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y or was at least influenced by devanagari in its creation although ge ez derived from a different abjad its evolution into an abugida may have been due to the influence of christian missionaries from india partial list of abugidas true abugidas brahmic family from the four th maybe six th century bc balinese alphabet bengali burmese devanagari used to write sanskrit pali modern hindi marathi etc gujarati gurmukhi script kannada khmer lao malayalam siddham used to write sanskrit sinhala tamil telugu thai tibetan kharo h extinct from the three rd century bc ge ez ethiopic from the four th century ad canadian aboriginal syllabics baybayin pre colonial script of tagalog abugida like scripts meroitic extinct thaana pitman shorthand pollard script external links syllabaries omniglot s list of syllabaries and abugidas including examples of various writing systems writing systems acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acronym aids or aids is a collection of symptoms and infectio |
ns resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus hiv it results from the latter stages of advanced hiv infection in humans thereby leaving compromised individuals prone to opportunistic infections and tumors although treatments for both aids and hiv exist to slow the virus progression in a human patient there is no known cure most researchers believe that hiv originated in sub saharan africa during the twentieth century it is now a global epidemic unaids and the world health organization who estimate that aids has killed more than two five million people since it was first recognized on december one one nine eight one making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history in two zero zero five alone aids claimed between an estimated two eight and three six million of which more than five seven zero zero zero zero were children in countries where there is access to antiretroviral treatment both mortality and morbidity of hiv infec |
tion have been reduced however side effects of these antiretrovirals have also caused problems such as lipodystrophy dyslipidaemia insulin resistance and an increase in cardiovascular risks the difficulty of consistently taking the medicines has also contributed to the rise of viral escape and resistance to the medicines the red ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with hiv positive people and those living with aids infection by hiv scanning electron micrograph of hiv one budding from cultured lymphocyte aids is the most severe manifestation of infection with hiv hiv is a retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human immune system such as cd four t cells macrophages and dendritic cells it also directly and indirectly destroys cd four t cells as cd four t cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system when enough cd four cells have been destroyed by hiv the immune system barely works leading to aids acute hiv infection progresses over time to clinical latent hiv infe |
ction and then to early symptomatic hiv infection and later to aids which is identified on the basis of the amount of cd four positive cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections in the absence of antiretroviral therapy progression from hiv infection to aids occurs at a median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing aids is only nine two months however the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals from two weeks up to two zero years many factors affect the rate of progression these include factors that influence the body s ability to defend against hiv including the infected person s genetic inheritance general immune function access to health care age and other coexisting infections different strains of hiv may also cause different rates of clinical disease progression diagnosis aids and hiv case definitions since june one eight one nine eight one many different definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such |
as the bangui definition and the one nine nine four expanded world health organization aids case definition however these were never intended to be used for clinical staging of patients for which they are neither sensitive nor specific the world health organizations who staging system for hiv infection and disease using clinical and laboratory data can be used in developing countries and the centers for disease control cdc classification system can be used in developed nations who disease staging system for hiv infection and disease in one nine nine zero the world health organization who grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with hiv one this was updated in september two zero zero five most of these conditions are opportunistic infections that can be easily treated in healthy people stage i hiv disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as aids stage ii include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections |
stage iii includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis or stage iv includes toxoplasmosis of the brain candidiasis of the esophagus trachea bronchi or lungs and kaposi s sarcoma these diseases are used as indicators of aids cdc classification system for hiv infection in the usa the definition of aids is governed by the centers for disease control and prevention cdc in one nine nine three the cdc expanded their definition of aids to include healthy hiv positive people with a cd four positive t cell count of less than two zero zero per l of blood the majority of new aids cases in the united states are reported on the basis of a low t cell count in the presence of hiv infection hiv test approximately half of those infected with hiv don t know that they are infected until they are diagnosed with aids hiv test kits are used to screen donor blood and blood products and to diagnose hiv in individuals typical hiv tests including the hiv enzyme im |
munoassay and the western blot assay detect hiv antibodies in serum plasma oral fluid dried blood spot or urine of patients other tests to look for hiv antigens hiv rna and hiv dna are also commercially available and can be used to detect hiv infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies however these assays are not specifically approved by the u s food and drug administration for the diagnosis of hiv infection symptoms and complications a generalized graph of the relationship between hiv copies viral load and cd four counts over the average course of untreated hiv infection any particular individuals disease course may vary considerably the symptoms of aids are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy immune systems most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria viruses fungi and parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that hiv damages opportunistic infections are common in people with aids nearly |
every organ system is affected people with aids also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as kaposi sarcoma cervical cancer and cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas additionally people with aids often have systemic symptoms of infection like fevers sweats particularly at night swollen glands chills weakness and weight loss after the diagnosis of aids is made the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy is estimated to be between four to five years but because new treatments continue to be developed and because hiv continues to evolve resistance to treatments estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change without antiretroviral therapy progression to death normally occurs within a year most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susc |
eptibility health care and co infections and peculiarities of the viral strain also the specific opportunistic infections that aids patients develop depends in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives the major pulmonary illnesses pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia originally known as pneumocystis carinii pneumonia often abbreviated pcp is relatively rare in normal immunocompetent people but common among hiv infected individuals before the advent of effective treatment and diagnosis in western countries it was a common immediate cause of death in developing countries it is still one of the first indications of aids in untested individuals although it does not generally occur unless the cd four count is less than two zero zero per l tuberculosis among infections associated with hiv tuberculosis tb is unique in that it may be transmitted to immunocompetent persons via the respiratory route is easily treatable once identified may oc |
cur in early stage hiv disease and is preventable with drug therapy however multi drug resistance is a potentially serious problem even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in western countries this is not the case in developing countries where hiv is most prevalent in early stage hiv infection cd four count three zero zero cells per l tb typically presents as a pulmonary disease in advanced hiv infection tb may present atypically and extrapulmonary tb is common infecting bone marrow bone urinary and gastrointestinal tracts liver regional lymph nodes and the central nervous system the major gastro intestinal illnesses esophagitis esophagitis is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the esophagus gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach in hiv infected individuals this could be due to fungus candidiasis virus herpes simplex one or cytomegalovirus in rare cases it could be due to mycobacteria unexplained chronic diarrh |
ea in hiv infection there are many possible causes of diarrhea including common bacterial salmonella shigella listeria campylobacter or escherichia coli and parasitic infections and uncommon opportunistic infections such as cryptosporidiosis microsporidiosis mycobacterium avium complex mac and cytomegalovirus cmv colitis diarrhea may follow a course of antibiotics common for clostridium difficile it may also be a side effect of several drugs used to treat hiv or it may simply accompany hiv infection particularly during primary hiv infection in the later stages of hiv infection diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients and may be an important component of hiv related wasting the major neurological illnesses toxoplasmosis toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the single celled parasite called toxoplasma gondii t gondii usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma encephalitis it can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs progressive multifoca |
l leukoencephalopathy progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy pml is a demyelinating disease in which the myelin sheath covering the axons of nerve cells is gradually destroyed impairing the transmission of nerve impulses it is caused by a virus called jc virus which occurs in seven zero of the population in latent form causing disease only when the immune system has been severly weakened as is the case for aids patients it progresses rapidly usually causing death within months of diagnosis hiv associated dementia hiv one associated dementia had is a metabolic encephalopathy induced by hiv infection and fueled by immune activation of brain macrophages and microglia these cells are actively infected with hiv and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin specific neurologic impairments are manifested by cognitive behavioral and motor abnormalities that occur after years of hiv infection and is associated with low cd four t cell levels and high plasma viral loads prevalence is between one zero two zer |
o in western countries and has only been seen in one two of india based infections cryptococcal meningitis this infection of the meninges the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord by the fungus cryptococcus neoformans can cause fevers headache fatigue nausea and vomiting patients may also develop seizures and confusion if untreated it can be lethal the major hiv associated malignancies patients with hiv infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignancies several of these kaposi s sarcoma high grade lymphoma and cervical cancer confer a diagnosis of aids when they occur in an hiv infected person kaposi s sarcoma kaposi s sarcoma is the most common tumor in hiv infected patients the appearance of this tumor in young gay men in one nine eight one was one of the first signals of the aids epidemic it is caused by a gammaherpesvirus called kaposi s sarcoma associated herpes virus kshv it often appears as purplish nodules on the skin but other organs especially the mouth gastrointestinal t |
