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stars politicians dictators royalty his mother transvestites have became a document of an era having the money or the relations to be portrayed by warhol meant that you might be able to enter into immortality warhol s commercial effort also include advertisements for chanel apple and more there are three more periods that are noteworthy in warhol s oeuvre as a painter his self portraits of which he made many with his silver wig painted over with camouflage print may represent warhol studying his own identity warhol has spoken about himself and was spoken about as being empty hollow a reflection or a mirror the second series is his paintings of shadows these may represent warhol s study of the abstract again there is a relation with warhol personally as he has also depicted himself as the shadow the character from the radio show thirdly warhol produced many portfolios series of small paintings meant for commercial sale these series would be grouped around a theme for instance famous jews cars or animals at one |
point warhol publicly declared that he had stopped being a painter and that he would only make films from then on but at the end of his life warhol took up painting again his last paintings and drawings are of da vinci s last supper which he was working on when he died films warhol worked across a wide range of mediums painting photography drawing and sculpture he was also a highly prolific filmmaker between one nine six three and one nine six eight he made more than sixty films one of his most famous films sleep one nine six three shows a man john giorno who had a relationship with warhol sleeping for eight hours in the three five minute film blow job one nine six three he shows the face of david pelman receiving fellatio another empire one nine six four consists of eight hours of footage of the empire state building in new york city at dusk warhol s one nine six five film vinyl is an adaptation of anthony burgess popular dystopian novel a clockwork orange others record improvised encounters between factory |
regulars such as brigid berlin viva edie sedgwick candy darling holly woodlawn ondine nico and jackie curtis legendary underground artist jack smith appears in the film camp his most popular and critically successful film was chelsea girls one nine six six the film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two one six mm films being projected simultaneously with two different stories being shown in tandem from the projection booth the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that story while it was lowered for the other then it would be the other film s turn to bask in the glory of sound the multiplication of images evoked warhol s seminal silk screen works of the early one nine six zero s the film s influence could be felt as late as two zero zero zero in mike figgis timecode other important films include my hustler midnight cowboy and lonesome cowboys one nine six eight a raunchy pseudo western blue movie a film in which warhol superstar viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for thr |
ee three minutes of the film s playing time was warhol s last film as director the film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter for many years viva refused to allow it to be screened it was publicly screened in new york in two zero zero five for the first time in over thirty years after his june three one nine six eight shooting a reclusive warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking his acolyte and assistant director paul morrissey took over the film making chores for the factory collective steering warhol branded cinema towards more mainstream narrative based b movie exploitation fare with flesh trash and heat all of these films including the later andy warhol s dracula and andy warhol s frankenstein were far more mainstream than anything warhol as a director had attempted these latter warhol films all of which frankly were made to make money starred joe dallesandro who was more of a morrissey star than a true warhol superstar in order to facilitate the success |
of these warhol branded morrissey directed movies in the marketplace all of warhol s earlier avant garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by one nine seven two the first volume of a catalogue raison for the factory film archive is to be published in the spring of two zero zero six as an actor warhol appeared as a bartender in the cars music video for their single hello again and curiosity killed the cat s video for their misfit single both videos and others were produced by warhol s video production company he also appeared in an episode of the love boat warhol s character has also been represented in several motion pictures he has been portrayed by crispin glover david bowie and jared harris in the doors basquiat and i shot andy warhol respectively filmography blow job one nine six three eat one nine six three haircut one nine six three kiss one nine six three naomi s birthday party one nine six three sleep one nine six three one three most beautiful women one nine six four batman dracula |
one nine six four clockwork one nine six four couch one nine six four drunk one nine six four empire one nine six four the end of dawn one nine six four lips one nine six four mario banana i one nine six four mario banana ii one nine six four messy lives one nine six four naomi and rufus kiss one nine six four tarzan and jane regained sort of one nine six four the thirteen most beautiful boys one nine six four beauty two one nine six five bitch one nine six five camp one nine six five harlot one nine six five horse one nine six five kitchen one nine six five the life of juanita castro one nine six five my hustler one nine six five poor little rich girl one nine six five restaurant one nine six five space one nine six five taylor mead s ass one nine six five vinyl one nine six five screen test one nine six five screen test two one nine six five ari and mario one nine six six hedy one nine six six kiss the boot one nine six six milk one nine six six salvador dal one nine six six shower one nine six six sunset |
one nine six six superboy one nine six six the closet one nine six six chelsea girls one nine six six the beard one nine six six more milk yvette one nine six six outer and inner space one nine six six the velvet underground and nico one nine six six the andy warhol story one nine six seven tiger morse one nine six seven one nine six seven the imitation of christ one nine six seven the nude restaurant one nine six seven bike boy one nine six seven i a man one nine six seven san diego surf one nine six eight the loves of ondine one nine six eight blue movie one nine six nine lonesome cowboys one nine six nine l amour one nine seven two books and print warhol wrote several books a a novel one nine six eight isbn zero eight zero two one three five five three six is a literal transcription containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling of audio recordings of ondine and several of andy warhol s friends hanging out at the factory talking going out the philosophy of andy warhol fro |
m a to b and back again one nine seven five isbn zero one five six seven one seven two zero four according to pat hackett s introduction to the andy warhol diaries pat hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations sometimes when warhol was traveling using audio cassettes that andy warhol gave her said cassettes contained conversations with brigid berlin aka brigid polk and former interview magazine editor bob colacello popism the warhol sixties one nine eight zero isbn zero one five six seven two nine six zero one authored by warhol and pat hackett is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of pop art the andy warhol diaries one nine eight nine isbn zero four four six three nine one three eight seven edited by pat hackett is an edited diary that was dictated by warhol to hackett in daily phone conversations warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited warhol created the fashion magazine interview that is still published tod |
ay the loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother julia warhola who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces other media as stated although andy warhol is most known for his paintings and films he has authored works in many different media drawing warhol started his carreer drawing commercial illustrations in blotted ink style for warehouses and magazines most well known are his pictures of shoes some of his drawings were published in little booklets like yum yum yum about food ho ho ho about christmas and of course shoes shoes shoes his most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably the gold book compiled of sensitive personal drawings of young men the gold book is thus dubbed because of the leaf gold that decorates the pages sculpture warhol s most famous sculpture is probably his brillo boxes silkscreened wooden replicas of brillo soap boxes other famous works include the silver floating pillows gas filled silver pillow shaped |
balloons that were floated out of the window during the presentation audio at one point warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went taping everything everybody said and did he referred to this device as his wife some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work another audio work of warhol s was his invisible sculpture a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room warhol s cooperation with the musicians of the velvet underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer television andy warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call the nothing special a special about his favorite subject nothing later in his career he did create two cable television shows andy warhol s tv in one nine eight two and andy warhol s fifteen minutes for mtv in one nine eight six besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances in shows like love boat fashion warhol is quoted for having said i d rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall |
than put a painting wouldn t you one of his most well known superstars edie sedgwick aspired to be a fashion designer and his good friend halston was a famous one warhol s work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses a short sub career as a catwalk model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion shoes as a subject performance art warhol and his friends staged happenings theatrical multimedia presentations during parties containing music film slide projections and gerard malanga in an s endorsed and creating jobs for his friends he adopted the young painter jean michel basquiat and the band the velvet underground and presented them to the public as his latest interest cooperating with them shaping their public personas he would produce things and people and they were part of his artistic product he endorsed products appeared in commercials made business deals and even sold the film making branch of his company when he decided to spend less time filming himself in this respect warhol talked about |
art business and business art and how he thought business was the best type of art this was a radical new stance as artists had always presented themselves as flamboyant individual visionairy outsiders commenting on the normal part of society but never really being a part of it and receiving appreciation for that position on basis of their idealism rare talents and personalities warhol and other pop artists helped redefine the artist s position as professional commercial popular a logical and valuable part of society he did this using methods imagery and talents that were or at least seemed to be available to everyone perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of his pop art a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into society art as a product of society museums the andy warhol museum is located in pittsburgh pennsylvania it is the largest american art museum dedicated to a single artist holding more than four zero zero zero works by the artist himself among others andy s brother john warhola |
