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treaty the romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes who had been a welcome aid against the vandals but also to double their previous tribute of three five zero roman pounds ca one one four five kg of gold open their markets to hunnish traders and pay a ransom of eight solidi for each roman taken prisoner by the huns the huns satisfied with the treaty decamped from the empire and departed into the interior of the continent perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of constantinople building the city s first sea wall and to build up his border defenses along the danube the huns remained out of roman sight for the next five years during this time they were conducting an invasion of the persian empire however in armenia a persian counterattack resulted in a defeat for attila and bleda and they ceased their efforts to conquer persia in four four zero they reappeared on the borders of the empire attacking the merchants at the market on t |
he north bank of the danube that had been arranged for by the treaty attila and bleda threatened further war claiming that the romans had failed to fulfil their treaty obligations and that the bishop of margus not far from modern belgrade had crossed the danube to ransack and desecrate the royal hun graves on the danube s north bank they crossed the danube and laid waste to illyrian cities and forts on the river among them according to priscus viminacium which was a city of the moesians in illyria their advance began at margus for when the romans discussed handing over the offending bishop he slipped away secretly to the barbarians and betrayed the city to them theodosius had stripped the river s defenses in response to the vandal geiseric s capture of carthage in four four zero and the sassanid yazdegerd ii s invasion of armenia in four four one this left attila and bleda a clear path through illyria into the balkans which they invaded in four four one the hunnish army having sacked margus and viminacium too |
k sigindunum modern belgrade and sirmium before halting its operations a lull followed during four four two when theodosius recalled his troops from north africa and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the huns having made these preparations he thought it safe to refuse the hunnish kings demands attila and bleda responded by renewing their campaign in four four three striking along the danube they overran the military centers of ratiara and successfully besieged naissus modern ni with battering rams and rolling towers military sophistication that was new in the hun repertory then pushing along the nisava they took serdica sofia philippopolis plovdiv and arcadiopolis they encountered and destroyed the roman force outside constantinople and were only halted by their lack of siege equipment capable of breaching the city s massive walls theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official anatolius to negotiate peace terms which were harsher than the previous treaty the emperor agre |
ed to hand over six zero zero zero roman pounds ca one nine six three kg of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion the yearly tribute was tripled rising to two one zero zero roman pounds ca six eight seven kg in gold and the ransom for each roman prisoner rose to one two solidi their desires contented for a time the hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire according to jordanes following priscus sometime during the peace following the huns withdrawal from byzantium probably around four four five bleda died killed by his brother according to the classical sources and attila took the throne for himself now undisputed lord of the huns he again turned towards the eastern empire priscus of panium fragments from the embassy to attila sole ruler constantinople suffered major natural and man made disasters in the years following the huns departure bloody riots between the racing factions of the hippodrome plagues in four four five and four four six the second f |
ollowing a famine and a four month series of earthquakes which levelled much of the city wall and killed thousands causing another epidemic this last struck in four four seven just as attila having consolidated his power again rode south into the empire through moesia the roman army under the gothic magister militum arnegisclus met him on the river vid and was defeated though not without inflicting heavy losses the huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the balkans as far as thermopylae constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect flavius constantinus who organized the citizenry to reconstruct the earthquake damaged walls and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old an account of this invasion survives the barbarian nation of the huns which was in thrace became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it and there were so many murders and blood lettings that the dead |
could not be numbered ay for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers callinicus in his life of saint hypatius m r than s painting the feast of attila based on a fragment of priscus depicted at right dressed in white and holding his history when evening began to draw in torches were lighted and two barbarians came forward in front of attila and sang songs which they had composed hymning his victories and his great deeds in war and the banqueters gazed at them and some were rejoiced at the songs others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars but others broke into tears those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest attila demanded as a condition of peace that the romans should continue paying tribute in gold and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from sigindunum belgrade and up to a hundred miles south of the danube negotiations continued between roman and hun for approximately t |
hree years the historian priscus was sent as emissary to attila s encampment in four four eight and the fragments of his reports preserved by jordanes offer the best glimpse of attila among his numerous wives his scythian fool and his moorish dwarf impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers a luxurious meal served on silver plate had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests but attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher in everything else too he showed himself temperate his cup was of wood while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver his dress too was quite simple affecting only to be clean the sword he carried at his side the latchets of his scythian shoes the bridle of his horse were not adorned like those of the other scythians with gold or gems or anything costly the floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on priscus noted during these three years according to a legend recounted by jordanes attila discovered the sword of mars the historian pris |
cus says it was discovered under the following circumstances when a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass he dug it up and took it straight to attila he rejoiced at this gift and being ambitious thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world and that through the sword of mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him jordanes the origin and deeds of the goths ch xxxv e text later scholarship would identify this legend as part of a pattern of sword worship common among the nomads of the central asian steppes attila in the west an inaccurate sketch of attila the hun probably from the one nine th century depicts him as european though the only extant description of his appearance by a roman court historian states that atilla had a flat nose swarthy dark complexion broad chest short stature and small eyes but full of confidence |
among his features suggesting physical features common among mongolians as late as four five zero attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful visigoth kingdom of toulouse in alliance with emperor valentinian iii he had previously been on good terms with the western empire and its de facto ruler flavius a tius aetius had spent a brief exile among the huns in four three three and the troops attila provided against the goths and bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west the gifts and diplomatic efforts of geiseric who opposed and feared the visigoths may also have influenced attila s plans however valentinian s sister honoria in order to escape her forced betrothal to a senator had sent the hunnish king a plea for help and her ring in the spring of four five zero though honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage attila chose to interpret her message as such he accepted asking for half of the western empire as dowry when valentinian discovered th |
e plan only the influence of his mother galla placidia convinced him to exile rather than kill honoria he also wrote to attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal attila not convinced sent an embassy to ravenna to proclaim that honoria was innocent that the proposal had been legitimate and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his meanwhile theodosius having died in a riding accident his successor marcian cut off the huns tribute in late four five zero and multiple invasions by the huns and by others had left the balkans with little to plunder the king of the salian franks had died and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between attila and aetius attila supported the elder son while aetius supported the younger j b bury believes that attila s intent by the time he marched west was to extend his kingdom already the strongest on the continent across gaul to the atlantic shore by the time attila had gathered his vassals gepids ostrogoths rugians sc |
irians heruls thuringians alans burgundians et al and begun his march west he had declared intent of alliance both with the visigoths and with the romans in four five one his arrival in belgica with an army exaggerated by jordanes to half a million strong soon made his intent clear on april seven he captured metz and aetius moved to oppose him gathering troops from among the franks the burgundians and the celts a mission by avitus and attila s continued westward advance convinced the visigoth king theodoric i theodorid to ally with the romans the combined armies reached orleans ahead of attila thus checking and turning back the hunnish advance aetius gave chase and caught the huns at a place usually assumed to be near ch lons en champagne the two armies clashed in the battle of chalons whose outcome commonly though erroneously is attributed to be a victory for the gothic roman alliance theodoric was killed in the fighting aetius failed to press his advantage and the alliance quickly disbanded attila withdrew |
to continue his campaign against italy invasion of italy and death attila returned in four five two to claim his marriage to honoria anew invading and ravaging italy along the way his army sacked numerous cities and razed aquileia completely leaving no trace of it behind valentinian fled from ravenna to rome aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle attila finally halted at the po where he met an embassy including the prefect trigetius the consul aviennus and pope leo i after the meeting he turned his army back having claimed neither honoria s hand nor the territories he desired raphael s the meeting between leo the great and attila shows leo i with saint peter and saint paul above him going to meet attila several explanations for his actions have been proffered the plague and famine which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken or the troops that marcian sent across the danube may have given him reason to retreat or perhaps both priscus reports that superstit |
ious fear of the fate of alaric who died shortly after sacking rome in four one zero gave the hun pause prosper of aquitaine s pious fable which has been represented by the pencil of raphael and the chisel of algardi as gibbon called it says that the pope aided by saint peter and saint paul convinced him to turn away from the city various historians e g isaac asimov have supposed that the embassy brought a large amount of gold to the hunnish leader and persuaded him to abandon his campaign whatever his reasons attila left italy and returned to his palace across the danube from there he planned to strike at constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which marcian had cut off however he died in the early months of four five three the conventional account from priscus says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage to a beautiful goth named ildico he suffered a severe nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor an alternative to the nosebleed theory is that he succummed to internal bleeding |
