine th in leap years with one four seven days remaining events one five three eight bogota colombia founded by gonzalo jimenez de quesada one eight zero six francis ii the last holy roman emperor abdicates thus ending the holy roman empire one eight one nine norwich university founded in vermont as the first private military school in the united states one eight two five bolivia gains independence from spain one eight six one british annexation of lagos nigeria one eight six two american civil war the confederate ironclad css arkansas is scuttled on the mississippi river after suffering damage in a battle with uss essex near baton rouge louisiana one eight nine zero at auburn prison in new york |
the first execution by electric chair is performed with murderer william kemmler as the subject one nine zero one kiowa land in oklahoma is opened for white settlement effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation one nine one four ten german u boats leave their base in heligoland to attack royal navy warships in the north sea beginning the first battle of the atlantic one nine one five world war i the battle of sari bair begins the allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major allied landing of reinforcements at suvla bay one nine two six gertrude ederle becomes first woman to swim across the english channel one nine two six in new york the warner brothers vitaphone system premieres with the movie don juan starring john barrymore one nine four five world war ii the atomic bombing of hiroshima an atomic bomb codenamed little boy is dropped by the american b two nine enola gay on the city of hiroshima in japan at eight one six a m killing eight zero zero zero zero outright with another |
six zero zero zero zero dead by the end of the year due to fallout sickness ultimately about two zero zero zero zero zero die due to the atomic bomb one nine six zero cuban revolution in response to a united states embargo cuba nationalizes american and foreign owned property in the nation one nine six two jamaica becomes independent one nine six five us president lyndon b johnson signs the voting rights act of one nine six five into united states law one nine eight four pop star prince releases purple rain the album which would launch him to superstardom one nine eight six a low pressure system that redeveloped off the new south wales coast dumps a record three two eight millimetres one three inches of rain in a day on sydney one nine eight eight police riot in new york city s tompkins square park one nine nine zero gulf war the united nations security council orders a global trade embargo against iraq in response to iraq s invasion of kuwait one nine nine one tim berners lee releases files describing his id |
ea for the world wide web one nine nine one doi takako chair of the social democratic party japan becomes japan s first female speaker of the house of representatives one nine nine three louis freeh is confirmed by the united states senate to be the director of the federal bureau of investigation one nine nine three the fugitive opens in theaters starring harrison ford and tommy lee jones one nine nine six nasa announces that the alh eight four zero zero one meteorite thought to originate from mars contains evidence of primitive life forms one nine nine seven microsoft buys one five zero million worth of shares of financially troubled apple computer one nine nine seven korean air flight eight zero one a boeing seven four seven three zero zero crashes into the jungle on guam on approach to airport killing two two eight two zero zero zero the roman catholic church s congregation for the doctrine of the faith under prefect joseph cardinal ratzinger publishes dominus iesus notable for its lack of the filioque cla |
use in the latin text of the nicene creed two zero zero one white house briefing entitled bin laden determined to strike in u s delivered to george w bush this document foreshadowed the september one one two zero zero one attacks two zero zero two marquis de la fayette is made honorary citizen of the united states two zero zero two manindra agrawal et al prove the long standing number theory conjecture in the article entitled primes in p births one one eight zero emperor go toba of japan d one two three nine one five zero four matthew parker archbishop of canterbury d one five seven five one six one nine barbara strozzi italian singer and composer d one six seven seven one six three eight nicolas malebranche french philosopher d one seven one five one six four four louise de la valli re french mistress of louis xiv of france d one seven one zero one six five six claude de forbin french naval commander d one seven three three one six nine seven charles vii holy roman emperor d one seven four five one seven one |
five luc de clapiers marquis de vauvenargues french writer d one seven four seven one seven six six william hyde wollaston english chemist d one eight two eight one seven six eight jean baptiste bessi res french marshal d one eight one three one eight zero nine alfred lord tennyson english poet d one eight nine two one eight four four james henry greathead british engineer d one eight nine six one eight four four alfred duke of saxe coburg and gotha d one nine zero zero one eight six eight paul claudel french poet d one nine five five one eight seven four charles fort american writer and researcher d one nine three two one eight seven seven wallace h white jr u s senator from maine d one nine five two one eight eight zero hans moser actor austrian actor d one nine six four one eight eight one leo carrillo american actor d one nine six one one eight eight one alexander fleming scottish scientist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine d one nine five five one eight eight one louella parsons ame |
rican gossip columnist d one nine seven two one eight eight nine john middleton murry english poet d one nine five seven one eight nine two hoot gibson american actor d one nine six two one eight nine three wright patman american politician d one nine seven six one nine zero zero cecil h green american geophysicist and businessman d two zero zero three one nine zero two dutch schultz american bootlegger and gangster d one nine three five one nine one one lucille ball american actress and comedian d one nine eight nine one nine one six richard hofstadter american historian d one nine seven zero one nine one seven robert mitchum american actor d one nine nine seven one nine two two sir freddie laker english entrepreneur one nine two three jess collins american artist d two zero zero four one nine two eight andy warhol american artist d one nine eight seven one nine three two howard hodgkin british painter and print maker one nine three four piers anthony english writer one nine three seven barbara windsor engli |
sh actress one nine three eight paul bartel american actor writer and director d two zero zero zero one nine four one lyle berman american poker player one nine four three jon postel computer scientist one nine four six roh moo hyun president of south korea one nine four six masaaki sakai japanese comedian one nine four nine alan campbell northern irish clergyman one nine four nine clarence richard silva catholic bishop of honolulu one nine five one daryl somers australian television personality one nine five seven jim mcgreevey governor of new jersey one nine six two michelle yeoh hong kong actress one nine six three kevin mitnick computer hacker one nine six five yuki kajiura japanese composer one nine six nine elliott smith american musician d two zero zero three one nine seven zero m night shyamalan indian born film director writer producer and actor one nine seven one merrin dungey american actress one nine seven two geri halliwell british singer one nine seven three asia carrera american actress one nin |
e seven six melissa george australian actress one nine seven eight billy klippert canadian singer one nine seven nine steven mccrory ip solutions specialist one nine eight two adrianne curry american reality television one nine eight three robin van persie dutch football player one nine nine zero jonben t ramsey american beauty queen and murder victim d one nine nine six deaths two five eight saint pope sixtus ii five two three saint pope hormisdas one one six two ramon berenguer iv count of barcelona one one nine five henry the lion duke of saxony and bavaria b one one two nine one two two one saint dominic spanish founder of the dominicans b one one seven zero one two seven two king stephen v of hungary one four one four king ladislas of naples b one three seven seven one four five eight pope callixtus iii b one three seven eight one six two three anne hathaway shakespeare s wife b one five five six one six two eight johannes junius mayor of bamberg b one five seven three one six three seven ben jonson engl |
ish writer b one five seven two one six four five lionel cranfield one st earl of middlesex english merchant b one five seven five one six six zero diego vel zquez spanish painter b one five nine nine one six seven nine john snell english royalist b one six two nine one six nine five fran ois de harlay de champvallon french catholic archbishop b one six two five one seven five three georg wilhelm richmann russian physicist struck by lightning b one seven one one one seven five nine eugene aram english philologist b one seven zero four one seven nine four henry bathurst two nd earl bathurst british politician b one seven one four one eight five zero edward walsh irish poet b one eight zero five one eight six six john mason neale english divine scholar and hymnwriter b one eight one eight one nine zero four eduard hanslick austrian music critic b one eight two five one nine one four ellen louise wilson first lady of the united states first wife of president woodrow wilson b one eight six zero one nine three one |
bix beiderbecke american musician b one nine zero three one nine four two jonathan campbell american film pioneer b one eight seven five one nine four five prince wu of korea b one nine one two one nine four six tony lazzeri baseball player b one nine zero three one nine five nine preston sturges american playwright screenwriter and director b one eight nine eight one nine six four sir cedric hardwicke english actor b one eight nine three one nine six six cordwainer smith american writer b one nine one three one nine six nine theodor adorno german sociologist and philosopher b one nine zero three one nine seven three fulgencio batista cuban dictator b one nine zero one one nine seven four gene ammons american jazz saxophonist b one nine two five one nine seven six gregor piatigorsky russian cellist b one nine zero three one nine seven eight pope paul vi b one eight nine seven one nine seven nine feodor felix konrad lynen german biochemist recipient of the nobel prize in physiology or medicine b one nine one |
