triplets
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[
"Holocene",
"significant event",
"Medieval Warm Period"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Holocene",
"significant event",
"Iron Age Cold Epoch"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Holocene",
"significant event",
"Holocene climatic optimum"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Holocene",
"significant event",
"Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Holocene",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Holocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Holocene",
"said to be the same as",
"current interglacial"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Granary",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Granaries"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Granary",
"has use",
"storage"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Meghalayan",
"different from",
"Meghalaya"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Meghalayan",
"follows",
"Northgrippian"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Blond",
"different from",
"yellow hair"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Blond",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Blond hair"
] | Prevalence
General
Blond hair is most common in light-skinned infants and children, so much so that the term "baby blond" is often used for very light colored hair. Babies may be born with blond hair even among groups where adults rarely have blond hair, although such natural hair usually falls out quickly. Blond hair tends to turn darker with age, and many children's blond hair turns light, medium, or dark brown, before or during their adult years. Because blond hair tends to turn brown with age, natural blond hair is significantly less common in adulthood; according to the sociologist Christie Davies, only around five percent of adults in Europe and North America are naturally blond. A study conducted in 2003 concluded that only four percent of American adults are naturally blond. A significant number of Caucasian women dye their hair blonde, perhaps a higher percentage than for any other hair color. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Anatolian languages",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Anatolian languages"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"First Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"follows",
"Old Kingdom of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"First Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"followed by",
"Middle Kingdom of Egypt"
] | Rise of the Theban kings
It has been suggested that an invasion of Upper Egypt occurred contemporaneously with the founding of the Heracleopolitan kingdom, which would establish the Theban line of kings, constituting the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties. This line of kings is believed to have been descendants of Intef, who was the nomarch of Thebes, often called the "keeper of the Door of the South". He is credited for organizing Upper Egypt into an independent ruling body in the south, although he himself did not appear to have tried to claim the title of king. However, his successors in the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties would later do so for him. One of them, Intef II, begins the assault on the north, particularly at Abydos.
By around 2060 BC, Intef II had defeated the governor of Nekhen, allowing further expansion south, toward Elephantine. His successor, Intef III, completed the conquest of Abydos, moving into Middle Egypt against the Heracleopolitan kings. The first three kings of the Eleventh Dynasty (all named Intef) were, therefore, also the last three kings of the First Intermediate Period and would be succeeded by a line of kings who were all called Mentuhotep. Mentuhotep II, also known as Nebhepetra, would eventually defeat the Heracleopolitan kings around 2033 BC and unify the country to continue the Eleventh Dynasty, bringing Egypt into the Middle Kingdom.The Ipuwer Papyrus
The emergence of what is considered literature by modern standards seems to have occurred during the First Intermediate Period, with a flowering of new literary genres in the Middle Kingdom. A particularly important piece is the Ipuwer Papyrus, often called the Lamentations or Admonitions of Ipuwer, which although not dated to this period by modern scholarship may refer to the First Intermediate Period and record a decline in international relations and a general impoverishment in Egypt. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"First Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:First Intermediate Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Trapping",
"uses",
"animal trap"
] | Animal trapping, or simply trapping or ginning, is the use of a device to remotely catch an animal. Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including food, the fur trade, hunting, pest control, and wildlife management.History
Neolithic hunters, including the members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture of Romania and Ukraine (c. 5500–2750 BCE), used traps to capture their prey. An early mention in written form is a passage from the self-titled book by Taoist philosopher Zhuangzi describes Chinese methods used for trapping animals during the 4th century BCE. The Zhuangzi reads, "The sleek-furred fox and the elegantly spotted leopard ... can't seem to escape the disaster of nets and traps." "Modern" steel jaw-traps were first described in western sources as early as the late 16th century. The first mention comes from Leonard Mascall's book on animal trapping. It reads, "a griping trappe made all of yrne, the lowest barre, and the ring or hoope with two clickets." [sic] The mousetrap, with a strong spring device mounted on a wooden base, was first patented by William C. Hooker of Abingdon, Illinois, in 1894.Trapping pit
Trapping pits are deep pits dug into the ground, or built from stone, in order to trap animals. Like cage traps they are usually employed for catching animals without harming them.Cage traps (live traps)
Cage traps are designed to catch live animals in a cage. They are usually baited, sometimes with food bait and sometimes with a live "lure" animal. Common baits include cat food and fish. Cage traps usually have a trigger located in the back of the cage that causes a door to shut; some traps with two doors have a trigger in the middle of the cage that causes both doors to shut. In either type of cage, the closure of the doors and the falling of a lock mechanism prevents the animal from escaping by locking the door(s) shut. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Trapping",
"has use",
"hunting"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Trapping",
"has use",
"pest control"
] | Pest control
Trapping is regularly used for pest control of beaver, coyote, raccoon, cougar, bobcat, Virginia opossum, fox, squirrel, rat, mouse and mole in order to limit damage to households, food supplies, farming, ranching, and property.
Traps are used as a method of pest control as an alternative to pesticides. Commonly spring traps which holds the animal are used—mousetraps for mice, or the larger rat traps for larger rodents like rats and squirrel. Specific traps are designed for invertebrates such as cockroaches and spiders. Some mousetraps can also double as an insect or universal trap, like the glue traps which catch any small animal that walks upon them.
