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for instance the rounding up of nazis but also social democrats in internment camps the anschluss of one nine three eight hitler s first moves alfred jansa was forced to retire as chief of staff in january one nine three eight in early one nine three eight hitler had consolidated his power in germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long planned expansion after a lengthy period of pressure by germany hitler met schuschnigg on one two february one nine three eight in berchtesgaden bavaria and instructed him to lift the ban of the austrian nazi party reinstate full party freedoms release all imprisoned members of the nazi party and let them participate in the government otherwise he would take military action schuschnigg complied with hitler s demands and appointed arthur seyss inquart a nazi lawyer as interior minister and another nazi edmund glaise horstenau as minister without portfolio even before the february meeting schuschnigg was under considerable pressure from germany this may be seen in the |
demand to remove the chief of staff of the austrian army alfred jansa from his office in january one nine three eight jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for austria s defence against a german attack a situation hitler wanted to avoid at all costs schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand during the following weeks schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were gradually working on taking over his authority schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout austria and inflame patriotism among the people for the first time since one two february one nine three four the time of the austrian civil war socialists and communists could legally appear in public again the communists announced their unconditional support for the austrian government understandable in light of nazi pressure on austria the socialists demanded further concessions from schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him schuschnigg announces a referendum on nine march as a last resort to preserve austria s ind |
ependence schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite on the independence of austria for one three march to secure a large majority in the referendum schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at two four in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with nazi ideology holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for schuschnigg and on the next day it became apparent that hitler would not simply stand by while austria declared its independence by public vote hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that germany would not accept it in addition the german ministry of propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in austria and that large parts of the austrian population were calling for german troops to restore order schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies as they actually were hitler sent an ultimatum to schuschnigg on one one march demanding that he hand over all power to the austrian national socialists or face an i |
nvasion the ultimatum was set to expire at noon but was extended by two hours however without waiting for an answer hitler had already signed the order to send troops into austria at one o clock issuing it to hermann g ring only hours later schuschnigg desperately sought support for austrian independence in the hours following the ultimatum but realizing that neither france nor the united kingdom were willing to take steps he resigned as chancellor that evening in the radio broadcast in which he announced his resignation he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed meanwhile austrian president wilhelm miklas refused to appoint seyss inquart chancellor and asked other austrian politicians such as michael skubl and sigismund schilhawsky to assume the office however the nazis were well organised within hours they managed to take control of many parts of vienna including the ministry of internal affairs controlling the police as miklas contin |
ued to refuse to appoint a nazi government and seyss inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the austrian government demanding german troops to restore order hitler became furious at about one zero pm well after hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion g ring and hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the austrian government for german troops to enter austria around midnight after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into nazi hands in vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested miklas finally conceded to appoint seyss inquart chancellor german troops march into austria propaganda even in the voting booth on one zero april one nine three eight with a poster instructing voters how to vote yes on the morning of one two march the eight th army of the german wehrmacht crossed the german austrian border they did not face resistance by the austrian army on the contrary the german troops w |
ere greeted by cheering austrians although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor it mattered little because no fighting took place it did however serve as a warning for commanders in future german military operations such as that against czechoslovakia curiously the invasion claimed its first fatality within only a few hours the nazi heinrich kurz von goldstein died of a heart attack during the celebrations in salzburg hitler s car crossed the border in the afternoon at braunau his birthplace in the evening he arrived at linz and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall the atmosphere was so intense that g ring in a telephone call that evening stated there is unbelievable jubilation in austria we ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense hitler s further travel through austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in vienna when around two zero zero zero zero zero austrians gathered on the heldenplatz square of heroes to hear hit |
ler proclaim the austrian anschluss video hitler proclaims austria s inclusion in the reich two mb hitler later commented certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on austria with brutal methods i can only say even in death they cannot stop lying i have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people but when i crossed the former frontier into austria there met me such a stream of love as i have never experienced not as tyrants have we come but as liberators the anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on one three march subject to ratification by a plebiscite austria became the province of ostmark and seyss inquart was appointed governor the plebiscite was held on one zero april and officially recorded a support of nine nine seven three of the voters while historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated the voting process was not free or secret officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand in contrast to |
a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box in addition hitler s brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum even before the first german soldier crossed the border heinrich himmler and a few ss officers landed in vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the first republic such as richard schmitz leopold figl friedrich hillegeist and franz olah during the weeks following the anschluss and before the plebiscite social democrats communists and other potential political dissenters as well as jews were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps within only a few days of one two march seven zero zero zero zero people had been arrested the referendum itself was subject to large scale propaganda and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around four zero zero zero zero zero people nearly one zero of the eligible voting population mainly former members of left wing parties and jews interestingl |
y in some remote areas of austria the referendum on the independence of austria on one three march was held despite the wehrmacht s presence in austria it took up to three days to occupy every part of austria for instance in the village of innervillgraten a majority of nine five voted for austria s independence austria remained part of the third reich until the end of world war ii when a preliminary austrian government declared the anschluss void and null on april two seven one nine four five after the war then allied occupied austria was recognized and treated as a separate country but was not restored to sovereignty until the austrian state treaty and austrian declaration of neutrality both of one nine five five largely due to the rapid development of the cold war and disputes between the soviet union and its former allies over its foreign policy reactions and consequences of the anschluss social democrat karl renner publicly announced his support for the anschluss the picture of austria in the first days o |
f its existence in the third reich is one of contradictions at one and the same time hitler s terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society beginning with mass arrests and thousands of austrians attempting to flee in every direction yet austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming german troops entering austrian territory many austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence cardinal theodor innitzer a political figure of the cs declared as early as one two march the viennese catholics should thank the lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred and they should pray for a great future for austria needless to say everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions the other austrian bishops followed suit some days later vatican radio however immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the german action and cardinal pacelli ordered innitzer to report to rome before meeti |
ng with the pope innitzer met with pacelli who had been outraged by innitzer s statement he made it clear that innitzer needed to retract he was made to sign a new statement issued on behalf of all the austrian bishops which provided the solemn declaration of the austrian bishops was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with god s law the vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops earlier statement had been issued without the approval from rome robert kauer president of the protestants in austria greeted hitler on one three march as saviour of the three five zero zero zero zero german protestants in austria and liberator from a five year hardship even karl renner the most famous social democrat of the first republic announced his support for the anschluss and appealed to all austrians to vote in favour of it on one zero april the international response to the expansion of germany may be described as moderate the times commented that two zero zero years a |
go scotland had joined england as well and that this event would not really differ much on one four march the british prime minister neville chamberlain noted in the house of commons british appeasement policy led to the treaty of munich the next major step for hitler to create an all german reich his majesty s government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation the foreign secretary saw the german foreign minister on the one zero th of march and addressed to him a grave warning on the austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the german government in regard to it late on the one one th of march our ambassador in berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the german government against such use of coercion backed by force against an independent state in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence however the speech concluded i imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to day will be the |
cause of regret of sorrow perhaps of indignation they cannot be regarded by his majesty s government with indifference or equanimity they are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured the immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in europe unfortunately while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to day what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and indeed increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in this is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words we must consider the new situation quickly but with cool judgement as regards our defence programmes we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation it would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we h |