one one nine eight three klaus nomi german singer b one nine four four one nine eight five forbes burnham president of guyana b one nine two three one nine eight seven quinn martin american television producer b one nine two two one nine nine one harry reasoner american reporter b one nine two three one nine nine three tex hughson baseball player b one nine one six one nine nine four domenico modugno italian singer and songwriter b one nine two eight one nine nine eight andre weil french mathematician b one nine zero six two zero zero one jorge amado de faria brazilian writer b one nine one two two zero zero two edsger dijkstra dutch computer scientist b one nine three zero two zero zero four rick james american musician b one nine four eight two zero zero five keter betts american jazz bassist b one nine two eight two zero zero five robin cook british politician b one nine four six two zero zero five ibrahim ferrer cuban musician buena vista social club b one nine two seven holidays and observances christian |
ity feast of the transfiguration of christ bolivia independence day jamaica independence day united arab emirates h h sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyan s accession day japan toro nagashi hiroshima floating lantern ceremony to honor those killed by the u s atomic bomb in hiroshima external links bbc on this day the new york times on this day august five august seven july six september six listing of all days anatoly karpov anatoli yevgenyevich karpov born may two three one nine five one is a russian chess grandmaster and former world champion he is the most successful tournament player of all time and as of july two zero zero five he has one six one first place finishes to his credit from one nine seven eight to one nine nine eight he played in every fide world championship match his overall professional record is one one one eight wins two eight seven losses and one four eight zero draws in three one six three games his peak elo rating is two seven eight zero grandmaster karpov was born on may two three one n |
ine five one in zlatoust in the former soviet union and learned to play chess at the age of four at age one two he was accepted into mikhail botvinnik s prestigious chess school ironically botvinnik had this to say about a young karpov the boy doesn t have a clue about chess and there s no future at all for him in this profession karpov proved him wrong by becoming the youngest soviet national master in history at one five and won in his first international chess tournament several months later in one nine six seven he took five th in the soviet junior chess championship and won the european junior chess championship later that same year in one nine six nine he became the first soviet player since boris spassky one nine five five to win the world junior chess championship with a score of one zero out of one one soon afterwards he tied for four th place at an international tournament in caracas venezuela and became the world s youngest grandmaster candidate the one nine seven zero s showed a major improvement |
in his game his elo rating shot up from two five four zero in one nine seven one to two six six zero in one nine seven three when he came in two nd in the ussr chess championship and placed first in the leningrad interzonal tournament the latter qualified him for the one nine seven four candidates cycle which determined who was allowed to challenge the reigning world champion bobby fischer karpov beat lev polugaevsky by three five in the first candidates match to face former world champion boris spassky in the next round karpov was on record saying that he believed spassky would easily beat him and win the candidates cycle to face fischer and that he karpov would win the following candidates cycle in one nine seven seven most expected the spassky karpov match to be a one sided rout by the ex champ spassky although spassky won the first game as black in good style tenacious and aggressive play from karpov secured him a win four one six karpov was certainly not hurt by the fact that spassky s chief opening anal |
yst one nine five five soviet champion efim geller defected to karpov s side several months before the match the candidates final was against fellow russian viktor korchnoi a notable fighting player intense games were fought including one opening laboratory win against the sicilian dragon karpov went three zero up but tired towards the end and allowed korchnoi two wins but karpov prevailed three two one nine thus he won the right to challenge fischer for the world championship though the world championship match between the young soviet prodigy and the incomparably dominant american fischer was highly anticipated the match never came about fischer drew up a list of ten demands chief among them the provisions that draws wouldn t count the first to ten victories wins and if the score was tied nine nine the champion would retain the crown this means that candidate needed two wins more than the reigning champion because narrowest possible win for him is one zero eight the international chess federation fide flatl |
y refused at first but eventually conceded the first two however fischer demanded all or nothing and when fide refused to give into the third demand fischer resigned his crown to the huge disappointment of the chess world karpov later attempted to set up another match with fischer but all the negotiations fell through fischer never did play karpov or kasparov for that matter and scorned them as inferior players this thrust the young karpov into the role of world champion without defeating the reigning champion which lead some chess pundits to accuse karpov of being a paper world champion that he had earned the title in a ceremony but not over a chessboard when kasparov was in a bitter struggle for the world championship with karpov he often reminded others that karpov won the title by default but while preparing a monumental book series kasparov on my great predecessors kasparov argued that karpov would have had the better chances because he had beaten spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough profess |
ional and indeed had higher quality games while fischer had been inactive for three years critics argue that kasparov was trying to boost his own prestige by boosting that of the man he defeated spassky thought that fischer would have won in one nine seven five but karpov would have qualified again and beaten fischer in one nine seven eight zsuzsa polgar thinks fischer would have won very narrowly in one nine seven five due to his greater experience world champion shamed that he had become the twelfth world champion in this manner and desperately trying to prove he was worthy of the crown karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years he created the most phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world the chess world had ever seen this tournament success even eclipsed the pre war tournament record of alexander alekhine he held the record for most consecutive tournament victories nine until it was shattered by garry kasparov one four in one nine seve |
n eight karpov s first title defence was against viktor korchnoi the opponent he defeated in the previous candidates tournament the situation was vastly different from the previous match because in the intervening years korchnoi had defected from the soviet union the match was played in baguio in the philippines and a vast array of psychological tricks were used during the match from karpov s dr zukhar who attempted to hypnotize korchnoi during the game to korchnoi s mirror glasses to ward off the hypnotic stare korchnoi s offering to play under the jolly roger flag when he was denied the right to play under switzerland s to karpov s yogurt supposedly being used to send him secret messages to korchnoi inviting two local cult members on trial for attempted murder into the hall as members of his team the off board antics are better remembered than the actual chess match karpov took an early lead but korchnoi staged an amazing comeback very late in the match and came very close to winning karpov narrowly won the |
last game to take the match six five with two one draws three years later korchnoi re emerged as the candidates winner against german finalist dr robert huebner to challenge karpov in merano italy this time the psychological trick was the arrest of korchnoi s son for evading conscription again the politics off the board overshadowed the games but this time karpov easily won one one seven six two one zero in what is remembered to be the massacre of merano karpov s tournament career also reached a peak at the exceptional montreal super grandmaster tournament in one nine seven nine where he ended joint first with mikhail tal ahead of a field of superb grandmasters like jan timman ljubomir ljubojevic boris spassky and lubomir kavalek meanwhile he had also won the prestigious linares tournament in one nine eight one and again in one nine nine four the tilburg tournament in one nine seven seven one nine seven nine one nine eight zero one nine eight two and one nine eight three and the soviet championship in one ni |
ne seven six and one nine eight three and again in one nine eight eight to illustrate karpov s dominance over his peers as champion his score was one one two two zero v spassky five one two v robert h bner six one one six v ulf andersson three one one zero v vasily smyslov one one six v mikhail tal one zero two one three v ljubojevic karpov had cemented his position as the world s best player and world champion when garry kasparov arrived on the scene in their first world championship match in one nine eight four karpov quickly built a four zero lead and needed only two more wins to keep his title instead the next one seven games were drawn and it took karpov until game two seven to finally win another game in game three one karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw he lost the next game but drew the next one four in particular karpov held a solidly winning position in game four one but again blundered terribly and had to settle for a draw after kasparov suddenly won ga |