Although it is common to state that trapping is an effective means of pest control, a counter-example is found in the work of Jon Way, a biologist in Massachusetts. Way reported that the death or disappearance of a territorial male coyote can lead to double litters, and postulates a possible resultant increase in coyote density. Coexistence programs that take this scientific research into account are being pursued by groups such as the Association for the Protection of Fur-Bearing Animals. | null | null | null | null | 7 |
[
"Trapping",
"has use",
"captivity"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Trapping",
"different from",
"decoy"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Trapping",
"different from",
"trap"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Trapping",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Animal trapping"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Warren Field",
"has use",
"calendar"
] | Warren Field is the location of a mesolithic calendar monument built about 8,000 BCE. It includes 12 pits believed to correlate with phases of the Moon and used as a lunisolar calendar. It is considered to be the oldest lunisolar calendar yet found. It is near Crathes Castle, in the Aberdeenshire region of Scotland, in the United Kingdom. It was originally discovered from the air as anomalous terrain by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland. It was first excavated in 2004.
The pits align on the southeast horizon and a prominent topographic point associated with sunrise on the midwinter solstice (thus providing an annual astronomical correction concerning the passage of time as indicated by the Moon, the asynchronous solar year, and the associated seasons). The Aberdeenshire time reckoner predates the Mesopotamian calendars by nearly 5,000 years. It was also interpreted as a seasonal calendar because the local prehistoric communities, which relied on hunting migrating animals needed to carefully note the seasons to be prepared for a particular food source. The Warren Field site is particularly significant for its very early date and the fact that it was created by hunter-gatherer peoples, rather than sedentary farmers usually associated with monument building. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Tenthredinoidea",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Tenthredinoidea"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Uralic languages",
"different from",
"Urali"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Uralic languages",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Uralic languages"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Wattle (construction)",
"has use",
"fence"
] | Wattle is made by weaving flexible branches around upright stakes to form a woven lattice. The wattle may be made into an individual panel, commonly called a hurdle, or it may be formed into a continuous fence. Wattles also form the basic structure for wattle and daub wall construction, where wattling is daubed with a plaster-like substance to make a weather-resistant wall. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Wattle (construction)",
"has use",
"wall"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Egyptian faience",
"different from",
"faience"
] | Egyptian faience is a sintered-quartz ceramic material from Ancient Egypt. The sintering process "covered [the material] with a true vitreous coating" as the quartz underwent vitrification, creating a bright lustre of various colours "usually in a transparent blue or green isotropic glass". Its name in the Ancient Egyptian language was tjehenet, and modern archeological terms for it include sintered quartz, glazed frit, and glazed composition. Tjehenet is distinct from the crystalline pigment Egyptian blue, for which it has sometimes incorrectly been used as a synonym.It is not faience in the usual sense of tin-glazed pottery, and is different from the enormous range of clay-based Ancient Egyptian pottery, from which utilitarian vessels were made. It is similar to later Islamic stonepaste (or "fritware") from the Middle East, although that generally includes more clay.Egyptian faience is considerably more porous than glass proper. It can be cast in molds to create small vessels, jewelry and decorative objects. Although it contains the major constituents of glass (silica, lime) and no clay until late periods, Egyptian faience is frequently discussed in surveys of ancient pottery, as in stylistic and art-historical terms, objects made of it are closer to pottery styles than ancient Egyptian glass. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Sickle",
"has use",
"harvest"
] | A sickle, bagging hook, reaping-hook or grasshook is a single-handed agricultural tool designed with variously curved blades and typically used for harvesting, or reaping, grain crops or cutting succulent forage chiefly for feeding livestock, either freshly cut or dried as hay. Falx was a synonym but was later used to mean any of a number of tools that had a curved blade that was sharp on the inside edge such as a scythe.