ad in mind accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take the lenient reaction to the anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed appeasement british foreign policy strategy the international reaction on the events of march one two th one nine three eight led hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his roadmap to expand the third reich as he would later in annexing the sudetenland the relatively bloodless anschluss helped pave the way for the treaty of munich in september one nine three eight and the annexation of czechoslovakia in one nine three nine because it reinforced appeasement as the right way for britain to deal with hitler s germany legacy of the one nine three eight anschluss the anschluss annexation or union some historical sources for instance encyclop dia britannica and the encarta encyclopedia describe the anschluss as an annexation outside this contex |
t anschluss is properly translated as join connection unification or political union the german word annektierung would mean military annexation unambiguously however the word commonly used in german for the process of spring one nine three eight is anschluss the precise character of the anschluss remains a difficulty essential to austria s understanding of its history and the obligations it entails the appeal of nazism to austrians the anschluss can be misunderstood as simply a military annexation of an unwilling austria but this lends itself to confusion with other german military occupations of european countries it also tends to conceal the culpability of many austrians in nazi crimes most of all the holocaust by perpetuating the myth of austria as the first victim of hitler s expansionism despite the subversion of austrian political process by hitler s sympathisers and associates in austria austrian acceptance of direct government by hitler s berlin is a very different phenomenon from the administration |
of other collaborationist countries with the break up of the austro hungarian monarchy in one nine one eight popular opinion was for unification with germany in realization of the grossdeutschland concept this however was forbidden by the treaty of st germain to which the newly formed austrian republic was obliged this was in stark contrast to the general concept of self determination which governed the versailles talks as was the inclusion of the sudetenland a german populated area of the former austro hungarian province of bohemia whose population favoured joining german speaking austria in the newly formed czechoslovak republic giving rise to revisionist sentiment this laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both austria and the sudetenland for inclusion into the third reich as well as the relative acceptance of the western governments who made little protest until march one nine three nine when the irredentist argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of czech |
speaking bohemia as well as moravia and czech silesia nazi propaganda poster the small republic of austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically unviable a feeling that was exacerbated by the depression of the one nine three zero s in contrast the nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the one nine three zero s furthermore the break up had thrown austria into a crisis of identity and many austrians of both the left and the right felt that austria should be part of a larger german nation politically austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of totalitarianism the final version of the first republic s constitution had only lasted from one nine two nine to one nine three three the first republic was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps the christian social party were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left wing social democratic party by the police d |
uring the july revolt of one nine two seven in fact with the end of democracy in one nine three three and the establishment of austrofascism austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the anschluss there is thus little to distinguish radically the institutions of at least the post one nine three four austrian government before or after one two march one nine three eight the members of the leading christian social party were fervent catholics but not particularly anti semitic for instance jews were not prohibited from exercising any profession in sharp contrast to the third reich many prominent austrian scientists professors and lawyers at the time were jewish in fact vienna with its jewish population of about two zero zero zero zero zero was considered a safe haven from one nine three three to one nine three eight by many jews who fled nazi germany however the nazis anti semitism found fertile soil in austria anti semitic elements had emerged as a force in |
austrian politics in the late nineteenth century with the rise in prominence of figures such as georg ritter von sch nerer and karl lueger who had influenced the young hitler and in the one nine three zero s anti semitism was rampant as jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems in addition to the economic appeal of the anschluss the popular underpinning of nazi politics as a total art form the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by riefenstahl s triumph of the will and mythological aestheticism of a broadly conceived national destiny of the german people within a thousand year reich gave the nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power moreover austrofascism was less grand in its appeal than the choice between stalin and hitler to which many european intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it in spite of dollfuss and schuschnigg s hostility t |
o nazi political ambitions the nazis succeeded in convincing many austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the german people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign nation the second republic the moscow declaration arthur seyss inquart one nine four five mugshot for the nuremberg trials the moscow declaration of one nine four three signed by the united states of america the union of soviet socialist republics and the united kingdom included a declaration on austria which stated the following the governments of the united kingdom the soviet union and the united states of america are agreed that austria the first free country to fall a victim to hitlerite aggression shall be liberated from german domination they regard the annexation imposed on austria by germany on one five march one nine three eight as null and void they consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in austria since that date they declare that they wish to see re established a free and in |
dependent austria and thereby to open the way for the austrian people themselves as well as those neighbouring states which will be face with similar problems to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace austria is reminded however that she has a responsibility which she cannot evade for participation in the war at the side of hitlerite germany and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation to judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the nuremberg trial the declaration was intended to serve as propaganda aimed at stirring austrian resistance although there are austrians counted as righteous among the nations there never was an effective austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under german occupation more than anything else although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history at nuremberg arthur seyss inquart and franz von |
papen in particular were both indicted under count one conspiracy to commit crimes against peace specifically for their activities in support of the austrian nazi party and the anschluss but neither was convicted of this count in acquitting von papen the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter seyss inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes most of which took place in poland and the netherlands and was sentenced to death austrian identity and the victim theory heldenplatz day of the austrian legion two april one nine three eight after world war ii many austrians sought comfort in the myth of austria as the nazis first victim although the nazi party was promptly banned austria did not have the same thorough process of de nazification at the top of government which was imposed on germany for a time lacking outside pressure for political reform factions of austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the anschluss was only a |
n annexation at bayonet point this view of the events of one nine three eight has deep roots in the ten years of allied occupation and the struggle to regain austrian sovereignty the victim theory played an essential role in the negotiations on the austrian state treaty with the soviets and by pointing to the moscow declaration austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for austria different from the division into east and west in germany the state treaty alongside with the subsequent austrian declaration of permanent neutrality marked important milestones for the solidification of austria s independent national identity during the following decades as austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic discussions of both austrofascism and austria s role in nazism were largely avoided still the austrian people s party vp has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that |
the establishment of the dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain austrian independence while the austrian social democratic party sp argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel hitler political events for decades the victim theory established in the austrian mind remained largely undisputed the austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the third reich most notably during the events of one nine six five concerning taras borodajkewycz a professor of economic history notorious for anti semitic remarks when ernst kirchweger a concentration camp survivor was killed by a right wing protester during riots it was not until the one nine eight zero s that austrians were finally massively confronted with their past the main catalyst for the start of a vergangenheitsbew ltigung was the so called waldheim affair the austrian reply to allegations during the one nine eight six presidential election campaign that successful candidate |
and former un secretary general kurt waldheim had been a member of the nazi party and of the infamous sa he was later absolved of direct involvement in war crimes was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country s internal affairs despite the politicians reactions to international criticism of waldheim the waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on austria s past and the anschluss another main factor for austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the one nine eight zero s j rg haider and the rise of the fp the party had combined elements of the pan german right with free market liberalism since its foundation in one nine five five but after haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in one nine eight six the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while haider began to openly use nationalist and anti immigrant rhetoric he was often criticised for tactics such as the v lkisch ethnic definition of national interest austria for austrians and his apolog |
ism for austria s past notably calling members of the waffen ss men of honour following an enormous electoral rise in the one nine nine zero s peaking in the one nine nine nine elections the fp now purged of its liberal elements entered a coalition with the vp led by wolfgang sch ssel that met international condemnation in two zero zero zero this coalition triggered the regular donnerstagsdemonstrationen thursday demonstrations in protest against the government which took place on the heldenplatz where hitler had greeted the masses during the anschluss haider s tactics and rhetoric which were often criticised as sympathetic to nazism again forced austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past but it is not j rg haider alone who has made questionable remarks on austria s past j rg haider s coalition partner the current chancellor wolfgang sch ssel in an interview with the jerusalem post as late as two zero zero zero stated that austria was the first victim of hitler germany literature tearing into the |