after heavy drinking his warriors upon discovering his death mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that says jordanes the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears but with the blood of men his horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent when attila lay in state singing in his dirge according to cassiodorus and jordanes who can rate this as death when none believes it calls for vengeance then celebrating a strava over his burial place with great feasting he was buried in a triple coffin of gold silver and iron with the spoils of his conquest and his funeral party was killed to keep his burial place secret after his death he lived on as a legendary figure the characters of etzel in the nibelungenlied and atli in both the volsunga saga and the poetic edda were both loosely based on his life an alternate story of his death first recorded eighty years after the fact by the roman chronicler count marcellinus report |
s attila rex hunnorum europae orbator provinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur attila king of the huns and ravager of the provinces of europe was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife the volsunga saga and the poetic edda claim that king atli died at the hands of his wife gudrun most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables preferring instead the version given by attila s contemporary priscus the official account by priscus however has recently come under renewed scrutiny by michael a babcock the night attila died solving the murder of attila the hun berkley books two zero zero five isbn zero four two five two zero two seven two zero based on detailed philological analysis babcock concludes that the account of natural death given by priscus was an ecclesiastical cover story and that emperor marcian who ruled the eastern roman empire from four five zero four five seven was the political force behind attila s death his sons ellak his appointed successor dengizik and ernakh f |
ought over the division of his legacy what warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate and divided were defeated and scattered the following year in the battle of nedao by the gepids under ardaric whose pride was stirred by being treated with his people like chattel and the ostrogoths attila s empire did not outlast him appearance character and name atilla from an illustration to the poetic edda the main source for information on attila is priscus a historian who traveled with maximin on an embassy from theodosius ii in four four eight he describes the village the nomadic huns had built and settled down in as the size of the great city with solid wooden walls he described attila himself as short of stature with a broad chest and a large head his eyes were small his beard thin and sprinkled with gray and he had a flat nose and a swarthy complexion showing the evidences of his origin attila s physical appearance was most likely that of an eastern asian or more spec |
ifically a mongol or perhaps a mixture of this type and the turkic peoples of central asia indeed he probably exhibited the characteristic eastern asian facial features which europeans were not used to seeing and so they often described him in harsh terms attila is known in western history and tradition as the grim scourge of god and his name has become a byword for cruelty and barbarism some of this may arise from a conflation of his traits in the popular imagination with those perceived in later steppe warlords such as the mongol great khan genghis khan and tamerlane all run together as cruel clever and sanguinary lovers of battle and pillage the reality of his character may be more complex the huns of attila s era had been mingling with roman civilization for some time largely through the germanic foederati of the border so that by the time of theodosius s embassy in four four eight priscus could identify hunnic gothic and latin as the three common languages of the horde priscus also recounts his meeting w |
ith an eastern roman captive who had so fully assimilated into the huns way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country and the byzantine historian s description of attila s humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration the historical context of attila s life played a large part in determining his later public image in the waning years of the western empire his conflicts with aetius often called the last of the romans and the strangeness of his culture both helped dress him in the mask of the ferocious barbarian and enemy of civilization as he has been portrayed in any number of films and other works of art the germanic epics in which he appears offer more nuanced depictions he is both a noble and generous ally as etzel in the nibelungenlied and a cruel miser as atli in the volsunga saga and the poetic edda some national histories though always portray him favorably in hungary and turkey the names of attila sometimes as atilla in turkish and his last wife ildik remain popular to t |
his day in a similar vein the hungarian author g za g rdonyi s novel a l thatatlan ember published in english as slave of the huns and largely based on priscus offered a sympathetic portrait of attila as a wise and beloved leader the name attila may mean little father in gothic atta father plus diminutive suffix la as many goths were known to serve under attila it could also be of pre turkish altaic origin compare it with atat rk and alma ata now called almaty it most probably originates from atta father and il land meaning land father atil was also the altaic name of the present day volga river which may have given its name to attila preceded by bleda list of hun monarchs succeeded by ernakh notes this younger son may have been merovech founder of the merovingian line though the sources gregory of tours and a later roster from the battle of chalons are not conclusive j b bury the invasion of europe by the barbarians lecture ix e text later accounts of the battle place the huns either already within the city |
or in the midst of storming it when the roman visigoth army arrived jordanes mentions no such thing see bury ibid marcellinus comes chronicon e text quoted in hector munro chadwick the heroic age london cambridge university press one nine two six p three nine n one volsunga saga chapter three nine poetic edda atlamol en gr nlenzku the greenland ballad of atli see also attila the hun to charlemagne huns history of europe history of the balkans list of military commanders the mule references classical texts include priscus byzantine history available in the original greek in ludwig dindorf historici graeci minores leipzig b g teubner one eight seven zero and available online as a translation by j b bury priscus at the court of attila jordanes the origin and deeds of the goths recommended modern works are babcock michael a the night attila died solving the murder of attila the hun berkley publishing group isbn zero four two five two zero two seven two zero blockley r c the fragmentary classicising historians of |
the later roman empire vol ii isbn zero nine zero five two zero five one five four a collection of fragments from priscus olympiodorus and others with original text and translation c d gordon the age of attila fifth century byzantium and the barbarians ann arbor university of michigan press one nine six zero is a translated collection with commentary and annotation of ancient writings on the subject including those of priscus j otto maenchen helfen ed max knight the world of the huns studies in their history and culture berkeley university of california press one nine seven three is a useful scholarly survey e a thompson a history of attila and the huns london oxford university press one nine four eight is the authoritative english work on the subject it was reprinted in one nine nine nine as the huns in the peoples of europe series isbn zero six three one two one four four three seven thompson did not enter controversies over hunnic origins and his revisionist view of attila read his victories as achieved on |
ly while there was no concerted opposition external links a reconstructed portrait of attila the hun based on historical sources in a contemporary style edward gibbon describes attila in his classic the decline and fall of the roman empire excerpt from leadership secrets of attila the hun by wess roberts ph d describing attila s experience in rome four zero zero s births four five three deaths ancient roman enemies and allies history of europe history of hungary history of the germanic peoples late antiquity huns the aegean sea the aegean sea is an arm of the mediterranean sea located between the greek peninsula and asia minor it is connected to the marmara sea and black sea by the dardanelles and bosporus etymology in ancient times there were various explanations for the name aegean it was said to have been named after the town of aegae or aegea a queen of the amazons who died in the sea or aegeus the father of theseus who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died the greek name for the sea |
is aigaion pelagos modern greek ej on p la os and ege denizi in turkish a possible etymology is a derivation from the dialect word aiges waves hesychius metaphorical use of aix goat hence wavy sea cf also aigialos coast history in ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations the minoans of crete and the mycenean civilization of the peloponnese later arose the city states of athens and sparta among many others that constituted the hellenic civilization the aegean sea was later inhabited by persians romans the byzantine empire the venetians the seljuk turks and the ottoman empire the aegean was the site of the original democracies and it allowed for contact between several diverse civilizations of the eastern mediterranean geography satellite image the aegean islands can be simply divided into seven groups the thracian sea group the east aegean group the northern sporades the cyclades the saronic islands or argo saronic islands the dodecanese and crete the word archipelago was original |
ly applied specifically to these islands many of the aegean islands or chains of islands are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland one chain extends across the sea to chios another extends across euboea to samos and a third extends across the peloponnese and crete to rhodes dividing the aegean from the mediterranean many of the islands have safe harbours and bays but navigation through the sea is generally difficult many of the islands are volcanic and marble and iron are mined on other islands the larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains there are two islands of considerable size belonging to turkey on the aegean sea bozcaada greek tenedos and g k eada greek imvros the bays in gulfs counterclockwise includes on crete the mirabelli almyros souda and chania bays or gulfs on the mainland the myrtoan sea to the west the saronic gulf northwestward the petalies gulf which connects with the south euboic sea the pagasetic gulf which connects with the north euboic sea the thermian gulf north |
westward the chalkidiki peninsula including the cassandra and the singitic gulfs northward the strymonian gulf and the gulf of kavala and the rest are in turkey saros gulf edremit gulf dikili gulf andarl gulf zmir gulf ku adas gulf g kova gulf g ll k gulf port towns the aegean sea has many ports especially on the islands for ports see the island chains or its gulfs and bays see also aegean civilization aegean dispute list of traditional greek place names mediterranean a clockwork orange book cover this article describes the novel by anthony burgess for other uses of the term clockwork orange see clockwork orange disambiguation a clockwork orange is a science fiction and dystopian one nine six two novel by anthony burgess and forms the basis for the one nine seven one film adaptation by stanley kubrick it is one of burgess s terminal novels written to provide posthumous income for his wife after burgess had allegedly been diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumour burgess wrote that the title came from an old c |