and the warhol foundation in new york established in one nine nine one the warhol family museum of modern art in the remote town of medzilaborce slovakia andy s mother julia warhola was born one five kilometers away in the village of mikova the museum houses several originals donated mainly by the andy warhol foundation in new york and also personal items donated by warhol s relatives further reading on warhol jennifer doyle jonathan flatley and jos esteban mu oz pop out queer warhol durham duke university press one nine nine six fred lawrence guiles lover at the ball the life of andy warhol new york bantam one nine eight nine wayne koestenbaum andy warhol new york penguin two zero zero three richard meyer outlaw representation new york beacon two zero zero three steven watson factory made warhol and the sixties new york pantheon two zero zero three see also electric circus nightclub warhol had a section called la dom on a lower floor external links virtual visit in mus e d art contemporain de lyon warhol fo |
undation in new york new york the andy warhol museum in pittsburgh pennsylvania andy warhol profile includes a biography selection of images famous quotes and links to the artist two short articles about warhol s two zero zero two museum retrospective from the art magazine x tra actual exhibitions with andy warhol on artfacts andy warhol s works are still widely at present in various shows and permanent collections in museums or galleries throughout the world andy warhol poetry tribute http www the three graces info a warholesque biography of andy warhol internet accuracy project andy warhol doubletake gallery online catalog of limited editions art gallery andy warhol andy warhol at gagosian gallery biography and pictures listening warhol soup cans cowboys studio three six zero radio program december one zero two zero zero five one nine two eight births one nine eight seven deaths american film directors american experimental filmmakers american artists gay artists greenwich village scene lesbian gay bisexual |
or transgender people people from pennsylvania roman catholics amerikkka s most wanted was ice cube s debut solo album after his acrimonious split from n w a it was originally released may one six one nine nine zero see one nine nine zero in music the title of the album is controversial it is a spoof of a television show called america s most wanted wherein real life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in if they have seen the alleged perpetrators the show has taken some criticism for the reenactments which critics claim perpetuate beliefs in the criminality of african american men and other minorities the political spelling of america with kkk equates both the show and the status quo of society in the united states with the ku klux klan a white supremacist organization amerikkka s most wanted is a gangsta rap album and the songs are tales of a young black man living in the ghetto and dealing with such issues as drug addiction racism and poverty to understand the album s statement it is import |
ant to note the environment of los angeles in the early one nine nine zero s riots would rack the city following the rodney king verdict seen by many including ice cube as an example of the racism inherent in the judicial and law enforcement systems also the o j simpson trial would provoke further racial tension in the country especially los angeles unlike many other albums from the same period cube did not allow the subject matter to infuse the album with inherent negativity he attacks perceived racist social structures far more than many gangsta rappers were doing at the time and since though he describes with detail the conditions of the ghetto he does so in order to condemn those that allow ghetto despair to occur instead of glorifying it cube takes some controversial stands referring to certain types of african americans as oreo cookies implying that they appear to be black but are actually willing participants in the racial hierarchy that keeps the majority of african americans living in poverty stricke |
n and drug riddled ghettos specifically this is aimed at soft pop r sell out the titular song on the album directly parodies the television show america s most wanted exposing the perceived racism inherent in watching largely african american men being arrested for entertainment i think back to when i was robbin my own kind the police didn t pay it no mind but when i start robbin the white folks now i m in the pen with the soap on a rope a later song get off my dick nigga and tell yo bitch to come here returns to the same theme at the end with newscaster peter jennings reporting on rioting outside the south central area few cared about the violence because it didn t affect them also of interest is it s a man s world a rap conversation with yo yo the two verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth outside of this song the album received criticism for alleged sexism as in you can t fade me a humorous track where cube fantasizes about kicking a former one night stand in the stomach because she is pregnan |
t with his baby nigga you love to hate is also notable for a chorus chanting fuck you ice cube setting the tone for the album and introducing a pattern of obscenity and profanity produced by the bomb squad public enemy and da lench mob amerikkka s most wanted received accolades for innovation in production upon release however many critics do not feel that the beats in the album have aged very well since this time west coast rap has largely taken a different direction from ice cube s style heading more towards the smooth drawl of dr dre and snoop dogg this album sounds dated as a result before striking out on his own ice cube was a member of the legendary west coast rap group n w a straight outta compton one nine eight nine thus ice cube s lyrical style is descended from west coast rappers like ice t iceberg freedom of speech just watch what you say one nine eight nine and too hort life is too hort musically public enemy yo bum rush the show one nine eight seven s spare hollow beats old school rappers like er |
ic b gap band the gap band ii and soul sly curtis mayfield let s do it again one nine seven five influenced ice cube s sound partially through his producers the bomb squad ice cube influenced later west coast rappers including the stoned drawl of cypress hill cypress hill one nine nine one and the pharcyde bizarre ride ii to the pharcyde one nine nine two as well as later g funk rappers like dr dre the chronic one nine nine two and snoop doggy dogg doggystyle one nine nine three though ice cube s popularity among mainstream listeners has not continued into the late one nine nine zero s and his sound is distinctively old school to modern ears many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques rappers like eminem the slim shady lp one nine nine nine nas illmatic one nine nine four and tupac shakur two pacalypse now one nine nine two similarly use cartoonish and unrealistic images of thug violence to protest the conditions of the poor and working class while ice cube most often des |
cribed true circumstances in outlandish fashion such as a fairy tale in a gangsta s fairytale later rappers took this to the extreme of describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner the album spawned the hit single soulful and depressing dead homiez on the charts track listing better off dead brian holt ice cube the nigga ya love to hate ice cube e sadler amerikkka s most wanted ice cube sadler keith shocklee what they hittin foe average white band ice cube you can t fade me jd s gaffilin ice cube sadler once upon a time in the projects ice cube sir jinx turn off the radio d ice cube sadler betty shabazz endangered species tales from the darkside chuck d ice cube sadler sir jinx a gangsta s fairytale ice cube sadler i m only out for one thang flavor flav ice cube sir jinx stevie wonder get off my dick and tell yo bitch to come here ice cube sadler the drive by shocklee sir jinx rollin wit the lench mob ice cube sadler who s the mack ice cube jbs it s a man s world ice |
cube sir jinx yo yo the bomb ice cube sir jinx endangered species tales from the darkside remix jackin for beats get off my dick and tell yo bitch to come here remix the product dead homiez jd s gaffilin part two i gotta say what up tracks one seven two three are on the two zero zero three re release originally on the out of print one nine nine zero ep kill at will personnel the bomb squad record producer mario castellanos photography chris champion assistant engineer chuck d performer da lench mob vocals bckgr producer ex cat heads vocals bckgr flavor flav vocals performer ricky harris vocals bckgr al hayes bass guitar guitar vincent henry flute saxophone brian holt vocals kevin hosmann art direction ice cube vocals producer j dee vocals bckgr tim rollins piano e sadler producer nick sansano engineer shannon vocals bckgr christopher shaw engineer keith shocklee scratching sir jinx vocals bckgr producer howie weinberg mastering dan wood vocals bckgr engineer yo yo vocals performer chart positions billboard m |
usic charts north america album one nine nine zero the billboard two zero zero no one nine one nine nine zero top r b hip hop albums no six billboard north america singles one nine nine zero amerikkka s most wanted hot rap singles no one external links for lyrics ice cube albums one nine nine zero albums image bambaat seven a jpg afrika bambaataa born april one zero or october four one nine five seven or one nine six zero though his birthdate is hotly debated he himself refuses to comment on his age is a dj and community leader from the south bronx who was instrumental in the early development of hip hop throughout the one nine seven zero s afrika bambaataa s birthname has been mistakenly listed as kevin donovan however kevin donovan was actually another man and leader of the harlem underground band during bambaataa s early years he was a founding member of the bronxdale projects area street gang the savage seven due to the explosive growth of the gang it later became known as the black spades and bambaataa r |
ose to the position of division leader after a life changing visit to africa he changed his name to afrika bambaataa aasim bambaataa was influenced by the depiction of the zulu warriors attacking british troops at rorke s drift in the michael caine film zulu he took his name which roughly translated to affectionate leader from the film after the visit bambaataa decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang life into something more positive to the community this began the development of the organization which soon later became known as the zulu nation a group of racially and politically aware rappers b boys graffiti artists and other people involved in hip hop culture that gained fame in the early eighties to mid nineties by one nine seven seven inspired by dj kool herc bambaataa had begun organizing block parties all around the south bronx and he was soon renowned as one of the best djs in the business in one nine eight zero he produced soul sonic force s landmark single zulu nation throwdo |
wn in two zero zero zero rage against the machine covered afrika s song renegades of funk for their album renegades in one nine eight two bambaataa organised the very first european hip hop tour along with himself were rapper and graffiti artist rammellzee zulu nation dj grand mixer dxt formerly grand mixer d st b boy and b girl crews the rock steady crew and the double dutch girls as well as legendary graffiti artists fab five freddy phase two futura two zero zero zero and dondi also in one nine eight two bambaataa became a solo artist having produced several other singles and released jazzy sensation on tommy boy records in that year planet rock a popular single came out that june under the name afrika bambaataa and the soul sonic force the song melded electronic hip hop beats with the main melody from kraftwerk s trans europe express as well as portions from records by ennio morricone and captain sky thus creating a new style of music altogether electro funk it influenced many styles of electronic and danc |
e music e g house music and techno music in one nine eight four bambaataa recorded unity with james brown and released world destruction under the name time zone with john lydon shango funk theology a full length album came out under the name shango this was followed by funk you in one nine eight five and then his formal full album debut beware the funk is everywhere bambaataa then left tommy boy and signed with capitol records released the light as afrika bambaataa the one two mixes compilation as well as hip hop and electro funk tracks on warlocks and witches bam as his name is often abbreviated focused on hip hop from the mid one nine nine zero s bam returned to his electro roots collaborating with westbam who was named after him and culminating in two zero zero four s excellent album dark matter moving at the speed of light which featured gary numan and many others discography see also nuwaubianism external links one nine five seven births living people one nine six zero births living people hip hop djs a |