simplism of the victim theory and the time of the austrofascism thomas bernhard s last play heldenplatz was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in one nine eight eight fifty years after hitler s visit bernhard s achievement was to make the elimination of references to hitler s reception in vienna emblematic of austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria many politicians from all political factions called bernhard a nestbeschmutzer so damaging the reputation of his country and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in vienna s burgtheater kurt waldheim who was at that time still austrian president called the play a crude insult to the austrian people the historical commission and outstanding legal issues in the context of the postwar federal republic of germany one encounters a vergangenheitsbew ltigung struggle to come to terms with the past that has been partially institutionalised variably in literary cultural political and educational conte |
xts its development and difficulties have not been trivial see for example the historikerstreit austria formed a historikerkommission historian s commission or historical commission in one nine nine eight with a mandate to review austria s role in the nazi expropriation of jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters including simon wiesenthal and yad vashem the commission delivered its report in two zero zero three noted holocaust historian raul hilberg refused to participate in the commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about austrian culpability and liability comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the swiss bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the holocaust i personally would like to know why the wjc world jewish co |
ngress has hardly put any pressure on austria even as leading nazis and ss leaders were austrians hitler included immediately after the war the us wanted to make the russians withdraw from austria and the russians wanted to keep austria neutral therefore there was a common interest to grant austria victim status and later austria could cry poor though its per capita income is as high as germany s and most importantly the austrian pr machinery works better austria has the opera ball the imperial castle mozartkugeln a chocolate americans like that and austrians invest and export relatively little to the us therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail in the meantime they set up a commission in austria to clarify what happened to jewish property victor klima the former chancellor has asked me to join my father fought for austria in the first world war and in one nine three nine he was kicked out of austria after the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation for this reason i told klima no tha |
nk you this makes me sick the simon wiesenthal center continues to criticise austria as recently as june two zero zero five for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards its two zero zero one report offered the following characterization given the extensive participation of numerous austrians including at the highest levels in the implementation of the final solution and other nazi crimes austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades as has been the case in germany unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the austrian authorities in this regard and in fact with the exception of the case of dr heinrich gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances he claimed to be medically unfit but outside the court proved to be healthy not a single nazi war crimes prosecutio |
n has been conducted in austria since the mid seventies in two zero zero three the center launched a worldwide effort named operation last chance in order to collect further information about those nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution although reports issued shortly thereafter credited austria for initiating large scale investigations there has been one case where criticism of austrian authorities arose recently the center has put nine two year old croatian milivoj asner on its two zero zero five top ten list asner fled to austria in two zero zero four after croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in in response to objections about asner s continued freedom austria s federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from croatia or prosecutorial actions from klagenfurt neither of which appears forthcoming as of june two zero zero five extradition is not an option since asner also holds austrian citizenship having |
lived in the country from one nine four six to one nine nine one austrian political and military leaders in nazi germany arthur seyss inquart ernst kaltenbrunner odilo globocnik amon g th lothar rendulic alfred ritter von hubicki alexander l hr franz b hme see also the sound of music an account of the anschluss dramatized but based on actual events the great dictator a fictitious account of the invasion of osterlich by tomania modeled on the anschluss third reich kurt schuschnigg history of austria notes until the german spelling reform of one nine nine six anschluss was written anschlu in german see also the article on in english language typography and style conventions was often transliterated as ss making the spelling currently accepted in german a valid if not predominant option before one nine nine six the anschluss msn encarta accessed eight july two zero zero five anschluss britannica accessed eight july two zero zero five some historical sources refer to the anschluss as an annexation one nine three |
eight austria msn encarta accessed one zero june two zero zero five sterreichs weg zum anschluss im m rz one nine three eight wiener zeitung two five may one nine nine eight detailed article the on the events of the anschluss in german ibid anschluss spartacus schoolnet reactions on the anschluss die propagandistische vorbereitung der volksabstimmung austrian resistance archive vienna one nine eight eight accessed one zero june two zero zero five ibid see note two above see note two above neville chamberlain statement of the prime minister in the house of commons one four march one nine three eight moscow conference joint four nation declaration october one nine four three full text of the moscow memorandum gerald stourzh waldheim s austria the new york review of books three four no three february one nine eight seven judgment the defendants seyss inquart the nizkor project the defendants von papen the nizkor project short note on sch ssel s interview in the jerusalem post in german salzburger nachrichten on |
e one november two zero zero zero thomas bernhard books and writers article on bernhard with a short section on heldenplatz austrian historical commission press statement on the report of the austrian historical commission austrian press and information service two eight february two zero zero three hilberg interview with the berliner zeitung as quoted by norman finkelstein s web site efraim zuroff worldwide investigation and prosecution of nazi war criminals two zero zero one two zero zero two simon wiesenthal center jerusalem april two zero zero two take action against nazi war criminal milivoj asner world jewish congress one nine november two zero zero four mutma licher kriegsverbrecher asner wird nicht an zagreb ausgeliefert der standard september two three two zero zero five references books bukey evan burr one nine eight six hitler s hometown linz austria one nine zero eight one nine four five indiana university press isbn zero two five three three two eight three three zero parkinson f ed one nine eigh |
t nine conquering the past austrian nazism yesterday and today wayne state university press isbn zero eight one four three two zero five four six pauley bruce f one nine eight one hitler and the forgotten nazis a history of austrian national socialism university of north carolina press isbn zero eight zero seven eight one four five six three scheuch manfred two zero zero five der weg zum heldenplatz eine geschichte der sterreichischen diktatur one nine three three one nine three eight isbn three eight two five eight seven seven one two four schuschnigg kurt one nine seven one the brutal takeover the austrian ex chancellor s account of the anschluss of austria by hitler weidenfeld and nicolson isbn zero two nine seven zero zero three two one six stuckel eva maria two zero zero one sterreich monarchie operette und anschluss antisemtismus faschismus und nationalsozialismus im fadenkreuz von ingeborg bachman und elias canetti electronic articles and journals sterreichs weg zum anschluss im m rz one nine three eig |
ht wiener zeitung two five may one nine nine eight detailed article the on the events of the anschluss in german die propagandistische vorbereitung der volksabstimmung austrian resistance archive vienna one nine eight eight accessed one zero june two zero zero five one nine three eight austria msn encarta accessed one zero june two zero zero five the crisis year of one nine three four buchner a from the destruction of the socialist lager to national socialist coup attempt accessed one zero june two zero zero five external links austrian historical commission bbc article by robert knight who served on the historikercommission exchange in the new york review of books between gerald stourzh and gordon craig over the latter s review waldheim s austria full text of the moscow declaration simon wiesenthal center mpg video declaration by adolf hitler on the heldeplatz two zero mb time magazine coverage of the events of the anschluss german loanwords history of austria history of germany nazi germany vergangenheitsbe |
w ltigung the american civil war one eight six one one eight six five was a civil war between the united states of america called the union and the confederate states of america formed by eleven southern states that had seceded one from the union the union won a decisive victory followed by a period of reconstruction the war produced more than nine seven zero zero zero zero casualties three percent of population including approximately five six zero zero zero zero deaths the causes of the war the reasons for the outcome and even the name of the war itself are subjects of much controversy even today historiography multiple explanations of why war began main articles origins of the american civil war timeline of events the origin of the american civil war lay in the complex issues of slavery politics disagreements over the scope of states rights versus federal power expansionism sectionalism economics modernization and competing nationalism of the antebellum period although there is little disagreement among hi |
storians on the details of the events that led to war there is disagreement on exactly what caused what and the relative importance there is no consensus on whether the war could have been avoided or if it should have been avoided failure to compromise in one eight five four the old political system broke down after passage of the kansas nebraska act the whig party disappeared and the new republican party arose in its place it was the nation s first major political party with only sectional appeal though it had much of the old whig economic platform its popularity rested on its commitment to stop the expansion of slavery into new territories open warfare in the kansas territory the panic of one eight five seven and john brown s raid on harper s ferry further heightened sectional tensions and helped republicans sweep elections in one eight six zero in one eight six zero the election of abraham lincoln who met staunch opposition from southern slave owning interests triggered southern secession from the union th |
e new president decided to resort to arms if necessary to preserve the nation s territorial integrity historians in the one nine three zero s such as james g randall argued that the rise of mass democracy the breakdown of the old two party system and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional rhetoric made it highly unlikely if not impossible to bring about the compromises of the past such as the missouri compromise and the compromise of one eight five zero necessary to avoid crisis although numerous compromises were proposed none were successful in reuniting the country one possible compromise was peaceful secession agreed to by the united states which was seriously discussed in late one eight six zero and supported by many abolitionists but was rejected by both buchanan s conservative democrats and the republican leadership southern nationalism psychological nationhood most historians agree following ulrich b phillips avery craven and eugene genovese that the south had grown apart from the north psychologi |