me four seven and four eight karpov suffered a physical collapse having lost one zero kg two two lb over the course of the match the fide president controversially terminated the match which had lasted an unprecedented four months with five wins for karpov three for kasparov and a staggering forty draws a rematch was set for the following year in a hard fight karpov lost his title one one to one three in the one nine eight five match ending his ten year reign as champion rival karpov remained a formidable opponent for most of the eighties he fought kasparov in three more world championship matches in one nine eight six held in london and leningrad one nine eight seven held in seville and one nine nine zero held in lyon and new york city all three matches were extremely close the scores were one two five to one one five one two to one two and one two five to one one five in all three matches karpov had winning chances up to the very last games in particular the one nine eight seven seville match featured an as |
tonishing blunder by kasparov in the two three rd game and should have led to karpov s winning the title instead in the final game needing only a draw to win the title karpov blundered on his three three rd and six four th moves and lost ending the match in a draw and allowing kasparov to keep the title the overall game score between them stayed virtually even until the late one nine nine zero s when the score shifted decisively towards kasparov currently in their two three five formal games played karpov has two three wins three three losses and an incredible one seven nine draws in their five world championship matches karpov has one nine wins two one losses and one zero four draws in one four four games although twelve years older than kasparov karpov still has the stamina and endurance to be a match for kasparov in two zero zero two he defeated kasparov in a rapid time control match two five one five karpov is on record saying that had he had the opportunity to fight fischer for the crown like kasparov ha |
d the opportunity to fight him he karpov could have been a much better player as a result though the struggle for the world championship made them enemies karpov and kasparov maintain a tremendous level of respect for each other the two of them and their titanic struggles make up a chess rivalry that even surpassed that of capablanca and alekhine fide champion again it came as a surprise then that karpov lost a candidates match against nigel short in one nine nine two but in one nine nine three karpov reacquired the fide world champion title when kasparov and short split from fide karpov crushed jan timman the loser of the candidates final against short once again he had become world champion and once again he did so controversially he defended his title against gata kamsky six three nine in one nine nine six however in one nine nine eight fide largely scrapped the old system of candidate matches instead having a large knock out event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each oth |
er over just a few weeks in the first of these events champion karpov was seeded straight into the final defeating viswanathan anand four two two but subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players karpov resigned his title in anger at the new rules in one nine nine nine so the winner of the one nine nine nine tournament alexander khalifman became fide world champion however the fide champions were not recognized as such by the general public the fact that the fide champions were regularly crushed by kasparov in tournaments testified to his dominance the fide matches received little public attention while kasparov s matches with the pca and subsequently braingames were widely reported in the media for more details about these series of champions see the world chess championship article towards retirement in one nine nine one karpov temporarily dropped to third in the fide ranking list the first time since one nine seven one though he quickly recovered many said that karpov had lost his edge and th |
at his playing level had declined however karpov bounced back against the world s very strongest players in the order of their finish kasparov shirov bareev kramnik lautier anand kamsky topalov ivanchuk gelfand illescas judit polgar and beliavsky in the landmark super strong tournament linares one nine nine four average elo rating two six eight five the highest in history meaning it was the first category xviii tournament ever held impressed by the strength of the tournament kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightfully be called the world champion of tournaments perhaps spurred on by this comment karpov played the chess of his life and dramatically won the tournament he was undefeated and earned one one points out of one three possible the best world class tournament winning percentage in six four years dominating second place kasparov and shirov by a huge two five points many of his wins were spectacular in particular his win over topalov detailed below is considered |
possibly his finest throughout his career this performance against the best players in the world put his elo rating tournament performance at two nine eight five the highest performance rating of any chess player in any tournament in all of chess history even recently few players have surpassed karpov s achievements since he dropped out of the top three players in the world on the fide rankings only garry kasparov viswanathan anand vladimir kramnik and as of january two zero zero five veselin topalov have been in the top three slots in other words karpov is the last person to have been in the top three in the world before kasparov anand kramnik and topalov in addition karpov is the only player among these to ever have ranked number one in the world ahead of kasparov however karpov s outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since one nine nine five since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of russia he had been a member of the supreme soviet commission for for |
eign affairs and the president of the soviet peace fund before the soviet union broke up in addition he had been involved in several disputes with fide and became increasingly disillusioned with chess in the october two zero zero five fide rating list he is three three rd in the world with an elo rating of two six seven two however more recently because of his traditional strength at managing his thinking time karpov has instead begun revamping his style to specialize in rapid chess sample game this game anatoly karpov v veselin topalov linares one nine nine four given in algebraic notation played during one of his best tournaments features karpov offering a rook for capture three times and eventually sacrificing two rooks for a scintillating victory one d four nf six two c four c five three nf three cxd four four nxd four e six five g three nc six six bg two bc five seven nb three be seven eight nc three o o nine o o d six one zero bf four nh five one one e three nxf four one two exf four bd seven one three |
qd two qb eight one four rfe one g six one five h four a six one six h five b five one seven hxg six hxg six one eight nc five dxc five one nine qxd seven rc eight see diagram two zero rxe six ra seven two zero fxe six two one bxc six ra seven two two qxe six kg seven two three be four and white is clearly better two one rxg six fxg six two two qe six kg seven two three bxc six rd eight two four cxb five bf six two five ne four bd four two six bxa six qb six two seven rd one qxa six two eight rxd four rxd four two eight cxd four two nine qf six kh six three zero qh four kg seven three one qxd eight qxc six three two qxd four and white is better two nine qf six kg eight three zero qxg six kf eight three one qe eight kg seven three two qe five kg eight three three nf six kf seven three four be eight kf eight three five qxc five qd six three six qxa seven qxf six three seven bh five rd two three eight b three rb two three nine kg two one zero further reading world chess champions by edward g winter editor one ni |
ne eight one isbn zero zero eight zero two four nine zero four one the world s great chess games by reuben fine dover one nine eight three isbn zero four eight six two four five one two eight anatoly karpov s best games by anatoly karpov batsford two zero zero three isbn zero seven one three four seven eight four three eight karpov on karpov a memoirs of a chess world champion by anatoly karpov simon one nine nine two isbn zero six eight nine one two zero six zero five curse of kirsan adventures in the chess underworld by sarah hurst russell enterprises two zero zero two external links karpov s official homepage in russian karpov s best games at www chessgames com view three zero seven nine anatoly karpov games at www chessmaniac com karpov s profile at www chessgames com karpov on why fischer wouldn t play him in the one nine seven five match video clip six zero crucial positions from his games his best games anatoly karpov vs leonid stein leningrad one nine seven one stefano tatai vs anatoly karpov las palm |
as one nine seven seven anatoly karpov vs veselin topalov linares one nine nine four one nine five one births living people chess grandmasters world chess champions russian chess players the aspect ratio of a two dimensional shape is the ratio of its longest dimension to its shortest dimension the term is most commonly used with reference to images see aspect ratio image paper see paper size the wing plans of aircraft or birds see aspect ratio wing see also golden ratio ratio auto racing also known as automobile racing autosport or motorsport is a sport involving racing automobiles motor racing or motorsport may also mean motorcycle racing and can include motorboat racing and air racing it is one of the world s most popular spectator sports and perhaps the most thoroughly commercialized history the start auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful petrol fuelled autos in one eight nine four the first contest was organized by paris magazine le petit journal a reliability |