ract and lungs can be affected high grade lymphoma several high grade b cell lymphomas have substantially increased incidence in hiv infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis the most common aids defining lymphomas are burkitt s lymphoma burkitt s like lymphoma and diffuse large b cell lymphoma dlbcl including primary central nervous system lymphoma primary effusion lymphoma is less common many of these lymphomas are caused by either epstein barr virus ebv or kshv cervical cancer cervical cancer in hiv infected women is also considered aids defining it is caused by human papillomavirus hpv other tumors in addition to the aids defining tumors listed above hiv infected patients are also at increased risk of certain other tumors such as hodgkin s disease and anal and rectal carcinomas however the incidence of many common tumors such as breast cancer or colon cancer are not increased in hiv infected patients most aids associated malignancies are caused by co infection of patients with an oncogenic dna |
virus especially epstein barr virus ebv kaposi s sarcoma associated herpesvirus kshv and human papillomavirus hpv in areas where haart is extensively used to treat aids the incidence of many aids related malignancies has decreased but at the same time malignancies overall have become the most common cause of death of hiv infected patients other opportunistic infections patients with aids and severe immunosuppression often develop opportunistic infections that present with non specific symptoms especially low grade fevers and weight loss these include infection with mycobacterium avium intracellulare and cytomegalovirus cmv cmv can also cause colitis as described above and cmv retinitis can cause blindness penicilliosis due to penicillium marneffei is now the third most common opportunistic infection after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis in hiv positive individuals within the endemic area of southeast asia transmission since the beginning of the epidemic three main transmission routes of hiv hav |
e been identified sexual route the majority of hiv infections have been and still are acquired through unprotected sexual relations sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal genital or mouth mucous membranes of another blood or blood product route this transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users hemophiliacs and recipients of blood transfusions and blood products health care workers nurses laboratory workers doctors etc are also concerned although more rarely also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings mother to child route vertical transmission the transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur in utero during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby in the absence of treatment the transmission rate between the mother and child was two zero however where treatment is available combined with the a |
vailability of cesarian section this has been reduced to one hiv has been found in the saliva tears and urine of infected individuals but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids the risk is considered to be negligible prevention the diverse transmission routes of hiv are well known and established also well known is how to prevent transmission of hiv however recent epidemiological and behavioral studies in europe and north america have suggested that a substantial minority of young people continue to engage in high risk practices and that despite hiv aids knowledge young people underestimate their own risk of becoming infected with hiv however transmission of hiv between intravenous drug users has clearly decreased and hiv transmission by blood transfusion has become quite rare in developed countries prevention of sexual transmission of hiv underlying science unprotected receptive sexual acts are at more risk than unprotected insertive sexual acts with the risk for transmitting hiv f |
rom an infected partner to an uninfected partner through unprotected insertive anal intercourse greater than the risk for transmission through vaginal intercourse or oral sex oral sex is not without its risks as it has been established that hiv can be transmitted through both insertive and receptive oral sex sexually transmitted infections sti increase the risk of hiv transmission and infection because they cause the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier by genital ulceration and or microulceration and by accumulation of pools of hiv susceptible or hiv infected cells lymphocytes and macrophages in semen and vaginal secretions epidemiological studies from sub saharan africa europe and north america have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming hiv infected in the presence of a genital ulcer such as caused by syphilis and or chancroid and a significant though lesser increased risk in the presence of stis such as gonorrhoea chlamydial infection and trichomoniasis which ca |
use local accumulations of lymphocytes and macrophages transmission of hiv depends on the infectiousness of the index case and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner infectivity seems to vary during the course of illness and is not constant between individuals an undetectable plasma viral load does not mean that you have a low viral load in the seminal liquid or genital secretions each one zero fold increment of seminal hiv rna is associated with an eight one increased rate of hiv transmission women are more susceptible to hiv one infection due to hormonal changes vaginal microbial ecology and physiology and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases also people who are infected with hiv can still be infected by other more virulent strains prevention strategies during a sexual act only condoms be they male or female can reduce the chances of infection with hiv and other stis and the chances of becoming pregnant they must be used during all penetrative sexual intercourse with a partner who is h |
iv positive or whose status is unknown the effective use of condoms and screening of blood transfusion in north america western and central europe is credited with the low rates of aids in these regions promoting condom use however has often proved controversial and difficult many religious groups most visibly the roman catholic church have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage monogamy and sexual morality other religious groups have argued that preventing hiv infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view condoms in many colors the male latex condom is the single most efficient available technology to reduce the sexual transmission of hiv and other sexually transmitted infections in order to be effective they must be used correctly during each sexual act lubricants containing oil such as petroleum jelly or butter must not be used as t |
hey weaken latex condoms and make them porous if necessary lubricants made from water are recommended however it is not recommended to use a lubricant for fellatio also condoms have standards and expiration dates it is essential to check the expiration date and if it conforms to european ec six zero zero or american d three four nine two standards before use the female condom is an alternative to the male condom and is made from polyurethane which allows it to be used in the presence of oil based lubricants they are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring shaped opening and are designed to be inserted into the vagina the female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring with consistent and correct use of condoms there is a very low risk of hiv infection studies on couples where one partner is infected show that with consistent condom use hiv infection rates for the uninfected partner are below one per |
year governmental programs the u s government and u s health organizations both endorse the abc approach to lower the risk of acquiring aids during sex a bstinence or delay of sexual activity especially for youth b eing faithful especially for those in committed relationships c ondom use for those who engage in risky behavior this approach has been very successful in uganda where hiv prevalence has decreased from one five to five however the abc approach is far from all that uganda has done as uganda has pioneered approaches towards reducing stigma bringing discussion of sexual behavior out into the open involving hiv infected people in public education persuading individuals and couples to be tested and counseled improving the status of women involving religious organizations enlisting traditional healers and much more edward green harvard medical anthropologist also it must be noted that there is no conclusive proof that abstinence only programs have been successful in any country in the world in reducing |
hiv transmission this is why condom use is heavily co promoted there is also considerable overlap with the cnn approach this is c ondom use for those who engage in risky behavior n eedles use clean ones n egotiating skills negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices the abc approach has been criticized because a faithful partner of an unfaithful partner is at risk of aids many think that the combination of the cnn approach with the abc approach will be the optimum prevention platform circumcision current research is clarifying the relationship between male circumcision and hiv in differing social and cultural contexts unaids believes that it is premature to recommend male circumcision services as part of hiv prevention programmes moreover south african medical experts are concerned that the repeated use of unsterilised blades in the ritual circumcision of adolescent boys may be spreading hiv prevention of blood or blood product route of hiv transmission underlying science s |
haring and reusing syringes contaminated with hiv infected blood represents a major risk for infection with not only hiv but also hepatitis b and hepatitis c in the united states a third of all new hiv infections can be traced to needle sharing and almost five zero of long term addicts have hepatitis c the risk of being infected with hiv from a single prick with a needle that has been used on an hiv infected person though is thought to be about one in one five zero see table above post exposure prophylaxis with anti hiv drugs can further reduce that small risk universal precautions are frequently not followed in both sub saharan africa and much of asia because of both a shortage of supplies and inadequate training the who estimates that approximately two five of all hiv infections in sub saharan africa are transmitted through unsafe healthcare injections because of this the united nations general assembly supported by universal medical opinion on the matter has urged the nations of the world to implement univ |
ersal precautions to prevent hiv transmission in health care settings prevention strategies in countries where improved donor selection and antibody tests have been introduced the risk of transmitting hiv infection to blood transfusion recipients is extremely low but according to the who the overwhelming majority of the world s population does not have access to safe blood and between five and one zero of hiv infections worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood and blood products medical workers who follow universal precautions or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of hiv all aids prevention organizations advise drug users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs including syringes cotton balls the spoons water for diluting the drug straws crack pipes etc it is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection informatio |