cally and in terms of its value systems one by one the common elements that bound the nation together were broken for example the major protestant denominations split along north south lines fewer travelers or students or businessmen went from one region to the other the last common elements were the constitution which was in dispute after the dred scott ruling of one eight five seven the political parties which split along regional lines in one eight six zero and congress which was in constant turmoil after one eight five six slavery as a cause of the war focus on the slavery issue has been cyclical it was considered the main cause in the one eight six zero one eight nine zero era from one nine zero zero to one nine six zero historians considered anti slavery agitation to be less important than constitutional economic and cultural issues since the one nine six zero s historians have returned to an emphasis on slavery as a major cause of the war specifically they note that the south insisted on protecting it |
and the north insisted on weakening it a small but militant abolitionist movement existed in the north a matter of a few thousand advocates their insistence that slavery was a sin and slave owners were deeply guilty angered the south historians have looked at many slave owners and decided that they felt neither guilt nor shame but were angry at what they considered unchristian hate speech from abolitionists by the one eight three zero s there was a widespread ideological defense of the peculiar institution everywhere in the south as territorial expansion forced the nation to confront the question of whether new territories were to become slave or free and as multiplying free states became a majority in the union the slave power in national politics waned economics the north and south did have different economies but they were complementary and not in competition the south made money by exporting cotton and other unique crops like tobacco the north made money by exporting food and manufactured items many north |
ern business interests were closely tied to the southern economy and pleaded for union and compromise some southerners thought they paid too much in tariffs but they themselves had written and voted for the tariff laws in effect the cotton growing export business or king cotton as it was touted was so important to the world economy southerners argued that they could stand alone indeed being tied to the north was a hindrance and an economic burden the south would do better by trading directly with europe and avoiding extortionate yankee middlemen ideologies in the view of many northern republicans the slave power ruled the south not democracy this slave power was a small group of very wealthy slave owners especially cotton planters who dominated the politics and society of the south however historians more recently have emphasized that the south was much more democratic than the republicans of north believed both north and south believed strongly to republican values of democracy and civic virtue but their con |
ceptualizations were diverging each side though the other was aggressive and was violating both the constitution and the core values of american republicanism nationalism was the dominant force in europe in the one nine th century and likewise in america the south was much more explicit in defining nationalism as a regional characteristic the north paid less attention to nationalism before one eight six zero but then focused its mind on it and stressed the whole country north and south was the unit of nationalism this economic differentiation had social and political consequences beyond the issue of slavery itself for instance pennsylvania politicians pushed for a protective tariff to help the iron industry while the cotton exporting south wanted to keep the existing policy of nearly free trade at a deeper level industrialization in the northeast and farming in the midwest depended on free labor which could not exist alongside slave labor as lincoln kept emphasizing the nation had to be all free or all slave |
said lincoln historians charles and mary beard went so far as to argue in one nine two eight that this sectional conflict was a second american revolution a revolutionary watershed in the rise of modern industrial society in the united states states rights the states rights debate cut across the issues southern politicians argued that the federal government had no power to prevent slaves from being carried into new territories but they also demanded federal jurisdiction over slaves who escaped into the north northern politicians took reversed though equally contradictory stances on these issues slavery in the territories the specific political crisis that culminated in secession and civil war stemmed from a dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories the reason was that congress had power over slavery in the territories but not in the states with new territories being formed especially kansas the issue of slaver had to be confronted this argument grew out of the acquisition of vast new lands du |
ring the mexican war one eight four six four eight free state politicians such as david wilmot who personally had no sympathy for abolitionism feared that slaves would provide too much competition for free labor and thus effectively keep free state migrants out of newly opened territories slaveholders felt that any ban on slaves in the territories was a discrimination against their peculiar form of property and would undercut both the financial value of slaves and the institution itself slaves comprised the second most valuable form of property in the south after real estate in congress the end of the mexican war was overshadowed by a fight over the wilmot proviso a provision that wilmot tried and failed to enact to bar slavery from all lands acquired in the conflict the dispute led to open warfare after the kansas territory was organized in the kansas nebraska act of one eight five four this act repealed the prohibition on slavery there under the missouri compromise of one eight two zero and put the fate of |
slavery in the hands of the territory s settlers a process known as popular sovereignty proslavery missourians expected that kansas due west of their state would naturally become a slave state and were alarmed by an organized migration of antislavery new englanders soon heavily armed border ruffians from missouri battled antislavery forces under john brown among other leaders hundreds were killed or wounded southern congressmen perceiving a northern conspiracy to keep slavery out of kansas insisted that it be admitted as a slave state northerners pointing to the large and growing majority of antislavery voters there denounced this effort by one eight six zero sectional divisions had grown deep and bitter abraham lincoln one six th president one eight six one one eight six five southern fears of modernity southern secession was triggered by the election of republican abraham lincoln because it was feared that he would make good on his promise to stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extin |
ction if not lincoln then sooner or later another yankee many southerners said it was time to quit the union the slave states had lost the balance of power in the electoral college and the senate and were facing a future as a perpetual minority in a broader sense the north was rapidly modernizing its economy and its world view slavery had no role in modern america historian james mcpherson one nine eight three p two eight three explains secession before lincoln took office seven states seceded from the union and established an independent southern government the confederate states of america on february nine one eight six one they took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries with little resistance from president buchanan by seceding the rebel states gave up any claim to the western territories that were in dispute canceled any obligation for the north to return fugitive slaves to the confederacy and assured easy passage in congress of many bills and amendments they had long opposed the c |
ivil war began when under orders from confederate president jefferson davis confederate general p g t beauregard opened fire upon fort sumter in charleston south carolina on april one two one eight six one there were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle division of the country the union states there were two three union states california connecticut delaware illinois indiana iowa kansas kentucky maine maryland massachusetts michigan minnesota missouri new hampshire new jersey new york ohio oregon pennsylvania rhode island vermont and wisconsin the union counted virginia as well and added nevada and west virginia it added tennessee louisiana and other rebel states as soon as they were reconquered the territories of colorado dakota nebraska nevada new mexico utah and washington also fought on the union side there was a civil war inside the oklahoma territory the confederacy seven states seceded by march one eight six one south carolina december two one one eight six zero mississippi january nine one eig |
ht six one florida january one zero one eight six one alabama january one one one eight six one georgia january one nine one eight six one louisiana january two six one eight six one texas february one one eight six one these states of the deep south where slavery and cotton were most dominant formed the confederate states of america february four one eight six one with jefferson davis as president and a governmental structure closely modeled on the u s constitution see also confederate states constitution map of the division of the states during the civil war blue represents union states light blue union states that permitted slavery gray confederate states green territories after the surrender of fort sumter april one three one eight six one lincoln called for troops from all states to put down the insurrection resulting in the secession of four more states virginia april one seven one eight six one arkansas may six one eight six one north carolina may two zero one eight six one and tennessee june eight one |
eight six one border states main article border states civil war along with the northwestern portion of virginia whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the union in one eight six three as west virginia four of the five northernmost slave states maryland delaware missouri and kentucky did not secede and became known as the border states there was considerable anti war or copperhead sentiment in the southern parts of ohio indiana and illinois and some men volunteered for confederate service however much larger numbers led by john a logan joined the union army maryland had numerous pro confederate officials but after rioting in baltimore and other events had prompted a federal declaration of martial law union troops moved in and arrested the pro confederates both missouri and kentucky remained in the union but factions within each state organized governments in exile that were recognized by the csa in missouri an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the union |
however pro southern governor claiborne f jackson called out the state militia which was attacked in st louis by federal forces under general nathaniel lyon who chased the governor and the rest of the state guard to the southwestern corner of the state see also missouri secession map of territory claimed by the confederacy although kentucky did not secede for a time it declared itself neutral during a brief invasion by confederate forces southern sympathizers organized a secession convention inaugurated a confederate governor and gained recognition from the confederacy however the military occupation of columbus by confederate general leonidas polk in september one eight six one turned general popular opinion in kentucky against the confederacy and the state subsequently reaffirmed its loyal status and expelled the confederate government residents of the northwestern counties of virginia organized a secession from virginia and entered the union in one eight six three as west virginia similar secessions were s |