frican american musicians muhammed ben da ud one zero two nine december one five one zero seven two was the second sultan of the dynasty of seljuk turks in persia and great grandson of seljuk the founder of the dynasty he assumed the name of muhammed when he embraced islam and on account of his military prowess and personal valor and fighting skills he obtained the surname alp arslan which signifies a valiant lion he succeeded his father da ud as ruler of khorasan in one zero five nine and his uncle to r l as sultan of iran and baghdad in one zero six three and thus became sole monarch of persia from the river oxus to the tigris in consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by nizam ul mulk his persian vizier and one of the most eminent statesmen in early muslim history with peace and security established in his dominions he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son malik shah i his heir and successor with the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church |
of st basil in caesarea mazaca the capital of cappadocia he placed himself at the head of the turkish cavalry crossed the euphrates and entered and plundered that city he then marched into armenia and georgia which he conquered in one zero six four byzantine struggle in one zero six eight alp arslan invaded the byzantine empire the emperor romanus iv diogenes assuming the command in person met the invaders in cilicia in three arduous campaigns the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by manuel comnenus great uncle of emperor manuel comnenus the turks were defeated in detail in one zero seven zero driven across the euphrates in one zero seven one romanus again took the field and advanced with one zero zero zero zero zero men including a contingent of the turkish tribe of the uzes as well as contingents of french and normans under ursel of bahol into armenia at manzikert on the murad tchai north of lake van he was met by alp arslan the sultan proposed terms of p |
eace which were rejected by the emperor and the two forces met in the battle of manzikert in which the byzantines after a terrible slaughter were totally routed a result due mainly to the betrayal of romanus by his political enemies during the battle and the rapid tactics of the turkish cavalry emperor romanus iv was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of alp arslan who treated him with generosity and terms of peace having been agreed to dismissed him loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard this famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after romanus iv was brought as a prisoner before the sultan alp arslan what would you do if i was brought before you as a prisoner romanus perhaps i d kill you or exhibit you in the streets of constantinople alp arslan my punishment is far heavier i forgive you and set you free unfortunately for romanus the emperor s subjects were far less kind than his enemy making the mercy of alp arlsan a curse romanus was blinded and |
finally killed after great torment after alp arslan s victories the balance in the near asia changed completely in favour of seljuk turks and sunni muslims while the byzantine empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries and the crusades would contest the issue for some time their victory at manzikert signalled the beginning of turkish ascendancy in the middle east most historians including edward gibbons date the defeat at manzikert as the beginning of the end of the eastern roman empire certainly the entry of turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in anatolia which had furnished the empire with men and treasure the importance of this battle and the skill of alp arslan in fighting it cannot be overstated state organization alp arslan s strength lay in the military realm domestic affairs being handled by his persian vizier nizam al mulk founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of alp arslan and his son malik |
shah military fiefs governed by seljuk princes were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic turks to the established persian agricultural scene this type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic turks to draw on the resources of the sedantary persians and other established cultures within the seljuk realm and allowed alp arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery he not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars death the dominion of alp arslan after manzikert extended over much of western asia he soon prepared to march to the conquest of turkestan the original seat of his ancestors with a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the oxus before he could pass the river with safety however it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses one of which was for several days vigorously defen |
ded by the governor yussuf el harezmi a khwarezmian he was however obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan who condemned him to a cruel death yussuf in desperation drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan alp arslan motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow but his foot slipped the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin s dagger in his breast alp arslan died four days later from this wound on november two five one zero seven two in his four two nd year and was taken to merv to be buried next to his father a r bey upon his tomb lies the following inscription o those who saw the sky high grandeur of alp arslan behold he is under the black soil now as he lay dying alp arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him alas he is recorded to have said surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause guarded night and day by them i should have allowed them to do their job i had been warned against trying to protect myself and against letting my courage g |
et in the way of my good sense i forgot those warnings and here i lay dying in agony remember well the lessons learned and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense reference biography one zero two nine births one zero seven two deaths monarchs of persia seljuk turks the american film institute afi is an independent non profit organization created by the national endowment for the arts which was established in one nine six seven when president lyndon b johnson signed the national foundation on the arts and the humanities act george stevens jr was the first ceo and director in one nine eight zero jean picker firstenberg became director and ceo a position she still holds the american film institute focuses on training through hands on experience with established figures in the afi conservatory as well as on preserving old film which is subject to degradation of its film stock in spite of its name afi does not focus exclusively on film but also on television and video in one nine seven three the afi |
established a life achievement award in one nine nine eight the one zero zero th anniversary of american film afi began its one zero zero years series celebrating and promoting interest in film history they recently opened the afi silver theatre in silver spring maryland near washington d c see also afi one zero zero years series afi awards two zero zero five afi awards two zero zero four afi awards two zero zero three afi awards two zero zero two afi awards two zero zero one external links afi website history of afi afi fest afi los angeles film festival official website afi los angeles film festival history and information cinema of the united states film schools the auteur theory is the theory that a film or a body of work by a director or rarely a producer reflects the personal vision and preoccupations of that director as if he or she were the work s primary author auteur the auteur theory has had a major impact on film criticism worldwide ever since it was first advocated by fran ois truffaut in one nin |
e five four auteurism is the method of analyzing films based on this theory or alternately the characteristics of a director s work that makes him an auteur both the auteur theory and the auteurism method of film analysis are frequently associated with the french new wave and the film critics who wrote for the cahiers du cin ma for a list of directors who are considered auteurs go to the article auteur notoc truffaut s theory in his one nine five four essay une certaine tendance du cin ma fran ais a certain tendency in the french cinema fran ois truffaut coined the phrase la politique des auteurs and asserted that the worst of jean renoir s movies would always be more interesting than the best of jean delannoy s politique might very well be translated as policy polemic or program it involves a conscious decision to look at movies and to value them in a certain way truffaut provocatively said there are no good and bad movies only good and bad directors much of truffaut s writing of this period as too that of h |
is colleagues at the film criticism magazine cahiers du cin ma was designed to lambast post war french cinema and especially the big production films of the cin ma de qualit quality films that truffaut s circle referred to with disdain as cin ma de papa or dad s cinema their sudden discovery of a host of great american movies which flooded france at the end of the war the nazi occupation had prevented the french from seeing such classics as the maltese falcon and citizen kane incited truffaut to take up arms against what he considered to be an old fashioned and sterile cinema one of the unfortunate ironies of the auteur theory is that at the very moment truffaut was writing the hollywood studio system of the one nine five zero s had destroyed much of what he had appreciated truffaut s thinking was indebted to the work of andr bazin co founder of the cahiers du cin ma where truffaut worked who promoted the idea that films should reflect a director s personal vision and who championed such filmmakers as howard |
hawks alfred hitchcock and jean renoir although bazin provided a forum for auteurism to flourish he himself remained wary of its excesses another key element of truffaut s theory comes from alexandre astruc s notion of the cam ra stylo or camera pen and the idea that directors should wield their cameras like writers use their pens and that they need not be hindered by traditional storytelling truffaut and the members of the cahiers recognized that moviemaking was an industrial process however they proposed an ideal to strive for the director should use the commercial apparatus the way a writer uses a pen and through the mise en sc ne imprint his or her vision on the work conversely the role of the screenwriter was minimized in their eyes while recognizing that not all directors reached this ideal they valued the work of those who neared it truffaut s theory maintains that all good directors and many bad ones have such a distinctive style or consistent theme that their influence is unmistakable in the body of |
their work truffaut himself was appreciative of both directors with a marked visual style such as alfred hitchcock and those whose visual style was less pronounced but who had nevertheless a consistent theme throughout their movies such as jean renoir s humanism impact of the auteur theory the auteur theory was used by the directors of the nouvelle vague new wave movement of french cinema in the one nine six zero s many of whom were also critics at the cahiers du cin ma as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films the approach soon found a home in english language film criticism in the u k movie adopted auteurism and in the u s andrew sarris introduced it in the essay notes on the auteur theory in one nine six two this essay is where the half french half english term auteur theory originated to be classified as an auteur according to sarris a director must accomplish technical competence in his or her technique personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels and interior mean |