ockney expression as queer as a clockwork orange due to his time serving the british colonial office in malaya burgess thought that the phrase could be used to punningly refer to a mechanically responsive clockwork non human orang malay for person the italian title un arancia ad orologeria was interpreted to refer to a grenade burgess wrote in his later introduction a clockwork orange resucked that a creature who can only perform good or evil is a clockwork orange meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by god or the devil in his essay clockwork oranges he says that this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which like a fruit was capable of colour and sweetness this title alludes to the protagonist s negatively conditioned responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will the book was partly inspired by an event in one nine fou |
r four when burgess pregnant wife lynne was robbed and beaten by four u s gi deserters in a london street suffering a miscarriage and chronic gynaecological problems according to burgess writing the novel was both a catharsis and an act of charity towards his wife s attackers the story is narrated by and essentially sympathetic to one of the attackers rather than their victim synopsis set in the near future the book centres around the life of the fifteen year old protagonist alex delarge alex and his gang roam the streets at night committing crimes purely for enjoyment the crimes described in the book increase in severity from assault to robbery to a fight with rival gang culminating when the gang breaks into the house of f d alexander and rapes his wife the gang returns to a bar where alex hits one of his gang members dim as punishment for dim s rude behaviour towards a woman who was singing the chorus of ode to joy classical music being alex s other passion apart from violence this sparks off a tense moment |
between the two gang members the next day after fighting dim and george to re establish his control of the gang following the previous night s dispute alex agrees on pete s suggestion to rob a house in a rich part of town alex tries to persuade the woman living in the house to open the door the woman refuses and calls the police as a precaution he gains access to the house through a window but is confronted by the defiant woman who defends herself with unexpected strength he goes for a bust of beethoven and she scratches his face he manages to knock her out with a silver statue he had previously taken as he runs out the front door he is struck by dim who runs off with the rest of the gang just as the police arrive at the police station we learn that the woman has died in prison alex hears about an experimental rehabilitation programme called the ludovico technique which promises that the prisoner will be released upon completion of the two week treatment and will not commit crimes afterwards and manages to b |
ecome the first patient the ludovico technique itself is a form of aversion therapy where alex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea while being forced to watch graphically violent films at the end of the treatment alex is unable to carry out or even contemplate violent acts as doing so induces crippling nausea he is released from prison but upon returning home he is rejected by his parents dejected alex contemplates suicide going to the public library in order to discover what sort of poison he might take to end his life there he is spotted by one of his former victims who accompanied by his friends extracts his revenge alex is unable to strike back and the police is alerted the police arrive but they turn out to be dim and billy boy the former leader of a rival gang they take alex beat him up and dump him by the side of the road out in the country alex stumbles to the nearest house for help which turns out to be that of f d alexander whose wife alex had raped and beaten earlier in the book at first al |
ex is not recognised as he had always worn a mask but the reader discovers that f d alexander is in a wheel chair and his wife died from her injuries realising that alex is the same person who had attacked him and his wife some years ago f d alexander drugs him locks him in a room and plays beethoven s nine th symphony at full volume although previously his favourite piece of music the ninth was also used as a soundtrack for one of the films that alex was forced to watch as part of the ludovico treatment hence it produces the same nauseating effects on him unable to stand the pain alex throws himself out of the window to try to kill himself he survives the fall with broken bones and wakes up in hospital informed that his tormentors have been arrested and the ludovico treatment reversed the final chapter begins identically to the first alex having formed a new gang and reverted to his previous criminality but on this particular night he decides not to join them and goes for a walk on his own instead in a cafe |
he bumps into one of his old gang member pete who is married and has become a respectable member of society pete s wife giggles at alex s rhetoric and asks pete why does he speak like that after conversing with pete and his wife alex has an epiphany renouncing violence on one hand but on the other concluding that his behaviour was an unavoidable part of youth and that if he had a son he would not be able to stop him from doing what he did although the book is divided into three parts each containing seven chapters twenty one being a symbolic number as it was the age that which a child earns his rights at the time the two one st chapter was omitted from the versions published in the us the film adaptation which was directed by stanley kubrick follows the american version of the book ending prior the events of the two one st chapter kubrick claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay but that he certainly never gave any serious consideration to using it analy |
sis the book narrated by alex contains many words in a slang dialect which burgess invented for the book called nadsat it is a mix of modified russian words english slang and words invented by burgess himself it serves two functions firstly burgess while wanting to provide his young characters with their own register did not want to use contemporary slang fearing that this would date the book too much secondly the novel graphically describes horrific scenes of violence which would be shocking even by today s standards so nadsat is used as a linguistic veil to distance the reader from the action on the page influence both the story and individual elements have had a strong influence on popular culture in general and popular music in particular trivia alex s age at the end of the novel is the same age that the burgesses miscarried child would have been at the date of publication had the child survived the attack on lynne been born and grown up the allegedly cockney phrase a clockwork orange is totally unknown t |
o history the first recorded use of it is burgess s title quoted in a rolling stone article burgess claimed to have first heard the expression from a very old cockney in one nine four five burgess claimed that he had typed the title a clockwork orange and then sat down to think of a story to go with it one early idea apparently involved a strike or riot among apprentices under elizabeth i as with many writers and their most popular books this was one of burgess s least favourite of the books he wrote and he thought it was overrated since in a clockwork orange the author f alexander wrote a book entitled a clockwork orange and it is his wife who is attacked by the droogs it seems likely burgess directly inserted some of his own feelings and characteristics into the novel in the form of this character see also a clockwork orange film aestheticization of violence nadsat a fictional slang used in the book dystopia references a clockwork orange a play with music century hutchinson ltd one nine eight seven an extra |
ct is quoted on several web sites burgess anthony one nine seven eight clockwork oranges in one nine eight five london hutchinson isbn zero zero nine one three six zero eight zero three extracts quoted here vidal gore why i am eight years younger than anthony burgess in at home essays one nine eight two one nine eight eight p four one one new york random house one nine eight eight isbn zero three nine four five seven zero two zero zero external links a prophetic masterpiece http www city journal org html one six one oh to be html one nine six two books dystopian novels english novels modern library one zero zero best novels science fiction novels twentieth century british novels anthony burgess books time magazine one zero zero best novels amsterdam canals of the jordaan neighbourhood location location of amsterdam flag flag of amsterdam country netherlands province north holland population seven four two nine five one one january two zero zero five coordinates website www amsterdam nl mayor job cohen amsterd |
am the capital of the netherlands lies on the banks of two bodies of water the ij bay and the amstel river founded in the late one two th century as a small fishing village on the banks of the amstel it is now the largest city in the country and its financial and cultural centre as of two zero zero five the population of the city proper is seven four two nine five one the population of the greater amsterdam area is approximately one and a half million amsterdam has one of the largest historic city centres in europe dating largely from the one seven th century the golden age of the netherlands of which it was the focal point at this time a series of concentric semi circular canals were built around the older city centre which still defines its layout and appearance today many fine houses and mansions are situated along the canals most are lived in others are now offices and some are public buildings some of the narrow brick houses are gradually sinking because they are built on piles to cope with the marshy su |
bsoil the city is noted for many outstanding museums including the rijksmuseum the van gogh museum the stedelijk museum rembrandt house museum the anne frank house and its world class symphony orchestra the concertgebouworkest whose home base is the concertgebouw notable are also its red light district de wallen and its numerous coffee shops selling cannabis although amsterdam is the capital of the netherlands it is neither the capital of the province in which it is located north holland which is haarlem nor the seat of government which is the hague history main article history of amsterdam historical centre amsterdam was founded as a fishing village in the one three th century according to legend amsterdam was founded by two frisian fishermen who landed on the shores of the amstel in a small boat with their dog the damming of the river amstel gave it its name it was given city rights in one three zero zero or one three zero one from the one four th century on amsterdam flourished largely on the basis of trad |
e with the cities of the hanseatic league the one six th century brought a rebellion by the dutch against philip ii of spain and his successors escalating into the eighty years war which ultimately led to dutch independence the dutch republic became known for its relative religious tolerance and jews from spain and portugal prosperous merchants from antwerp economic and religious refugees from the part of the low countries still controlled by spain huguenots from france persecuted for their religion sought safety in amsterdam it was the rich refined migrants from flanders who set the tone their brabant dialects became the basis of standard written dutch and made holland a mercantile power dam square in the late one seven th century painting by jan adriaensz berckheyde gem ldegalerie dresden the one seven th century is considered amsterdam s golden age in the early one seven th century amsterdam was the richest city in europe ships sailed from amsterdam to north america africa and present day indonesia and bra |