n on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from needle exchanges in the united states and some other countries clean needles are available free in some cities at needle exchanges or safe injection sites additionally many states within the united states and some other nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription mother to child transmission underlying science there is a one five three zero risk of transmission of hiv from mother to child during pregnancy labour and delivery in developed countries the risk can of transmission of hiv from mother to child can be as low as zero five a number of factors influence the risk of infection particularly the viral load of the mother at birth the higher the load the higher the risk breastfeeding increases the risk of transmission by one zero one five this risk depends on clinical factors and may vary according to the pattern and dur |
ation of breastfeeding prevention strategies studies have shown that antiretroviral drugs cesarean delivery and formula feeding reduce the chance of transmission of hiv from mother to child when replacement feeding is acceptable feasible affordable sustainable and safe hiv infected mothers are recommended to avoid breast feeding their infant otherwise exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life and should be discontinued as soon as possible treatment there is currently no cure for hiv or aids infection with hiv usually leads to aids and ultimately death however in western countries most patients survive many years following diagnosis because of the availability of the highly active antiretroviral therapy haart in the absence of haart progression from hiv infection to aids occurs at a median of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing aids is only nine two months haart dramatically increases the time from diagnosis to death and treatment research contin |
ues current optimal haart options consist of combinations or cocktails consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types or classes of anti retroviral agents typical regimens consist of two nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors nrtis plus either a protease inhibitor or a non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor nnrti this treatment is frequently referred to as haart highly active anti retroviral therapy anti retroviral treatments along with medications intended to prevent aids related opportunistic infections have played a part in delaying complications associated with aids reducing the symptoms of hiv infection and extending patients life spans over the past decade the success of these treatments in prolonging and improving the quality of life for people with aids has improved dramatically because hiv disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression particularly for young infants tr |
eatment recommendations from the dhhs have been more aggressive in children than in adults the current guidelines were published november three two zero zero five the dhhs also recommends that doctors should assess the viral load rapidity in cd four decline and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment there are several concerns about antiretroviral regimens the drugs can have serious side effects regimens can be complicated requiring patients to take several pills at various times during the day although treatment regimens have been greatly simplified in recent years if patients miss doses drug resistance can develop also anti retroviral drugs are costly and the majority of the world s infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for hiv and aids research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resist |
ance a number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with hiv infection or aids vaccination against hepatitis a and b is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected in addition aids patients should receive vaccination against streptococcus pneumoniae and should receive yearly vaccination against influenza virus patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia pcp and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for toxoplasmosis and cryptococcus meningitis alternative medicine ever since aids entered the public consciousness various forms of alternative medicine have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself in the first decade of the epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available a large number of people with aids experimented with al |
ternative therapies the definition of alternative therapies in aids has changed since that time during that time the phrase often referred to community driven treatments not being tested by government or pharmaceutical company research that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it these kinds of approaches have become less common over time as aids drugs have become more effective the phrase then and now also refers to other approaches that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life for instance massage herbal and flower remedies and acupuncture when used with conventional treatment many now refer to these as complementary approaches none of these treatments have been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating hiv or aids directly however some may improve feelings of well being in people who believe in their value additionally people with aids like people with other illnesses such as cancer also sometimes use marijuana to treat pain c |
ombat nausea and stimulate appetite epidemiology map of africa coloured according to the percentage of the adult ages one five four nine population with hiv aids unaids and the who estimate that aids has killed more than two five million people since it was first recognized in one nine eight one making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history despite recent improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world the aids epidemic claimed an estimated three one million between two eight and three six million lives in two zero zero five of which more than half a million five seven zero zero zero zero were children globally between three six seven and four five three million people are currently living with hiv in two zero zero five between four three and six six million people were newly infected and between two eight and three six million people with aids died an increase from two zero zero four and the highest number since one nine eight one sub saharan africa rem |
ains by far the worst affected region with an estimated two three eight to two eight nine million people currently living with hiv more than six zero of all people living with hiv are in sub saharan africa as are more than three quarters seven six of all women living with hiv south south east asia are second most affected with one five aids accounts for the deaths of five zero zero zero zero zero children the latest evaluation report of the world bank s operations evaluation department assesses the development effectiveness of the world bank s country level hiv aids assistance defined as policy dialogue analytic work and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the aids epidemic this is the first comprehensive evaluation of the world bank s hiv aids support to countries from the beginning of the epidemic through mid two zero zero four because the bank s assistance is for implementation of government programs by government it provides important insights on how national aids progra |
ms can be made more effective the development of haart as effective therapy for hiv infection and aids has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available this has created the misperception that the disease has gone away in fact as the life expectancy of persons with aids has increased in countries where haart is widely used the number of persons living with aids has increased substantially in the united states for example the number of persons with aids increased from about three five zero zero zero in one nine eight eight to over two two zero zero zero zero in one nine nine six origin of hiv aids the official date for the beginning of the aids epidemic is marked as june one eight one nine eight one when the u s center for disease control and prevention reported a cluster of pneumocystis carinii pneumonia now classified as pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in five gay men in los angeles originally dubbed grid or gay related immune deficiency health authorities |
soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not gay in one nine eight two the cdc introduced the term aids to describe the newly recognized syndrome three of the earliest known instances of hiv infection are as follows a plasma sample taken in one nine five nine from an adult male living in what is now the democratic republic of congo hiv found in tissue samples from an american teenager who died in st louis in one nine six nine hiv found in tissue samples from a norwegian sailor who died around one nine seven six two species of hiv infect humans hiv one and hiv two hiv one is more virulent and more easily transmitted hiv one is the source of the majority of hiv infections throughout the world while hiv two is less easily transmitted and is largely confined to west africa both hiv one and hiv two are of primate origin the origin of hiv one is the central common chimpanzee pan troglodytes troglodytes the origin of hiv two has been established to be the sooty mangabey cercoce |
bus atys an old world monkey of guinea bissau gabon and cameroon one currently controversial possibility for the origin of hiv aids was discussed in a one nine nine two rolling stone magazine article by freelance journalist tom curtis he put forward the theory that aids was inadvertantly caused in the late one nine five zero s in the belgian congo by hilary koprowski s research into a polio vaccine although subsequently retracted due to libel issues surrounding its claims the rolling stone article motivated another freelance journalist edward hooper to probe more deeply into this subject hooper s research resulted in his publishing a one nine nine nine book the river in which he alleged that an experimental oral polio vaccine prepared using chimpanzee kidney tissue was the route through which siv crossed into humans to become hiv thus starting the human aids pandemic alternative theories a minority of scientists and activists question the connection between hiv and aids or the existence of hiv or the validity |
of current testing methods these claims are met with resistance by and often evoke frustration and hostility from most of the scientific community who accuse the dissidents of ignoring evidence in favor of hiv s role in aids and irresponsibly posing a dangerous threat to public health by their continued activities dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to aids based on hiv causation has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses psychological terror toxic treatments and a squandering of public funds the debate and controversy regarding this issue from the early one nine eight zero s to the present has provoked heated emotions and passions from both sides references external links unaids the joint united nations programme on hiv aids eldis hiv and aids latest research and other resources on hiv and aids in developing countries international aids society the world s leading independent association of hiv aids professionals aegis org aids education global information system world aids day world aids day o |
ne december show your support aids assistance evaluating the world bank s assistance for fighting the hiv aids epidemic aids org comprehensive hiv aids information aidsinfo two zero zero two the glossary of hiv aids related terms four th edition aidsmeds com comprehensive lessons on hiv aids and their treatments us center for disease control two zero zero five divisions of hiv aids prevention fightaids home distributed computing project against aids health action aids two zero zero three hiv transmission in the medical setting niaid nih two zero zero three basic information about aids and hiv niaid nih two zero zero three evidence that hiv causes aids niaid nih two zero zero four how hiv causes aids nih two zero zero one history of aids research in the nih the body two zero zero five the body the complete hiv aids resource origin of aids video watch free online origin of aids video journal watch two zero zero five aids clinical care unaids scenarios to two zero two five document regarding three scenarios for |