ing although many of sarris s auterist criteria were left vague later in the decade sarris published the american cinema directors and directions one nine two nine one nine six eight which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism the auteurist critics truffaut godard chabrol rohmer wrote mostly about directors as they were directors themselves although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors later writers of the same general school have emphasized the contributions of star personalities like mae west however the stress was on directors and screenwriters producers and others have reacted with a good deal of hostility writer william goldman has said that on first hearing the auteur theory his reaction was what s the punchline criticism of the auteur theory starting in the one nine six zero s there has been a backlash against the auteur theory pauline kael and sarris feuded in the pages of the new yorker and various film magazines one reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of |
shooting a film one person cannot do everything and in the theory s privileging of the role of the director whose name at times has become more important than the movie itself in kael s review of citizen kane a classic film for the auteur model she points out how the film involved the talents of co writer herman j mankiewicz and cinematographer gregg toland and would have been hurt without their distinctive ability also the very people who championed the auteur theory backed away from it godard handed over much creative control to others most notably jean pierre gorin in his later films while in a twist of irony truffaut s later films embraced the same formalism he rejected early on in his career also with costly films like michael cimino s heaven s gate the excesses of auteurism not only created uncreative films they put studios out of business however even with the reevaulation of auteurism the auteur theory continues to influence new filmmakers to this day see also mise en sc ne external links an auteurist |
film discussion group film theory akira kurosawa kurosawa akira also in shinjitai two three march one nine one zero six september one nine nine eight was a prominent japanese film director film producer and screenwriter few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed as akira kurosawa perhaps japan s best known filmmaker his films greatly influenced an entire generation of filmmakers the world over ranging from george lucas to sergio leone his first credited film sugata sanshiro was released in one nine four three his last madadayo in one nine nine three his many awards include the legion d honneur and an oscar for lifetime achievement early career kurosawa was born in omori tokyo the youngest of seven children he trained as a painter and began work in the film industry as an assistant director to kajiro yamamoto in one nine three six he made his directorial debut in one nine four three with sugata sanshiro his first few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime japanese government and s |
ometimes contained nationalistic themes for instance the most beautiful is a propaganda film about japanese women working in an armaments factory judo saga two has been held to be explicitly anti american in the way that it portrays japanese judo as superior to western american boxing his first post war film no regrets for our youth by contrast is critical of the old japanese regime and is about the wife of a left wing dissident arrested for his political leanings kurosawa made several more films which deal with contemporary japan most notably drunken angel and stray dog however it was a period film rashomon which made him internationally famous and won the grand prix at the venice film festival characteristics kurosawa is best known for his period pieces or like seven samurai and ran but several of his films dealt with contemporary japan for example stray dog which looks at the criminal underworld just after the end of the war and ikiru which deals with a japanese bureaucrat who discovers that he is sufferin |
g from cancer but eventually steps out of depression and struggles against bureacratic inertia to leave his small contribution to the world in the form of a small community park before he dies kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique which he had developed by the one nine five zero s and which gave his films a unique look he liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances he also liked using multiple cameras which allowed him to shoot an action from different angles another kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood for example the heavy rain in the final battle in seven samurai and the fog in throne of blood kurosawa also liked using left to right frame wipes as a transition device he was known as tenno literally emperor for his dictatorial directing style he was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual |
effects in rashomon he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain and ended up using up the entire local water supply of the location area in creating the rainstorm in throne of blood in the final scene in which mifune is shot by arrows kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range landing within centimetres of mifune s body other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect and having the roof of a house removed later to be replaced because he felt the roof s presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train influences a notable feature of kurosawa s films is the breadth of his artistic influences some of his plots are adaptations of william shakespeare s works the bad sleep well is based on hamlet ran is based on king lear and throne of blood is based on macbeth kurosawa also directed film adaptations of russian novels including the idiot by dostoevsk |
y and the lower depths by maxim gorky ikiru was based on leo tolstoy s the death of ivan ilyich high and low was based on king s ransom by american crime writer ed mcbain stray dog was inspired by the detective novels of georges simenon the american film director john ford also had a large influence on his work despite criticism by some japanese critics that kurosawa was too western he was deeply influenced by japanese culture as well including the kabuki and noh theaters and the jidaigeki period drama genre of japanese cinema his influence kurosawa s films had a huge influence on world cinema most explicitly seven samurai was remade as the western the magnificent seven science fiction movie battle beyond the stars and pixar s a bug s life it also inspired two hindi films ramesh sippy s sholay and rajkumar santhoshi s china gate with similar plots the story has also inspired novels among them stephen king s fifth dark tower novel wolves of the calla yojimbo was the basis for the sergio leone western a fistful |
of dollars the coen brothers film miller s crossing and the bruce willis prohibition era last man standing the hidden fortress had an influence on george lucas s earliest star wars film especially in the characters of r two d two and c three po rashomon not only helped open japanese cinema to the world but virtually entered the english language as a term for fractured inconsistent narratives as well as influencing other works including episodes of television series and many motion pictures collaboration during his most productive period from the late four zero s to the mid six zero s kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators fumio hayasaka composed music for seven of his films notably rashomon ikiru and seven samurai many of kurosawa s scripts including throne of blood seven samurai and ran were co written with hideo oguni yoshiro muraki was kurosawa s production designer or art director for most of his films after stray dog in one nine four nine and asakazu naki was his cinematographer on o |
ne one films including ikiru seven samurai and ran kurosawa also liked recycling the same group of actors especially takashi shimura and toshiro mifune his collaboration with the latter is one of the greatest director actor combinations in cinema history it began with one nine four eight s drunken angel and ended with one nine six four s red beard later films red beard marked a turning point in kurosawa s career in more ways than one in addition to being his last film with mifune it was his last in black and white it was also his last as a major director within the japanese studio system making roughly a film a year kurosawa was signed to direct a hollywood project tora tora tora but two zero th century fox replaced him with kinji fukasaku before it was completed his next few films were a lot harder to finance and were made at intervals of five years the first dodesukaden about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump was not a success after an attempted suicide kurosawa went on to make several mor |
e films although arranging domestic financing was highly difficult despite his international reputation dersu uzala made in the soviet union and set in siberia in the early two zero th century was the only kurosawa film made outside japan and not in japanese it is about the friendship of a russian explorer and a nomadic hunter it won the oscar for best foreign language film kagemusha financed with the help of the director s most famous admirers george lucas and francis ford coppola is the story of a man who is the double of a medieval japanese lord and takes over his identity most important was ran kurosawa s version of king lear set in medieval japan it was the great project of kurosawa s late career and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding which he was finally able to do with the help of the french producer serge silberman the film was a phenomenal international success and is generally considered kurosawa s last masterpiece kurosawa made three more films during the one nine nine zero |
s which were more personal than his earlier works dreams is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams rhapsody in august is about memories of the nagasaki atom bomb and his final film madadayo is about a retired teacher and his former students kurosawa died in setagaya tokyo at age eight eight trivia kurosawa was a notoriously lavish gourmet and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an uneatably large quantity and quality of delicacies especially meat for the cast and crew awards one nine five one golden lion at the venice film festival for rashomon one nine five four silver lion at the venice film festival for seven samurai one nine seven six academy award best foreign language film for dersu uzala one nine eight zero golden palm at the cannes film festival for kagemusha one nine eight two career golden lion at the venice film festival one nine eight four legion d honneur one nine nine zero honorary academy award filmography maxim munzuk as dersu uzala left and yury solomin as vladimir ar |
senyev right in the one nine seven five film dersu uzala sanshiro sugata one nine four three the most beautiful one nine four four sanshiro sugata part ii aka judo saga two one nine four five they who step on the tiger s tail one nine four five no regrets for our youth one nine four six one wonderful sunday one nine four six drunken angel one nine four eight the quiet duel one nine four nine stray dog one nine four nine scandal one nine five zero rashomon one nine five zero the idiot one nine five one ikiru aka to live one nine five two the seven samurai one nine five four record of a living being aka i live in fear one nine five five the throne of blood aka spider web castle one nine five seven the lower depths one nine five seven the hidden fortress one nine five eight the bad sleep well one nine six zero yojimbo aka the bodyguard one nine six one sanjuro one nine six two high and low aka heaven and hell one nine six three red beard one nine six five dodesukaden one nine seven zero dersu uzala one nine seve |
n five kagemusha aka shadow warrior one nine eight zero ran one nine eight five dreams aka akira kurosawa s dreams one nine nine zero rhapsody in august one nine nine one madadayo aka not yet one nine nine three further reading mitsuhiro yoshimoto kurosawa film studies and japanese cinema isbn zero eight two two three two five one nine five akira kurosawa something like an autobiography vintage books usa one nine eight three isbn zero three nine four seven one four three nine three stephen prince the warrior s camera princeton university press one nine nine nine isbn zero six nine one zero one zero four six three donald richie joan mellen the films of akira kurosawa university of california press one nine nine nine isbn zero five two zero two two zero three seven four stuart galbraith iv the emperor and the wolf the lives and films of akira kurosawa and toshiro mifune faber faber two zero zero two isbn zero five seven one one nine nine eight two eight see also cinema of japan external links senses of cinema g |