zil and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network amsterdam s merchants had the biggest share in the voc and wic these companies acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later dutch colonies amsterdam was the most important point for the trans shipment of goods in europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world amsterdam s stock exchange was the first to trade continuously the population grew from slightly over one zero zero zero zero around one five zero zero to three zero zero zero zero around one five seven zero six zero zero zero zero around one six zero zero one zero five zero zero zero in one six two two and almost two zero zero zero zero zero around one seven zero zero a twenty fold increase in two zero zero years thereafter the population did not change much for another century and a half during the century before world war ii it almost quadrupled to eight zero zero zero zero zero but then remained fairly constant again to this day river amstel by nightpainting |
by koppelaarthe one eight th and early one nine th centuries saw a decline in amsterdam s prosperity the wars of the dutch republic with the united kingdom and france took their toll on amsterdam during the napoleonic wars amsterdam s fortunes reached their lowest point however with the establishment of the kingdom of the netherlands in one eight one five things slowly began to improve in amsterdam new developments were started by people like sarphati who found their inspiration in paris the end of the one nine th century is sometimes called amsterdam s second golden age new museums a train station and the concertgebouw were built at this time the industrial revolution reached amsterdam the amsterdam rhine canal was dug to give amsterdam a direct connection to the rhine and the north sea canal to give the port a shorter connection to the north sea both projects improved communication with the rest of europe and the world dramatically in two zero zero four nine three six four three two people visited the muse |
um adjoining two six three prinsengracht better known as the anne frank house shortly before the first world war the city began expanding and new suburbs were built during world war i the netherlands remained neutral amsterdam suffered a food shortage and heating fuel became scarce the shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed germany invaded the netherlands in one zero may one nine four zero taking control of the country after five days of fighting the germans installed a nazi civilian government in amsterdam that cooperated in the persecution of jews more than eight zero zero zero zero jews were deported to concentration camps of whom perhaps the most famous was a young german girl anne frank only five zero zero zero jews survived the war in the last months of the war communication with the rest of the country broke down and food and fuel became scarce many inhabitants of the city had to travel to the countryside to collect food most of the trees in amsterdam were cut down for fuel coat of |
arms frame the coat of arms of amsterdam is composed of three st andrew s crosses aligned vertically but rotated nine zero degrees for the flag historians believe they represent the three dangers which have traditionally plagued the city flood fire and pestilence the city s official motto heldhaftig vastberaden barmhartig valiant resolute merciful which is displayed on the coat of arms was bestowed on it by queen wilhelmina in one nine four seven in recognition of the city s bravery during world war ii the lions were added in the sixteenth century the crown was awarded to the city in one four eight nine by maximilian i holy roman emperor out of gratitude for services and loans the crown was a sign of imperial protection and acted as a seal of approval for amsterdam merchants abroad the westertoren also features the imperial crown city government main article amsterdam municipality satellite image of amsterdam as all dutch municipalities amsterdam is governed by a mayor his wethouders aldermen and the municip |
al council however unlike most other dutch municipalities amsterdam is subdivided into fifteen stadsdelen boroughs a system that was implemented in the one nine eight zero s to improve local governance the stadsdelen are responsible for many activities that previously had been run by the central city fourteen of these have their own council chosen by a popular election the fifteenth westerpoort covers the harbour of amsterdam has very few inhabitants and is governed by the central municipal council local decisions are made at borough level and only affairs pertaining to the whole city such as major infrastructure projects are handled by the central city council see also list of mayors of amsterdam demography academia amsterdam has two universities the university of amsterdam universiteit van amsterdam and the vrije universiteit other institutions for higher education include an art school de rietveldacademie the hogeschool van amsterdam the hogeschool voor economische studies amsterdam and the amsterdamse hog |
eschool voor de kunsten which includes the sweelinck conservatorium amsterdam s international institute of social history is one of the world s largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history and especially the history of the labour movement amsterdam s hortus botanicus founded in the early one six zero zero s is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world with many old and rare specimens amongst which the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in central and south america java island in t ij is known for its modern architecture public transport public transport in amsterdam operated by gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf connexxion and nederlandse spoorwegen consists of national and international train connections three metro lines and one light rail line together the amsterdam metro one six tram lines an express tram line ijtram five five local bus lines regional bus lines several ferries for pedestrians and cyclists across the ij free of charge a fast flyi |
ng ferry towards velsen zuid on the north sea shore a new underground line the north south line noord zuidlijn is under construction see also gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf amsterdam metro amsterdam centraal history during the construction of the amsterdam metro plans to demolish the entire jewish neighbourhood near the nieuwmarkt led to strong protests the metro was still built wall decorations at the nieuwmarkt station are dedicated to the protests but plans to build a highway through the neighbourhood in the centre of amsterdam were abolished in one nine seven five there was an incident where a planned bombing of the venserpolder station led to a political scandal when mayor ivo samkalden and everyone in the city council except for roel van duijn instantly and erroneously blamed the left wing protesters which was exactly the objective of the right wing bombers some of the ubiquitous cyclists in amsterdam private transport many people in amsterdam use bicycles to get around most main streets have bike paths bi |
ke racks are ubiquitous throughout the city in the city centre driving a car is complicated by traffic jams and limited and expensive parking space airport schiphol about twenty minutes by train from downtown amsterdam is the biggest airport in the netherlands and the fourth largest in europe it handles about four two million passengers a year and is home base to klm sports amsterdam is the home town of ajax a team in the dutch football league its home base is the modern stadium amsterdam arena located in the south east of the city the team shares that facility with the amsterdam admirals an american football team in one nine two eight amsterdam hosted the games of the ixth olympiad the olympic stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events amsterdam also is home to a famous ice rink the jaap eden baan the amstel tijgers play in this arena in the dutch ice hockey premier league in speed skating many international championships have been fought in t |
he four zero zero meter lane of this ice rink the city also has a baseball team the amsterdam pirates who play in the dutch major league three field hockey teams amsterdam pinok and hurley and a basketball team the amsterdam astronauts who play in the dutch premier division and play their games in the sporthallen zuid near the olympic stadium periodic events koninginnedag queen s day three zero april the former queen s juliana birthday uitmarkt last weekend in august the start of the cultural season amsterdam roots last week of june international music festival amsterdam pride mid august gay pride weekend amsterdam marathon mid october sail amsterdam a five yearly event when tall ships from all over the world can be visited cannabis cup mid november annual cannabis competition hosted by high times famous amsterdammers karel appel painter dennis bergkamp football player frits bolkestein politician george hendrik breitner painter simon carmiggelt writer and columnist johan cruijff football player candy dulfer s |
axophonist max euwe chess player anne frank holocaust diarist theo van gogh filmmaker and colummnist vincent van gogh painter ruud gullit football player andr hazes singer freddy heineken beer magnate meindert hobbema painter jozef isra ls painter wim kok former prime minister karel miljon boxer harry mulisch writer multatuli writer rembrandt painter frank rijkaard football player baruch spinoza philosopher paul verhoeven film director notes city of amsterdam statistics service in dutch external links official website of the city of amsterdam english version amsterdam capitals in europe cities in the netherlands eurovision host cities host cities of the summer olympic games north holland the iron is a famous one nine th century landmark in central norrk ping the museum of work or arbetets museum is a museum located in norrk ping sweden the museum can be found in the one nine th century building the iron in the motala str m river in central norrk ping see also list of museums in sweden culture of sweden extern |
al links museum of work official site museums in sweden norrk ping a small variety of cars the most popular kind of automobile an automobile is a wheeled vehicle that carries its own motor different types of automobiles include cars buses trucks vans and motorcycles with cars being the most popular the term is derived from greek autos self and latin mov re move referring to the fact that it moves by itself earlier terms for automobile include horseless carriage and motor car an automobile has seats for the driver and almost without exception one or more passengers it is the main source of transportation across the world as of two zero zero five there are five zero zero million cars worldwide zero zero seven four per capita of which two two zero million are located in the united states zero seven five per capita history the history of automobiles the modern automobile powered by the otto gasoline engine was invented in germany by karl benz even though karl benz is credited with the invention of the modern auto |
mobile several other german engineers worked on building the first automobile at the same time these inventors are karl benz on july three one eight eight six in mannheim gottlieb daimler and wilhelm maybach in stuttgart also inventors of the first motor bike and in one eight eight eight eight nine german austrian inventor siegfried marcus in vienna although marcus didn t go beyond the prototype stage steam powered vehicles steam powered self propelled cars were devised in the late one eight th century the first self propelled car was built by nicolas joseph cugnot in one seven six nine it could attain speeds of up to six km h in one seven seven one he designed another steam driven car which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall producing the world s first car accident the internal combustion engine in one eight zero six fransois isaac de rivaz a swiss designed the first internal combustion engine sometimes abbreviated ice today he subsequently used it to develop the world s first vehicle to run on such an e |
ngine one that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy it was not very successful as was the case with the british inventor brown and the american inventor morey who produced clumsy ic engine powered vehicles about one eight two six etienne lenoir produced the first successful internal combustion engine in one eight six zero and within a few years about four zero zero were in operation in paris in about one eight six three lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle it seems to have been powered by city lighting gas in bottles and was said by lenoir to have travelled slower than a man could walk with breakdowns being frequent lenoir in his patent of one eight six zero included the provision of a carburettor so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas particularly for mobile purposes i e vehicles lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel such as alcohol in his stationary engines but it doesn t appear he used them in his vehicle if he did he most certainly didn t use gasoline as this was not well |