hiv aids in africa for the year two zero two five large pdf file aids dissident websites aids wiki s comprehensive list of dissident websites the body s list of resources criticizing the aids reappraisal movement the body aids denialism gestalt therapy and aids treatment issues with aids patients one nine nine three documentation on the oral polio vaccine opv theory of aids origin aidsorigin com aids news nov two zero zero five progress in hiv vaccine research recorded interview with prof robert gallo hiv discoverer hiv aids immune system disorders infectious diseases pandemics sexually transmitted diseases virology abba one nine seven two one nine eight three was a swedish pop music group they remain the most successful swedish music act and were one of the most popular groups in the world the group dominated charts worldwide during the mid to late one nine seven zero s and early one nine eight zero s selling many hit singles and albums estimates of abba s total worldwide sales vary from three zero zero to f |
our zero zero million there seems to be no reliable source for this information which could make them the second most successful band of all time after the beatles they were the first act from the european mainland to become a regular fixture in british american and australian charts and their success subsequently opened the doors for many other european acts their lasting legacy is the legitimising of the swedish music industry as a mainstream player abba was formed around one nine seven two with bj rn ulvaeus benny andersson agnetha f ltskog and anni frid lyngstad nicknamed frida they became widely known after winning the one nine seven four eurovision song contest with waterloo the group consisted of two couples bj rn and agnetha along with benny and frida abba collectively decided to take a break at the beginning of one nine eight three they have yet to record together again in the studio abba is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group member s name it is usually written abba but is sometim |
es written as a word abba the first b in the logo version of the name was reversed on the band s promotional material from one nine seven six onwards history before abba benny andersson was a member of the swedish rock pop band hep stars who were very popular in sweden during the one nine six zero s the band was modeled after various us and uk groups such as herman s hermits the who and the rolling stones the hep stars had a huge following especially among teenage girls meanwhile bj rn ulvaeus was fronting a skiffle group called the hootenanny singers whose sound was softer and more easy listening than the hep stars the singers crossed paths sometimes and they decided to write songs together one of these isn t it easy to say became a hit for the hep stars and bj rn sometimes guested with the band on tour it was even suggested that the two bands merge but this never happened stig anderson manager of the hootenanny singers and founder of polar music saw more potential in benny and bj rn working together and enc |
ouraged them to write more songs and create an album which was eventually called lycka happiness when released on the polar label agnetha f ltskog was abba s youngest member and a pop phenomenon in her own right who wrote and performed swedish hits while in her teens and had also played mary magdalene in the swedish production of jesus christ superstar agnetha was noted by critics and songwriters as an accomplished composer but she considered it hard work writing and performing light pop songs in the schlager style recording covers of hit songs and touring swedish folkparks the main live circuit at that time inevitably she bumped into the hootenanny singers on their folkpark tours meeting and eventually falling in love with bj rn their marriage in one nine seven one was the swedish celebrity wedding of the year and drew much publicity housewife anni frid frida lyngstad was a part time cabaret singer who decided to enter a talent competition and won sweden was changing over from driving on the left side of the |
road to the right and a series of spectacular shows was being aired to encourage people to stay off the roads on the night of the switchover invited to appear on tv that evening with her winning song frida s musical career took off she met benny andersson on the wonted folkpark tour they became lovers and benny invited anni frid to sing backing vocals with agnetha on the lycka album the two women were uncredited for this work early years the cover of people need love the first single released by the group by the early one nine seven zero s although bj rn and agnetha were married they pursued their own separate musical careers however stig was ambitious and determined to break into the mainstream international market not something that swedish acts were usually known for though previously achieved by swedish instrumental guitar group the spotnicks their best known hit was orange blossom special as a result he encouraged bj rn and benny to write a song for the one nine seven two eurovision song contest and it |
was performed by lena anderson say it with a song won third in the contest selection rounds but was a huge hit in several countries convincing stig he was on the right track bj rn and benny persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements which brought some success in japan one of the songs they came up with was people need love featuring guest vocals by the girls who were now given much greater prominence than previously everyone involved felt enthusiastic about the new sound and stig released it as a single credited to bj rn ring ring the studio work was handled by michael b tretow who experimented with a phil spector like wall of sound production technique that became the wholly new abba sound stig arranged an english translation of the lyrics by neil sedaka and phil cody and they thought this would be a sure fire winner yet again it came in third nevertheless the proto group put out an album called ring ring still carrying the awkward naming of bj rn benny agnetha |
ring ring single was a hit in many parts of europe but stig felt the true breakthrough could only come with a uk or us hit around this time stig having tired of the unwieldy names started to refer to the group privately and publicly as abba this was done as a joke at first since abba was also the name of a well known fish canning company in sweden however since the fish canners were more or less unknown outside sweden stig came to believe the name would work in international markets and so it stuck later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to use the name eurovision and after waterloo one nine seven four mamma mia one nine seven five they tried eurovision again in one nine seven four now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in the uk and tracks like wizzard s see my baby jive waterloo was an unashamedly glam style pop track produced with michael b tretow s wall of sound approach now far more experienced they were better prepared for the contest and had an album s worth of material released |
when the show was held in brighton england the song won hands down and catapulted them into british consciousness for the first time now they had a catchy name abba and people could buy the whole album waterloo straightaway waterloo was abba s first uk no one it was also released in the us reaching no six but momentum proved hard to maintain and their follow up singles so long and honey honey did not do nearly as well the group was overstretched and unable to promote the songs convincingly in any one country moreover much of their material was still heavily derivative it wasn t until the release of their second proper album abba and their single sos that abba began to show the first signs they were destined for bigger things sos consolidated abba s presence in the uk where it was a top one zero hit and they were no longer regarded as a one hit wonder much wider success came in one nine seven five with every release charting solidly and mamma mia reaching the uk no one spot in january one nine seven six at thi |
s time the band released the somewhat hubristically titled greatest hits album despite having had only five top four zero hits in the uk and the us this album included fernando an earlier version had been a swedish language hit single for anni frid and included on her one nine seven five benny produced solo lp frida ensam becoming one of abba s best known tracks fernando did not appear on the swedish or australian releases of greatest hits in sweden the song would wait until one nine eight two s the singles the first ten years to appear in an english language version credited to abba the track was later included in the australian release of their one nine seven six album arrival the next album arrival represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work for abba hit after hit flowed from it money money money knowing me knowing you and dancing queen their most enduring and definitive hit by this time abba were widely popular in the uk most of western europe and australia who in a way a |
lmost adopted abba as their own but still had only moderate recognition and airplay in the us and dancing queen remains the only no one abba ever achieved there movie poster for abba the movie and the album carried the same artwork by this time the abba sound was synonymous with european pop and was widely copied by groups like brotherhood of man and later bucks fizz some felt it was necessary to copy abba s sound and two girl two boy approach to win eurovision and the notion seemed validated when brotherhood of man won in one nine seven six and bucks fizz took the prize in one nine eight one meanwhile in one nine seven seven abba followed up arrival with the more complex the album which was released to coincide with abba the movie a feature film of their australian tour this album was less well received by the critics but spawned several hits the name of the game and take a chance on me both of which topped the uk charts this album also carried the well known thank you for the music that later was released i |
n the uk as a single one nine eight three and had been a b side of eagle in territories where that song was released as a single later years by one nine seven eight abba was a megagroup they converted a disused cinema into the polar music studio a new state of the art studio in stockholm which was used by several other successful bands led zeppelin s in through the out door was recorded there for example their standalone single summer night city their last swedish number one stopped just short of topping the uk charts but set the stage for abba s foray into disco with the album voulez vous which was released in spring one nine seven nine this release marked a slight decline in abba s popularity in the uk and europe but gained them more attention in the us the hits still came chiquitita does your mother know voulez vous and i have a dream all charted in january one nine seven nine the group performed at the music for unicef concert at the united nations general assembly performing chiquitita the royalties from |
the song were donated to unicef later that year the group released their second greatest hits album greatest hits vol two which featured a brand new track gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight their best known disco hit in one nine seven nine abba toured the us and canada playing to huge audiences but the breakthrough there was perhaps too little too late one nine eight zero s super trouper reflected a change in abba s style with more prominent synthesisers and more personal lyrics it set a record for the most preorders ever received for a uk album after one million copies were ordered before release anticipation for the release had been built up by the winner takes it all the group s eighth uk chart topper their first since one nine seven eight this song was allegedly written about bjorn and agnetha s marriage which was breaking down at the time the next single from the album super trouper also hit number one lay all your love on me was an album track that was released in one nine eight one as a one two in |