upported in some other areas of the confederacy such as eastern tennessee but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the confederacy narrative summary one eight six one to fort sumter battles of the american civil war by theater year lincoln s victory in the presidential election of one eight six zero triggered south carolina s secession from the union by february one one eight six one six more southern states had seceded on february seven the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the confederate states of america and established their capital at montgomery alabama the pre war february peace conference of one eight six one met in washington as one last attempt to avoid war it failed the remaining southern states as yet remained in the union confederate forces seized all but three federal forts within their boundaries they did not take fort sumter president buchanan made no military response but governors in massachusetts new york and pennsylvania began secretly buying weapons and trai |
ning militia units to ready them for immediate action on march four one eight six one abraham lincoln was sworn in in his inaugural address he argued that the constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier articles of confederation and perpetual union that it was a binding contract and called the secession legally void he stated he had no intent to invade southern states but would use force to maintain possession of federal property his speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union the south did send delegations to washington and offered to pay for the federal properties but they were turned down lincoln refused to negotiate with any confederate agents because he insisted the confederacy was not a legitimate government on april one two confederate soldiers fired upon the federal troops stationed at fort sumter in charleston south carolina until the troops surrendered lincoln called for all of the states in the union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the union most no |
rtherners hoped that a quick victory for the union would crush the nascent rebellion and so lincoln only called for volunteers for nine zero days four states tennessee arkansas north carolina and most importantly virginia which had repeatedly rejected confederate overtures now decided that they could not send forces against the seceding states they seceded and to reward virginia the confederate capital was moved to richmond virginia a highly vulnerable location at the end of the supply line even though the southern states had seceded there was considerable anti secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states eastern tennessee in particular was a hotbed for pro unionism winston county alabama issued a resolution of secession from the state of alabama the red strings were a prominent southern anti secession group winfield scott created the anaconda plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible his idea was that a union blockade would strangle the rebel economy then capture of the mississ |
ippi would split the south lincoln adopted the plan but overruled scott s warnings against an immediate attack on richmond naval war and blockade union blockade and confederate states navy in may one eight six one lincoln proclaimed the union blockade of all southern ports which shut down nearly all international traffic and most local port to port traffic although few naval battles were fought and few men were killed the blockade shut down king cotton and ruined the southern economy british investors built small very fast blockade runners that brought in military supplies and civilian luxuries from cuba and the bahamas and took out some cotton and tobacco when the blockade captured one the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the union sailors the crews were british so when they were captured they were released and not held as prisoners of war the most famous naval battle was the battle of hampton roads often called the battle of the monitor and the merrimac in march one eight six two in which |
confederate efforts to break the blockade were frustrated other naval battles included island no one zero memphis drewry s bluff arkansas post and mobile bay eastern theater one eight six one one eight six three because of the fierce resistance of a few initial confederate forces at manassas virginia in july one eight six one a march by union troops under the command of maj gen irvin mcdowell on the confederate forces there was halted in the first battle of bull run or first manassas whereupon they were forced back to washington d c by confederate troops under the command of generals joseph e johnston and p g t beauregard it was in this battle that confederate general thomas jackson received the name of stonewall because he stood like a stone wall against union troops alarmed at the loss and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the union the u s congress passed the crittenden johnson resolution on july two five of that year which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the union an |
d not to end slavery major general george b mcclellan took command of the union army of the potomac on july two six he was briefly general in chief of all the union armies but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of maj gen henry w halleck and the war began in earnest in one eight six two upon the strong urging of president lincoln to begin offensive operations mcclellan invaded virginia in the spring of one eight six two by way of the peninsula between the york river and james river southeast of richmond although mcclellan s army reached the gates of richmond in the peninsula campaign joseph e johnston halted his advance at the battle of seven pines then robert e lee defeated him in the seven days battles and forced his retreat mcclellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce john pope s union army of virginia pope was beaten spectacularly by lee in the northern virginia campaign and the second battle of bull run in august confederate dead behind the stone wall of marye s heights frederic |
ksburg virginia killed during the battle of chancellorsville may one eight six three emboldened by second bull run the confederacy made its first invasion of the north when general lee led five five zero zero zero men of the army of northern virginia across the potomac river into maryland on september five lincoln then restored pope s troops to mcclellan mcclellan and lee fought at the battle of antietam near sharpsburg maryland on september one seven one eight six two the bloodiest single day in american history lee s army checked at last returned to virginia before mcclellan could destroy it antietam is considered a union victory because it halted lee s invasion of the north and provided justification for lincoln to announce his emancipation proclamation when the cautious mcclellan failed to follow up on antietam he was replaced by maj gen ambrose burnside burnside suffered near immediate defeat at the battle of fredericksburg on december one three one eight six two when over ten thousand union soldiers wer |
e killed or wounded after the battle burnside was replaced by maj gen joseph fighting joe hooker hooker too proved unable to defeat lee s army despite outnumbering the confederates by more than two to one he was humiliated in the battle of chancellorsville in may one eight six three he was replaced by maj gen george g meade during lee s second invasion of the north in june meade defeated lee at the battle of gettysburg july one three one eight six three the largest battle in north american history which is sometimes considered the war s turning point lee s army suffered two eight zero zero zero casualties versus meade s two three zero zero zero again forcing it to retreat to virginia never to launch a full scale invasion of the north again lincoln was angry that meade failed to intercept lee s retreat and decided to turn to the western theater for new leadership on the use of balloons see aerial warfare section on the american civil war western theater one eight six one one eight six three while the confedera |
te forces had numerous successes in the eastern theater they crucially failed in the west they were driven from missouri early in the war as result of the battle of pea ridge leonidas polk s invasion of kentucky enraged the citizens there who previously had declared neutrality in the war turning that state against the confederacy nashville tennessee fell to the union early in one eight six two most of the mississippi was opened with the taking of island no one zero and new madrid missouri and then memphis tennessee new orleans louisiana was captured in may one eight six two allowing the union forces to begin moving up the mississippi as well only the fortress city of vicksburg mississippi prevented unchallenged union control of the entire river braxton bragg s second confederate invasion of kentucky was repulsed by don carlos buell at the confused and bloody battle of perryville and he was narrowly defeated by william s rosecrans at the battle of stones river in tennessee the one clear confederate victory in |
the west was the battle of chickamauga in georgia near the tennessee border where bragg reinforced by the corps of james longstreet from lee s army in the east defeated rosecrans despite the heroic defensive stand of george henry thomas and forced him to retreat to chattanooga which bragg then besieged the union s key strategist and tactician in the west was maj gen ulysses s grant who won victories at forts henry and donelson by which the union seized control of the tennessee and cumberland rivers shiloh the battle of vicksburg cementing union control of the mississippi river and considered one of the turning points of the war and the battle of chattanooga tennessee driving confederate forces out of tennessee and opening an invasion route to atlanta and the heart of the confederacy trans mississippi theater one eight six one one eight six five though geographically isolated from the battles to the east a number of small scale military actions took place west of the mississippi river confederate incursions in |
to arizona and new mexico were repulsed in one eight six two guerilla activity turned much of missouri and indian territory oklahoma into a battleground late in the war the federal red river campaign was a failure texas remained in confederate hands throughout the war but was cut off after the capture of vicksburg in one eight six three gave the union control of the mississippi river end of the war one eight six four one eight six five jefferson davis first and only president of the confederate states of america at the beginning of one eight six four lincoln made grant commander of all union armies grant made his headquarters with the army of the potomac and put maj gen william tecumseh sherman in command of most of the western armies grant understood the concept of total war and believed along with lincoln and sherman that only the utter defeat of confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war he devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of confederacy from multi |
ple directions generals grant meade and benjamin butler would move against lee near richmond general franz sigel and later philip sheridan would invade the shenandoah valley general sherman would and capture atlanta and march to the sea generals george crook and william w averell would operate against railroad supply lines in west virginia and general nathaniel banks would capture mobile alabama union forces in the east attempted to maneuver past lee and fought several battles during that phase grant s overland campaign of the eastern campaign an attempt to outflank lee from the south failed under butler who was trapped inside the bermuda hundred river bend grant was tenacious and despite astonishing losses over six six zero zero zero casualties in six weeks kept pressing lee s army of northern virginia back to richmond he pinned down the confederate army in the siege of petersburg where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months grant finally found a commander general philip sheridan aggre |