known and was considered a waste product the next innovation comes in the late one eight six zero s with siegfried marcus a german working in vienna austria he developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two stroke internal combustion engine in one eight seven zero he built a crude vehicle with no seats steering or brakes but it was spectacular for one reason it was the world s first internal combustion engine powered vehicle fueled by gasoline it was tested in vienna in september of one eight seven zero in one eight eight eight one eight eight nine he built a second car this one with seats brakes and steering and a four stroke engine of his own design the four stroke engine had already been written down and patented in one eight six two by the frenchman beau de rochas in a long winded and rambling pamphlet he printed about three zero zero copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in paris but nothing came of this with the patent expiring soon after and the pamphlet disappearing into total obsc |
urity in fact hardly anyone knew of it to begin with beau de rochas never built a single engine most historians agree that nikolaus otto of germany built the world s first four stroke engine he knew nothing of beau de rochas s patent or idea and came upon the idea entirely on his own in fact he began thinking about it in one eight six one but abandoned the idea until the mid one eight seven zero s there is some evidence although not conclusive that one christian reithmann an austrian living in germany had built a four stroke engine entirely on his own by one eight seven three reithmann had been experimenting with ic engines as early as one eight five two in one eight eight three edouard delamare deboutteville and leon malandin of france installed an internal combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle as they tested the vehicle the tank hose came loose resulting in an explosion in one eight eight four delamare deboutteville and malandin built and patented a second vehicle this one consisted |
of two four stroke liquid fueled engines mounted to an old four wheeled horse cart the patent and presumably the vehicle contained many innovations some of which wouldn t be used for decades however during the vehicle s first test the frame broke apart the vehicle literally shaking itself to pieces in malandin s own words no more vehicles were built by the two men and their venture went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited no one else knew of the vehicles and experiments until years later supposedly in the late one eight seven zero s an italian named murnigotti patented the idea of installing an ic engine on a vehicle although there is no evidence one was built in one eight eight four enrico bernardi another italian installed an ic engine on his son s tricycle although nothing more than a toy it is said to have operated somewhat successfully in one source but another says the engine s power was too feeble to make the vehicle move but if all of the above experiments hadn t taken place the developm |
ent of the automobile wouldn t have been retarded by so much as a moment since they were unknown experiments that went no further than the testing stage the internal combustion engined car really can be said to have begun with benz and daimler in one eight eight six for their vehicles were successful they went into series production and they inspired others benz after building his first three wheeled car in one eight eight five built improved versions in one eight eight six and one eight eight seven and went into production in one eight eight eight the world s first vehicle to do so approximately two five were built until one eight nine three when his first four wheeler was introduced they were powered with four stroke engines of his own design emile roger of france already producing benz engines under license now added the benz car to his line of products because france was more open to the automobile in general more were built and sold in france than by benz himself in germany daimler built a car in one eig |
ht eight six a new horse carriage fitted with his new high speed four stroke engine in one eight eight nine he built two vehicles from scratch with several innovations from about one eight nine zero one eight nine five about three zero vehicles were built by daimler and his innovative assistant maybach either at the daimler works or in the hotel hermann where they set up shop after having a falling out with their backers in one eight nine zero emile levassor and armand peugeot of france began series producing vehicles with daimler engines and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in france they were inspired by daimler s stalhradwagen of one eight eight nine which was exhibited in paris in one eight eight nine the first american automobile with gasoline powered internal combustion engines was supposedly designed in one eight seven seven by george baldwin selden of rochester new york who applied for a patent on the automobile in one eight seven nine selden didn t build a single car until one nine zero f |
ive when he was forced to do so due to the lawsuit selden received his patent and later sued the ford motor company for infringing his patent henry ford was notoriously against the american patent system and selden s case against ford went all the way to the supreme court who ruled that ford and everyone else was free to build automobiles without paying royalties to selden since automobile technology had improved since selden s patent and no one was building those antiquated designs meanwhile notable advances in steam power evolved in birmingham england by the lunar society it was here that the term horsepower was first used it was in birmingham also that the first british four wheel petrol driven automobiles were built in one eight nine five by frederick william lanchester who also patented the disc brake in the city electric vehicles were produced by a small number of manufacturers innovation ransom e olds the creator of the assembly line the first automobile patent in the united states was granted to olive |
r evans in one seven eight nine in one eight zero four evans demonstrated his first successful self propelled vehicle which not only was the first automobile in the us but was also the first amphibious vehicle as his steam powered vehicle was able to travel on wheels on land and via a paddle wheel in the water on five november one eight nine five george b selden was granted a united states patent for a two stroke automobile engine this patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the usa a major breakthrough came with the historic drive of bertha benz in one eight eight eight steam electric and gasoline powered autos competed for decades with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the one nine one zero s the interior of a modern luxury car a bentley continental gt the large scale production line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by oldsmobile in one nine zero two then greatly expanded by henry ford in the one nine one zero s development of automotive |
technology was rapid due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world s attention key developments included electric ignition and the electric self starter both by charles kettering for the cadillac motor company in one nine one zero one nine one one independent suspension and four wheel brakes model changeover and design change an english one nine eight nine ford sierra gls sports saloon no longer in production a ford taurus a modern family car which has gone through a number of changes cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances since the one nine two zero s nearly all have been mass produced to meet a market so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design it was alfred p sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm so that buyers could move up as their fortunes improved the makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price |
range for example in the one nine five zero s chevrolet shared hood doors roof and windows with pontiac the lasalle of the one nine three zero s sold by cadillac used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the oldsmobile division alternative fuels and batteries with heavy taxes on fuel particularly in europe and tightening environmental laws particularly in california and the possibility of further restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues diesel powered cars can run with little or no modification on one zero zero pure biodiesel a fuel that can be made from vegetable oils many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol a fuel made from plant sugars most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with one five ethanol mixed in and with a small amount of redesign gasoline powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as eight five all petrol fuelled cars can run on lpg there has been some concern that the ethanol |
gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets further the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry use twice as much therefore if your vehicle is capable of three zero zero miles on a one five gallon tank the efficiency is reduced to approximately one five zero miles of course certain measures are available to increase this efficiency such as different camshaft configurations altering the timing spark output of the ignition or simply using a larger fuel tank in the united states alcohol fuel was produced in corn alcohol stills until prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in one nine one nine brazil is the only country which produces ethanol running cars since the late one nine seven zero s attempts at building viable battery powered electric vehicles continued throughout the one nine nine zero s notably general motors with the ev one but cost speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical battery powered cars have used lead acid batteries which are |
greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond seven five on a regular basis and nimh batteries current research and development is centered on hybrid vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion the first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the usa was the honda insight as of two zero zero five the car is still in production and achieves around six zero mpg other r fardier against a wall in one seven seven zero the first recorded automobile fatality was bridget driscoll on one eight nine six zero eight one seven in london and the first in the united states was henry bliss on one eight nine nine zero nine one three in new york city ny cars have two basic safety problems they have human drivers who make mistakes and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration automated control has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped shoulder belted passengers could tolerate a three two g emergency stop reducing the safe intervehicle gap six four fold if high s |
peed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high speed highway early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems for example modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors which are heavier than air vent to the open air brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks rather than abrupt cable breaks systematic research on crash safety started in one nine five eight at ford motor company since then most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment there are standard tests for safety in new automobiles like the euroncap and the us ncap tests there are also tests run by organizations such as iihs and back |