ch single only in limited territories and along with super trouper managed to top the american club and dance chart a spanish language compilation album was also recorded at this time gracias por la musica which was released in latin america and sold very well the visitors one nine eight one their final studio album showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placed the band squarely in the pop genre with catchy tunes and harmonies the visitors title track refers to secret meetings held against the approval of communist governments in soviet satellite states and other tracks address topics like aging loss of innocence a parent watching her child grow up and so on their melodies were still catchy but their change of style was reflected by the start of a commercial decline after their final great pop single one of us which was a worldwide hit in december one nine eight one although by this time regarded as a group in decline abba still drew huge |
audiences particularly in continental europe and might have gone on indefinitely if it were not for the band s personal turmoils the two married couples were both divorced by this point songs like the winner takes it all and one of us gave glimpses of personal issues abba s members were facing in summer one nine eight two the group gathered to record a new album in the end they settled for a double album compilation of all their past successes with two new songs the double album the singles the first ten years topped the uk album chart and was a worldwide bestseller the new tracks were under attack and the day before you came which was the last song abba ever recorded together two other songs were recorded during one nine eight two i am the city and just like that while both were completed only i am the city was released on the compilation album more abba gold in one nine nine three despite numerous efforts from fans bj rn ulvaeus and benny andersson are still refusing to release just like that in its entiret |
y the group gradually drifted apart as they began pursuing different projects benny and bj rn collaborated with tim rice to write the musical chess while agnetha and frida worked on solo albums after abba bj rn and benny wrote the music for the west end show chess one nine eight four with lyricist tim rice chess ran for three years in london the show also opened on broadway in the us one nine eight eight but the song order lyrics and storyline had been altered compared with the london version and was less successful the show closed within weeks chess is best known today for producing the international hit one night in bangkok sung by murray head bj rn and benny inspired by the successes of rice and his former collaborator andrew lloyd webber had long expressed their desire to write a musical their first attempt had been a mini musical the girl with the golden hair performed by the group during their one nine seven seven tour of europe and australia excerpts were included in abba the movie and abba the album b |
j rn and benny followed chess with kristina fr n duvem la one nine nine five directed for the stage by lars rudolfsson and based on the emigrants tetralogy by swedish novelist vilhelm moberg mamma mia a musical built around abba s songs had its london premiere in one nine nine nine in two zero zero three their first musical was given new life in a swedish language version chess p svenska after being largely forgotten throughout most of the one nine eight zero s abba experienced a resurgence the attention was often ironic along the lines of they were so they were good yet others recognised that while abba was often panned by critics and sneered at by punk and new wave musicians they were masters of their art the three minute pop song one nine nine two saw a huge revival of interest in abba with the release of their abba gold greatest hits compilation album selling massively worldwide and setting chart longevity records the revival was further validated by the one nine nine four film muriel s wedding a popular |
australian film starring an abba loving protaganist bj rn and benny were finally recognised in two zero zero one with an ivor novello award for their songwriting many former punk and new wave artistes later admitted to levels of fondness and respect for abba they were unwilling to own up to in their early years during the one nine nine zero s many abba tracks were rediscovered and covered by other artists such as erasure ash and the a teens among others the avant garde band blancmange had also covered the day before you came in the mid one nine eight zero s one of the first bands to cover an abba track on april six th two zero zero four three former abba members bj rn benny and frida showed up together in london for the three zero th anniversary of their eurovision song contest win in one nine seven four appearing on stage after the fifth anniversary performance of mamma mia in a november two zero zero four interview with the german magazine bunte bj rn said a reunion would not satisfy abba s many fans even t |
hough there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one in february two zero zero five all four members of abba appeared together in public for the first time since one nine eight six at the gala opening of mamma mia in stockholm on october two two two zero zero five during the celebration show for the five zero th anniversary of the eurovision song contest held in copenhagen denmark waterloo was voted the best eurovision song in the history of the contest post abba solo careers both female members of abba have had some success with solo careers following the break up of the band in one nine eight two frida released her phil collins produced album something s going on this album included the hit single i know there s something going on agnetha followed in one nine eight three with the album wrap your arms around me this album included the hit single the heat is on a cover of the noosha fox recording which was a big hit all over europe and scandinavia that year in the us agnetha scored a bill |
board top three zero hit with can t shake loose her album sold over one two million copies worldwide frida retired after her second solo album shine flopped agnetha fared better with her second post abba solo album eyes of a woman the album was number two in the swedish charts and did reasonably well in europe after i stand alone in one nine eight seven agnetha withdrew from public life and refused to give interviews in one nine nine six she released her autobiography called as i am and also released a compilation that featured her solo hits in two zero zero four she released a disc of cover songs called my colouring book which debuted at number one in sweden and number six in germany the album peaked just outside of the british top ten number one one and the single if i thought you d ever change your mind reached number nine in the uk singles chart the album went triple platinum in sweden three zero zero zero zero zero copies gold in finland and silver in great britain frida released shine produced by steve |
lillywhite in one nine eight four but it was not until one nine nine six that she released her last album to date the swedish language djupa andetag which was a number one album in sweden selling nine zero zero zero zero copies but unknown internationally in september two zero zero four frida recorded a song called the sun will shine again with former deep purple member jon lord for his latest album making some rare appearances on german television fashion and videos abba was widely noted as an epitome of one nine seven zero s fashion for the colourful costumes its members wore the videos which accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre though the beatles and the rolling stones had shot the occasional video clip making promotional videos still hadn t become the industry standard by the early to mid one nine seven zero s most of abba s videos and abba the movie were directed by lasse hallstr m who would later direct the films my life as a dog the ci |
der house rules and chocolat abba made videos because their songs were hits in so many different countries and personal appearances weren t always possible this was also an effort to minimise travelling particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights agnetha and bj rn had two young children and agnetha who was also afraid of flying was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time abba s manager stig anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour some of these videos became classics because of the one nine seven zero s era costumes and early video effects such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs overlapping one girl s profile with the other s full face and the contrasting of one member against another nowadays most of their videos can be seen on the dvds abba gold and the definitive collection a still from abba s |
music video or promo clip ring ring several abba videos were spoofed by others the video knowing me knowing you was satirised on the bbc comedy show not the nine o clock news as super dooper the title knowing me knowing you was also borrowed for a spoof chat show on bbc starring steve coogan as alan partridge who always entered the studio shouting aha an exclamation in the lyrics uk comedy duo french and saunders parodied abba with their song c est la vie an homage to the winner takes it all erasure paid homage to the abba video style with their video for take a chance on me trivia songwriters benny and bj rn were unable to notate music on paper only agnetha could as revealed in a dick cavett interview with the group abba have been spoofed by many tv shows including french alan partridge is noted as being a huge abba fan especially on his television show knowing me knowing you with alan partridge where all the hosts and all guests were introduced with different abba songs at the height of their success abba w |
as sweden s biggest export exceeding even volvo cars while selling their music into russia during the late one nine seven zero s abba were paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the rouble the song chiquitita was first performed at the music for unicef concert in one nine seven nine abba s performance at the concert was however lip synched all royalties from the song were donated to the children s charity unicef in perpetuity in one nine eight one abba sponsored the ats formula one racing team for whom slim borgudd a former drummer who appeared on some abba recordings was a driver the hit song bring me edelweiss one nine eight nine by edelweiss features the tune and some lyrics from s o s this caused some controversy between bjorn waterloo and the wedding scene is scored to an orchestral rendition of dancing queen the movie also features mamma mia fernando and i do i do i do i do i do another one nine nine four australian fillm the adventures of priscilla queen of the desert features a performance o |
f mamma mia by two drag queens furthering abba s status as a gay icon the abba tribute band bj rn again became so successful that as of two zero zero four there were five casts of bj rn again performing in various parts of the world the original bj rn again had been touring for one five years longer than the original group techno and house remakes of many original abba hits were released under the name abbacadabra mamma mia was nominated for a broadway tony award as best musical in two zero zero two in two zero zero zero abba were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion dollars us to do a reunion tour in two zero zero five abba s one nine seven six hit single fernando still held the record for the most weeks spent at number one in australia along with the beatles hey jude in addition to being an acronym the name abba is also a palindrome in one nine seven five abba s sos became the first song with a palindromic title recorded by a group with a palindromic name to hit the pop charts |