ssive enough to prevail in the valley campaigns of one eight six four sheridan proved to be more than a match for jubal early and defeated him in a series of battles including a final decisive defeat at cedar creek sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the valley a strategy similar to the tactics sherman would later employ in georgia meanwhile sherman marched from chattanooga to atlanta defeating confederate generals joseph e johnston and john b hood the fall of atlanta on september two one eight six four was a significant factor in the re election of abraham lincoln as president of the union leaving atlanta and his base of supplies sherman s army marched with an unclear destination laying waste to about two zero of the farms in georgia in his celebrated march to the sea and reaching the atlantic ocean at savannah georgia in december one eight six four burning plantations as they went sherman s army was followed by thousands of freed slaves when sherman turned north through south carolin |
a and north carolina to approach the virginia lines from the south it was the end for lee and his men and for the confederacy lee attempted to escape from the besieged petersburg and link up with johnston in north carolina but he was overtaken by grant he surrendered his army of northern virginia on april nine one eight six five at appomattox court house johnston surrendered his troops to sherman shortly thereafter at a local family s farmhouse in durham north carolina the battle of palmito ranch fought on may one three one eight six five in the far south of texas was the last civil war land battle and ended ironically with a confederate victory all confederate land forces surrendered by june one eight six five analysis of the outcome why the union prevailed or why the confederacy was defeated in the civil war has been a subject of extensive analysis and debate could the south have won a significant number of scholars believe that the union held an insurmountable advantage over the confederacy in terms of ind |
ustrial strength population and the determination to win confederate actions they argue could only delay defeat southern historian shelby foote expressed this view succinctly in ken burns s television series on the civil war i think that the north fought that war with one hand behind its back if there had been more southern victories and a lot more the north simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back i don t think the south ever had a chance to win that war ward one nine nine zero p two seven two other historians however suggest that the south had a chance to win its independence as james mcpherson has observed the confederacy remained on the defensive which required fewer military resources the union committed to the strategic offensive faced enormous manpower demands that it often had difficulty meeting war weariness among union civilians mounted along with casualties in the long years before union advantages proved decisive thus the inevitability of union victory remains hotly conte |
sted among scholars the goals were not symmetric to win independence the south had to convince the north it could not win but it did not have to invade the north to restore the union the north had to conquer vast stretches of territory in the short run a matter of months the two sides were evenly matched but in the long run a matter of years the north had advantages that increasingly came into play both sides had long term advantages but the union had more of them the union had to control the entire coastline defeat all the main confederate armies seize richmond and control most of the population centers as the occupying force they had to station hundreds of thousands of soldiers to control railroads supply lines and major towns and cites the long term advantages widely credited by historians to have contributed to the union s success include us economic advantages over csa the more industrialized economy of the north which aided in the production of arms munitions and supplies as well as finances and transpo |
rtation the graph shows the relative advantage of the usa over the csa a party system that enabled the republicans to mobilize soldiers and support at the grass roots even when the war became unpopular the confederacy deliberately did not use parties the union population was two two million and the south nine million in one eight six one the disparity grew as the union controlled more and more southern territory with garrisons and cut off the trans mississippi part of the confederacy excellent railroad links between union cities which allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies transportation was much slower and more difficult in the south which was unable to augment its much smaller system or repair damage or even perform routine maintenance the union devoted much more of its resources to medical needs thereby overcoming the unhealthy disease environment that sickened and killed more soldiers than combat did the union at the start controlled over eight zero of the shipyards steamships riv |
er boats and the navy it augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program this enabled the union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline the union s more established government particularly a mature executive branch which accumulated even greater power during wartime may have resulted in less regional infighting and a more streamlined conduct of the war failure of davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors damaged the confederate president s ability to draw on regional resources the confederacy s tactic of engaging in major battles at the cost of heavy manpower losses when it could not easily replace its losses the confederacy s failure to fully use its advantages in guerrilla warfare against union communication and transportation infrastructure however as lee warned such warfare would prove devastating to the south and with the exception of confederate partisans in missouri confederate leaders shrank from it despite the union s many tactic |
al blunders like the seven days battle those commited by confederate generals such as lee s miscalculations at the battle of gettysburg and battle of antietam were far more serious if for no other reason than that the confederates could so little afford the losses lincoln proved more adept than davis in replacing unsuccessful generals with better ones strategically the location of the capital richmond tied lee to a highly exposed position at the end of supply lines loss of richmond everyone realized meant loss of the war lincoln grew as a grand strategist in contrast to davis the confederacy never developed an overall strategy it never had a plan to deal with the blockade davis failed to respond in a coordinated fashion to serious threats such as grant s campaign against vicksburg in one eight six three in the face of which he allowed lee to invade pennsylvania the confederacy s failure to win diplomatic or military support from any foreign powers its king cotton misperception of the world economy led to bad |
diplomacy such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started most important the union had the will to win and leaders like lincoln seward stanton grant and sherman would do whatever it took to achieve victory the confederacy as beringer et al one nine eight six argue may have lacked the total commitment needed to win it took time however for leaders such as grant sherman and sheridan to emerge in the meantime union public opinion wavered and lincoln worried about losing the election of one eight six four until victories in the shenandoah valley and atlanta made victory seem likely major land battles there were as many as one zero zero zero zero hostile engagements during the war the costliest and most significant are listed in battles of the american civil war civil war leaders and soldiers statues of abraham lincoln and jefferson davis at vicksburg national military park one of the reasons that the u s civil war wore on as long as it did and the battles were so fierce was that most important gene |
rals on both sides had formerly served in the united states army some including ulysses s grant and robert e lee during the mexican american war between one eight four six and one eight four eight most were graduates of the united states military academy at west point southern military commanders and strategists included jefferson davis robert e lee joseph e johnston thomas j stonewall jackson james longstreet p g t beauregard john mosby braxton bragg john bell hood james ewell brown jeb stuart william mahone judah p benjamin jubal early and nathan bedford forrest northern military commanders and strategists included abraham lincoln edwin m stanton ulysses s grant william tecumseh sherman george h thomas george b mcclellan henry w halleck joseph hooker ambrose burnside irvin mcdowell winfield scott philip sheridan george crook george armstrong custer george g meade and winfield hancock after one nine eight zero scholarly attention turned to ordinary soldiers and to women and african americans involved with th |
e war as james mcpherson observed the profound irony of the civil war was that confederate and union soldiers interpreted the heritage of one seven seven six in opposite ways confederates fought for liberty and independence from what they regarded as a tyrannical government unionists fought to preserve the nation created by the founders from dismemberment and destruction mcpherson one nine nine four p two four the question of slavery given the painfulness of the historical memory of slavery for many americans its role in the war remains controversial to this day to understand its place in the conflict it is necessary to divide the issue in two slavery as a motivation for secession and abolition as a union war aim in the weeks and months preceding the secession of the confederate states southern leaders spoke openly about their desire to preserve slavery and their fears for the peculiar institution if the south remained within the union almost all of the ordinances of secession cited the preservation of slaver |
y as a primary even the foremost reason for departure from the union and yet many individual southern soldiers fought for reasons quite apart from the defense of slavery to protect their families and communities to defend their home states and out of a nascent sense of nationality on the union side lincoln initially declared his purpose in prosecuting the war to be the preservation of the union not emancipation he had no wish to alienate the thousands of slaveholders in the union border states the long war however had a radicalizing effect on federal policies with the emancipation proclamation announced in september one eight six two and put into effect four months later lincoln adopted the abolition of the slave power as a second mission that is slaves owned by rebels had to be taken away from them and freed one goal was to destroy the economic basis of the confederate leadership class and another goal was to actually liberate the four million slaves which was accomplished by one eight six five the emancipat |
ion proclamation declared all slaves held in territory then under confederate control to be then thenceforth and forever free but did not affect slaves in areas under union control it did however show the union that slavery s days were numbered increasing abolitionist support in the north the border states except kentucky abolished slavery on their own foreign diplomacy because of the confederacy s attempt to create a new state recognition and support from the european powers were critical to its prospects the union under secretary of state william henry seward attempted to block the confederacy s efforts in this sphere the confederates hoped that the importance of the cotton trade to europe the idea of cotton diplomacy and shortages caused by the war along with early military victories would enable them to gather increasing european support and force a turn away from neutrality president lincoln s decision to announce a blockade of the confederacy a clear act of war enabled britain followed by other european |