ed by the insurance industry despite technological advances there is still significant loss of life from car accidents about four zero zero zero zero people die every year in the u s with similar figures in europe this figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken but the rate per capita and per mile travelled decreases steadily the death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by two zero two zero a much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent disability the highest accident figures are reported in china and india the european union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in the eu in half by two zero one zero and member states have started implementing measures current production in two zero zero five six three million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide the world s biggest car producer including light trucks is the european union with two nine of the world s production in non eu eastern europe another four are produc |
ed the second largest manufacturer is nafta with two five eight followed by japan with one six seven china with eight one mercosur with three nine india with two four and the rest of the world with one zero one vda link large free trade areas like eu nafta and mercosur attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them and without currency risks or customs additionally to being close to customers thus the production figures do not show the technological ability or business skill of the areas in fact much if not most of the third world car production is used western technology and car models and sometimes even complete obsolete western factories shipped to the country which is reflected in the patent statistic as well as the locations of the r d centers the automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations not to be confused with the much more numerous brands the biggest of which by numbers of produced cars are currently general motors toyota and ford motor company it is |
expected that toyota will reach the no one position in two zero zero six the most profitable per unit carmaker of recent years has been porsche due to their premium price tag the automotive industry at large still suffers from high under utilization of its manufacturing potential future of the car in order to limit deaths there has been a push for self driving automobiles much of the drive for computer driven vehicles has been led by darpa with their grand challenge race a current and powerful invention was esp by bosch and many followers that reduces deaths by about three zero and is recommended by many lawmakers and carmakers to be a standard feature in all cars sold in the eu esp recognizes dangerous situations and corrects the drivers input for a short moment to stabilize the car the biggest threat to automobiles is the declining supply of oil which does not completely stop car usage but makes it significantly more expensive beginning of two zero zero six a gallon of gas costs approx six us in germany and |
other european countries if no cheap solution can be found in the relatively near future individual mobility might suffer a major setback nevertheless individual mobility is highly prized in modern societies so the demand for automobiles will remain just with a different power source looking at automotive technology some areas appear to have the most need of development for example both the rubber tires and the batteries currently used by most cars seem rather antiquated when compared to say modern day engines and traction control systems these are like jets with cardboard wings or pcs with one zero kb hard drives respectively while slow moving cars can control their wheels via esp reasonably well fast moving vehicles like a bugatti veyron need a special tire checkup before approaching four zero zero km h also the existing batteries are barely fit to handle the cars electronics but are far off from the ability to store enough energy for moving the car unassisted see also carfree movement effects of the autom |
obile on societies list of automobile manufacturers list of recent automobile models by type u s automobile production figures car dealership car handling car safety unsafe at any speed by ralph nader crash test dummy car washing techniques list of automotive superlatives lists of automobiles for a structured list list of automotive packages cosmetic and functional features sold as a group road traffic accident hybrid cars portal cars major possible subsystems engine carburetor or fuel injection fuel pump engine configuration wankel or reciprocating v inline flat engine management systems exhaust system ignition system self starter emissions control devices turbochargers and superchargers front engine rear engine mid engine ancillary power mechanical electrical hydraulic vacuum air drivetrain transmission gearbox manual transmission semi automatic transmission fully automatic transmission layout ff layout fr layout mr layout rr layout drive wheels two wheel drive four wheel drive front wheel drive rear wheel |
drive all wheel drive differential limited slip differential locking differential axle live axle brakes disc brakes drum brakes anti lock braking systems abs wheels and tires custom wheels steering rack and pinion ackermann steering geometry caster angle camber angle kingpin suspension macpherson strut wishbone double wishbone multi link torsion beam semi trailing arm axle body crumple zones monocoque or unibody construction spoiler japan black fore runner of modern automotive finishes interior equipment passive safety seat belts airbags child safety locks dashboard shifter for selecting gear ratios equipment such as stereos air conditioning cruise control car phones positioning systems cup holders etc exterior equipment windows power window windshield daytime running lamps external links department of motor vehicles autoweek com auto insider edmunds com kelley blue book insurance institute for highway safety nhtsa gov alternative fuel vehicle training how to become a car dealer worldwide car production top g |
ear cool automobile show from the bbc uk automotive industry portal automobiles audi logo audi is an automobile maker in germany and is a wholly owned subsidiary of the volkswagen group the company is headquartered in ingolstadt bavaria germany audi s german tagline is vorsprung durch technik the tagline is used either in original or in its english translation progress through technology history press photograph of the then newly merged audi nsu range one nine six nine the origins of audi the company traces its origins back to one eight nine nine and august horch the first horch automobile was produced in one nine zero one in zwickau in former east germany in one nine one zero horch was forced out of the company he had founded he then started a new company in zwickau and continued using the horch brand his former partners sued him for trademark infringement and a german court determined that the horch brand belonged to his former company august horch was forced to refrain from using his own family name in his |
new car business as the word horch translates to listen in german august horch settled on the latin equivalent of his name audi it is also popularly believed that audi is an acronym which stands for auto union deutschland ingolstadt audi produces over two million vehicles annually at its main production site in ingolstadt audi has another production plant in neckarsulm audi started with a two six one two cc model followed by a four cylinder model with three five six four cc as well as four six eight zero cc and five seven two zero cc models these cars were successful even in sporting events august horch left the audi company in one nine two zero the first six cylinder model four six five five cc appeared in one nine two four in one nine two eight the company was acquired by j s rasmussen owner of dkw who bought the same year the remains of the us automobile manufacturer rickenbacker including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines these engines were used in audi zwickau and audi dresden model |
s that were launched in one nine two nine at the same time six cylinder and a small four cylinder licensed from peugeot models were manufactured audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork the auto union era in one nine three two audi merged with horch dkw and wanderer to form the auto union before world war ii auto union used the four interlinked rings that make up the audi badge today representing these four brands this badge was used however only on auto union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems the technological development became more and more concentrated and some audi models were propelled by horch or wanderer built engines pause and a new start auto union plants were heavily bombed and partly destroyed during world war ii after the war zwickau soon became part of the german democratic republic and audi headquarters were moved to ingolstadt in that period the four interlinked rings were used together with the dkw badge the |
company focused efforts on the dkw brand but their two stroke engines became unpopular in one nine five eight daimler benz acquired eight eight per cent of auto union and the next year became its sole owner daimler benz developed a seven two hp five four kw four door sedan with a modern four stroke engine driving the front wheels this model appeared in september one nine six five relaunching the audi brand daimler benz sold the company to volkswagen in one nine six four subsequently volkswagen s purchase of auto union has led to the modernization of vw to which it gained expertise in manufacturing water cooled vehicles today aircooled powerplants once produced by vw are no longer placed into production vehicles since december two three two zero zero five audi six zero one nine six eight one nine seven two in one nine six nine audi merged with nsu based in neckarsulm near stuttgart in the one nine five zero s nsu had been the world s largest manufacturer of motorcycles but had moved on to produce small cars li |
ke the nsu prinz the tt and tts versions are still popular as vintage race cars nsu then focused on new rotary engines according to the ideas of felix wankel in one nine six seven the new nsu ro eight zero was a space age car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics light weight safety et cetera but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of nsu presently several lines of audi cars are produced in neckarsulm the mid sized car that nsu had been working on the k seven zero was intended to slot between the rear engined prinz models and the futuristic ro eight zero however volkswagen took the k seven zero for its own range spelling the end of nsu as a separate brand the modern era of audi audi quattro audi tt the first audi of the modern era was the audi one zero zero of one nine six eight this was soon joined by the audi eight zero fox which formed the basis for the one nine seven three volkswagen passat in one nine seven two the audi image at this time wa |
s a conservative one and so a proposal from chassis engineer jorg bensinger was accepted to develop the four wheel drive technology in volkswagen s iltis military vehicle for an audi performance car and rally racing car the performance car was named the quattro a turbocharged coup which was also the first production vehicle to feature full time all wheel drive through a center differential commonly referred to as the ur quattro the ur prefix is a german augmentative used in this case to mean original and is also applied to the first generation of audi s s four and s six sport sedans as in urs four and urs six few of these vehicles were produced all hand built by a single team but the model was a great success in rallying prominent wins proved the viability of all wheel drive racecars and the audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology in one nine eight six as the passat based audi eight zero was beginning to develop a kind of grandfather s car image the type eight nine was introduced th |
is completely new development sold extremely well however its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine and its base package was quite spartan even the passenger side mirror was an option in one nine eight seven audi put forward a new and very elegant audi nine zero which had a much superior set of standard features in the early nineties sales began to slump for the audi eight zero series and some basic construction problems started to surface this decline in sales was not helped in the usa by a six zero minutes report which purported to show that audi automobiles suffered from unintended acceleration the six zero minutes report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals unlike american cars and the inability when not paying attention to distinguish between the two in race cars when manually downshifting under heavy brakin |