Since the beginning of the Iron Age hundreds of region-specific variants of the sickle have evolved, initially of iron and later steel. This great diversity of sickle types across many cultures can be divided into smooth or serrated blades, both of which can be used for cutting either green grass or mature cereals using slightly different techniques. The serrated blade that originated in prehistoric sickles still dominates in the reaping of grain and is even found in modern grain-harvesting machines and in some kitchen knives.Americas
Indigenous sickles have been discovered in southwest North America with unique design. There is evidence that Kodiak islanders had for cutting grass "sickles made of a sharpened animal shoulder blade". The artifacts found in present-day Arizona and New Mexico resemble curved tools that were made from the horns of mountain sheep. A similar site discovered sickles made from other material such as the Caddo Sickle, which was made from a deer mandible. Scripture from early natives document the use of these sickles in the cutting of grass. The instruments ranged from 13 to 16 inches tip to haft. Several other digs in eastern Arizona uncovered wooden sickles that were shaped in a similar fashion. The handles of the tools help describe how the tool was held in such a way so that the inner portion that contained the cutting surface could also serve as a gathering surface for the grain. Sickles were sharpened by scraping a shape beveled edge with a coarse tool. This action has left marks on artifacts that have been found. The sharpening process was necessary to keep the cutting edge from being dulled after extended use. The edge is seen to be quite highly polished, which in part proves that the instrument was used to cut grass. After collection, the grass was used as material to create matting and bedding. The sickle in general provided the convenience of cutting the grass as well as gathering in one step. In South America, the sickle is used as a tool to harvest rice. Rice clusters are harvested using the instrument and left to dry in the sun. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Sickle",
"has use",
"weed control"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Braconidae",
"has use",
"biological pest control"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Braconidae",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Braconidae"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Chrysidoidea",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Chrysidoidea"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Brown algae",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Brown algae"
] | Brown algae (singular: alga), comprising the class Phaeophyceae, are a large group of multicellular algae, including many seaweeds located in colder waters within the Northern Hemisphere. Brown algae are the major seaweeds of the temperate and polar regions. They are dominant on rocky shores throughout cooler areas of the world. Most brown algae live in marine environments, where they play an important role both as food and as a potential habitat. For instance, Macrocystis, a kelp of the order Laminariales, may reach 60 m (200 ft) in length and forms prominent underwater kelp forests. Kelp forests like these contain a high level of biodiversity. Another example is Sargassum, which creates unique floating mats of seaweed in the tropical waters of the Sargasso Sea that serve as the habitats for many species. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales, commonly grow along rocky seashores. Some members of the class, such as kelps, are used by humans as food.
Between 1,500 and 2,000 species of brown algae are known worldwide. Some species, such as Ascophyllum nodosum, have become subjects of extensive research in their own right due to their commercial importance. They also have environmental significance through carbon fixation.Brown algae belong to the group Heterokontophyta, a large group of eukaryotic organisms distinguished most prominently by having chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes, suggesting an origin from a symbiotic relationship between a basal eukaryote and another eukaryotic organism. Most brown algae contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which is responsible for the distinctive greenish-brown color that gives them their name. Brown algae are unique among heterokonts in developing into multicellular forms with differentiated tissues, but they reproduce by means of flagellated spores and gametes that closely resemble cells of other heterokonts. Genetic studies show their closest relatives to be the yellow-green algae. | null | null | null | null | 7 |
[
"Bethylidae",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Bethylidae"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Ichneumonoidea",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Ichneumonoidea"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Massalia",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Massilia"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Greek Crimea",
"followed by",
"Roman Crimea"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Deus ex machina",
"different from",
"grand piano in the bushes"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Argidae",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Argidae"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Tamil script",
"based on",
"Tamil-Brahmi"
] | History
The Tamil script, like the other Brahmic scripts, is thought to have evolved from the original Brahmi script. The earliest inscriptions which are accepted examples of Tamil writing date to the Ashokan period. The script used by such inscriptions is commonly known as the Tamil-Brahmi or "Tamili script" and differs in many ways from standard Ashokan Brahmi. For example, early Tamil-Brahmi, unlike Ashokan Brahmi, had a system to distinguish between pure consonants (m, in this example) and consonants with an inherent vowel (ma, in this example). In addition, according to Iravatham Mahadevan, early Tamil Brahmi used slightly different vowel markers, had extra characters to represent letters not found in Sanskrit and omitted letters for sounds not present in Tamil such as voiced consonants and aspirates. Inscriptions from the 2nd century use a later form of Tamil-Brahmi, which is substantially similar to the writing system described in the Tolkāppiyam, an ancient Tamil grammar. Most notably, they used the puḷḷi to suppress the inherent vowel. The Tamil letters thereafter evolved towards a more rounded form and by the 5th or 6th century, they had reached a form called the early vaṭṭeḻuttu.The modern Tamil script does not, however, descend from that script. In the 4th century, the Pallava dynasty created a new script for Tamil and the Grantha alphabet evolved from it, adding the Vaṭṭeḻuttu alphabet for sounds not found to write Sanskrit. Parallel to Pallava script a new script (Chola-Pallava script, which evolved to modern Tamil script) again emerged in Chola territory resembling the same glyph development like Pallava script, but it did not evolve from that. By the 8th century, the new scripts supplanted Vaṭṭeḻuttu in the Chola resp. Pallava kingdoms which lay in the north portion of the Tamil-speaking region. However, Vaṭṭeḻuttu continued to be used in the southern portion of the Tamil-speaking region, in the Chera and Pandyan kingdoms until the 11th century, when the Pandyan kingdom was conquered by the Cholas.With the fall of Pallava kingdom, the Chola dynasty pushed the Chola-Pallava script as the de facto script. Over the next few centuries, the Chola-Pallava script evolved into the modern Tamil script. The Grantha and its parent script influenced the Tamil script notably. The use of palm leaves as the primary medium for writing led to changes in the script. The scribe had to be careful not to pierce the leaves with the stylus while writing because a leaf with a hole was more likely to tear and decay faster. As a result, the use of the puḷḷi to distinguish pure consonants became rare, with pure consonants usually being written as if the inherent vowel were present. Similarly, the vowel marker for the kuṟṟiyal ukaram, a half-rounded u which occurs at the end of some words and in the medial position in certain compound words, also fell out of use and was replaced by the marker for the simple u. The puḷḷi did not fully reappear until the introduction of printing, but the marker kuṟṟiyal ukaram never came back into use although the sound itself still exists and plays an important role in Tamil prosody.