reat directors critical database profile at japan zone akira kurosawa database boh me magazine ikiru the art of living japanese film kurosawa great performances kurosawa pbs one nine one zero births one nine nine eight deaths japanese film directors people from tokyo ancient egypt was a civilization located along the lower nile reaching from the nile delta in the north to as far south as jebel barkal at the time of its greatest extension one five th century bc it lasted for three millennia from circa three two zero zero bc to three four three bc ending when artaxerxes iii conquered egypt as a civilization based on irrigation it is the quintessential example of a hydraulic empire khafre s pyramid four th dynasty and great sphinx of giza c two six zero zero bc or perhaps earlier background map of ancient egyptegypt is a transcontinental nation located mostly in north africa with the sinai peninsula lying in asia the country has shorelines on the mediterranean sea the red sea the gulf of suez and the gulf of aqa |
ba it borders libya to the west sudan to the south and the gaza strip palestine and israel to the east ancient egypt was divided into two kingdoms known as upper and lower egypt the nile river flows northward from a southerly point to the mediterranean the nile river around which much of the population of the country clusters has been the lifeline for egyptian culture since the stone age and naqada cultures the area around the nile was called kemet the black land in ancient egyptian kmt the name for the dark soil deposited by the nile floodwaters in contrast the desert was called deshret the red land in ancient egyptian dsrt c f herodotus egypt is a land of black soil we know that libya is a redder earth histories two one two the vowels within the consonants k m t are not known with certainty coptic however provides some indication nomadic hunter gatherers began living along the nile during the pleistocene traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of th |
e nile and in the oases by about six zero zero zero b c organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the nile valley people many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early egyptians a subject still imbued with controversy today controversy over race of ancient egyptians has more information about this subject egyptian society was a merging of north and northeast african as well as southwest asian peoples modern genetics reveals that the egyptian population today is characterized by paternal lineages common to north africans primarily and to some near eastern peoples studies based on the maternal lineages closely links modern egyptians with people from modern ethiopia the ancient egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called punt or ta nteru land of the gods which most egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the ethiopian highlands a recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient egyptians confirms dental traits most character |
istic of north african and to a lesser extent southwest asian populations the study also establishes biological continuity from the predynastic to the post pharaonic periods among the samples included is skeletal material from the hawara tombs of fayum which was found to most closely resemble the badarian series of the predynastic a study based on stature and body proportions suggests that nilotic or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups as the egyptian empire expanded southward champollion the younger who deciphered the rosetta stone claimed in expressions et termes particuliers that kmt referred to a negroid population modern day professional egyptologists anthropologists and linguists however overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the nile valley rather than the people which contrasted with dsrt or the red land of the sahara desert in c four five zero bc herodotus wrote the colchians are egyptians on the fact that they are swarthy melanchr s and wooly |
haired oulothrix histories book two one zero four melanchros was also used by homer to describe the sunburnt complexion of odysseus od one six one seven six although analyzing the hair of ancient egyptian mummies from the late middle kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet mummies from circa three two zero zero bc show signs of severe anemia and hemolitic disorders colossus of memnon history main article history of ancient egypt egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly three zero zero zero years this includes religion customs art expression architecture and social structure the history of ancient egypt proper starts with egypt as a unified state which occurred sometime around three zero zero zero bc narmer who unified upper and lower egypt was the first pharaoh though archaeological evidence indicates that a developed egyptian society existed for a much longer period see predynastic egypt along the nile in one zero th millennium bc a grain grinding culture usin |
g the earliest type of sickle blades had been replaced by another culture of hunters fishers and gathering peoples using stone tools evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of egypt near the sudan border before eight zero zero zero bc climate changes and or overgrazing around eight zero zero zero bc began to desiccate the pastoral lands of egypt eventually forming the sahara c two five zero zero bc and early tribes naturally migrated to the nile river where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society see nile history there is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the east sahara in the seven th millennium bc by six zero zero zero bc ancient egyptians in the southwestern corner of egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings mortar masonry was in use by four zero zero zero bc the predynastic period continues through this time variously held to begin with the naqada culture some authorities however begin the predynastic per |
iod earlier in the lower paleolithic see predynastic egypt egypt unified as a single state circa three zero zero zero bc egyptian chronology involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time the conventional egyptian chronology is the accepted developments during the two zero th century but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time even within a single work often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities consequently there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers often there are also several possible spellings of the names typically egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by manetho s aegyptaica list of pharaohs the pharaohs stretch from before three zero zero zero bc to around three zero bc dynasties see also list of egyptian dynasties early dynastic period of egypt one st t |
o two nd dynasties until ca two seven th century bc old kingdom three rd to six th dynasties two seven th to two two nd centuries bc first intermediate period seven th to one one th dynasties middle kingdom of egypt one one th to one four th dynasties two zero th to one seven th centuries bc second intermediate period one four th to one seven th dynasties hyksos one five th to one six th dynasties new kingdom of egypt one eight th to two zero th dynasties one six th to one one th centuries bc third intermediate period two one st to two five th dynasties one one th to seven th centuries bc late period of ancient egypt two six th to three one st dynasties seven th century bc to three three two bc achaemenid dynasty graeco roman egypt three three two bc to ad six three nine ptolemaic dynasty roman empire taxation the egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people as there was no known form of currency during that time period taxes were paid for in kind with produce or work the vizier con |
trolled the taxation system through the departments of state the departments had to report daily on the amount of stock availible and how much was expected in the future taxes were paid for depending on a persons craft or duty landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river marshes and desert one person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year such as digging canals or mining however a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax language ancient egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the afro asiatic language phylum its closest relatives are the berber semitic and beja groups of languages written records of the egyptian language have been dated from about three two zero zero bc making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages scholars group egyptian into six major |
chronological divisions archaic egyptian before three zero zero zero bc consists of inscriptions from the late predynastic and early dynastic period the earliest known evidence of egyptian hieroglyphic writing appears on naqada ii pottery vessels old egyptian three zero zero zero two zero zero zero bc the language of the old kingdom and first intermediate period the pyramid texts are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language tomb walls of elite egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing old egyptian one of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of ideograms phonograms and determinatives to indicate the plural overall it does not differ significantly from the next stage middle egyptian two zero zero zero one three zero zero bc often dubbed classical egyptian this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts dated from about the middle kingdom it includes funerary texts inscribed on sarcophagi such |
as the coffin texts wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient egyptian philosophical worldview see the ipuwer papyrus tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual for example the story of sinhue medical and scientific texts such as the edwin smith papyrus and the ebers papyrus and poetic texts praising a god or a pharaoh like the hymn to the nile the egyptian vernacular already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some middle kingdom hieratic texts but classical middle egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the late dynastic period sometimes referred to as late middle egyptian late egyptian one three zero zero seven zero zero bc records of this stage appear in the second part of the new kingdom considered by many as the golden age of ancient egyptian civilization it contains a rich body of religious and secular literature comprising such famous examples as the story of wenamun and the instructions of ani it was also |
the language of ramesside administration late egyptian is not totally distinct from middle egyptian as many classicisms appear in historical and literary documents of this phase however the difference between middle and late egyptian is greater than that between middle and old egyptian it s also a better representative than middle egyptian of the spoken language in the new kingdom and beyond hieroglyphic orthography saw an enormous expansion of its graphemic inventory between the late dynastic and ptolemaic periods demotic egyptian seven th century bc four th century ad coptic three rd one seven th century ad writing for many years the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the narmer palette found during excavations at hierakonpolis modern kawm al ahmar in the one eight nine zero s which has been dated to c three two zero zero bc however recent archaeological findings reveal that symbols on gerzean pottery c four zero zero zero bc resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms also in one nine nine eight a |
german archeological team under gunter dreyer excavating at abydos modern umm el qa ab uncovered tomb u j which belonged to a predynastic ruler and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with proto hieroglyphics dating to the naqada iiia period circa three three rd century bc egyptologists refer to egyptian writing as hieroglyphs today standing as the world s earliest known writing system the hieroglyphic script was partly syllabic partly ideographic hieratic is a cursive form of egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the first dynasty c two nine two five bc c two seven seven five bc the term demotic in the context of egypt came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the late ancient egyptian stage i e from the nubian two five th dynasty until its marginalization by the greek koine in the early centuries ad after the conquest of amr ibn al a as in the seven th century ad the coptic language survived as a spoken language into the middle ages today it continues to be the |