test to determine best performance a year later the first real race was staged from paris france to bordeaux france first over the line was mile levassor but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four seater an international competition began with the gordon bennett cup in auto racing the first auto race in the united states over a five four three six mile eight seven four eight km course took place in chicago illinois on november two one eight nine five frank duryea winning in one zero h and two three min beating three petrol fuelled cars and two electric the first trophy awarded was the vanderbilt cup city to city racing fernand gabriel driving a mors in paris madrid one nine zero three with auto construction and racing dominated by france the french automobile club acf staged a number of major international races usually from or to paris connecting with another major city in europe or france these very successful races ended in one nine zero three when marcel renault was involved in a fat |
al accident near angouleme in the paris madrid race eight fatalities caused the french government to stop the race in bordeaux and ban open road racing one nine one zero one nine five zero the one nine three zero s saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high priced road cars with delage auto union mercedes benz delahaye and bugatti constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to four five zero kw six one two hp with the aid of multiple superchargers from one nine two eight one nine three zero and again in one nine three four one nine three six the maximum weight permitted was seven five zero kg one six five four lbs a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight and in the case of the mercedes the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation producing the famous silver arrows see grand prix motor racing categories there are many categories of auto racing single seater racing main article op |
en wheel racing a modern formula one car single seater open wheel racing is perhaps the most well known form of motorsport with cars designed specifically for high speed racing the wheels are not covered and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track single seater races are held on specially designed closed circuits or street circuits closed for the event many single seater races in north america are held on oval circuits and the indy racing league races mostly on ovals the best known variety of single seater racing is the formula one world championship which involves an annual championship featuring major international car and engine manufacturers in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill formula one is by any measure the most expensive sport in the world with some teams spending in excess of two zero one million us dollars per year formula one is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports and a seat in a formula one car is undo |
ubtedly the peak of any driver s racing career in north america the cars used in the national championship currently champcars and the indy racing league have traditionally been similar to f one cars but with more restrictions on technology aimed at helping to control costs other single seater racing series are gp two formerly known as formula three zero zero zero and formula two formula nippon formula nissan also known as the telefonica world series formula three formula atlantic and a one grand prix there are other categories of single seater racing including kart racing which employs a small low cost machine on small tracks many of today s top drivers started their careers in karts rallying main article rallying rallying or rally racing involves highly modified production cars on closed public roads or off road areas run on a point to point format where participants and their co drivers rally to a set of points leaving in regular intervals from start points a rally is typically conducted over a number of s |
tages of any terrain which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand the co driver uses the pacenotes to help the driver complete each stage as fast as possible reading the detailed shorthand aloud over an in car intercom system competition is based on lowest total elasped time over the course of an event the top series is the world rally championship wrc but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships some famous rallies include the monte carlo rally and rally argentina another famous event actually best described as a rally raid is the paris dakar rally there are also many smaller club level categories of rallies which are popular with amateurs making up the grass roots of motorsports ice racing main article ice racing touring car racing main article touring car racing v eight supercar touring car racing touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars it often features exciting full contact racing due to the small |
speed differentials and large grids the v eight supercars originally from australia deutsche tourenwagen masters originally from germany and the world touring car championship held with two non european races previously the european touring car championship are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide the sports car club of america s speed world challenge touring car and gt championships are dominant in north america while the venerable british touring car championship continues in great britain america s historic trans am series is undergoing a period of transition but is still the longest running road racing series in the u s the national auto sport association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits stock car racing one of the most famous nascar tracks was the old riverside international raceway in riverside california main article stock car racing stock car racing is the american variant of touring car racing usually co |
nducted on ovals the cars look like production cars but are in fact purpose built racing machines which are all very similar in specifications early stock cars were much closer to production vehicles the car to be raced was often driven from track to track the main stock car racing series is nascar and among the most famous races in the series are the daytona five zero zero and allstate four zero zero at the brickyard nascar also runs the busch series a junior stock car league and the craftsman truck series pickup trucks nascar also runs the featherlite series of modified cars which are heavily modified from stock form with powerful engines large tires and light bodies nascar s oldest series is considered by many to be its most exciting there are also other stock car series like iroc in the united states and cascar in canada british stock car racing is a form of short oval racing this takes place on shale or tarmac tracks in either clockwise or anti clockwise direction depending on the class some of which are |
contact races are organised by local promoters and all drivers are registered with brisca and have their own race number what classes exist depends on the promoters so events in scotland at cowdenbeath can be very different from an event at wimbledon stadium in london formula cars f one cars built to specification normally utilising five six or seven litre v eight engines f two specification built cars similar to f one with two litre ford pinto engines these are the two main national forms of british stock car racing there are world championships organised by the governing body there are also local variants raced in some smaller tracks they are usually similar to f two stock cars f one s race in the uk at the following venues belle vue stadium manchester owlerton stadium sheffield skegness stadium buxton hednesford birmingham northampton coventry kings lynn ipswich cowdenbeath knockhill they also race in holland hot rods local variations on the concept of fibreglass cars that look like production models non |
contact production models modified road cars classes range from non contact two litre hot rods to contact banger racing contact classes can be identified by the inclusion of external side impact bars and large bumpers at either end made out of square section steel drag racing main article drag racing in drag racing the objective is to complete a certain distance traditionally one four mile four zero zero m in the shortest possible time the vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose built dragster speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class a street car can cover the one four mile four zero zero m in one five s whereas a top fuel dragster can cover the same distance in four five s and reach three three zero mph five three zero km h drag racing was organised as a sport by wally parks in the early one nine five zero s through the nhra national hot rod association which is the largest sanctioning motor sports body in the world the nhra was formed to prevent people from street racing illegal street |
racing is not drag racing launching its run to three three zero mph five three zero km h a top fuel dragster will accelerate at four five g four four m s two and when braking and parachutes are deployed the driver experiences deceleration of four g three nine m s two more than space shuttle occupants a single top fuel car can be heard over eight miles one three km away and can generate a reading of one five to two on the richter scale nhra mile high nationals two zero zero one and two zero zero two testing from the national seismology center drag racing is often head to head where two cars battle each other the winner proceeding to the next round professional classes are all first to the finish line wins sportsman racing is handicapped slower car getting a head start using an index and cars running faster than their index break out and lose drag racing is mostly popular in the united states sports car racing main article sports car racing in sports car racing production versions of sports cars and purpose bu |
ilt prototype cars compete with each other on closed circuits the races are usually conducted over long distances at least one zero zero zero km and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers and sometimes more in the us switching every now and then due to the performance difference between production based sports cars and sports racing prototypes one race usually involves many racing classes in the us the american le mans series was organized in one nine nine nine featuring gt gts and two prototype classes another series based on le mans began in two zero zero four the le mans endurance series which included four one zero zero zero km races at tracks in europe a competing body grand am which began in two zero zero zero sanctions its own set of endurance series the rolex sports car series and the grand am cup grand am events typically feature many more cars and much closer competition than american le mans famous sports car races include the two four hours of le mans the two four hours of daytona and th |