The forms of some of the letters were simplified in the 19th century to make the script easier to typeset. In the 20th century, the script was simplified even further in a series of reforms, which regularised the vowel markers used with consonants by eliminating special markers and most irregular forms. | null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Tamil script",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Tamil script"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Cenozoic",
"follows",
"Mesozoic"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Cenozoic",
"different from",
"Tertiary"
] | Divisions
The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary; and seven epochs: the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene. The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2009. In 2004, the Tertiary Period was officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helps palaeontologists better organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Cenozoic",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Cenozoic"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Sangam literature",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Sangam literature"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Hellenistic sculpture",
"follows",
"classical Greek sculpture"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Hellenistic sculpture",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Hellenistic sculpture"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Euclidean geometry",
"different from",
"Euclidean space"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Euclidean geometry",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Euclidean geometry"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Han–Xiongnu War",
"participant",
"Han dynasty"
] | The Han–Xiongnu War, also known as the Sino–Xiongnu War, was a series of military conflicts fought over two centuries (from 133 BC to 89 AD) between the Chinese Han Empire and the nomadic Xiongnu confederation, although extended conflicts can be traced back as early as 200 BC and ahead as late as 188 AD.
The Chinese civilization initially clashed with nomadic tribes that would later become the Xiongnu confederation during the Warring States period, and various northern states built elongated fortifications (which later became the Great Wall) to defend against raids from the Mongolian Plateau. The unified Qin dynasty, who conquered all other states under the First Emperor, dispatched General Meng Tian in 215 BC in a successful compaign to expel the Xiongnu from the Ordos region. However, the subsequent civil wars following Qin dynasty's collapse gave the Xiongnu tribes, who were then unified into a large confederacy under Modu Chanyu, the opportunity to reinvade the Ordos region. After the Western Han dynasty was established in 202 BC, Emperor Gao tried to fight off Xiongnu invasions but had himself trapped in an ambush during the Battle of Baideng, and a truce was negotiated. Decades of de jure "peace" then ensued then followed with the Chinese gifting "marriage alliance" to appease the Xiongnu, who still raided Chinese borderlands routinely.
However, starting from the reign of the seventh Han ruler, Emperor Wu, the Han Empire began to change from a relatively passive foreign policy to a proactively offensive strategy seeking to permanently remove the northern threat. The tension fully escalated in 133 BC when the Han army unsuccessfully tried to ambush Xiongnu raiders at Mayi, and retaliatory raids intensified. Emperor Wu then started deploying newer generations of military commanders and launched several expeditions to control the Ordos Loop, Hexi Corridor and Western Regions, eventually pushing the Xiongnu north beyond the Gobi Desert with a decisive campaign in 119 BC. After the death of Emperor Wu in 87 BC, the war winded down to mostly smaller border conflicts, although Emperor Xuan and Yuan had each sanctioned major offensives against the Xiongnu during their reigns. The overall strategic Han successes against the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to project their influence deeply into Central Asia, which eventually led to the establishment of a regional protectorate in 60 BC. For the Xiongnu, the situation deteriorated with each setback, leading to erosion of the chanyu's prestige and dominance, and the subsequent internal power struggles further weakened the confederation, fracturing it into various self-ruling factions. Han Empire then began adhere to a divide and rule strategy, using marriage alliances (such as that of Wang Zhaojun to Huhanye) to recruit some against others.
During the interregnum Xin dynasty, Wuzhuliu chanyu waged war in 11 AD after Wang Mang, who usurped the Han throne, attempted to split the Xiongnu by instating 15 new chanyu. Wang Mang mobilized 300,000 troops against Xiongnu and forced Goguryeo, Wuhuan and various Western Regions city-states to send conscripts and provisions, which led to the mass defection of these vassal states. After the Eastern Han dynasty was established in 25 AD, the Chinese initially found their hands full after the chaotic civil war and could not afford any full-scale mobilizations against the Xiongnu raids, therefore resorted to continue lobbying among different Xiongnu faction rulers instead. This continued for another two decades until 46 AD, when repeated natural disasters severely weakened the Xiongnu and forced them to flee north from an attack by Wuhuan. Xiongnu then permanently split in 48 AD into two groups, known as the Northern and Southern Xiongnu, respectively. The Southern Xiongnu eventually submitted to the Han Empire and became auxiliaries/mercenaries against the Northern Xiongnu, who continued to resist and was eventually evicted westwards by the further expeditions by the Han Empire and its vassals, as well as the rise of other hostile Donghu states like Xianbei. In 89 AD, General Dou Xian led 50,000 cavalries on an expedition that decisively defeated the Northern Xiongnu main force, causing it to split further. In 91 AD, Northern Chanyu was defeated in the Battle of the Altai Mountains, and the Northern Xiongnu fled west into Dzungaria, where they continued causing sporadic troubles until 151 AD when a 4,000-strong Han militia was enough to defeat them, causing them to flee further west into Central Asia and since disappeared from historical records. Southern Xiongnu, on the other hand, continued cycles of "rebel then resubmit" under the Eastern Han dynasty til as late as the Yellow Turban Rebellion, but from 89 AD onwards the Han Empire's main concern had already switched to the Qiang people, who had become an increasingly bigger headache than the Xiongnu.Background