liturgical language of the christian minority beginning from around two seven zero zero bc egyptians used pictograms to represent vocal sounds both vowel and consonant vocalizations see hieroglyph script by two zero zero zero bc two six pictograms were being used to represent two four known main vocal sounds the world s oldest known alphabet c one eight zero zero bc is only an abjad system and was derived from these uniliteral signs as well as other egyptian hieroglyphs the hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the four th century ad attempts to decipher it began after the one five th century see hieroglyphica literature c one eight zero zero bc story of sinuhe c one eight zero zero bc ipuwer papyrus c one six zero zero bc westcar papyrus c one one eight zero bc papyrus harris i c one zero zero zero bc story of wenamun culture the egyptian religions embodied in egyptian mythology were a succession of beliefs held by the people of egypt as early as predynastic times and all the way until the comin |
g of christianity and islam in the graeco roman era these were conducted by egyptian priests or magicians but the use of magic and spells is questioned every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient egyptian art writing and religion is indigenous to africa all the way from the predynastic until the graeco roman eras over three zero zero zero years the dromedary domesticated first in arabia first appears in egypt and north africa beginning in the two nd millennium bce the religious nature of ancient egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the arts of the ancient world many of the great works of ancient egypt depict gods goddesses and pharaohs who were also considered divine ancient egyptian art in general is characterized by the idea of order evidence of mummies and pyramids outside ancient egypt indicate reflections of ancient egyptian belief values on other prehistoric cultures transmitted in one way over the silk road ancient egypt s foreign contacts included nubia and punt to the south the a |
egean and ancient greece to the north the levant and other regions in the near east to the east and also libya to the west some scholars have speculated that egypt s art pieces are sexually symbolic ancient achievements louvre museum antiquity see predynastic egypt for inventions and other significant achievements in the sahara region before the protodynastic period the art and science of engineering was present in egypt such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them known as surveying these skills were used to outline pyramid bases the egyptian pyramids took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point called the apex by triangular faces hydraulic cement was first invented by the egyptians the al fayyum irrigation water works was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world there is evidence of ancient egyptian pharaohs of the twelfth dynasty using the natural lake of the fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during t |
he dry seasons from the time of the first dynasty or before the egyptians mined turquoise in sinai peninsula the earliest evidence circa one six zero zero bc of traditional empiricism is credited to egypt as evidenced by the edwin smith and ebers papyri the roots of the scientific method may be traced back to the ancient egyptians the ancient egyptians are also credited with devising the world s earliest known alphabet decimal system and complex mathematical formularizations in the form of the moscow and rhind mathematical papyri an awareness of the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many constructions such as the egyptian pyramids the art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the egyptians as is evident from the glass jars figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs the paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing these illustrations representing smiths blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay therefore it can be concluded that glass |
blowing is apparently of egyptian origin timeline all dates are approximate predynastic see main article and timeline predynastic egypt three five zero zero bc senet world s oldest confirmed board game three five zero zero bc faience world s earliest known earthenware dynastic the great pyramid of giza egypt was first to create glass objects three three zero zero bc bronze works see bronze age three two zero zero bc egyptian hieroglyphs fully developed see first dynasty of egypt three two zero zero bc narmer palette world s earliest known historical document three one zero zero bc decimal system world s earliest confirmed use three one zero zero bc wine cellars world s earliest known three one zero zero bc mining sinai peninsula three zero five zero bc shipbuilding in abydos three zero zero zero bc exports from nile to israel wine see narmer three zero zero zero bc copper plumbing see copper history three zero zero zero bc papyrus world s earliest known paper three zero zero zero bc medical institutions two n |
ine zero zero bc possible steel carbon containing iron two seven zero zero bc surgery world s earliest known two seven zero zero bc precision surveying two seven zero zero bc uniliteral signs forming basis of world s earliest known alphabet two six zero zero bc sphinx still today the world s largest single stone statue two six zero zero s two five zero zero bc shipping expeditions king sneferu and pharaoh sahure see also two six zero zero bc barge transportation stone blocks see egyptian pyramids construction two six zero zero bc pyramid of djoser world s earliest known large scale stone building two six zero zero bc menkaure s pyramid true smooth sided pyramid solid granite work two five eight zero bc great pyramid of giza the world s tallest structure until ad one three zero zero two five zero zero bc beekeeping two four zero zero bc astronomical calendar used even in the middle ages for its mathematical regularity two two zero zero bc beer one eight six zero bc possible nile red sea canal twelfth dynasty o |
f egypt one eight zero zero bc alphabet world s oldest known one eight zero zero bc berlin mathematical papyrus two nd order algebraic equations one eight zero zero bc moscow mathematical papyrus generalized formula for volume of frustum one six five zero bc rhind mathematical papyrus geometry cotangent analogue algebraic equations arithmetic series geometric series one six zero zero bc edwin smith papyrus medical tradition traces as far back as c three zero zero zero bc one five five zero bc ebers medical papyrus traditional empiricism world s earliest known documented tumors see history of medicine one five zero zero bc glass making world s earliest known one two five eight bc peace treaty world s earliest known see ramesses ii one one six zero bc turin papyrus world s earliest known geologic and topographic map one zero zero zero bc petroleum tar used in mummification five th four th century bc or perhaps earlier battle games petteia and seega possible precursors to chess see origins of chess other c two f |
ive zero zero bc westcar papyrus c one eight zero zero bc ipuwer papyrus c one eight zero zero bc papyrus harris i c one four zero zero bc tulli papyrus c one three zero zero bc brugsch papyrus unknown date rollin papyrus open problems there is a question as to the sophistication of ancient egyptian technology and there are several open problems concerning real and alleged ancient egyptian achievements certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems it is not known why there is no neat progression to an egyptian iron age nor why the historical record shows the egyptians taking so long to begin using iron it is unknown how the egyptians shaped and worked granite the exact date the egyptians started producing glass is debated some question whether the egyptians were capable of long distance navigation in their boats and when they became knowledgeable sailors it is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the egyptians had some understanding of electricity and if t |
he egyptians used engines or batteries the relief at dendera is interpreted in various ways by scholars the topic of the saqqara bird is controversial as is the extent of the egyptians understanding of aerodynamics it is unknown for certain if the egyptians had kites or gliders beekeeping is known to have been particularly well developed in egypt as accounts are given by several roman writers virgil gaius julius hyginus varro and columella it is unknown whether egyptian beekeeping developed independently or as an import from southern asia see also list of ancient egyptians list of pharaohs egyptology unsolved problems in egyptology history of egypt list of ancient egyptian sites egyptian museum race of the ancient egyptians egypt in the european imagination further reading john baines jaromir malek the cultural atlas of ancient egypt revised edition facts on file two zero zero zero isbn zero eight one six zero four zero three six two barry kemp ancient egypt anatomy of a civilization routledge one nine nine o |
ne isbn zero four one five zero six three four six nine bill manley ed the seventy great mysteries of ancient egypt thames hudson isbn zero five zero zero zero five one two three two ian shaw the oxford history of ancient egypt oxford university press two zero zero three isbn zero one nine two eight zero four five eight eight external links ancient egypt maintained by the british museum this site provides a useful introduction to ancient egypt for older children and young adolescents ancient egypt and egyptians articles and resources from about archaeology bbc history egyptians provides a reliable general overview and further links ancient egyptian history a comprehensive consise educational website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of ancient egypt ancientneareast net ancient egypt provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of ancient egypt egyptology resources maintained by dr nigel strudwick offers one reliable guide to online documentation of ancient egyp |
t the theban mapping project although focusing on the theban region modern luxor this site holds much of general interest relating to ancient egypt ancient civilizations ancient egypt children s site notes ancient egypt analog brothers is an experimental rap crew featuring ice oscillator a k a ice t keyboards drums voc keith korg a k a kool keith bass strings vocals mark moog drums violyns and vocals and silver synth synthasizer lazar bell and vocals their cd pimp to eat featured guest appearances by various members of the rhyme syndicate odd oberheim jacky jasper d j cisco from s m and h bomb the synth a size sisters and teflon discography two zero zero zero pimp to eat ground control nu gruv external links analog brothers at discogs american hip hop groups alternative hip hop musicians icd nine the motor neurone diseases mnd are a group of progressive neurological disorders that destroy motor neurons the cells that control voluntary muscle activity such as speaking walking breathing and swallowing amyotroph |
ic lateral sclerosis als sometimes called lou gehrig s disease progressive muscular atrophy pma spinal muscular atrophy sma progressive or pseudo bulbar palsy pbp and primary lateral sclerosis pls are all forms of motor neurone disease terminology in this article mnd refers to a group of diseases which affect the motor neurons in the united states the term als is more commonly used where it is also known as lou gehrig s disease after the baseball player although previously described by other neurologists of the one nine th century it was jean martin charcot a french neurologist who suggested grouping together a number of disparate conditions all affecting the lateral horn of the spinal cord in one eight six nine in france the disease is sometimes known as maladie de charcot charcot s disease although it may also be referred to by the direct translation of als sclerose laterale amyotrophique sla to help prevent confusion the annual scientific research conference dedicated to the study of mnd is called the inte |