g the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once toes on the brake heels on the gas us citizens are used to automatic gearboxes and only two well separated pedals this was never an issue in europe as europeans in general use manual transmission gears and have a feeling for vehicle revs in comparison to the speed of the car six zero minutes ignored this fact and rigged a car to perform in an uncontrolled manner the report immediately crushed audi sales and audi renamed the affected model the five zero zero zero became the one zero zero two zero zero in one nine eight nine as in germany and elsewhere audi had contemplated withdrawing from the american market until sales began to recover in the mid one nine nine zero s the turning point for audi was the sale of the new a four in one nine nine six and with the release of the a four six eight series which was developed together with vw and other sister brands so |
called platforms currently audi s sales are growing strongly in europe and the company is renowned for having the best build quality of any mainstream auto manufacturer two zero zero four marked the one one th straight increase in sales selling seven seven nine four four one vehicles worldwide record figures were recorded from two one out of about five zero major sales markets the largest sales increases came from eastern europe one nine three africa one seven two and the middle east five eight five in march of two zero zero five audi is building its first two dealerships in india following its high increase in sales in that region though its brand still doesn t have the global cachet of mercedes benz or bmw audi s reputation for quality and understated style has once again made it a highly desirable marque however after two zero zero three with the release of the new a four and in two zero zero four with the new a six audi s dedication to quality had finally paid off when it started to receive news reports a |
nd various vehicle critics praising audis over mercedes benz and bmw auto racing audi has competed in and sometimes dominated numerous forms of auto racing audi s rich tradition in motorsport began with the auto union in the one nine three zero s in the one nine nine zero s audi dominated the touring and super touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing stateside rallying in one nine eight zero audi released the quattro an all wheel drive turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide it is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then recently changed rules which allowed the use of all wheel drive in competition racing many critics doubted the viability of all wheel drive racers thinking them to be too heavy and complex yet the quattro was an instant success winning its first rally on its first outing it won competition after competition for the next two years in one nine eight four audi lau |
nched the sport quattro car which dominated races in monte carlo and sweden with audi taking all podium finishes but succumbed to problems further into world rally championship contention after another season mired in mediocre finishes walter r hrl finished the season in his sport quattro s one and helped place audi second in the manufacturer s points audi also received rally honors in the hong kong to beijing rally in that same year mich le mouton the first female wrc driver to win a championship and a driver for audi took the sport quattro s one now simply called the s one and raced in the pikes peak hill climb the climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a four three zero two meter high mountain in colorado and in one nine eight five mich le mouton set a new record of one one two five three nine and being the first woman to set a pikes peak record in one nine eight six audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in portugal involving driver joaquim santos in his rs two zero zero |
santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side killing three and injuring three zero bobby unser used an audi in that same year to claim a new record for the pikes peak hill climb at one one zero nine two two motorsports in the usa in one nine eight seven walter r hrl claimed the title for audi setting a new record of one zero four seven eight five in his audi s one he retired from the wrc in two years earlier the audi s one employed audi s time tested five cylinder turbo charged engine and generated over six zero zero hp four four seven kw the engine was mated to a six speed gearbox and ran on audi s famous all wheel drive system all of audi s top drivers drove this beast hannu mikkola stig blomqvist walter r hrl and the female driver mich le mouton the audi s one enjoys a zero six zero mph zero one zero zero km h time of two three s this audi s one started the s series of cars for audi which now represents an increased level of sports opti |
ons and quality to the audi line up as audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing they chose first into america with the trans am in one nine eight eight in one nine eight nine audi moved to imsa gto with the nine zero however as they avoided the two major endurance events daytona and sebring despite winning on a regular basis they would lose out on the title touring cars in one nine nine zero having completed their objective to market cars in the united states audi returned to europe turning first to the dtm series with the audi v eight then in one nine nine three being unwilling to build cars for the new formula they turned their attention to the fast growing supertouring series which took place nationally first in the french supertourisme and italian superturismo in the following year audi would switched to the german super tourenwagen known as stw and then to btcc british touring car championship the year after that the fia having difficulty regulating the quattro system and what impact it had |
on the competitors would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competiting in one nine nine eight by then audi switched all their works efforts to sportscar racing by two zero zero zero audi would still compete in the us with their rs four for the scca speed world gt challenge through dealer team champion racing competing against corvettes vipers and smaller bmws where it is one of the few series to permit four wd cars in two zero zero three champion racing entered an rs six once again the quattro was superior and champion audi won the championship they returned in two zero zero four to defend their title but a newcomer cadillac gave them a run for their money after four victories in a row the audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car s performance in two zero zero four after years of competiting with the tt r in the revitalised dtm series with privateer team abt racing taking the two zero zero two title with laurent aiello audi returned as a full factory effort |
to touring car racing by entering two factory supported joest racing a four s sports car racing beginning in one nine nine nine audi built the audi r eight to compete in sports car racing including the lmp nine zero zero class at the two four hours of le mans the factory supported joest racing team won at le mans three times in a row two zero zero zero two zero zero two as well as winning every race in the american le mans series in its first year audi also sold the car to customer teams such as champion racing in two zero zero three two bentley speed eight s with engines designed by audi and driven by joest drivers loaned to the fellow vw company competed in the gtp class and finished the race in the top two positions while the champion racing r eight finished third overall and first in the lmp nine zero zero class audi returned to the winner s circle at the two zero zero four race with the top three finishers all driving r eight s audi sport japan team goh finished first audi sport uk veloqx second and cham |
pion racing third at the two zero zero five two four hours of le mans champion racing entered two r eight s along with an r eight from the audi playstation team oreca the r eight s which were built to old lmp nine zero zero regulations received a more narrow air inlet restrictor cutting power and an additional five zero kg of weight compared to the newer lmp one chassis on average the r eight s were about two three seconds off pace compared to the pescarolo judd but with a team of excellent drivers and experience both champion r eight s were able to take first and third while the oreca team took fourth the champion team was also the first american team to win le mans since the gulf ford gt s in one nine six seven this also ends the long era of the r eight however its replacement for two zero zero six called the audi r one zero was unveiled on december one three two zero zero five the r one zero employs many new features including a twin turbocharged diesel engine its first race will likely be the two zero zer |
o six one two hours of sebring as a race test for the two zero zero six two four hours of le mans technology audi is the only car manufacturer that produces one zero zero galvanized vehicles to prevent corrosion along with other precautionary measures the thus achieved full body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust and corrosion perforation the body s resulting durability even surpassed audi s own expectations causing the manufacturer to extend its original one zero year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently one two years an all aluminium car was brought forward by audi and in one nine nine four the audi a eight was launched which introduced aluminium space frame technology audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid nineties and continues to pursue leading edge technology and high performance the all aluminium concept was extended to the company s new sub compact the audi a two which was launched in two zero zero one in the one nine seven zero s some vehicle m |
anufacturers including audi and subaru designed their own all wheel drive systems in passenger vehicles in the one nine eight zero s all wheel drive systems in cars became a fad and other manufacturers like porsche and mercedes benz offered all wheel drive systems in their cars to compete in the marketplace unfortunately the all wheel drive system in the mercedes benz vehicles were riddled with problems right from the design sheet the system also was not popular in porsche vehicles because owners wanted the traditional performance of the rear wheel drive they got used to in older porsches although porsche and mercedes benz offer all wheel drive systems in some cars today neither manufacturer was able to ride the fad and come out on top like audi has today after many decades of class leading technology and engineering the name quattro is an identifiable symbol and trademark that shows would be competitors the level of quality they have to achieve in order to attempt to compete with audi in the one nine eight z |
ero s audi was the champion of the inline five cylinder two one two two l engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional six cylinder engines this engine was used in not only production cars but also their race cars the two one l inline five cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the one nine eight zero s providing well over four zero zero horsepower two nine eight kw after modification before one nine nine zero there were engines produced with a displacement between two zero l and two three l this range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy which was on the mind of every motorist in the one nine eight zero s and a good amount of power the customer wants through the early one nine nine zero s audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in it s target market against mercedes benz and bmw this began with the release of the audi v eight in one nine nine zero it was essentially a new engine fitted to the audi one zero zero two zero |