During the Warring States period, the Qin, Zhao, and Yan states conquered various nomadic territories inhabited by the Xiongnu and other Hu peoples. They strengthened their new frontiers with elongated wall fortifications. By 221 BC, the Qin ended the chaotic Eastern Zhou period by conquering all other states and unifying China proper. In 215 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered General Meng Tian to set out against the Xiongnu tribes, situated in the Ordos region, and establish a frontier region at the Ordos Loop. Believing that the Xiongnu were a possible threat, the emperor launched a pre-emptive strike against the Xiongnu with the intention of expanding his empire. Later that year (215 BC), General Meng Tian succeeded in defeating the Xiongnu and driving them from the Ordos region, seizing their territory as result. After the catastrophic defeat at the hands of Meng, Touman Chanyu and his followers fled far into the Mongolian Plateau. Fusu (Prince of Qin) and General Meng Tian were stationed at a garrison in Suide and soon began the construction of the walled defences, connecting them with the old walls built by Qin, Yan and Zhao states. The fortified walls ran from Liaodong to Lintao, thus enclosing the conquered Ordos region, safeguarding the Qin empire against the Xiongnu and other northern nomadic people. Due to the northward expansion, the threat that the Qin empire posed to the Xiongnu ultimately led to the state formation of the many tribes towards a confederacy.However, after the sudden death of Qin Shi Huang, the ensuing political corruption and chaos during the short reign of Qin Er Shi would lead to various anti-Qin rebellions, eventually bringing about the collapse of the Qin dynasty. A massive civil war then erupted between various reinstated states, with Liu Bang eventually victorious to establish the Han dynasty. During the transitional years between Qin and Han, while the Chinese were mainly focused towards the interior of their nation, the Xiongnu took the opportunity to retake the territory north of the wall. The Xiongnu frequently led incursions to the Han frontier and had considerable political influence over the border regions. In response, Emperor Gaozu led a Han army against the Xiongnu in 200 BC, pursuing them as far as Pingcheng (present-day Datong, Shanxi) before being ambushed by Modu Chanyu's cavalry. His encampment was encircled by the Xiongnu, but Emperor Gaozu escaped after seven days. After realizing that a military solution was not feasible for the time being, Emperor Gaozu sent Liu Jing to negotiate peace with Modu Chanyu. In 198 BC, a marriage alliance was concluded between the Han and the Xiongnu, but this proved far from effective as the incursions in the frontier regions continued. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Han–Xiongnu War",
"participant",
"Xiongnu"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Hominidae",
"different from",
"Hominid"
] | A hominoid, sometimes called an ape, is a member of the superfamily Hominoidea: extant members are the gibbons (lesser apes, family Hylobatidae) and the hominids.
A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the great apes: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and humans.
A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae: gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans (excludes orangutans).
A hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini: chimpanzees and humans.
A homininan, following a suggestion by Wood and Richmond (2000), would be a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini: that is, modern humans and their closest relatives, including Australopithecina, but excluding chimpanzees.
A human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies.A cladogram indicating common names (cf. more detailed cladogram below):Extant and fossil relatives of humans
Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their (extinct) close relatives, with the other great apes (that is, the orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees) all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that definition eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species (the chimpanzees) proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, the use of Pongidae to be restricted to just one closely related grouping. Thus, many biologists now assign Pongo (as the subfamily Ponginae) to the family Hominidae. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the modern understanding of human and great ape relationships.
Humans and close relatives including the tribes Hominini and Gorillini form the subfamily Homininae (see classification graphic below). (A few researchers go so far as to refer the chimpanzees and the gorillas to the genus Homo along with humans.) But, it is those fossil relatives more closely related to humans than the chimpanzees that represent the especially close members of the human family, and without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories.Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Kenyanthropus, and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus.The exact criteria for membership in the tribe Hominini under the current understanding of human origins are not clear, but the taxon generally includes those species that share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond their 'local family' or band. The theory of mind concept—including such faculties as empathy, attribution of mental state, and even empathetic deception—is a controversial criterion; it distinguishes the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity after about four years of age, whereas it has not been proven (nor has it been disproven) that gorillas or chimpanzees ever develop a theory of mind. This is also the case for some New World monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys.
However, even without the ability to test whether early members of the Hominini (such as Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have shown the development of culture comparable to that of chimpanzees, and some say the orangutan may also satisfy those criteria for the theory of mind concept. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of great ape personhood. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Hominidae",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Hominidae"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Temple of Bel",
"different from",
"Temple of Baalshamin"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Siege of Dura-Europos (256)",
"participant",
"Sasanian Empire"
] | The siege of Dura Europos took place when the Sasanians under Shapur I besieged the Roman city of Dura-Europos in 256 after capturing Antioch.