e one two hours of sebring offroad racing main article offroad racing in offroad racing various classes of specially modified vehicles including cars compete in races through off road environments in north america these races often take place in the desert such as the famous baja one zero zero zero in europe offroad refers to events such as autocross or rallycross while desert races and rally raids such as the paris dakar master rallye or european bajas are called cross country rallies hillclimbing main article hillclimbing kart racing main article kart racing although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport kart racing or karting can be an economic way to try your luck at motorsport and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right world famous f one drivers like michael and ralf schumacher and most of the typical starting grid of a modern grand prix took up the sport at around the age of eight with some testing from age three several former motorcycle champions have al |
so taken up the sport notably wayne rainey who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand controlled kart as one of the cheapest ways to go racing karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide go karts or just karts seem very distant from normal road cars with dimunitive frames and wheels but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine the tracks are also on a much smaller scale making kart racing more accessible to the people legend car racing main article legend car racing other categories autocrossing autograss demolition derby dirt speedway racing dirt track racing drifting grand prix truck racing road racing short track motor racing solo street racing rallycross folkrace use of flags main article racing flags in open wheel stock car and other types of circuit auto races flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race while the flags have changed from the first years e g red used to start a rac |
e these are generally accepted for today accidents for the worst accident in racing history see pierre levegh see also engine tuning import scene list of auto racing tracks race track racing game reading spark plugs for racing sim racing external links nascarup com nascar news on the nextel cup busch and craftsman truck series the official formula one website with news results and stats the official web site of the grand american road racing association http www trackbytes com full coverage of speed world challenge and american le mans series http www autosport com autosport magazine http www speedtv com speed tv network http www motorstv com motors tv network sports cars sports car pictures and specifications http www rennleitung de rennleitung http www motorsport com covering all forms of auto racing http www britishmotorracingsafetyfund org promoting safety and raising money for the sport in the uk nhra ihra auto racing news http www racerweek com f one nascar rally racing forums http www formula one revie |
w com f one news results statistics motorsports forum drag racing photos rally news and photo the paddock net covers a wide range of sportscar racing series including alms grand am f one talk f one talking brisca f one stock cars auto racing the libertatis quilibritas is one symbol used by anarcho capitalists anarcho capitalism aka free market anarchism is a philosophy based on the idea of individual sovereignty and a prohibition against initiatory coercion and fraud it sees the only just basis for law as arising from private property norms and an unlimited right of contract between sovereign individuals from this basis anarcho capitalism rejects the state as an unjustified monopolist and systematic aggressor against sovereign individuals and embraces anti statist laissez faire capitalism anarcho capitalists would aim to protect individual liberty and property by replacing a government monopoly which is involuntarily funded through taxation with private competing businesses that use physical force only in def |
ense of liberty and property against aggressors hence they believe that all goods and services including law order and security should be supplied through the mechanism of a free market the philosophy embraces stateless capitalism as one of its foundational principles the first well known version of anarcho capitalism to identify itself thus was developed by economists of the austrian school and libertarians murray rothbard and walter block in the mid two zero th century synthesizing elements from austrian school economics classical liberalism and one nine th century american individualist anarchism while rothbard bases his philosophy on natural law others such as david friedman take a pragmatic consequentialist approach by arguing that anarcho capitalism should be implemented because such a system would have consequences superior to alternatives because of this embrace of capitalism there is considerable tension between anarcho capitalists and anarchists who see the rejection of capitalism as being just as e |
ssential to anarchist philosophy as rejection of the state despite this tension many anarcho capitalists have identified their philosophy as evolving from the tradition of american individualist anarchists such as benjamin tucker and lysander spooner anarcho capitalism can be considered a radical development of classical liberalism its grounding in liberalism stems from gustave de molinari many proponents of anarcho capitalism including rothbard argue that molinari was the first anarcho capitalist however rothbard admitted that molinari did not use the terminology and probably would have balked at the name anarcho capitalist nonetheless molinari did argue for a free market privatization of security and did not oppose profit his thoughts were influential on rothbard and his contemporaries philosophy the nonaggression axiom a postage stamp celebrating the thousand year anniversary of the icelandic parliament according to a theory associated with the economist david friedman medieval icelandic society was anarch |
o capitalist chieftancies could be bought and sold and were not geographical monopolies individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftan s clan anarcho capitalism as formulated by rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom the basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a selfowner having absolute jurisdiction over his own body in effect this means that no one else may justly invade or aggress against another s person it follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or mixes his labor with from these twin axioms self ownership and homesteading stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free market society this system establishes the right of every man to his own person the right of donation of bequest and concomitantly the right to receive the bequest or inheritance and the right of contractual exchange of property titles in general the nonaggression |
axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force or the threat of force against persons i e direct violence assault murder or property i e fraud burglary theft taxation the initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion the difference between anarcho capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom minarchist libertarians such as most people involved in libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form retaining public police courts and military in contrast anarcho capitalists reject any level of state intervention defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism some such as rothbard accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis others such as friedman take a consequentialist or egoist approach rather than |
maintaining that aggression is intrinsically immoral they maintain that a law against aggression can only come about by contract between self interested parties who agree to refrain from initiating coercion against each other it is in terms of the non aggression principle that rothbard defined anarchism he defined anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression against person and property and said that what anarchism proposes to do then is to abolish the state i e to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion in an interview with new banner rothbard said that capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism original appropriation central to anarcho capitalism are the concepts of self ownership and original appropriation everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body provided only that no one else has alre |
ady occupied or used the same places and goods before him this ownership of originally appropriated places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person in particular once a place or good has been first appropriated by in john locke s phrase mixing one s labor with it ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary contractual transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner this is the root of anarcho capitalist property rights and where they differ from collectivist forms of anarchism original appropriation allows an individual to claim any unused property including land and by improving or otherwise using it own it with the same absolute right as his own body according to rothbard original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or buildi |
ng a fence around it it is only by using land by mixing one s labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be as a practical matter in terms of the ownership of land anarcho capitalists recognize that there are few if any parcels of land left on earth whose ownership was not at some point in time transferred as the result of coercion usually through seizure by some form of state however unless records and titles exist to confirm the theft and the rightful individual owner most do not believe that this history de legitimizes current ownerships which are based on consensual transactions they believe it is wrong to attempt to remedy past coercion by the use of present coercion i e seizure or eviction by accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights anarcho capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle |
for apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder homicide rape trespass robbery burglary theft and fraud the ethics of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision making jurisdiction and or the right to tax the contractual society the society envisioned by anarcho capitalists has been called the contractual society a society based purely on voluntary action entirely un hampered by violence or threats of violence because this system relies on voluntary agreements contracts between individuals as the only legal framework it is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society would look like those particulars are disputed both among anarcho capitalists and between them and their critics one particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be voluntary on the part of both parties no external entities can force an individual to accept or d |
eny a particular transaction an employer might offer insurance and death benefits to same sex couples another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith individuals would be free to enter into contractual agreements as they saw fit allowing discrimination or favoritism based on language race gender sexual orientation or any other categorization anarcho capitalists maintain that the social structure would be self regulating since any disenfranchised group can avail themselves of boycott or protest and other entrepreneurs will see their own interests i e profit in servicing the group another important ramification is the fact that any social structure is permissible under anarcho capitalism as long as it is formed by a contract between individuals therefore radically different governments and subeconomies can form creating a panarchic society individuals could live in a privately owned democracy a republic or even a monarchy if they so choose one social structure that is not permissible un |
der anarcho capitalism is one that attempts to claim greater sovereignty than the individuals that form it the state is a prime example but another is the modern corporation defined as a legal entity that exists under a different legal code than individuals as a means to shelter the individuals who own and run the corporation from possible legal consequences of acts by the corporation it is worth noting that rothbard allows a narrower definition of a corporation corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital on the purely free market such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation however this is a very narrow definition that only shelters owners from debt by creditors that specifically agree to the arrangement it also does not shelter other liability such as from malfeasance or other wrongdoing there are limits to the right to contract under some inter |
pretations of anarcho capitalism rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in inalienable human rights and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will which would for instance prevent a person from permanently selling himself into slavery other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract private law and order anarcho capitalists only believe in collective defense of individual liberty i e courts military or police forces insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis according to molinari under a regime of liberty the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense already exist naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state private arbitration security guards neighborhood wa |
tch groups and so on these private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies pdas the defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation or by cooperative self help by groups of individuals retributive justice meaning retaliatory force is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho capitalist society some believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho capitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient the use of force many anarcho capitalists admire the american revolution and believe it is the only u s war that can be justified the axiom of nonaggression is not necessarily a pacifist doctrine it is a prohibition against the initiation of interpersonal force like classical liberalism anarcho capitalism permits |
the use of force as long as it is in the defense of persons or property however the permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho capitalists some argue that the initiator of any aggressive act should be subject to a retributive counterattack beyond what is solely necessary to repel the aggression the counterargument is that such a counterattack is only legitimate insofar as it was defined in an agreement between the parties another controversial application of defensive aggression is the act of revolutionary violence against tyrannical regimes many anarcho capitalists admire the american revolution as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against tyrannical restrictions of their liberties in fact according to murray rothbard the american revolutionary war was the only war involving the united states that could be justified but illustrating their general ambivalence toward war these same people also sharply criticize the revolutionaries for the mea |
ns used taxes conscription inflationary money and the inadequacy of the result a state while some anarcho capitalists believe forceful resistance and revolutionary violence against the state is legitimate most believe the use of force is a dangerous tool at best and that violent insurrection should be a last resort conflicts within anarcho capitalist theory there is dispute on whether anarcho capitalism is properly justifiable on deontological or consequentialist grounds natural law anarcho capitalism such as that advocated by rothbard holds that rights can be determined through natural law and that consequences are not relevant to their determination consequentialists such as friedman disagree maintaining that rights are merely human constructs that rational humans create through contract as a result of concluding what sort of system leads to the best consequences many anarcho capitalists also hold a subjective theory of rights maintaining that the lack of a positive right to aggress is sufficient to hold up |
the derivative claims of the nonaggression principle friedman describes an economic approach to anarcho capitalism his description differs with rothbard s because it does not use moral arguments i e it does not appeal to a theory of natural rights to justify itself in friedman s work the economic argument is sufficient to derive the principles of anarcho capitalism private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the free market people will have the law system they pay for and because of economic efficiency considerations resulting from individuals utility functions such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law also unlike other anarcho capitalists most notably rothbard friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on market failure nor has he been inclined to |
attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark anarchism and anarcho capitalism dispute over the name anarchism many anarchists strongly argue that anarcho capitalism is not a form of anarchism since they believe capitalism to be inherently authoritarian joe peacott has explicitly stated that individualist anarchism is anti capitalist and contrasts it to anarcho capitalism individualist anarchist daniel burton says that anarcho capitalism is a type of individualist anarchism but that most individualists are class war anti capitalists however many individualists do not see their philosophy as a class war but a war against government repression of individual liberty murray rothbard argues that an anarchist society is one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual whether anarcho capitalism is a true form of anarchism may depend on the meaning of the words anarchism and capitalism adherents of the traditional schools of anarchism reject the |
term anarcho capitalism they oppose both the state and capitalism as coercive institutions since in greek means without rulers conversely many including capitalist libertarians and anarcho capitalists use the term anarchism with a definition that simply means without the state also there is some terminological disagreement regarding capitalism according to wendy mcelroy when traditional individualist anarchists referred to capitalism they meant state capitalism the alliance of government and business however modern individualist anarchists like gambone believe that capitalism as they define it requires the presence of the state in order to function therefore for the individualist anarchist the concept of rejecting state capitalism would be equivalent to rejection of all capitalism hence anarcho capitalists depart from individualist anarchists on what constitutes concepts such as the state capitalism and a free market jamal hannah says that most anarchists and capitalists agree with the individualists in belie |
ving that capitalist economics require a state to defend private wealth despite disagreeing on whether or not anti state capitalism is a coherent concept most anarchists oppose a state and support private defence of wealth morever the common definition of capitalism has changed over time anarchist movements of early origin operated with a definition unlike contemporary definitions for example the one nine zero nine century dictionary defined capitalism as one the state of having capital or property possession of capital two the concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few also the power or influence of large or combined capital in contrast the contemporary merriam webster dictionary unabridged refers to capitalism as an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control and by prices production and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market according to th |
e anarchist international capitalism is an economic plutocracy that includes its own hierarchy they place anarcho capitalism outside of the anarchist movement and into the classical liberal tradition plutarchy without statism liberalism some while accepting that anarcho capitalism is a radical form of liberalism question the coherence of such a statement holding that if socialism and communism can have anarchist forms then liberalism can as well often anarchist individualism is regarded as a form of socialism for example by individualist anarchists such as e armand however american individualist anarchism is sometimes regarded as a form of liberal anarchism also as anarchists by definition favor voluntary interaction anarcho capitalists and their opponents disagree on whether certain actions are voluntary see sidebar for definitions some anarchists espouse a form of labor theory of value which they put forth as one reason that profit rent and wage labour are exploitive while classical capitalists such as adam |