rnational als mnd symposium signs and symptoms neurological examination presents specific signs associated with upper and lower motor neuron degeneration signs of upper motor neuron damage include spasticity brisk reflexes and the babinski sign signs of lower motor neuron damage include weakness and muscle atrophy note that every muscle group in the body requires both upper and lower motor neurons to function it is a common misconception that upper motor neurons control the arms whilst lower motor neurons control the legs the signs described above can occur in any muscle group including the arms legs torso and bulbar region symptoms usually present between the ages of five zero seven zero and include progressive weakness muscle wasting and muscle fasciculations spasticity or stiffness in the arms and legs and overactive tendon reflexes patients may present with symptoms as diverse as a dragging foot unilateral muscle wasting in the hands or slurred speech the symptoms described above may resemble a number of |
other rare diseases known as mnd mimic disorders these include but are not limited to multifocal motor neuropathy kennedy s disease hereditary spastic paraplegia spinal muscular atrophy and monomelic amyotrophy a small subset of familial mnd cases occur in children such as juvenile als madras syndrome and individuals who have inherited the als two gene however these are not typically referred to as mnd but by their specific names diagnosis the diagnosis of mnd is a clinical one established by a neurologist on the basis of history and neurological examination there is no diagnostic test for mnd investigations such as blood tests electromyography emg magnetic resonance imaging mri and sometmies genetic testing are useful to rule out other disorders that may mimic mnd however the diagnosis of mnd remains a clinical one having excluded other diseases a relatively rapid progression of symptoms is a strong diagnostic factor although an individual s progression may sometimes plateau it will not recover or slow down |
a set of diagnostic criteria called the el escorial criteria have been defined by the world federation of neurologists for use in research particularly as inclusion exclusion criteria for clinical trials due to a lack of clincial diagnostic criteria some neurologists use the el escorial criteria during the diagnostic process although strictly speaking this is functionality creep mnd in the presence of both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration is als where the illness affects only the upper motor neurons it is pls and where it affects only the lower motor neurons it is pma progressive bulbar palsy is degneration of the lower motor neurons innervating the bulbar region mouth face and throat whilst pseudobulbar palsy refers to degeneration of the upper motor neurons to the same region prognosis most cases of mnd progess quite quickly with noticeable decline occuring over the course of months although symptoms may present in one region they will typically spread if restricted to one side of the body they are |
more likely to progress to the same region on the other side of the body before progressing to a new region after several years most patients require help to carry out activities of daily living such as self care feeding and transportation mnd is typically fatal within two five years around five zero die within one four months of diagnosis the remaining five zero will not necessarily die within the next one four months as the distribution is significantly skewed as a rough estimate one in five patients survive for five years and one in one zero patients survive one zero years stephen hawking is a well known example of a person with mnd and has lived for more than four zero years with the disease mortality results when the muscles that control breathing are no longer able to expel carbon dioxide one exception is pls which may last for upwards of two five years given the typical age of onset this effectively leaves most pls patients with a normal life span pls can progress to als decades later pathology causes |
about nine zero of cases of mnd are sporadic meaning that the patient has no family history of als and the case appears to have occurred with no known cause genetic factors are suspected to be important in determining an individual s susceptibility to disease and there is some weak evidence to suggest that onset can be triggered by as yet unknown environmental factors see epidemiology below approximately one zero of cases are familial mnd defined either by a family history of mnd or by testing positive for a known genetic mutation associated with the disease the following genes are known to be linked to als cu zn superoxide dismutase sod one als two nefh a small number of cases senataxin setx and vesicle associated protein b vapb of these sod one mutations account for some two zero of familial mnd cases the sod one gene codes for the enzyme superoxide dismutase a free radical scavenger that reduces the oxidative stress of cells throughout the body so far over one zero zero different mutations in the sod one |
gene have been found all of which cause some form of als alsod database in north america the most commonly occurring mutation is known as a four v and occurs in up to five zero of sod one cases in people of scandinavian extraction there is a relatively benign mutation called d nine zero a which is associated with a slow progression future research is concentrating on identifying new genetic mutations and the clinical syndrome associated with them familial mnd may also confer a higher risk of developing cognitive changes such as frontotemporal dementia or executive dysfunction see extra motor change in mnd below it is thought that sod one mutations confer a toxic gain rather than a loss of function to the enzyme sod one mutations may increase the propensity for the enzyme to form protein aggregates which are toxic to nerve cells pathophysiology skeletal muscles are innervated by a group of neurons lower motor neurons located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord which project to the muscle cells these nerv |
e cells are themselves innervated by the corticospinal tract or upper motor neurons that project from the motor cortex of the brain on macroscopic pathology there is a degeneration of the ventral horns of the spinal cord as well as atrophy of the ventral roots in the brain atrophy may be present in the frontal and temporal lobes on microscopic examination neurones may show spongiosis the presence of astrocytes and a number of inclusions including characteristic skein like inclusions bunina bodies and vacuolisation there is a role in excitotoxicity and oxidative stress presumably secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction in animal models death by apoptosis has also been identified emotional lability pseudobulbar affect around a third of all mnd patients experiece labile affect also known as emotional lability pseudobulbar affect or pathological laughter and crying patients with pseudobulbar palsy are particuarly likely to be affected as are patients with pls extra motor change in mnd cognitive change can and does |
occur in between three three five zero of patients a small proportion exhibit a form of frontotemporal dementia characterised by behavioural abnormalities such as disinhibition apathy and personality changes a small proportion of patients may also suffer from an aphasia which causes difficulty in naming specific objects a larger proportion up to five zero suffer from a milder version of cognitive change which primarily affects what is known as executive function briefly this is the ability of an individual to initiate inhibit sustain and switch attention and is involved in the organisation of complex tasks down to smaller components often patients with such changes find themselves unable to do the family finances or drive a car depression is surprisingly rare in mnd around five two zero relative to the frequency with which it is found in other less severe neurological disorders e g five zero in multiple sclerosis and parkinson s disease two zero in epilepsy depression does not necessarily increase as the sym |
ptoms progress and in fact many patients report being happy with their quality of life despite profound disability this may reflect the use of coping strategies such as reevaluating what is important in life although traditionally thought only to affect the motor system sensory abnormalities are not necessarily absent with some patients finding altered sensation to touch and heat found in around one zero of patients patients with a predominantly upper motor neurone syndrome and particularly pls often report an enhanced startle reflex to loud noises neuroimaging and neuropathology has demonstrated extra motor changes in the frontal lobes including the inferior frontal gyrus superior frontal gyrus anterior cingulate cortex and superior temporal gyrus the degree of pathology in these areas has been directly related to the degree of cognitive change experienced by the patient if any patients with mnd and dementia have been shown to exhibit marked frontotemporal lobe atrophy as revealed by mri or spect neuroimagin |
g epidemiology the incidence of mnd is approximately one five out of one zero zero zero zero zero people men have a slightly higher incidence rate than women approximately five six zero zero cases are diagnosed in the u s every year by far the greatest risk factor is age with symptoms typically presenting between the ages of five zero seven zero cases under the age of five zero years are called young onset mnd whilst incidence rates appear to tail off after the age of eight five tentative environmental risk factors identified so far include exposure to severe electrical shock leading to coma having served in the first gulf war and playing professional football soccer however these findings have not been firmly identified and more research is needed there are three hot spots of mnd in the world one is in the kii pensinula of japan one amongst a tribal population in papua new guinea until the one nine six zero s chamorro inhabitants from the island of guam in the pacific ocean had an increased risk of developin |
g a form of mnd known as guamanian als pd dementia complex or lytico bodig but since then the incidence rates have returned to near normal and nobody born since one nine four zero has developed the disease putative theories involve neurotoxins in local wildlife including cycad nuts and other traditional foodstuffs treatment currently there is no cure for als the only drug that affects the course of the disease is riluzole the drug functions by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate and is thought to extend the lifespan of an als patient by only a few months the lack of effective medications to slow the progression of als does not mean that patients with als cannot be medically cared for instead treatment of patients with als focuses on the relief of symptoms associated with the disease this involves a variety of health professionals including neurologists physical therapists occupational therapists dieticians respiratory therapists social workers palliative care specialists specialist nurses a |
nd psychologists a list of neurology clinics that specialize in the care of patients with als can be found on the world federation of neurology website http www wfnals org clinics research efforts the search for a drug that will slow als disease progression is underway for example recent research using mouse models suggests that minocycline a common antibiotic may also be effective in extending the lifespan of als sufferers this drug must pass clinical trials with als patients before it may be used as a general treatment for als minocycline extends the lifespan of als mice with sod one mutations but it does not prevent their eventual death other agents that are currently in trials include ceftriaxone arimoclomol igf one and coenzyme q one zero to name but a few a list of us based clinical als trials may be found at www clinicaltrials org or by contacting your local als mnd charity etymology amyotrophic comes from the greek language a means no myo refers to muscle and trophic means nourishment amyotrophic ther |
efore means no muscle nourishment which describes the characteristic atrophication of the sufferer s disused muscle tissue lateral identifies the areas in a person s spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located as this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening sclerosis in the region history and prominent patients u s baseball player lou gehrig brought national and international attention to the disease in one nine three nine when he abruptly retired after being diagnosed with als mnd he would die two years later former guitar virtuoso jason becker theoretical physicist stephen hawking and ex celtic football player jimmy johnstone also suffer from the disease founder of care homes leonard cheshire vc owner from one nine five seven one nine six six of athelhampton house in dorset sir robert cooke f r c s theoretical physicist victor emery rangers footballer sam english hall of fame pitcher jim catfish hunter blues singer and guitarist leadbelly chinese chairman mao zedon |