Dura-Europos was an important trading center in Roman Syria. It may or may not be the same as the "Doura" recorded in Shapur I's inscriptions. The town was in Sasanian hands for some time after its fall, and was later abandoned. Intact archaeological evidences at Dura provide details of the Roman presence there, and the dramatic course of the siege. The garrison was determined to resist the siege, and the Sasanians employed a variety of siege warfare techniques to defeat them. Archaeological evidences suggest that the garrison at Dura-Europos was mixed, composed of Cohors XX Palmyrenorum (which is known more than the others), vexillations from Legio IV Scythica Valeriana Galliena, III Cyrenaica, XVI Flavia Firma, and other cohorts, including Cohors II Paphlagonum Galliana Volusiana and possibly Cohors II Equestris. The relationship between these forces are uncertain. XX Palmyrenorum was certainly based in Dura-Europos, and may have been an "inferior" contingent of the garrison relative to the legionaries. The numbers of the legionaries are unknown. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Siege of Dura-Europos (256)",
"participant",
"Ancient Rome"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Coptic language",
"follows",
"Demotic Egyptian"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Coptic language",
"follows",
"Egyptian"
] | Coptic (Bohairic Coptic: ϯⲙⲉⲧⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, timetremǹnkhēmi) is an Egyptian language family of closely related dialects, representing the most recent developments of the Egyptian language, and historically spoken by the Copts, starting from the third century AD in Roman Egypt. Coptic was supplanted by Arabic as the primary spoken language of Egypt following the Muslim conquest of Egypt and was slowly replaced over the centuries. Coptic has no native speakers today, although it remains in daily use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and of the Coptic Catholic Church. Innovations in grammar, phonology, and the influx of Greek loanwords distinguish Coptic from earlier periods of the Egyptian language. It is written with the Coptic alphabet, a modified form of the Greek alphabet with several additional letters borrowed from the Demotic Egyptian script.The major Coptic dialects are Sahidic, Bohairic, Akhmimic, Fayyumic, Lycopolitan, and Oxyrhynchite. Sahidic Coptic was spoken between the cities of Asyut and Oxyrhynchus and flourished as a literary language across Egypt in the period c. 325 – c. 800 AD. Bohairic, the language of the Nile Delta, gained prominence in the 9th century and is the dialect used by the Coptic Church. Despite being closely related, Coptic dialects differ from one another in terms of their phonology, morphology, and vocabulary.History
The Egyptian language may have the longest documented history of any language, from Old Egyptian that appeared just before 3200 BC to its final phases as Coptic in the Middle Ages. Coptic belongs to the Later Egyptian phase, which started to be written in the New Kingdom of Egypt. Later Egyptian represented colloquial speech of the later periods. It had analytic features like definite and indefinite articles and periphrastic verb conjugation. Coptic, therefore, is a reference to both the most recent stage of Egyptian after Demotic and the new writing system that was adapted from the Greek alphabet.Vocabulary
The core lexicon of Coptic is Egyptian, most closely related to the preceding Demotic phase of the language. Up to 40% of the vocabulary of literary Coptic is drawn from Greek, but borrowings are not always fully adapted to the Coptic phonological system and may have semantic differences as well. There are instances of Coptic texts having passages that are almost entirely composed from Greek lexical roots. However, that is likely because the majority of Coptic religious texts are direct translations of Greek works. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Coptic language",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Coptic language"
] | null | null | null | null | 20 |
|
[
"Lower Paleolithic",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Lower Paleolithic"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Lower Paleolithic",
"followed by",
"Middle Paleolithic"
] | The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 3.3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in the current archaeological record, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan ("mode 1") and Acheulean ("mode 2") lithics industries.
In African archaeology, the time period roughly corresponds to the Early Stone Age, the earliest finds dating back to 3.3 million years ago, with Lomekwian stone tool technology, spanning Mode 1 stone tool technology, which begins roughly 2.6 million years ago and ends between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago, with Mode 2 technology.The Middle Paleolithic followed the Lower Paleolithic and recorded the appearance of the more advanced prepared-core tool-making technologies such as the Mousterian. Whether the earliest control of fire by hominins dates to the Lower or to the Middle Paleolithic remains an open question.Calabrian
Homo erectus moved from scavenging to hunting, developing the hunting-gathering lifestyle that would remain dominant throughout the Paleolithic into the Mesolithic.
The unlocking of the new niche of hunting-gathering subsistence drove a number of further behavioral and physiological changes leading to the appearance of Homo heidelbergensis by some 800,000-600,000 years ago. As such, Homo rose to the ranks of omnivorous predators (and possibly became hypercarnivores before Homo sapiens again transformed into hypocarnivores). As active hunters, they came in opposition to other, quadruped predators and started living in large groups.
Homo erectus migrated out of Africa and dispersed throughout Eurasia. Stone tools in Malaysia have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. The Peking Man fossil, discovered in 1929, is roughly 700,000 years old.
In Europe, the Olduwan tradition (known in Europe as Abbevillian) split into two parallel traditions, the Clactonian, a flake tradition, and the Acheulean, a hand-axe tradition. The Levallois technique for knapping flint developed during this time.