smith also accepted the labor theory of value most modern economists including anarcho capitalists argue that value is subjective and adhere to marginalism left and right anarchism the divide between anarcho capitalism and traditional anarchism has been termed as left anarchism versus right anarchism by some individuals such as ulrike heider who placed anarcho capitalism on the far right most contemporary anarcho capitalists reject the standard linear model of ideologies in favor of a multidimensional model with a liberty authority dimension though some of their opponents maintain that anarchism itself is a left wing ideology history and influences gustave de molinari one eight one nine one nine one two liberalism anarcho capitalist philosophy has been influenced by many sources the primary influence with the longest history is classical liberalism classical liberals have had two main themes since john locke first expounded the philosophy the liberty of man and limitations of state power the liberty of man w |
as expressed in terms of natural rights while limiting the state was based for locke on a consent theory while locke saw the state as evolving from society via a social contract later more radical liberals saw a fundamental schism between society the natural voluntary interactions of men and state the institution of brute force in the one eight th century liberal revolutionaries in britain and america had opposed statism without grounding it in theory while some french economists had theorized it without endorsing it in the one nine th century classical liberals led the attack against statism one notable was frederic bastiat the law who wrote the state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else henry david thoreau s liberalism might be considered evolutionary anarchism as he wrote i heartily accept the motto that government is best which governs least and i should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically carried out it finally amounts to this which |
also i believe that government is best which governs not at all and when men are prepared for it that will be the kind of government which they will have one of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was france s jakob mauvillon in the one eight th century later in the one eight four zero s julius faucher and gustave de molinari advocated the same molinari in his essay the production of security argued no government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity molinari and this new type of anti state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics historian ralph raico asserts what that these liberal philosophers had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism or as it would be called today anarcho capitalism or market anarchism unlike the liberalism of locke which saw the state as evol |
ving from society the anti state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people society and the institutions of force the state this society versus state idea was expressed in various ways natural society vs artificial society liberty vs authority society of contract vs society of authority and industrial society vs militant society just to name a few the anti state liberal tradition in europe and the united states continued after molinari in the early writings of herbert spencer as well as in thinkers such as paul mile de puydt and auberon herbert later in the early two zero th century the mantle of anti state liberalism was taken by the old right these were minarchist antiwar anti imperialist and later anti new dealers some of the most notable members of the old right were albert jay nock rose wilder lane isabel paterson frank chodorov garet garrett and h l mencken in the one nine five zero s the new fusion conservatism also called cold war conservatism took hold of the rig |
ht wing in the u s stressing anti communism this induced the libertarian old right to split off from the right and seek alliances with the now left wing antiwar movement and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the u s libertarian party american individualist anarchism lysander spooner one eight zero eight eight seven main articles american individualist anarchism american individualist anarchism and anarcho capitalism anarcho capitalism is influenced by the work of the one nine th century american individualist anarchists rothbard sought to meld the one nine th century individualist theory with the principles of austrian economics there is in the body of thought known as austrian economics a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market and of the consequences of government intervention in that market which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social weltanschauung egalitarianism the one nine th century individualist anarchists espoused a l |
abor theory of value while the anarcho capitalists adhere to a subjective theory leading to differences over the legitimacy of profit anarchist historian peter marshall believes that anarcho capitalists selectively interpret individualist anarchists texts overlooking egalitarian implications however marshall may have overlooked that the most noted individualist anarchist benjamin tucker explicitly supports the right to inequality in wealth and upholds it as the natural result of liberty tucker did although oppose vast concentrations of wealth which he believed were made possible by government intervention which protected monopoly he believed the most dangerous intervention was the protection of a banking monopoly which concentrated capital in the hands of the privileged elite though he also argued that harmful monopolies that were created by government intervention could be maintained in the absence of government protection because of the accumulation of great wealth see predatory pricing anarcho capitalists |
also oppose governmental restrictions on banking they like all austrian economists believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention most modern individualists following in the footsteps of historical counterparts reject capitalism in the sense of government backed privilege for capital individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy although anarcho capitalists disagree on the critical topic of profit both schools of thought agree on other issues of particular importance to anarcho capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of private property sovereignty of the individual a market economy and the opposition to collectivism in addition like the individualists anarcho capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by and only by occupation or use however most traditional individualists believe it must continually be in use to retain title notable one nine th century american individ |
ualist anarchists include lysander spooner and benjamin tucker lysander spooner s articles such as no treason and the letter to thomas bayard were widely reprinted in early anarcho capitalist journals and his ideas especially his individualist critique of the state and his defense of the right to ignore or withdraw from it were often cited by anarcho capitalists spooner was staunchly opposed to government interference in economic matters and supported a right to acquire property as one of the natural inherent inalienable rights of men one which government has no power to infringe like all anarchists he opposed government regulation all legislative restraints upon the rate of interest are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man s natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital upon which to bestow his labor he was particularly vocal however in opposing any collusion between banks and government and argued that the monopolistic privileges that the government granted to a few bankers were the source o |
f many social and economic ills benjamin tucker supported private ownership of the product of labor which he believed entailed a rejection of both collective and capitalist ownership he was a staunch advocate of the mutualist form of recompensing labor which holds to cost the limit of price he also advocated a free market economy which he believed was prohibited by capitalist monopoly of credit and land backed by the state he believed that anyone who wishes should be allowed to engage in the banking business and issue their private currency without needing special permission from government and that unused land should not be restricted to those who wished to use it he believed that if these and other coercive actions were eliminated that profit in economic transactions would be rendered nearly impossible because of increased availability of capital to all individuals and resulting increased competition in business accepting the labor theory of value and the resulting cost principle as a premise marks one of m |
utualism s main conflicts with anarcho capitalism although his self identification as a socialist and sympathy for the labor movement led to hostility from some early anarcho capitalists such as robert lefevre others such as murray rothbard embraced his critique of the state and claimed that he defined his socialism not in terms of opposition to a free market or private property but in opposition to government privileges for business however individualists argue that capitalism cannot be maintained in the absence of the state for example kevin carson argues as a mutualist anarchist i believe that expropriation of surplus value i e capitalism cannot occur without state coercion to maintain the privilege of usurer landlord and capitalist it was for this reason that the free market mutualist benjamin tucker from whom right libertarians selectively borrow regarded himself as a libertarian socialist tucker characterized the economic demands of proudhon and warren by saying though opposed to socializing the ownersh |