abba was inducted into the vocal group hall of fame in two zero zero two in the film johnny english the title character rowan atkinson is discretely characterized as an abba fan he sings thank you for the music and lip syncs to does your mother know in front of a mirror the fugees sampled abba as well as crystal gayle for their contribution to the one nine nine six when we were kings soundtrack rumble in the jungle madonna sampled the group s gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight in her two zero zero five single hung up see also abba discography abba s discography and chart positions for uk usa germany and netherlands list of abba unreleased songs music of sweden list of swedes in music best selling music artists world s top selling music artists chart list of number one hits united states list of artists who reached number one on the hot one zero zero u s list of number one dance hits united states list of artists who reached number one on the u s dance chart list of number one singles uk uk best selling si |
ngles artists of all time list of artists who reached number one in ireland list of artists who have covered abba songs list of artists who reached number one on the australian singles chart list of songs with particularly long titles external links abba four therecord com abba discography abba thesingles com abba singles discography abba the site official site this site is owned and maintained by universal music ab in sweden abba world complete song list website links reviewed and categorised selected discography bibliography concert information and much more abbaplaza com abba fan site in english and in dutch icethesite com abba and the musicals chess kristina and more vocalhalloffame com vocal group hall of fame page on abba abba story com site about abba photo archive of abba by rock photographer chris walter collection of abba s pictures abbamail com abba related site abba lyrics page song lyrics collection code hot uk abba lyrics popular abba song lyrics the hungarian abba site lyrics pictures extras et |
c abba popular musical groups swedish musical groups disco musicians eurovision winners melodifestivalen allegiance is the duty which a subject or a citizen owes to the state or to the sovereign of the state to which he belongs origin of the word mid english ligeaunce med latin ligeantia the al was probably added through confusion with another legal term allegeance an allegation the french allegeance comes from the english the word is formed from liege of which the derivation is given under that heading the connection with latin ligare to bind is erroneous usage the term allegiance is often used by english legal commentators in a larger sense divided by them into natural and local the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live but it is in its proper sense in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character that the word is important in that sense it represents the feudal liege homage which could |
be due only to one lord while simple homage might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land united kingdom the english doctrine which was at one time adopted in the united states asserted that allegiance was indelible nemo potest exuere patriam accordingly as the law stood before one eight seven zero every person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the conditions set forth though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided owed an allegiance to the british crown which he could never resign or lose except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of british territory in which he resided allegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the sovereign in return for that protection which the sovereign affords the subject it was the mutual bond and obligation between the king or queen and his or her subjects whereby subjects are called his liege subjects because they are bound to obey and serve him and he |
is called their liege lord because he should maintain and defend them ex parte anderson one eight six one three el one two one er five two five china navigation co v attorney general one nine three two four eight tlr three seven five attorney general v nissan one nine six nine one all er six two nine oppenheimer v cattermole one nine seven two three all er one one zero six the duty of the crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect the reciprocal duty of the subject towards the crown is that of allegiance at common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his sovereign as the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience so the sovereign is to govern and protect his subjects regere et protegere subdititos suos so as between the sovereign and subject there is duplex et reciprocum ligamen quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando quia continet in se duplex ligam |
en calvin s case one six zero eight seven co rep one a jenk three zero six two state tr five five nine seven seven er three seven seven natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to their sovereign ex parte anderson one eight six one three el one two one er five two five a natural born subject owes allegiance wherever he or she may be where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy s force even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country r v vermaak one nine zero zero two one nlr two zero four south africa allegiance is owed both to the sovereign as a natural person and to the sovereign in his or her political capacity re stepney election petition isaacson v durant one eight eight six one seven qbd five four per lord coleridge cj at |
tachment to the person of the reigning sovereign is not sufficient loyalty requires affection also to the office of the sovereign attachment to royalty attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm and he who would by force or by fraud endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution though he may retain his affection for its head can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty r v o connell one eight four four seven ilr two six one there were four kinds of allegiances rittson v stordy one eight five five three sm de geer v stone one eight eight two two two ch d two four three isaacson v durant one eight eight six five four lt six eight four gibson gavin v gibson one nine one three three kb three seven nine joyce v dpp one nine four six ac three four seven collingwood v pace one six six one o bridg four one zero lane v bennett one eight three six one m lyons corp v east india co one eight three six one moo pcc one seven five birtwhistle v vardill one eight four zero seven cl r v lopez |
r v sattler one eight five eight dears ex p brown one eight six four five b a ligeantia naturalis absoluta pura et indefinita and this originally is due by nature and birthright and is called alta ligeantia and those that owe this are called subditus natus b ligeantia acquisita not by nature but by acquisition or denization being called a denizen or rather denizon because he or she is subditus datus c ligeantia localis by operation of law when a friendly alien enters the country because so long as he or she is in the country they are within the sovereign s protection therefore they owe the sovereign a local obedience or allegiance r v cowle one seven five nine two burr eight three four low v routledge one eight six five one ch app four two re johnson roberts v attorney general one nine zero three one ch eight two one tingley v muller one nine one seven two ch one four four rodriguez v speyer one nine one nine ac five nine johnstone v pedlar one nine two one two ac two six two r v tucker one six nine four show |
parl cas one eight six r v keyn one eight seven six two ex d six three re stepney election petn isaacson v durant one eight eight six one seven qbd five four d a legal obedience where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the sovereign s dominions except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory the natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the sovereign ex p anderson one eight six one three e a absolute as the common denization without any limitation or restraint b limited as when the sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien and to the heirs males of his or her body or to an alien for term of his or her life c it may be granted upon condition cujus est dare ejus est disponere and this denization of an alien may come about three ways by |
parliament by letters patent which was the usual manner and by conquest local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the crown all friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects the angelique one eight zero one three ch rob app seven an alien coming into a colony also became temporarily a subject of the crown and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony routledge v low one eight six eight lr three hl one zero zero three seven lj ch four five four one eight lt eight seven four one six wr one zero eight one hl reid v maxwell one eight eight six two tlr seven nine zero falcon v famous players film co one nine two six two kb four seven four a resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy because the absence of the crown s protection was temporary and involuntary de jager v attorney geneneral of natal one nine zero seven ac |
three two six legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the crown by the naturalization act one eight seven zero it was made possible for british subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined so british subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization unless in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act they have declared their desire to remain british subjects within two years from the passing of the act persons who from having been born within british territory are british subjects but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state and also persons who though born abroad are british subjects by reason of parentage may by declarations of alienage get rid of british nationality emigration to an uncivilized country leaves british nationality unaffected indeed the right claime |
d by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion united states the doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the united states and on july two seven one eight six eight the day before the fourteenth amendment was adopted u s congress declared in the preamble of the expatriation act that the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life liberty and the pursuit of happiness and section i one of the fundamental principles of this government united states revised statutes sec one nine nine nine every citizen of a foreign state in america owes a double allegiance one to it and one to the united states he may be guilty of treason against one or both if the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict those of the united states have the paramount a |
uthority in american law oath of allegiance main article oath of allegiance the oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization by ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected in england it was first imposed by statute in the reign of elizabeth i of england one five five eight and its form has more than once been altered since up to the time of the revolution the promise was to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom this was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non resistance and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time i do sincerely promise and swear that i will be faithful and bear true allegiance to hi |
s majesty see also pledge of allegiance references the original initial text was from the public domain gutenberg encyclopedia please update as needed see also salmond on citizenship and allegiance in the law quarterly review july one nine zero one january one nine zero two allegiance is also a computer game by microsoft research see allegiance computer game allegiance is also an episode of star trek the next generation see allegiance tng episode nationalism absolute majority is a supermajoritarian voting requirement which is stricter than a simple majority it means that more than half of all the members of a group including those absent and those present but not voting must vote in favour of a proposition in order for that proposition to be passed as an example let s say that a member of a club of one zero zero members proposes a new bylaw according to the club s practice for the bylaw to pass it requires an absolute majority the results of the vote are four zero yes votes and three zero no votes the rest of |