powers to announce their neutrality in the dispute this enabled the confederacy to begin to attempt to gain support and funds in europe president jefferson davis had picked robert toombs of georgia as his first secretary of state toombs having little knowledge in foreign affairs was replaced several months later by robert m t hunter of virginia another choice with little suitability ultimately on march one seven one eight six two davis selected judah p benjamin of louisiana as secretary of state who although having more international knowledge and legal experience with international slavery disputes still failed in the end to create a dynamic foreign policy for the confederacy the first attempts to achieve european recognition of the confederacy were dispatched on february two five one eight six one and led by william lowndes yancey pierre a rost and ambrose dudley mann the british foreign minister lord john russell met with them and the french foreign minister edouard thouvenel received the group unofficial |
ly however at this point the two countries had agreed to coordinate and cooperate and would not make any rash moves charles francis adams proved particularly adept as ambassador to britain for the union and britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the union s blockade the confederacy also attempted to initiate propaganda in europe through journalists henry hotze and edwin de leon in paris and london however public opinion against slavery created a political liability for european politicians especially in britain a significant challenge in anglo union relations was also created by the trent affair involving the union boarding of a british mail steamer to seize james m mason and john slidell confederate diplomats sent to europe however the union was able to smooth over the problem to some degree as the war continued in late one eight six two the british considered initiating an attempt to mediate the conflict however the union victory in the battle of antietam caused them to delay this decision additionally t |
he issuing of the emancipation proclamation further reinforced the political liability of supporting the confederacy as the war continued the confederacy s chances with britain grew more hopeless and they focused increasingly on france napol on iii proposed to offer mediation in january one eight six three but this was dismissed by seward despite some sympathy for the confederacy france s own concerns in mexico ultimately deterred them from substantially antagonizing the union as the confederacy s situation grew more and more tenuous and their pleas increasingly ignored president davis sent duncan f kenner to europe in november one eight six four to test whether a promised confederate emancipation of its slaves could lead to possible recognition the proposal was strictly rejected by both britain and france aftermath the peace monument at lookout mountain tennessee depicts a union and confederate soldier shaking hands northern leaders agreed that the war would be over when confederate nationalism was dead and |
slavery was dead they disagreed sharply on how to identify these goals they also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the south the fighting ended with the surrender of all the confederate forces there was no significant guerrilla warfare many senior confederate leaders escaped to europe but davis was captured and imprisoned but never brought to trial the question became how much the union could trust the ex confederates to be truly loyal to the united states the second main question in reconstruction dealt with the destruction of slavery the xiii amendment one eight six five officially abolished it legally but the issue was whether black codes indicated a sort of semi slavery and whether freedmen should have the vote to protect those rights in one eight six seven radicals in congress pushed aside president johnson and imposed new rules freedmen gained the right to vote and formed republican political coalitions that took control of each state for varying periods one by one the |
white conservatives or redeemers gained back control of their states often through lethal force the final three were redeemed by the compromise of one eight seven seven after that the hatreds between north and south rapidly diminished until by one nine zero zero the nation was no longer divided by the war though it did remain divided by race ghosts of the conflict still persist in america for decades after the war northern politicians waved the bloody shirt bringing up memories of the civil war as an electoral tactic while the solid south as a block in national politics was built on memories of the war and a determination to maintain segregation the civil rights movement of the one nine six zero s had its neoabolitionist roots in the failure of reconstruction a few debates surrounding the legacy of the war continue especially regarding memorials and celebrations of confederate heroes and battle flags the question is a deep and troubling one americans with confederate ancestors cherish the memory of their bra |
very and determination yet their cause remains one ultimately tied to the shameful history of african american slavery further reading overviews beringer richard e archer jones and herman hattaway why the south lost the civil war one nine eight six analysis of factors catton bruce the civil war american heritage one nine six zero isbn zero eight two eight one zero three zero five four illustrated narrative donald david ed why the north won the civil war one nine seven seven isbn zero zero two zero three one six six zero seven short interpretive essays donald david et al the civil war and reconstruction latest edition two zero zero one seven zero zero page survey eicher david j the longest night a military history of the civil war simon pulitzer prize mark e neely jr was the civil war a total war civil war history vol five zero two zero zero four pp four three four in jstor nevins allan ordeal of the union an eight volume set one nine four seven one nine seven one the most detailed narrative one fruits of mani |
fest destiny one eight four seven one eight five two two a house dividing one eight five two one eight five seven three douglas buchanan and party chaos one eight five seven one eight five nine four prologue to civil war one eight five nine one eight six one five the improvised war one eight six one one eight six two six war becomes revolution one eight six two one eight six three seven the organized war one eight six three one eight six four eight the organized war to victory one eight six four one eight six five rhodes james ford history of the civil war one eight six one one eight six five one nine one eight pulitzer prize a short version of his five volume history ward geoffrey c the civil war alfred knopf one nine nine zero based on pbs series by ken burns visual emphasis weigley russell frank a great civil war a military and political history one eight six one one eight six five two zero zero four primarily military reference books and bibliographies blair jayne e the essential civil war a handbook to t |
he battles armies navies and commanders two zero zero six carter alice e and richard jensen the civil war on the web a guide to the very best sites two nd ed two zero zero three current richard n et al eds encyclopedia of the confederacy one nine nine three four volume set also one vol abridged version isbn zero one three two seven five nine nine one eight faust patricia l ed historical times illustrated encyclopedia of the civil war one nine eight six isbn zero zero six one eight one two six one seven two zero zero zero short entries eicher david j the civil war in books an analytical bibliography university of illinois one nine nine seven isbn zero two five two zero two two seven three four heidler david stephen encyclopedia of the american civil war a political social and military history two zero zero two one six zero zero entries in two seven zero zero pages in five vol or one vol editions wagner margaret e gary w gallagher and paul finkelman eds the library of congress civil war desk reference two zero |
zero two woodworth steven e ed american civil war a handbook of literature and research one nine nine six isbn zero three one three two nine zero one nine nine seven five zero pages of historiography and bibliography biographies eicher john h one nine zero one seven zero very large volumes of letters and reports written by both armies online at bedwell randall war is all hell a collection of civil war quotations cumberland house publishing one nine nine nine isbn one five eight one eight two four one nine x commager henry steele ed the blue and the gray the story of the civil war as told by participants one nine five zero often reprinted eisenschiml otto ralph newman eds the american iliad the epic story of the civil war as narrated by eyewitnesses and contemporaries one nine four seven hesseltine william b ed the tragic conflict the civil war and reconstruction one nine six two woodword c vann ed mary chesnut s civil war yale university press one nine eight one isbn zero three zero zero zero two nine seven n |
ine nine pulitzer prize novels about the war crane stephen the red badge of courage doctorow e l the march frazier charles cold mountain mitchell margaret gone with the wind reed ishmael flight to canada shaara jeffrey gods and generals shaara jeffrey the last full measure shaara michael the killer angels street james by valour and arms verne jules texar s revenge or north against south nord contre sud vidal gore lincoln films about the war the birth of a nation one nine one five gone with the wind one nine three nine the good the bad and the ugly one nine six six the blue and the gray one nine eight two glory one nine eight nine gettysburg one nine nine three gods and generals two zero zero three cold mountain two zero zero three documentaries about the war the civil war directed by ken burns see also african americans in the civil war california and the civil war canada and the american civil war casualties of the american civil war illinois in the civil war military history of the confederate states milita |
ry history of the united states national civil war museum naming the american civil war list of american civil war topics list of people associated with the american civil war official records of the american civil war origins of the american civil war photography and photographers of the american civil war rail transport in the american civil war u s congress joint committee on the conduct of the war union army balloon corps union blockade external links the american civil war homepage civil war photos at the national archives civil war in virginia civil war research a project to map out sites related to the civil war in maryland virginia and north carolina civil war audio resources hoard historical museum in fort atkinson wisconsin the handbook of texas online civil war the brothers war civil war band collection one st brigade band of brodhead wisconsin a digital collection of first person narrative accounts from wisconsin soldiers and citizens documenting their wartime experiences wisconsin goes to war our |
civil war experience a divided nation one of world book encyclopedia s monthly features this one on the american civil war american civil war civil wars emergency laws rebellions in the united states wars of the united states andy warhol photographed by helmut newton andy warhol august six one nine two eight february two two one nine eight seven was an american painter filmmaker publisher actor and a major figure in the pop art movement biography warhol was born as andrew warhola in forest city pennsylvania his parents ondrej andrew warhola and julia zavacky were working class immigrants of ruthenian ethnicity from mikova in northeast slovakia his father worked in the coal mines of pennsylvania the family was catholic but warhol s mother had a jewish grandmother warhol showed early artistic talent and studied commercial art at carnegie mellon university in pittsburgh in one nine four nine he moved to new york city and began a successful career in magazine illustration and advertising he became well known mai |
nly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose blotted style in the one nine six zero s warhol began to make paintings of famous american products such as campbell s soup cans and coca cola he switched to silkscreen prints seeking not only to make art of mass produced items but to mass produce the art itself he said that he wanted to be like a robot he hired and supervised art workers engaged in making prints shoes films books and other items at his studio the factory located on union square in new york city warhol s body of work furthermore includes commissioned portraits and commercials a lot of warhol s works revolve around the concept of americana and american culture he painted money dollar signs food groceries women s shoes celebrities and newspaper clippings to him these subjects represented american cultural values for instance coca cola represents democratic equality because what s great about this country is that america started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially |
the same things as the poorest you can be watching tv and see coca cola and you know that the president drinks coke liz taylor drinks coke and just think you can drink coke too a coke is a coke and no amount of money can get you a better coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking all the cokes are the same and all the cokes are good liz taylor knows it the president knows it the bum knows it and you know it he used popular imagery and methods to visualize the american cultural identity of the two zero th century this popular redefinition of american culture is a theme and result of warhol s art because american culture has had great international influence warhol did as well outside of the art world andy warhol is best known for saying that in the future everyone will be world famous for one five minutes he later told reporters humorously my new line is in fifteen minutes everybody will be famous socialite and recluse warhol used to socialize at serendipity and studio five four nightclubs in new york |
city warhol was generally regarded as quiet shy and as a meticulous observer more than one person jokingly referred to him as death warmed over warhol was openly gay rare for celebrities of his stature at the time many people think of warhol as asexual and as merely a voyeur but these notions have been debunked by biographers like fred guiles scholars e g richard meyer personal accounts of relationships by ex lovers such as jed johnson and billy name and by the overtly campy and homoerotic nature of his work itself throughout his career warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes many of his most famous works portraits of liza minelli judy garland elizabeth taylor and films like my hustler blow job and lonesome cowboys draw from gay underground culture and or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire in fact many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters the first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were in fact homoerotic drawings of m |
ale nudes they were rejected for being too openly gay a meticulous collector he organized almost every piece of paper fan mail after taking off the stamps and magazine related to his fame along with personal notes gay pornography and found artifacts into hundreds of numbered boxes and set them aside never to open them again warhol referred to these boxes as his time capsule many exist today and are available for research at his pittsburgh museum warhol s house was filled to the brim with his collected art artifacts and americana many of his later commissioned portraits were a direct or indirect result of this networking as a famous artist warhol and his factory attracted and facilitated many groupies and friends that warhol would include in films and happenings warhol promoted these factory regulars to fame creating the warhol superstars they would appear in and help him make his work play in his movies write his books hang out and generally become his following when warhol was asked to give a series of unive |
rsity lectures that he didn t feel like doing one of his friends put on a wig and white make up and pretended to be him by sitting quietly on the stage other superstars explained warhol s work to the audience and urged them to drop out of college the university eventually found out warhol s fraud and the following dispute had to be settled with a refund warhol would regularly volunteer at the homeless shelters in new york particularly during the busier times of the year he described himself as a religious person although not fully accepted by religion because of his homosexuality many of his later works contain almost hidden religious themes or subjects and a body of religious themed works was found posthumously in his estate shooting on june three one nine six eight valerie solanas a factory regular entered warhol s studio and fired three shots at warhol nearly killing him although the first two rounds missed the third passed through warhol s left lung spleen stomach liver esophagus and right lung solanas th |
en turned the gun on a companion of warhol mario amaya injuring his thigh warhol survived his injuries but he never fully recovered earlier solanas had given a script to warhol in hopes that he would make a film out of it warhol never did apparently she had visited the factory earlier in the day to ask that they give the script back to her it had however been lost she later explained that she had attacked warhol because he had too much control over her life the story of valerie solanas was made into the one nine nine six film i shot andy warhol starring lili taylor and directed by mary harron in the hospital his doctors had already declared him deceased after which he was resuscitated warhol later joked that he was now invulnerable since he had gone through death and came out alive the shooting and warhol s death received wide media coverage one of warhol s associates paul morrissey later satirized the event in his movie women in revolt calling a group similar to solanas s c u m society for cutting up men p i |
g politically involved girls in one nine nine zero lou reed recorded the album songs for drella one of warhol s nicknames was drella a combination of dracula and cinderella with fellow velvet underground alumnus john cale warhol had adopted reed s band the velvet underground as one of his projects in the one nine six zero s producing their first album the velvet underground and nico as well as providing the album art widely regarded as some of the greatest album art of all time the album itself is also regarded as one of the greatest and most influential albums in rock history after the band became successful warhol and band leader reed started to disagree more and more about the direction the band should take and the contact between them faded on the album reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict death warhol died in new york city following routine gallbladder surgery at the age of five eight warhol was afraid of hospitals and doctors so he had delayed having his recurring gall bla |
dder problems checked he is interred at st john the baptist catholic cemetery in bethel park south of pittsburgh fellow artist yoko ono was among the speakers at his funeral andy warhol had so many posessions it took sotheby s nine days to auction his estate after his death for a total gross amount of over two zero zero zero zero zero zero zero usd work paintings when he decided to pursue a career as an artist warhol had already established a reputation as a commercial illustrator in school he had made paintings but his work afterwards had mainly consisted of blotted ink illustrations for warehouses and magazines he felt that he was not being taken seriously as an illustrator and wanted to become a real artist when he started painting he looked to find a niche for himself at that time pop art as it was later to be called was already experimented with by several artists turning away from abstract expressionism and warhol turned to this new way of making art where popular subjects could be part of the artist s |
vocabulary his early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements in a hand painted style with paint drips he added these drips to give his paintings a serious feel to emulate a bit of the style of the abstract expressionists that were en vogue at the time in other words to be taken seriously or to sell his paintings which may have had the same meaning to warhol to warhol part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter cartoons were already being done by roy liechtenstein typography by jasper johns et cetera warhol wanted a distinguishing subject his friends suggested that he should paint the things he loved the most in his signature way of taking things literally for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of campbell s soup that he had for lunch most of his life warhol loved money so he later painted money he loved celebrities so he painted them as well from these beginnings he developed his later style and themes instead of working on a signature subject matter as he |
started out to do he worked more and more on a signature style slowly eliminating the hand made from the artistic process warhol went from painting to silk screening his later drawings were traced from slide projections in other words warhol went from being a painter to being a designer of paintings at the height of his fame as a painter warhol had several assistants who produced his silk screen multiples in different versions and variations after his directions it has been suggested by many that warhol would just take images of things that were hip in his time and cover them in warhol gravy but for warhol there was always a personal relation between him and his subjects for instance the campbell s soup did not only function as an illustration of commercial industry and advertisement it was an intrinsical part of warhol s life and memories as a child his mother had given him this soup when he was sick and warhol loved it very much as a grown up for him and many other americans the soup represented a feeling o |
f being home another criterion that is important in the way warhol chose his subjects is that the subjects should also represent a more philosophical notion should have a metaphorical quality when warhol paints money he paints it because he wants to own it canvases filled with money partly his work was meant to provide him with this money and success and fame and maybe even love at the same time these paintings speak of art as a commercial commodity the paintings of dollar bills represent monetary value as well as investments in this way instead of merely depicting dollar bills these paintings touch on notions like artistic value or may be perceived as a comment on art practice similarly when warhol paints photographs of disasters in bright colors red car crash purple jumping man orange disaster they point at the horror of the event in the picture and its media value but also at the way in which these images are trivialized by the media by turning these random clippings into paintings warhol turns them into m |
onuments for personal tragedies as such they represent a personal experience as well as a social comment as well as an illustration of a time when the media grew to be more and more important on a personal level a lot of warhol s work is motivational in nature and speaks of notions like democracy being able to change things optimistic materialism being heard but warhol wasn t naively optimistic about these things his work also deals with loss death loneliness and the such warhol knew how to juggle many levels of meaning and interpretation and to combine these in seemingly simple sometimes even dumb looking works of art in general his work has a very high duh level although a bit of a generalization it may be accurate to say that warhol depicted highly his very personal approach to subjects that everyone knows in a way that these subjects become symbolic warhol s work became more and more conceptual and more reflective of art itself his series of do it yourself paintings and rorschach blots are intended as pop |
comments on art and what art could be his cow wallpaper literally wallpaper with a cow motif and his oxidation paintings canvases prepared with copper paint that show oxidated urine stains are also noteworthy in this context warhol later did a series of his old works in negative as a comment on his own position as an artist in the beginning of his career warhol worked on a growing oeuvre of american forms and values newspaper clippings disasters money commercial products coca cola bottles postal stamps movie stars criminals shoes clothes etc defining a position researching and making statements as recognition and the value of his work grew he went back to his roots as a commercial illustrator and starts to take commissions most noticeably for portraits these are sometimes viewed as warhol s sell out the revolutionary painter that became a jester but it can also be argued that his self supporting way of working fit his world views at any rate his body of portraits that include many celebrities athletes movie |
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