zero but with noticeable bodywork differences most obvious was the new grille that was now incorprated in the bonnet by one nine nine one audi had the four cylinder audi eight zero the five cylinder audi nine zero and audi one zero zero the turbocharged audi two zero zero and the audi v eight there was also a coupe version of the eight zero nine zero with both four and five cylinder engines although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant it was still a little too different for the target market with the introduction of an all new audi one zero zero in one nine nine two audi introduced a two eight l v six engine this engine was also fitted to a face lifted audi eight zero all eight zero and nine zero models were now badged eight zero except for the usa giving this model a choice of four five and six cylinder engines in sedan coupe and cabriolet body styles the five cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice however a turbocharged two three zero bhp one six nine kw version |
remained the engine initially fitted to the two zero zero quattro two zero v of one nine nine one was a derivative of the engine fitted to the sport quattro it was fitted to the audi coupe and named the s two and also to the audi one zero zero body and named the s four these two models were the beginning of the mass produced s series of performance cars the audi a eight replaced the v eight in one nine nine four with a revolutionary aluminium space frame asf to save weight the weight reduction was offset by the quattro all wheel drive system however it meant the car had similar performance to its rivals but far superior handling the next major model change was in one nine nine five when the audi a four replaced the audi eight zero the new nomenclature scheme was applied to the audi one zero zero to become the audi a six with a minor facelift this also meant the s four became the s six and a new s four was introduced in the a four body the s two was discontinued the audi cabriolet continued on based on the au |
di eight zero platform until one nine nine nine gaining the engine upgrades along the way a new a three based on the volkswagen golf was introduced to the range in one nine nine seven and the radical tt coupe and roadster were debuted in one nine nine eight based on the same underpinnings another interesting model introduced was the mercedes benz a class competitor the audi a two the model sold relatively well in europe however audi decided not to develop a new model and it has since been discontinued as of two zero zero four the engines available throughout the range were now a one four l one six l and one eight l four cylinder one eight turbo two six l and two eight l v six two two l turbo charged five cylinder and the four two l v eight the v six s were replaced by new two four and two eight l three zero v v six s in one nine nine eight with marked improvement in power torque and smoothness further engines were added along the way including a three seven l v eight and six zero l w one two for the a eight a |
t the turn of the century audi introduced the direct shift gearbox dsg a manual transmission driveable like an automatic transmission the system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter this is implemented in some volkswagen golf audi a three and tt models the engine range was continually upgraded with a two seven l twin turbo v six being offered in the audi s four a six and allroad the two eight l v six was replaced by a three zero l unit new models of the a three a four a six and a eight have been introduced with the one eight l engine now two zero l and the three zero l v six is now three one l in size audi has now introduced fsi on some of their engines including the one six l four cylinder a new two zero l audi was the first manufacturer in the world to utilize a turbo charger and fsi on the same powerplant and the three one l v six this is a direct fuel injection technique that audi had also used on its diesel engines since the early one nine eight zero s as a |
premium member of the vw group technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market with audi vehicles before being trickled down to more value oriented brands such as vw seat and koda recent examples of this include dsg and fsi audi now has an impressive range of cars engines and transmissions available which continue to lead the way and introduce new technologies into the market models production cars a two a three s three a four s four rs four a six s six rs six q seven a eight s eight tt historical models audi five zero audi eight zero nine zero four zero zero zero audi one zero zero two zero zero five zero zero zero audi quattro audi v eight audi urs four s six model future models the following is a list of models audi ostensibly plans to offer in the future a five rs four q five r eight concepts the following is a partial list of concept cars audi rsq designed exclusively for the two zero zero four film i robot audi allroad quattro concept audi shooting brake design study for the next genera |
tion tt audi avus quattro audi quattro spyder audi avantissimo audi pikes peak audi nuvolari quattro audi le mans quattro audi roadjet see also audi centre of excellence audi driving experience austin audi club external links official website audiworld com enthusiast website fourtitude com enthuiast forum audi club north america the official audi owners club for north america joest racing audi one zero zero selbst doku de most complete english german audi one zero zero five zero zero zero a six info site audi forums enthusiast forums recalls tsbs photo galleries and general tech help audi forum automotive industry portal with audi news audi bavaria german automobile manufacturers luxury car manufacturers saxony volkswagen a japan airlines boeing seven four seven four zero zero this is a wide bodied long haul aircraft an aircraft is any machine capable of atmospheric flight categories and classification aircraft fall into two broad categories heavier than air heavier than air aerodynes including autogyros heli |
copters and variants and conventional fixed wing aircraft airplanes or aeroplanes fixed wing aircraft generally use an internal combustion engine in the form of a piston engine with a propeller or a turbine engine jet or turboprop to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air the movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly exceptions are gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust initially from winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents for a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air but not necessarily in relation to the ground helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor a rotary wing to provide lift helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust the abbreviation vtol is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically stol stands for short take off and landing lighter than air a hot air balloon takes off from royal victoria park bath england lighter than air aero |
stats hot air balloons and airships aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water in particular these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as helium hydrogen or heated air to displace the air around the craft the distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself while balloons are carried along with the wind types of aircraft see also list of aircraft there are several ways to classify aircraft below we describe classifications by design propulsion and usage by design a size comparation of some of the largest airplanes in the world the airbus a three eight zero eight zero zero the boeing seven four seven four zero zero largest airliner to date the antonov an two two five aircraft with the greatest payload and the hughes h four spruce goose largest airplane in the world designed by the famous howard hughes a first division by design among aircraft is between lighter |
than air aerostat and heavier than air aircraft aerodyne examples of lighter than air aircraft include non steerable balloons such as hot air balloons and gas balloons and steerable airships sometimes called dirigible balloons such as blimps that have non rigid construction and rigid airships that have an internal frame the most successful type of rigid airship was the zeppelin several accidents such as the hindenburg fire at lakehurst nj in one nine three seven led to the demise of large rigid airships in heavier than air aircraft there are two ways to produce lift aerodynamic lift and engine lift in the case of aerodynamic lift the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors see aerodynamics with engine lift the aircraft defeats gravity by use of vertical examples of engine lift aircraft are rockets and vtol aircraft such as the hawker siddeley harrier among aerodynamically lifted aircraft most fall in the category of fixed wing aircraft where horizontal airfoils produce lift by profiting from airflow p |
atterns determined by bernoulli s equation and to some extent the coanda effect the forerunner of these type of aircraft is the kite kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the wind currents much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available in a conventional configuration the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or tailplane the other configuration is the canard where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings near the nose of the aircraft canards are becoming more common as supersonic aerodynamics grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight and level flight the number of lift surfaces varied in the pre one nine five zero period as biplanes two wings and triplanes three wings were numerous in the early days of aviation subsequently most aircraft are monoplanes this is principally an improvement in st |
ructures and not aerodynamics other possibilities include the delta wing where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined and the flying wing where there is no separate vertical control surface e g the b two spirit a variable geometry swing wing has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft the f one one one panavia tornado f one four tomcat and b one lancer among others the lifting body configuration is where the body itself produce lift so far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the space shuttle but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone a second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the rotary wing aircraft here the lift is provided by rotating aerofoils or rotors the best known examples are the helicopter the autogyro and the tiltrotor aircraft such as the v two two osprey some craft have reaction powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine driven shafts a |
further category might encompass the wing in ground effect types for example the russian ekranoplan also nicknamed the caspian sea monster and hovercraft most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by boats of similar weight a recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft the fan wing this uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above it is two zero zero five in development in the united kingdom and finally the flapping wing ornithopter is a category of its own these designs may have potential but are not yet practical by propulsion a turboprop engined dehavilland twin otter adapted as a floatplane some types of aircraft such as the balloon or glider do not have any propulsion balloons drift with the wind though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast giving some directional control since the wind direction chan |
ges with altitude for gliders takeoff takes place from a high location or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground based winch or vehicle or towed aloft by a powered tug aircraft airships combine a balloon s buoyancy with some kind of propulsion usually propeller driven until world war ii the internal combustion piston engine was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft see also aircraft engine the piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft but the radial engine with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the crankshaft has largely given way to the horizontally opposed engine with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft water cooled v engines as used in automobiles were common in high speed aircraft until they were replaced by jet and turbine power piston engines typically operate using avgas or regular gasoline though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or |
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