the voters either abstained or did not vote even though this arrangement is a simple majority since an absolute majority for the club is five one members the proposed bylaw fails absolute majority voting is most often used to pass changes to constitutions or to bylaws in order to ensure that there is affirmative support for a proposal most voting decisions require a simple majority or even just a plurality examples of absolute majority voting from two zero zero five an absolute majority of the electorate in addition to a three fourths vote of the legislature is necessary to pass amendments to the constitution of the republic of china on taiwan as well as to ratify a referendum the requirement of an absolute majority rather than a simple majority effectively gives both major political blocs the power to veto a referendum or constitutional amendment in the politics of the european union any decision taken using the codecision procedure requires an absolute majority in european parliament in order to amend a te |
xt in its second reading at first reading only a simple majority is required see also list of democracy and elections related topics elections voting theory afrika islam born charles glenn and known also as the son of bambaataa is a hip hop producer he left new york for los angeles and went on to co produce most of ice t s early albums namely rhyme pays and power the latter is deemed to be ice s finest effort by some aficionados in the late one nine nine zero s afrika islam joined german techno icon westbam to form mr x and mr y a techno duo that made commercial techno with electro influences back to berlin quotes from the old school rap classic new york new york by grandmaster flash hip hop producers adventure international was a video game publishing company that existed from one nine seven eight until one nine eight five started by scott and alexis adams their games were notable for being the first implementation of the adventure genre to run on a microcomputer system the adventure game concept originally |
came from colossal cave adventure which ran strictly on large mainframe systems at the time after the success of their first game adventureland games followed rapidly with adventure international or ai releasing about two games a year initially the games were drawn from the founders imagination with themes ranging from fantasy to horror and sometimes science fiction some of the later games were written by scott adams and other collaborators adventure internationals games became known for quality with a reputation only exceeded in the field at the time by infocom fourteen games later adventure international began to release games drawn from film and fiction the extremely rare buckaroo banzai game developed with phillip case was based on the film the adventures of buckaroo banzai across the eighth dimension one nine eight four other games came from a more well known source marvel comics adventure international released three games based on the marvel characters the incredible hulk spider man and torch and the t |
hing by the end of one nine eight two game tastes were changing the traditional text based adventure game market had moved to graphical based adventures games like the hobbit had increased expectations of such games and although adventure international games included graphics of a sort they were significantly inferior to contemporary offerings at the time and the company was rapidly losing market share adventure international went bankrupt in one nine eight five the copyrights for its games reverted to the bank and eventually back to scott adams who released them as shareware at its peak in late one nine eight three to early one nine eight four adventure international employed approximately five zero individuals and published titles from over three zero zero independent programmer authors in europe the adventure international name was a trading name of adventuresoft and other games were released under the name that were not from adventure international in the usa alexis adams has remained in the online world |
and runs the online sex site fatfantasy net scott adams can be reached through his homepage at www msadams com the games scott adams s original twelve adventure games were adventureland pirate adventure also called pirate s cove secret mission originally called mission impossible voodoo castle the count strange odyssey mystery fun house pyramid of doom ghost town savage island parts i ii and the golden voyage external links play scott adams games in your web browser if legends detailed guide to scott adams classic adventures category at open directory defunct computer and video game companies altenberg may refer to peter altenberg an austrian writer and poet vieille montagne german name altenberg a former zinc mine in kelmis altenberg germany a city in saxony germany altenberg austria a municipality in austria near vienna on site the family mansion of konrad lorenz arthur c clarke sir arthur charles clarke born december one six one nine one seven is the british author and inventor most famous for his science |
fiction novel two zero zero one a space odyssey and for collaborating with director stanley kubrick on the film of the same name clarke is considered one of the big three of science fiction along with robert a heinlein and isaac asimov he is the only one still alive two zero zero one a space odyssey was written concurrently with the film version by stanley kubrick it was loosely inspired by clarke s short story the sentinel but became its own novel while he was collaborating on a screenplay with kubrick kubrick approached clarke about writing a novel for the express purpose of making the proverbial good science fiction movie and the novel was still being written while the film was being made this resulted in one of the truly unique collaborations in media history clarke has written numerous other books including the rama novels and several sequels to two zero zero one and many short stories including the star about a jesuit priest s spiritual dilemma an asteroid is named in clarke s honour four nine two three |
clarke as is a species of ceratopsian dinosaur serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei discovered in inverloch in australia the two zero zero one mars odyssey orbiter is named in honor of sir arthur s works in the one nine four zero s he forecast that man would reach the moon by the year two zero zero zero an idea experts dismissed as rubbish when neil armstrong landed in one nine six nine the united states said clarke provided the essential intellectual drive that led us to the moon he lives in sri lanka and survived the tsunamis of the two zero zero four indian ocean earthquake but lost his diving school on hikkaduwa clarke holds citizenship of both the uk and sri lanka biography clarke was born in minehead in somerset england and as a boy enjoyed stargazing and enthusiastically read old american science fiction magazines many of which made their way to england as ballast in ships after secondary school and studying at richard huish college taunton he was unable to afford a university education and consequently a |
cquired a job as an auditor in the pensions section of the board of education during the second world war he served in the royal air force as a radar specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defense system which contributed to the raf s success during the battle of britain he retired in the rank of flight lieutenant after the war he obtained a first class degree in mathematics and physics at king s college london his most important contribution may be the idea that geostationary satellites would be ideal telecommunications relays he proposed this concept in a paper titled extra terrestrial relays can rocket stations give worldwide radio coverage published in wireless world in october one nine four five the geostationary orbit is now sometimes known as the clarke orbit in his honour however it is not clear that his article was actually the inspiration for modern telecommunications satellites john r pierce of bell labs arrived at the idea independently in one nine five four and he was actually inv |
olved in the echo satellite and telstar projects however pierce stated that the idea was in the air at the time and certain to be developed regardless of clarke s publication clarke s first professional sale was in one nine four six to astounding science fiction the still memorable short story rescue party along with his writing clarke worked briefly as assistant editor of science abstracts one nine four nine before devoting himself to writing full time from one nine five one clarke also contributed to the dan dare series and his first three published novels were for a juvenile audience he has been chairman of the british interplanetary society and a member of the underwater explorers club his work is marked by its optimistic view of science empowering mankind s exploration of the solar system and an obvious influence was the work of olaf stapledon in one nine five one he wrote the sentinel for a bbc competition though the story was rejected it changed the course of clarke s career not only the basis for two |
zero zero one the sentinel introduced a more mystical and cosmic element to clarke s work many of clarke s later works feature a technologically advanced but prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence in the cases of the city and the stars childhood s end and the two zero zero one series this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution he has lived in sri lanka since one nine five six immigrating when it was still called ceylon first in unawatuna on the south coast and then in colombo this inspired the locale for his novel the fountains of paradise in which he describes a space elevator this he figures will ultimately be his legacy more so than geostationary satellites once space elevators make space shuttles obsolete early in his career clarke had a fascination with the paranormal and has stated that it was part of the inspiration for his novel childhood s end he has also said that he was one of several who were fooled |
by a uri geller demonstration at birkbeck college although he has long since dismissed and distanced himself from nearly all pseudoscience he still advocates for research into purported instances of psychokinesis and other similar phenomena following the release of two zero zero one clarke became much in demand as a commentator on science and technology especially at the time of the apollo space program he also signed a three book publishing deal a record for a science fiction writer the first of the three was rendezvous with rama in one nine seven three which won him all the main genre awards and has spawned sequels that along with the two zero zero one series formed the backbone of clarke s later career in one nine seven five his short story the star was not included as prose in a new high school english textbook in sri lanka because it was felt that it might offend roman catholics although it had been selected the textbook caused controversy because it replaced shakespeare s work with that of bob dylan joh |
n lennon and isaac asimov clarke is also well known to many for his television programmes arthur c clarke s mysterious world one nine eight one and arthur c clarke s world of strange powers one nine eight four in one nine eight six clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money initially one zero zero zero for the arthur c clarke award for the best science fiction novel published in britain in the previous year in two zero zero one the prize was increased to two zero zero one and its value now matches the year i e two zero zero five in two zero zero five in one nine eight eight he was diagnosed with post polio syndrome and has since needed to use a wheelchair his knighthood was first announced in one nine nine eight but then the british tabloid the sunday mirror published accusations of paedophilia against him the award was delayed while the allegations were investigated although by two zero zero zero the bbc reported that he had been cleared clarke s health did not allow him to travel to london to receive t |