The carrier species from Africa to Europe was undoubtedly Homo erectus. This type of human is more clearly linked to the flake tradition, which spread across southern Europe through the Balkans to appear relatively densely in southeast Asia. Many Mousterian finds in the Middle Paleolithic have been knapped using a Levallois technique, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from Homo erectus (or, perhaps, Homo heidelbergensis; see below).
Monte Poggiolo, near Forlì, Italy, is the location of an Acheulian littoral handaxe industry dating from 1.8 to 1.1 million years ago.The advent of technology and both verbal and non-verbal communication due to transition to group hunting and gathering resulted in the expansion of the parts of the brain associated with these, as well as greater cognition due to it being interlinked with the two. Later, behavioral adaptations to further social life, uncertain food distribution (resulting in need to find and secure food and remember where it could be found) and ecological changes brought about by Homo led to the further expansion of the brain in the areas of problem-solving, memory etc., ultimately leading to the great behavioral flexibility, highly efficient communication, and ecological dominance of humanity. The biological pre-adaptations of the great apes and earlier primates allowed the brain to expand threefold within just 2 to 2.3 million years of the Pleistocene, in response to increasingly complex societies and changing habitats. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Distillation",
"different from",
"reduction"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Distillation",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Distillation"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Quaternary",
"follows",
"Neogene"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Quaternary",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Quaternary"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Hominina",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Hominina"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Northern dynasties",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Northern dynasties"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Breton language",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Breton language"
] | null | null | null | null | 22 |
|
[
"Solar Saros 116",
"follows",
"Solar Saros 115"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Solar Saros 116",
"followed by",
"Solar Saros 117"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Jeddah Islamic Port",
"replaces",
"Al Shuaiba"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Jeddah Islamic Port",
"founded by",
"Usman ibn Affan"
] | Overview
The port lies on Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coast. It is the principal port serving the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The port serves the commercial centres through which 65% of Saudi Arabia's imports by sea are being handled. The importance of Jeddah Port increased and reached its maximum limit when Saudi Arabia was developing into a modern country.
The port was established in 646 A.D. during the reign of the Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, and today has 62 berths in service. It occupies an area of 12 square kilometers and its deep water quays provide an overall berthing length of 11.2 kilometers with a maximum draft of 16 metres. The port can accommodate the latest generation of large container vessels with a capacity of 19,800 TEUs.Jeddah Seaport is the western terminus of the Saudi Landbridge Project, the eastern terminus being Dammam.The port is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road that runs from the Chinese coast to Singapore, towards the southern tip of India to Mombasa, from there through the Red Sea via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its connections to Central Europe and the North Sea.In order to improve the operating efficiency of the seaport, three new ships-to-shore cranes have been added. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Telugu script",
"has use",
"Telugu"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Telugu script",
"has use",
"Sanskrit"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Telugu script",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Telugu script"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Telugu script",
"has use",
"Gondi"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Telugu script",
"based on",
"Telugu-Kannada script"
] | History
The Brahmi script used by Mauryan kings eventually reached the Krishna River delta and would give rise to the Bhattiprolu script found on an urn purported to contain Lord Buddha's relics. Buddhism spread to East Asia from the nearby ports of Ghantasala and Masulipatnam (ancient Maisolos of Ptolemy and Masalia of Periplus). The Bhattiprolu Brahmi script evolved into the Kadamba script by the 5th century, which in turn developed into the Telugu-Kannada script after the 7th century. The Telugu and Kannada scripts then separated by around 1300 CE. The Muslim historian and scholar Al-Biruni referred to both the Telugu language as well as its script as "Andhri". | null | null | null | null | 12 |
[
"Ban (title)",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Bans (title)"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Lord High Treasurer",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Lord High Treasurers"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Estates General (France)",
"different from",
"States-General"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Estates General (France)",
"followed by",
"National Constituent Assembly"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Estates General (France)",
"topic's main category",
"Category:French States-General"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Art of the Kingdom of Benin",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Benin art"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Penshurst Place",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Penshurst Place"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Penshurst Place",
"owned by",
"Philip Sidney, 2nd Viscount De L’Isle"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Italian Renaissance",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Italian Renaissance"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Ottoman wars in Europe",
"participant",
"Byzantine Empire"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Ottoman wars in Europe",
"participant",
"Ottoman Empire"
] | Cretan Uprising in 1866.
The decision to increase taxes to Christian nations in the empire's Balkan provinces resulted in widespread outrage that lead to several revolts. The first was the Herzegovinian Uprising in 1875, followed by Bulgarian revolutionaries starting an uprising in April 1876 that was brutaly suppresed (see Batak massacre). Later in June, Serbia and Montenegro jointly declared war on the empire. After six months of inconclusive fighting, international reaction to atrocities committed by Turkish troops forced intervention of the major European powers, which concluded a ceasefire. In December, the Constantinople Conference was organized to deal with the situation and resolve the crisis. However, the Ottoman Empire refused the proposed reforms and withdrew from the Conference.