ip of capital they aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few absolute free trade free trade at home as well as with foreign countries the logical carrying out of the manchester doctrine laissez faire the universal rule anarcho capitalism is sometimes viewed by those sympathetic to it as a form of individualist anarchism despite the fact that the original individualist anarchists universally rejected capitalism i e they opposed profit which is seen as a fundamental characteristic of capitalism organizations such as mutualist org remain dedicated to free market anticapitalism while individualists like larry gambone explicitly state that all capitalism is state capitalism nonetheless anarcho capitalist wendy mcelroy considers herself to be an individualist while admitting that the original individualists were universally anticapitalist in addition historian guglielmo piombini refers anarcho capitalism as a form o |
f individualist anarchism though he offers no support for this statement collectivist anarchist author iain mckay and historian peter sabatini both argue that anarcho capitalism is fundamentally opposed to individualist anarchism the similarity to anarcho capitalism in regard to private defense of liberty and property is probably best seen in a quote by one nine th century individualist anarchist victor yarros anarchism means no government but it does not mean no laws and no coercion this may seem paradoxical but the paradox vanishes when the anarchist definition of government is kept in view anarchists oppose government not because they disbelieve in punishment of crime and resistance to aggression but because they disbelieve in compulsory protection protection and taxation without consent is itself invasion hence anarchism favors a system of voluntary taxation and protection the austrian school murray rothbard one nine two six nine five the austrian school of economics was founded with the publication of ca |
rl menger s one eight seven one book principles of economics members of this school approach economics as an a priori system like logic or mathematics rather than as an empirical science like geology it attempts to discover axioms of human action called praxeology in the austrian tradition and make deductions therefrom some of these praxeological axioms are humans act purposefully humans prefer more of a good to less humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later each party to a trade benefits ex ante these are macro level generalizations or heuristics which are true for the many but not necessarily true for any particular person even in the early days austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy eugen von b hm bawerk a colleague of menger wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise the exploitation theory of socialism communism later friedrich hayek wrote the road to serfdom asserting that a command economy destroy |
s the information function of prices and that authority over the economy leads to totalitarianism another very influential austrian economist was ludwig von mises author of the praxeological work human action murray rothbard a student of mises is the man who attempted to meld austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism and is credited with coining the term anarcho capitalism he was probably the first to use libertarian in its current u s pro capitalist sense he was a trained economist but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy when young he considered himself part of the old right an anti statist and anti interventionist branch of the u s republican party when interventionist cold warriors of the national review such as william buckley gained influence in the republican party in the one nine five zero s rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with left wing antiwar groups later rothbard was a founder of the u s libertarian party in the late one nine five ze |
ro s rothbard was briefly involved with ayn rand s objectivism group but later had a falling out rothbard s books such as man economy and state power and market the ethics of liberty and for a new liberty are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought see also roberta modugno crocetta the anarcho capitalist political theory of murray n rothbard in its historical and intellectual context anarcho capitalism in the real world one nine th century interpretation of the althing in the icelandic commonwealth which authors such as david friedman and roderick long believe to have been a functioning anarcho capitalist society anarcho capitalism is largely theoretical and even sympathetic critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a utopian ideal despite this some anarcho capitalist philosophers point to actual societies to support their claim that stateless capitalism can function in practice medieval iceland according to david friedman medieval icelandic institutions have several pe |
culiar and interesting characteristics they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions he argues that the icelandic commonwealth between nine three zero and one two six two had some of the features of an anarcho capitalist society while there was a single legal system enforcement of law was entirely private and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function even where the icelandic legal system recognized an essentially public offense it dealt with it by giving some individual in some cases chosen by lot from those affected the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine thus fitting it into an essentially private system however some disagree with this assessment arguing that medieval iceland was a communal rather than individualist society people of a communitarian nature have reason to be attracted to medieval iceland the economy barely knew the existence of markets soc |
ial relations preceded economic relations and that when a free market finally did arise that it was the cause of the end of the republic during the one two th century wealth and power began to accumulate in the hands of a few chiefs and by one two two zero six prominent families ruled the entire country it was the internecine power struggle among these families shrewdly exploited by king haakon iv of norway that finally brought the old republic to an end modern somalia a marketplace in somalia one nine nine two one year after the collapse of the government somalia is cited by some anarcho capitalists as an example how stateless capitalism is possible more recently somalia is cited by some as a real world example of how a stateless capitalist economy and a legal system can develop organically since one nine nine one somalia as a whole has had no functioning central government and therefore no regulations or licensing requirements for businesses and no taxes on businesses or individuals one world bank study rep |
orts that it may be easier than is commonly thought for basic systems of finance and some infrastructure services to function where government is extremely weak or absent journalist kevin sites after a recent trip to somalia reported somalia though brutally poor is a kind of libertarian s dream free enterprise flourishes and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation somalia has some of the best telecommunications in africa with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal clear service including international long distance for about one zero a month one of the poorest countries in the world in one nine nine one somalia remains a very poor country however wealth distribution appears to be more uniform than in other african countries when extreme poverty was last measured in one nine nine eight percentage of individuals living on less than ppp one a day it was faring better than wealthier west african and neighboring countries in the absence of a state and busines |
s regulations the private sector has flourished one business sector that is said to be doing well is telecommunications abdullahi mohammed hussein of telecom somalia says the government post and telecoms company used to have a monopoly but after the regime was toppled we were free to set up our own business according to a bbc report also in one nine eight nine before the collapse of the government the national airline had only one airplane now there are approximately one five airlines over six zero aircraft six international destinations and more domestic routes electricity is now furnished by entrepreneurs who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors photo with the collapse of the central government the educations system is now private and includes universities such as mogadishu university a world bank study reports modest gains in education as last measured in two zero zero one primary school enrollment which stood at one seven was nearly at prewar levels and secondary school enr |
ollment had been increasing since one nine nine eight however adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of two four in one nine eight nine to one seven one in two zero zero one wb study a more recent two zero zero three study reported that the literacy rate had risen to one nine wb study a statistic from two zero zero zero indicated that only two one of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time the impact of collapse of the government and ensuing civil war on human development in somalia has been profound resulting in the collapse of political institutions the destruction of social and economic infrastructure and massive internal and external migrations an essential element of anarcho capitalist theory is that private businesses should protect individual liberty and property rather than tax funded institutions as such the somali situation falls short of being anarcho capitalism as it is it is severely lacking in such options though some urban areas such as mog |
adishu have private police and are relatively safe crime is rampant in other areas according to some news reports businessmen in mogadishu have organized to fund private police that patrol the city streets for petty crime there is a rudimentary legal system which has been called a free market for the supply adjudication and enforcement of law it remains to be seen if private solutions develop to the point of providing high quality security while most of what was somalia is a stateless area two internationally unrecognized democratic states exist in its north these are somaliland and puntland which are ruled by governments these regions lack the armed competition in the more anarchic south and the destruction this causes their people are correspondingly more prosperous on average this is seen by many as evidence that competition in security should not be allowed criticisms of anarcho capitalism for critiques of libertarianism in general see criticism of libertarianism for critiques of capitalism from an anarch |
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