he honour personally from the queen so the uk high commissioner to sri lanka awarded him the title of knight bachelor at a ceremony in colombo he is currently the honorary board chair of the institute for cooperation in space founded by carol rosin and on the board of governors of the national space society a space advocacy organization originally founded by dr wernher von braun he was the first chancellor of the international space university serving from one nine eight nine to two zero zero four and chancellor of moratuwa university sri lanka from one nine seven nine to two zero zero two in two zero zero five he lent his name to the first ever annual sir arthur clarke awards dubbed the oscars for space his brother attended the awards ceremony and presented an award specially chosen by arthur and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards on one four november two zero zero five sri lanka awarded arthur c clarke its highest civilian award the lankabhimanaya pride of lanka award for his contribution |
s to science and technology and his commitment to his adopted country partial bibliography novels prelude to space one nine five one the sands of mars one nine five one islands in the sky one nine five two against the fall of night one nine five three childhood s end one nine five three earthlight one nine five five the city and the stars one nine five six the deep range one nine five seven a fall of moondust one nine six one dolphin island one nine six three glide path one nine six three two zero zero one a space odyssey one nine six eight the lion of comarre an enquiry into the limits of the possible the snows of olympus a garden on mars one nine nine four picture album with comments ascent to orbit is what he calls his scientific autobiography astounding days his science fictional autobiography the coming of the space age famous accounts of man s probing of the universe selected and edited by arthur c clarke the coast of coral with photographs by mike wilson and arthur c clarke volume one of the blue plane |
t trilogy how the world was one beyond the global village a history and survey of the communications revolution published in one nine nine two greetings carbon based bipeds collected essays one nine three four one nine nine eight man and space report on planet three and other speculations the promise of space themes style and influence clarke s early published stories would usually feature the extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific breakthrough that assists the resolution of a human dilemma the first manned mission to the moon prelude to space the colonization of mars the sands of mars and life aboard a space station islands in the sky were all genre sf mainstays clarke s background as a technical writer showed in the early novels as a deliberate documentary style and his characters reflect clarke s experience by being mostly military or civil service types despite this clarke s style was open to humour and a degree of whimsy which salted its propagandist tone regarding scientific advanceme |
nt with a sting in the tail a recurring type of character is found in the lion of comarre the city and the stars the road to the sea and other works a young man in a superficially utopian society becomes dissatisfied and restless and seeks to expand his horizons thereby discovering the underlying decadence of his own society the sentinel introduced a religious theme to clarke s work his interest in the paranormal was influenced by charles fort and embraced the belief that mankind may be the property of an ancient alien civilization surprisingly for a writer who is often held up as an example of hard science fiction s obsession with technology three of clarke s novels have this as a theme the adapted screenplays of arthur c clarke two zero zero one a space odyssey clarke s first venture into film was the stanley kubrick directed two zero zero one a space odyssey kubrick and clarke had met in one nine six four to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project as the idea developed it was decided that t |
he story for the film was to be loosely based on clarke s short story the sentinel written in one nine four eight as an entry in a bbc short story competition originally clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film but this proved to be more tedious than he had estimated instead kubrick and clarke decided it would be best to write a novel first and then adapt it for the film upon its completion however as clarke was finishing the book the screenplay was also being written simultaneously due to the hectic schedule of the film s production kubrick and clarke had difficulty collaborating on the book clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of one nine six four with the plan to publish the novel in one nine six five in advance of the film s release in one nine six six after many delays the film was released in the spring of one nine six eight before the book was completed it was credited to clarke alone clarke later complained that this had the effect of making the book into a novelisation that k |
ubrick had manipulated circumstances to downplay his authorship for these and other reasons the details of the story differ slightly from the book to the movie the film is a bold artistic piece with little explanation for the events taking place clarke on the other hand wrote thorough explanations of cause and effect for the events in the novel despite their differences both film and novel were well received in one nine seven two clarke published the lost worlds of two zero zero one which included his account of the production and alternate versions of key scenes the special edition of the novel a space odyssey released in one nine nine nine contains an introduction by clarke documenting his account of the events leading to the release of the novel and film two zero one zero the year we make contact in one nine eight two clarke continued the two zero zero one epic with a sequel two zero one zero odyssey two this novel was also made into a film two zero one zero the year we make contact directed by peter hyams |
for release in one nine eight four due to the political environment in america in the one nine eight zero s the novel and film present a cold war theme with the looming tensions of nuclear war the film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as two zero zero one but the reviews were still positive and it has earned over four zero million dollars since its release in north america clarke s email correspondence with hyams was published in one nine eight four titled the odyssey file the making of two zero one zero and co authored with hyams it illustrates his fascination with the then pioneering medium and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily basis at the time of planning and production of the film the book also includes clarke s list of the best science fiction films ever made rendezvous with rama early in the millennium actor morgan freeman expressed his desire to produce a film based on arthur c clarke s novel rendezvous with rama the film was to be produced by freeman s productio |
n company revelations entertainment freeman has not given up on the project but he states that funding for a movie of this type is hard to procure a popular science fiction web site sci fi wire posted an interview with freeman about his troubles with the production essays and short stories most of clarke s essays between one nine three four to one nine nine eight can be found in the book greetings carbon based bipeds two zero zero zero most of his short stories can be found in the book the collected stories of arthur c clarke two zero zero one they make a good collection of clarke s non fiction and fiction works even for those who already have most of his books another collection of early essays was published in the view from serendip one nine seven seven which also included one short piece of fiction when the twerms came he has also written short stories under the pseudonyms of e g o brien and charles willis see also clarke s three laws science fiction arthur c clarke s list of the best science fiction films |
of all time clarketech spaceguard religious ideas in science fiction external links team acc arthur c clarke fans an international boinc community team arthurcclarke net fan community by arthur c clarke once upon a time in the bsac references clarke as a member the late trevor hampton british pioneer diver had clarke as a client the arthur clarke mars greenhouse devon island nunavut nasa haughton mars project one nine one seven births living people alumni of king s college london arthur c clarke science fiction writers british science fiction writers hugo award winning authors nebula grand masters british world war ii veterans royal air force officers natives of somerset seti space exploration sri lankans futurists british essayists humanists atheists skeptics the newton logo the apple newton messagepad two one zero zero the last model produced the apple newton or simply newton was an early line of personal digital assistants developed manufactured and marketed by apple computer from one nine nine three to o |
ne nine nine eight the original newtons were based on the arm six one zero risc processor and featured handwriting recognition apple s official name for the device was messagepad the term newton was apple s name for the operating system it used but popular usage of the word newton has grown to include the device and its software together the newton in development the newton project was not originally intended to produce a pda the pda category did not exist for most of newton s genesis and the personal digital assistant moniker itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by apple s then ceo john sculley the driving force behind the project newton was in fact intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing for most of its design lifecycle newton had a large format screen more internal memory and a rich object oriented graphics kernel one of the original motivating scenarios for the design was known as the architect scenario in which newton s designers imagined a residential architect |
working quickly with a client to sketch clean up and interactively modify a simple two dimensional home plan for a portion of the newton s development cycle roughly the middle third the project s primary programming language was dylan a small efficient object oriented lisp variant that still retains some interest although it was efficient for its day and considering its substantial run time dynamism dylan was a tough sell for the large format newton and for a development team unused to lisp programming with the move to the smaller form factor dylan was relegated to experimental status in the bauhaus project and eventually cancelled outright had it been retained dylan with garbage collection and close os integration would have preceded microsoft s managed code revolution by over a decade the project missed by far its original goals to reinvent personal computing and then to rewrite contemporary application programming the newton project s broad vision fell victim to project slippage feature creep and a growing |
fear that it would interfere with macintosh sales it was reinvented as a pda which would be a complementary macintosh peripheral instead of a stand alone computer which might compete with the macintosh technical details newton used an advanced object oriented programming system called newtonscript developed by apple employee walter smith one of the major complaints programmers had was that the toolbox programming environment was overpriced at one zero zero zero later in the life of the newton the programming environment was made available free of charge additionally it required learning a new way of programming despite this many third party and shareware applications were and continue to be available for newton it has been suggested that the newtonscript programming system should be made available open source as abandonware but most newton enthusiasts consider this possibility to be highly unlikely data in newton was stored in object oriented databases known as soups one of the revolutionary aspects of newto |
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