Russia, inspired by Pan-Slavism and feeling support in the anti-Ottoman sympathies running throughout Europe, saw the chance to declare war on the Ottoman Empire and fulfill the union of all Orthodox nations in the Balkans under its mantle. That started the eleventh Russo-Turkish War in 1877, fought in the Balkans and in the Caucasus, with Russia leading a coalition with Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro. The coalition won the war, pushing the Ottomans all the way back to the gates of Constantinople. Russians and Ottomans signed the Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the Congress of Berlin, which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the Treaty of Berlin (1878) provided independence or autonomy for the Christian nations in the empire's Balkan territories, and drastically restructured the map of the region.
Shortly after the war, Austria-Hungary was allowed to militarily occupied Bosnia, which formally continued to be part of the Ottoman territories.
Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in 1878, but then rebelled and joined Bulgaria in 1885. Thessaly was ceded to Greece in 1881, but after Greece attacked the Ottoman Empire to help the Second Cretan Uprising in 1897, Greece was defeated in Thessaly. Crete would gain autonomy in 1898 after the Cretan Revolt (1897–1898). | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Renaissance",
"follows",
"Middle Ages"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"followed by",
"Baroque"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"follows",
"late Middle Ages"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"follows",
"Gothic art"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"followed by",
"early modern period"
] | null | null | null | null | 22 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Renaissance"
] | null | null | null | null | 28 |
|
[
"Renaissance",
"different from",
"Renaissance"
] | null | null | null | null | 30 |
|
[
"Genocide of Native Americans",
"participant",
"United States of America"
] | Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)
It is estimated that during the initial Spanish conquest of the Americas, up to eight million indigenous people died, primarily through the spread of Afro-Eurasian diseases. Simultaneously, wars and atrocities waged by Europeans against Native Americans also resulted in millions of deaths. Mistreatment and killing of Native Americans continued for centuries, in every area of the Americas, including the areas that would become Canada, the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile. In the United States, some scholars (examples listed below) state that the American Indian Wars and the doctrine of manifest destiny contributed to the genocide, with one major event cited being the Trail of Tears.Indian Removal and the Trail of Tears
Following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the American government began forcibly relocating East Coast tribes across the Mississippi. The removal included many members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, among others in the United States, from their homelands to the Indian Territory in the eastern sections of the present-day state of Oklahoma. About 2,500–6,000 died along the Trail of Tears.Chalk and Jonassohn assert that the deportation of the Cherokee tribe along the Trail of Tears would almost certainly be considered an act of genocide today. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to the exodus. About 17,000 Cherokees, along with approximately 2,000 Cherokee-owned black slaves, were removed from their homes. The number of people who died as a result of the Trail of Tears has been variously estimated. American doctor and missionary Elizur Butler, who made the journey with one party, estimated 4,000 deaths.Historians such as David Stannard and Barbara Mann have noted that the army deliberately routed the march of the Cherokee to pass through areas of a known cholera epidemic, such as Vicksburg. Stannard estimates that during the forced removal from their homelands, following the Indian Removal Act signed into law by President Andrew Jackson in 1830, 8,000 Cherokee died, about half the total population.United States acquisition of California
The U.S. colonization of California started in earnest in 1845, with the Mexican–American War. With the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, it gave the United States authority over 525,000 square miles of new territory. In addition to the Gold Rush slaughter, there was also a large number of state-subsidized massacres by colonists against Native Americans in the territory, causing several entire ethnic groups to be wiped out.
In one such series of conflicts, the so-called Mendocino War and the subsequent Round Valley War, the entirety of the Yuki people was brought to the brink of extinction. From a previous population of some 3,500 people, fewer than 100 members of the Yuki tribe were left. According to Russell Thornton, estimates of the pre-Columbian population of California may have been as high as 300,000.
By 1849, due to a number of epidemics, the number had decreased to 150,000. But from 1849 and up until 1890 the Indigenous population of California had fallen below 20,000, primarily because of the killings. At least 4,500 California Indians were killed between 1849 and 1870, while many more perished due to disease and starvation. 10,000 Indians were also kidnapped and sold as slaves. In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."One California law made it legal to declare any jobless Indian a vagrant, then auction his services off for up to four months. It also permitted whites to force Indian children to work for them until they were eighteen, provided that they first obtain permission from what the law referred to as a 'friend'. Whites hunted down adult Indians in the mountains, kidnapped their children, and sold them as apprentices for as little as $50. Indians could not complain in court because of another California statute that stated that 'no Indian or Black or Mulatto person was permitted to give evidence in favor of or against a white person'. One contemporary wrote, "The miners are sometimes guilty of the most brutal acts with the Indians... such incidents have fallen under my notice that would make humanity weep and men disown their race". The towns of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for Indian scalps. Shasta City offered $5 for every Indian head brought to City Hall; California's State Treasury reimbursed many of the local governments for their expenses. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Genocide of Native Americans",
"participant",
"Mexico"
] | Yaquis
The Mexican government's response to the various uprisings of the Yaqui tribe have been likened to genocide particularly under Porfirio Diaz. Due to massacre, the population of the Yaqui tribe in Mexico was reduced from 30,000 to 7,000 under Diaz's rule. One source estimates at least 20,000 out of these Yaquis were victims of state murders in Sonora. Mexican president Andrés Manuel López Obrador said he would be willing to offer apologies for the abuses in 2019. | null | null | null | null | 8 |
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