g jazz giant charles mingus hollywood actor david niven legendary leeds united manager don revie teacher and book subject morrie schwartz american television actor lane smith linguist larry trask guardian journalist jill tweedie avant garde guitarist derek bailey american soap opera veteran michael zaslow and libertarian writer politician and investment analyst harry browne died from the disease diane pretty was a british woman with the disease who was involved in a prominent right to die case in the early two zero zero zero s see also kennedy disease monomelic amyotrophy primary lateral sclerosis progressive muscular atrophy riluzole sources and references ninds motor neuron diseases information page motor neuron diseases information sheet compiled by the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke ninds alsod database of all known sod one mutations some information gathered from dr m norenberg university of miami october two six two zero zero four crossing the finishing line last thoughts of leo |
nard cheshire vc ed reginald c fuller london one nine nine eight de standaard dutch language newspaper one two september two zero zero five zhu s stavrovskaya ig drozda m kim by ona v li m sarang s liu as hartley dm wu du c gullans s ferrante rj przedborski s kristal bs friedlander rm minocycline inhibits cytochrome c release and delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice nature two zero zero two may two four one seven six eight eight four seven four eight van den bosch l tilkin p lemmens g robberecht w minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic model of als neuroreport two zero zero two one two june one three eight one zero six seven seven zero kriz j nguyen md julien jp minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis neurobiol dis two zero zero two aug one zero three two six eight seven eight information about clinical trials list of united states government funded clinical trials relating to mnd information on the als association |
s website about clinical trials of minocycline as an als treatment other resources als therapy development foundation als association als mnd alliance mnd association als liga belgium dutch and french language the hereditary motor neurone disease foundation australian group seeking to find a cure for familial motor neurone disease braintalk communities forum for people with als mnd us based build uk forum for people with als mnd uk based als canada project a l s disability motor neuron disease neurological disorders for the traditional ordering of the letters of the arabic alphabet see abjadi order abjad numerals an abjad is a type of writing system in which there is one symbol per consonantal phoneme sometimes also called a consonantary abjads differ from alphabets in that in an abjad each basic grapheme represents a consonant although vowels may be indicated by vowel marks on the basic graphemes an alphabet has basic graphemes for both consonants and vowels abjads also differ from abugidas in an abjad each |
basic grapheme represents only a consonant in an abugida each basic grapheme represents a syllable consisting of a consonant and a vowel the same consonant with a different vowel or with no vowel is represented by a modified or marked form of the same basic grapheme etymology the system takes its name from the first nonsense word of the mnemonic sequence for the letters of the arabic alphabet in the older abjadi order it has been suggested that the word abjad may have earlier roots in phoenician or ugaritic history all known abjads belong to the semitic family of scripts and derive from the original northern linear abjad the reason for this is that semitic languages have a morphemic structure which makes the denotation of vowels redundant or unnecessary in most cases impure abjads impure abjads such as arabic may have characters for some vowels as well called matres lectionis mothers of reading singular mater lectionis or optional vowel diacritics or both however the term s originator peter t daniels insists |
that it should be applied only to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators thus excluding arabic hebrew and syriac impure abjads develop when due to phonetic change a previous consonant or diphthong becomes a vowel later generations who receive their orthography without knowing that letter originally signified a consonant there understand it to mean a vowel as it is in their spoken language they then use that letter as a vowel in other places where it was never a consonant for example the hebrew word probably underwent the following pronunciation change the which was originally the consonant w became the vowel o later probably in the second temple period the vowel use of was expanded to places where no consonant ever existed addition of vowels many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full alphabets this has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non semitic language the most famous case being the derivation of the greek alphabet from the phoenician abjad t |
he greeks did not need the letters for the guttural and co articulated consonants they dropped some of them and turned others into vowels in other cases the vowel signs come in the form of little points or hooks attached to the consonant letters producing an abugida such as the system of writing amharic written using the ge ez alphabet which was formerly an abjad before a vocalization occurred sometime after the five th century bce but before the four th century ce related concepts surprisingly many non semitic languages such as english can be written without vowels and read with little difficulty for example the previous sentence could be written srprsngly mny nn smtc lnggs sch s nglsh cn b wrttn wtht vwls nd rd wth lttl dffclty this fact can be used to semi bowdlerise offensive language a practice known as disemvoweling some usages of one three three seven speak drop vowels especially for small words see also abjad numerals references v one p two eight external links abjad the arabic alphabet learning syste |
m writing systems an abugida alphasyllabary or syllabics is a writing system composed of signs graphemes denoting consonants with an inherent following vowel which are consistently modified to indicate other vowels or in some cases the lack of a vowel examples include the various scripts of the brahmic family ethiopic ge ez and canadian aboriginal syllabics a typical abugida is devanagari there is no basic sign representing the consonant k rather the unmodified letter represents the syllable ka the a is the so called inherent vowel the vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks to the basic character producing other syllables beginning with k such as ki ku ke ko these diacritics are applied systematically to other consonantal characters for example from la is formed li lu le lo such a consonant with either an inherent or marked vowel is called an akshara in many abugidas there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel yielding the bare consonant in devanagari is k and is l this is called the virama i |
n sanskrit or halant in hindi it may be used to form consonant clusters or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word other means of expressing these functions include special conjunct forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster such as devanagari kla note that on some fonts display this as followed by rather than forming a conjunct the diacritics may appear above below to the left or to the right of the consonantal character or may surround it as in tamil kau from ka in many of the brahmic scripts a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking so a vowel marker like i falling before the character it modifies may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced for example the game cricket in hindi is krike the diacritic for i appears before the consonant cluster kr not before the r a more unusual example is seen in the batak alphabet here the syllable bim is written ba ma i virama that is the |
vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable in ge ez the prototype abugida the form of the letter itself may be altered for example h basic form hu with a right side diacritic that does not alter the letter hi with a subdiacritic compresses the letter so that the whole fidel akshara occupies the same amount of space he where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm in the family of abugidas known as canadian aboriginal syllabics vowels are indicated by modification rotation and reflection of the akshara for example inuktitut pi pu pa ti tu ta the r ng script used for the lepcha language goes further than other abugidas in that each akshara is a full syllable not only the vowel but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic for example the syllable sok would written as something like here with an underring representing o and an overcross representing the diacritic for final k there are several abugidas of indonesia which also indicate final consonants |
with diacritics but usually these are restricted to one or two nasals such as the pahawh hmong script represents both consonants and vowels with full letters however the graphic order is vowel consonant even though they are pronounced as consonant vowel this is rather like the o vowel in the indic abugidas pahawh hmong is unusual in that while the inherent vowel au is unwritten so is the inherent consonant k for the syllable kau which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt it is au that is written that is a pahawh akshara appears to be a vowel with an inherent consonant rather than the other way around it is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scrips for example the meroitic script of ancient sudan did not indicate an inherent a one symbol stood for both m and ma for example and is thus similar to brahmic family abugidas however the other vowels were indicated with full letters not diacritics or modification so the system was essentially an alphabet th |
at did not bother to write the most common vowel thaana is also like an abugida in that vowels are marked with diacritics however all vowels are marked as is the absence of a vowel there is no inherent vowel normally no letter may occur without a diacritic that is it is equivalent to an abjad with obligatory vowel marking like the arabic alphabet as used for kurdish in iraq as is thus essentially alphabetic note that it developed among a population that was already literate with an abugida for their language several systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels but they do not have an inherent vowel and are thus more similar to thaana and kurdish than to the brahmic scripts the pollard script which was based on shorthand also uses diacritics for vowels the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone as the term alphasyllabary suggests abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries historically abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads vowelless alp |
habets they contrast with syllabaries where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant vowel combination and where these have no systematic similarity to each other compare the devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the japanese hiragana syllabary ka ki ku ke ko have nothing in common to indicate k while ra ri ru re ro have neither anything in common for r nor anything do indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set the term abugida is taken from a conventional name for the ge ez script derived from its first four letters as ordered in some religious contexts this order corresponds to the ancestral semitic character order aleph beth gimel daleth or a b c d historically abugidas appear to have first evolved from abjads perhaps aramaic with the kharo h and br hm scripts the kharosthi family does not survive today but brahmi s descendents include most of the modern scripts of south and southeast asia canadian syllabics was derived from devanagari and is thus in the brahmic famil |
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